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International Baccalaureate (IB)

IB students around the globe fear writing the Extended Essay, but it doesn't have to be a source of stress! In this article, I'll get you excited about writing your Extended Essay and provide you with the resources you need to get an A on it.

If you're reading this article, I'm going to assume you're an IB student getting ready to write your Extended Essay. If you're looking at this as a potential future IB student, I recommend reading our introductory IB articles first, including our guide to what the IB program is and our full coverage of the IB curriculum .

IB Extended Essay: Why Should You Trust My Advice?

I myself am a recipient of an IB Diploma, and I happened to receive an A on my IB Extended Essay. Don't believe me? The proof is in the IBO pudding:

If you're confused by what this report means, EE is short for Extended Essay , and English A1 is the subject that my Extended Essay topic coordinated with. In layman's terms, my IB Diploma was graded in May 2010, I wrote my Extended Essay in the English A1 category, and I received an A grade on it.

What Is the Extended Essay in the IB Diploma Programme?

The IB Extended Essay, or EE , is a mini-thesis you write under the supervision of an IB advisor (an IB teacher at your school), which counts toward your IB Diploma (learn more about the major IB Diploma requirements in our guide) . I will explain exactly how the EE affects your Diploma later in this article.

For the Extended Essay, you will choose a research question as a topic, conduct the research independently, then write an essay on your findings . The essay itself is a long one—although there's a cap of 4,000 words, most successful essays get very close to this limit.

Keep in mind that the IB requires this essay to be a "formal piece of academic writing," meaning you'll have to do outside research and cite additional sources.

The IB Extended Essay must include the following:

• A title page
• Contents page
• Introduction
• Body of the essay
• References and bibliography

Additionally, your research topic must fall into one of the six approved DP categories , or IB subject groups, which are as follows:

• Group 1: Studies in Language and Literature
• Group 2: Language Acquisition
• Group 3: Individuals and Societies
• Group 4: Sciences
• Group 5: Mathematics
• Group 6: The Arts

Once you figure out your category and have identified a potential research topic, it's time to pick your advisor, who is normally an IB teacher at your school (though you can also find one online ). This person will help direct your research, and they'll conduct the reflection sessions you'll have to do as part of your Extended Essay.

As of 2018, the IB requires a "reflection process" as part of your EE supervision process. To fulfill this requirement, you have to meet at least three times with your supervisor in what the IB calls "reflection sessions." These meetings are not only mandatory but are also part of the formal assessment of the EE and your research methods.

According to the IB, the purpose of these meetings is to "provide an opportunity for students to reflect on their engagement with the research process." Basically, these meetings give your supervisor the opportunity to offer feedback, push you to think differently, and encourage you to evaluate your research process.

The final reflection session is called the viva voce, and it's a short 10- to 15-minute interview between you and your advisor. This happens at the very end of the EE process, and it's designed to help your advisor write their report, which factors into your EE grade.

Here are the topics covered in your viva voce :

• A check on plagiarism and malpractice
• Your reflection on your project's successes and difficulties
• Your reflection on what you've learned during the EE process

Your completed Extended Essay, along with your supervisor's report, will then be sent to the IB to be graded. We'll cover the assessment criteria in just a moment.

We'll help you learn how to have those "lightbulb" moments...even on test day!  

What Should You Write About in Your IB Extended Essay?

You can technically write about anything, so long as it falls within one of the approved categories listed above.

It's best to choose a topic that matches one of the IB courses , (such as Theatre, Film, Spanish, French, Math, Biology, etc.), which shouldn't be difficult because there are so many class subjects.

Here is a range of sample topics with the attached extended essay:

• Biology: The Effect of Age and Gender on the Photoreceptor Cells in the Human Retina
• Chemistry: How Does Reflux Time Affect the Yield and Purity of Ethyl Aminobenzoate (Benzocaine), and How Effective is Recrystallisation as a Purification Technique for This Compound?
• English: An Exploration of Jane Austen's Use of the Outdoors in Emma
• Geography: The Effect of Location on the Educational Attainment of Indigenous Secondary Students in Queensland, Australia
• Math: Alhazen's Billiard Problem
• Visual Arts: Can Luc Tuymans Be Classified as a Political Painter?

You can see from how varied the topics are that you have a lot of freedom when it comes to picking a topic . So how do you pick when the options are limitless?

How to Write a Stellar IB Extended Essay: 6 Essential Tips

Below are six key tips to keep in mind as you work on your Extended Essay for the IB DP. Follow these and you're sure to get an A!

#1: Write About Something You Enjoy

You can't expect to write a compelling essay if you're not a fan of the topic on which you're writing. For example, I just love British theatre and ended up writing my Extended Essay on a revolution in post-WWII British theatre. (Yes, I'm definitely a #TheatreNerd.)

I really encourage anyone who pursues an IB Diploma to take the Extended Essay seriously. I was fortunate enough to receive a full-tuition merit scholarship to USC's School of Dramatic Arts program. In my interview for the scholarship, I spoke passionately about my Extended Essay; thus, I genuinely think my Extended Essay helped me get my scholarship.

But how do you find a topic you're passionate about? Start by thinking about which classes you enjoy the most and why . Do you like math classes because you like to solve problems? Or do you enjoy English because you like to analyze literary texts?

Keep in mind that there's no right or wrong answer when it comes to choosing your Extended Essay topic. You're not more likely to get high marks because you're writing about science, just like you're not doomed to failure because you've chosen to tackle the social sciences. The quality of what you produce—not the field you choose to research within—will determine your grade.

Once you've figured out your category, you should brainstorm more specific topics by putting pen to paper . What was your favorite chapter you learned in that class? Was it astrophysics or mechanics? What did you like about that specific chapter? Is there something you want to learn more about? I recommend spending a few hours on this type of brainstorming.

One last note: if you're truly stumped on what to research, pick a topic that will help you in your future major or career . That way you can use your Extended Essay as a talking point in your college essays (and it will prepare you for your studies to come too!).

#2: Select a Topic That Is Neither Too Broad nor Too Narrow

There's a fine line between broad and narrow. You need to write about something specific, but not so specific that you can't write 4,000 words on it.

You can't write about WWII because that would be a book's worth of material. You also don't want to write about what type of soup prisoners of war received behind enemy lines, because you probably won’t be able to come up with 4,000 words of material about it. However, you could possibly write about how the conditions in German POW camps—and the rations provided—were directly affected by the Nazis' successes and failures on the front, including the use of captured factories and prison labor in Eastern Europe to increase production. WWII military history might be a little overdone, but you get my point.

If you're really stuck trying to pinpoint a not-too-broad-or-too-narrow topic, I suggest trying to brainstorm a topic that uses a comparison. Once you begin looking through the list of sample essays below, you'll notice that many use comparisons to formulate their main arguments.

I also used a comparison in my EE, contrasting Harold Pinter's Party Time with John Osborne's Look Back in Anger in order to show a transition in British theatre. Topics with comparisons of two to three plays, books, and so on tend to be the sweet spot. You can analyze each item and then compare them with one another after doing some in-depth analysis of each individually. The ways these items compare and contrast will end up forming the thesis of your essay!

When choosing a comparative topic, the key is that the comparison should be significant. I compared two plays to illustrate the transition in British theatre, but you could compare the ways different regional dialects affect people's job prospects or how different temperatures may or may not affect the mating patterns of lightning bugs. The point here is that comparisons not only help you limit your topic, but they also help you build your argument.

Comparisons are not the only way to get a grade-A EE, though. If after brainstorming, you pick a non-comparison-based topic and are still unsure whether your topic is too broad or narrow, spend about 30 minutes doing some basic research and see how much material is out there.

If there are more than 1,000 books, articles, or documentaries out there on that exact topic, it may be too broad. But if there are only two books that have any connection to your topic, it may be too narrow. If you're still unsure, ask your advisor—it's what they're there for! Speaking of advisors...

Don't get stuck with a narrow topic!

#3: Choose an Advisor Who Is Familiar With Your Topic

If you're not certain of who you would like to be your advisor, create a list of your top three choices. Next, write down the pros and cons of each possibility (I know this sounds tedious, but it really helps!).

For example, Mr. Green is my favorite teacher and we get along really well, but he teaches English. For my EE, I want to conduct an experiment that compares the efficiency of American electric cars with foreign electric cars.

I had Ms. White a year ago. She teaches physics and enjoyed having me in her class. Unlike Mr. Green, Ms. White could help me design my experiment.

Based on my topic and what I need from my advisor, Ms. White would be a better fit for me than would Mr. Green (even though I like him a lot).

The moral of my story is this: do not just ask your favorite teacher to be your advisor . They might be a hindrance to you if they teach another subject. For example, I would not recommend asking your biology teacher to guide you in writing an English literature-based EE.

There can, of course, be exceptions to this rule. If you have a teacher who's passionate and knowledgeable about your topic (as my English teacher was about my theatre topic), you could ask that instructor. Consider all your options before you do this. There was no theatre teacher at my high school, so I couldn't find a theatre-specific advisor, but I chose the next best thing.

Before you approach a teacher to serve as your advisor, check with your high school to see what requirements they have for this process. Some IB high schools require your IB Extended Essay advisor to sign an Agreement Form , for instance.

Make sure that you ask your IB coordinator whether there is any required paperwork to fill out. If your school needs a specific form signed, bring it with you when you ask your teacher to be your EE advisor.

#4: Pick an Advisor Who Will Push You to Be Your Best

Some teachers might just take on students because they have to and aren't very passionate about reading drafts, only giving you minimal feedback. Choose a teacher who will take the time to read several drafts of your essay and give you extensive notes. I would not have gotten my A without being pushed to make my Extended Essay draft better.

Ask a teacher that you have experience with through class or an extracurricular activity. Do not ask a teacher that you have absolutely no connection to. If a teacher already knows you, that means they already know your strengths and weaknesses, so they know what to look for, where you need to improve, and how to encourage your best work.

Also, don't forget that your supervisor's assessment is part of your overall EE score . If you're meeting with someone who pushes you to do better—and you actually take their advice—they'll have more impressive things to say about you than a supervisor who doesn't know you well and isn't heavily involved in your research process.

Be aware that the IB only allows advisors to make suggestions and give constructive criticism. Your teacher cannot actually help you write your EE. The IB recommends that the supervisor spends approximately two to three hours in total with the candidate discussing the EE.

#5: Make Sure Your Essay Has a Clear Structure and Flow

The IB likes structure. Your EE needs a clear introduction (which should be one to two double-spaced pages), research question/focus (i.e., what you're investigating), a body, and a conclusion (about one double-spaced page). An essay with unclear organization will be graded poorly.

The body of your EE should make up the bulk of the essay. It should be about eight to 18 pages long (again, depending on your topic). Your body can be split into multiple parts. For example, if you were doing a comparison, you might have one third of your body as Novel A Analysis, another third as Novel B Analysis, and the final third as your comparison of Novels A and B.

If you're conducting an experiment or analyzing data, such as in this EE , your EE body should have a clear structure that aligns with the scientific method ; you should state the research question, discuss your method, present the data, analyze the data, explain any uncertainties, and draw a conclusion and/or evaluate the success of the experiment.

#6: Start Writing Sooner Rather Than Later!

You will not be able to crank out a 4,000-word essay in just a week and get an A on it. You'll be reading many, many articles (and, depending on your topic, possibly books and plays as well!). As such, it's imperative that you start your research as soon as possible.

Each school has a slightly different deadline for the Extended Essay. Some schools want them as soon as November of your senior year; others will take them as late as February. Your school will tell you what your deadline is. If they haven't mentioned it by February of your junior year, ask your IB coordinator about it.

Some high schools will provide you with a timeline of when you need to come up with a topic, when you need to meet with your advisor, and when certain drafts are due. Not all schools do this. Ask your IB coordinator if you are unsure whether you are on a specific timeline.

Below is my recommended EE timeline. While it's earlier than most schools, it'll save you a ton of heartache (trust me, I remember how hard this process was!):

• January/February of Junior Year: Come up with your final research topic (or at least your top three options).
• February of Junior Year: Approach a teacher about being your EE advisor. If they decline, keep asking others until you find one. See my notes above on how to pick an EE advisor.
• April/May of Junior Year: Submit an outline of your EE and a bibliography of potential research sources (I recommend at least seven to 10) to your EE advisor. Meet with your EE advisor to discuss your outline.
• Summer Between Junior and Senior Year: Complete your first full draft over the summer between your junior and senior year. I know, I know—no one wants to work during the summer, but trust me—this will save you so much stress come fall when you are busy with college applications and other internal assessments for your IB classes. You will want to have this first full draft done because you will want to complete a couple of draft cycles as you likely won't be able to get everything you want to say into 4,000 articulate words on the first attempt. Try to get this first draft into the best possible shape so you don't have to work on too many revisions during the school year on top of your homework, college applications, and extracurriculars.
• August/September of Senior Year: Turn in your first draft of your EE to your advisor and receive feedback. Work on incorporating their feedback into your essay. If they have a lot of suggestions for improvement, ask if they will read one more draft before the final draft.
• September/October of Senior Year: Submit the second draft of your EE to your advisor (if necessary) and look at their feedback. Work on creating the best possible final draft.
• November-February of Senior Year: Schedule your viva voce. Submit two copies of your final draft to your school to be sent off to the IB. You likely will not get your grade until after you graduate.

Remember that in the middle of these milestones, you'll need to schedule two other reflection sessions with your advisor . (Your teachers will actually take notes on these sessions on a form like this one , which then gets submitted to the IB.)

I recommend doing them when you get feedback on your drafts, but these meetings will ultimately be up to your supervisor. Just don't forget to do them!

The early bird DOES get the worm!

How Is the IB Extended Essay Graded?

Extended Essays are graded by examiners appointed by the IB on a scale of 0 to 34 . You'll be graded on five criteria, each with its own set of points. You can learn more about how EE scoring works by reading the IB guide to extended essays .

• Criterion A: Focus and Method (6 points maximum)
• Criterion B: Knowledge and Understanding (6 points maximum)
• Criterion C: Critical Thinking (12 points maximum)
• Criterion D: Presentation (4 points maximum)
• Criterion E: Engagement (6 points maximum)

How well you do on each of these criteria will determine the final letter grade you get for your EE. You must earn at least a D to be eligible to receive your IB Diploma.

Although each criterion has a point value, the IB explicitly states that graders are not converting point totals into grades; instead, they're using qualitative grade descriptors to determine the final grade of your Extended Essay . Grade descriptors are on pages 102-103 of this document .

Here's a rough estimate of how these different point values translate to letter grades based on previous scoring methods for the EE. This is just an estimate —you should read and understand the grade descriptors so you know exactly what the scorers are looking for.

Here is the breakdown of EE scores (from the May 2021 bulletin):

How Does the Extended Essay Grade Affect Your IB Diploma?

The Extended Essay grade is combined with your TOK (Theory of Knowledge) grade to determine how many points you get toward your IB Diploma.

To learn about Theory of Knowledge or how many points you need to receive an IB Diploma, read our complete guide to the IB program and our guide to the IB Diploma requirements .

This diagram shows how the two scores are combined to determine how many points you receive for your IB diploma (3 being the most, 0 being the least). In order to get your IB Diploma, you have to earn 24 points across both categories (the TOK and EE). The highest score anyone can earn is 45 points.

Let's say you get an A on your EE and a B on TOK. You will get 3 points toward your Diploma. As of 2014, a student who scores an E on either the extended essay or TOK essay will not be eligible to receive an IB Diploma .

Prior to the class of 2010, a Diploma candidate could receive a failing grade in either the Extended Essay or Theory of Knowledge and still be awarded a Diploma, but this is no longer true.

Figuring out how you're assessed can be a little tricky. Luckily, the IB breaks everything down here in this document . (The assessment information begins on page 219.)

40+ Sample Extended Essays for the IB Diploma Programme

In case you want a little more guidance on how to get an A on your EE, here are over 40 excellent (grade A) sample extended essays for your reading pleasure. Essays are grouped by IB subject.

• Business Management 1
• Chemistry 1
• Chemistry 2
• Chemistry 3
• Chemistry 4
• Chemistry 5
• Chemistry 6
• Chemistry 7
• Computer Science 1
• Economics 1
• Design Technology 1
• Design Technology 2
• Environmental Systems and Societies 1
• Geography 1
• Geography 2
• Geography 3
• Geography 4
• Geography 5
• Geography 6
• Literature and Performance 1
• Mathematics 1
• Mathematics 2
• Mathematics 3
• Mathematics 4
• Mathematics 5
• Philosophy 1
• Philosophy 2
• Philosophy 3
• Philosophy 4
• Philosophy 5
• Psychology 1
• Psychology 2
• Psychology 3
• Psychology 4
• Psychology 5
• Social and Cultural Anthropology 1
• Social and Cultural Anthropology 2
• Social and Cultural Anthropology 3
• Sports, Exercise and Health Science 1
• Sports, Exercise and Health Science 2
• Visual Arts 1
• Visual Arts 2
• Visual Arts 3
• Visual Arts 4
• Visual Arts 5
• World Religion 1
• World Religion 2
• World Religion 3

What's Next?

Trying to figure out what extracurriculars you should do? Learn more about participating in the Science Olympiad , starting a club , doing volunteer work , and joining Student Government .

Studying for the SAT? Check out our expert study guide to the SAT . Taking the SAT in a month or so? Learn how to cram effectively for this important test .

Not sure where you want to go to college? Read our guide to finding your target school . Also, determine your target SAT score or target ACT score .

As an SAT/ACT tutor, Dora has guided many students to test prep success. She loves watching students succeed and is committed to helping you get there. Dora received a full-tuition merit based scholarship to University of Southern California. She graduated magna cum laude and scored in the 99th percentile on the ACT. She is also passionate about acting, writing, and photography.

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104 Cancer Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

Inside This Article

Cancer is a complex and devastating disease that affects millions of people worldwide. Writing an essay on this topic allows for a deeper understanding of the various aspects of cancer, including its causes, prevention, treatment, and impact on individuals and society. Here are 104 cancer essay topic ideas and examples to guide and inspire your writing:

• The history of cancer research and treatment: From ancient times to modern advancements.
• The role of genetics in cancer development: Exploring inherited and acquired genetic mutations.
• Environmental factors and their association with cancer risk: Analyzing the impact of pollution, radiation, and lifestyle choices.
• The most common types of cancer: In-depth exploration of breast, lung, prostate, colorectal, and other prevalent cancers.
• Childhood cancer: Understanding the unique challenges and treatment options for pediatric patients.
• The emotional and psychological impact of cancer on patients and their families.
• The economics of cancer: Assessing the financial burden on patients and healthcare systems.
• The impact of cancer on caregiver mental health: Examining the emotional toll on those who support cancer patients.
• The role of exercise and nutrition in cancer prevention and recovery.
• The development and effectiveness of cancer vaccines: Discussing breakthroughs and future prospects.
• The influence of lifestyle choices on cancer risk: Tobacco, alcohol, diet, and exercise.
• The stigma surrounding cancer: Addressing societal attitudes and misconceptions.
• Alternative therapies for cancer treatment: Exploring complementary medicine and its potential benefits.
• The ethics of experimental cancer treatments: Balancing patient rights and scientific progress.
• Cancer prevention strategies in low-income countries: Identifying challenges and potential solutions.
• The impact of cancer on workplace productivity: Analyzing the economic consequences for employees and employers.
• Cancer survivors' quality of life: Examining the long-term physical and emotional effects.
• The role of support groups and counseling in cancer care: Assessing their benefits and limitations.
• Cancer and gender: Investigating the disparities in cancer incidence, treatment, and outcomes.
• The psychological impact of cancer on children and adolescents.
• The role of technology in early cancer detection: Discussing advancements in screening methods.
• The impact of cancer on sexual health and intimacy: Addressing the challenges and available support.
• The correlation between cancer and mental health disorders: Analyzing the reciprocal relationship.
• The impact of cancer on fertility and reproductive choices: Exploring the options available to patients.
• The intersection of cancer and chronic diseases: Investigating the complexities of dual diagnoses.
• The role of palliative care in cancer treatment: Discussing end-of-life care and patient comfort.
• The influence of social media on cancer awareness and fundraising campaigns.
• The role of governmental policies in cancer prevention and control.
• Cancer and the elderly population: Addressing unique challenges and treatment approaches.
• The impact of race and ethnicity on cancer disparities: Investigating socioeconomic and cultural factors.
• The effects of cancer on children's education and academic development.
• The role of artificial intelligence in cancer diagnosis and treatment planning.
• Cancer prevention campaigns: Analyzing their effectiveness and potential limitations.
• The impact of cancer on sexual minorities: Investigating disparities in diagnosis, treatment, and support.
• The role of spirituality and faith in cancer patients' coping mechanisms.
• Cancer prevention in the workplace: Assessing occupational hazards and protective measures.
• The correlation between cancer and obesity: Exploring the link and potential interventions.
• The impact of cancer on siblings: Addressing the emotional and practical challenges.
• The role of precision medicine in personalized cancer treatment: Discussing targeted therapies.
• The influence of media portrayal on public perception of cancer and cancer patients.
• The impact of cancer on caregivers' professional lives: Analyzing the challenges and potential support systems.
• Cancer and the LGBTQ+ community: Investigating unique challenges and disparities in healthcare access.
• The role of music and art therapy in cancer care: Assessing their benefits and limitations.
• The correlation between cancer and socioeconomic status: Analyzing the disparities in diagnosis and outcomes.
• The impact of cancer on young adults: Discussing fertility preservation and long-term survivorship issues.
• Cancer and the rural population: Addressing barriers to access and treatment options.
• The role of emotional support animals in cancer care: Investigating their benefits and ethical considerations.
• The impact of cancer on intimate partner relationships: Addressing the challenges and available resources.
• The influence of mindfulness and meditation on cancer patients' well-being.
• The impact of cancer on military veterans: Analyzing the intersection of post-traumatic stress disorder and cancer.
• Cancer and the incarcerated population: Addressing the challenges and potential solutions.
• The role of patient advocacy in cancer care: Discussing the importance of empowering patients.
• Cancer prevention through public health initiatives: Assessing community-based interventions.
• The correlation between cancer and air pollution: Investigating the link and potential policy implications.
• The impact of cancer on body image and self-esteem: Addressing psychological and social consequences.
• Cancer and the transgender population: Exploring unique challenges and healthcare disparities.
• The role of social determinants of health in cancer outcomes: Analyzing the influence of socioeconomic factors.
• Cancer and the homeless population: Addressing the barriers to access and supportive care.
• The impact of cancer on the LGBTQ+ youth: Investigating mental health disparities and support systems.
• Cancer prevention in minority populations: Analyzing cultural factors and tailored interventions.
• The role of exercise in cancer rehabilitation: Discussing the benefits of physical activity during and after treatment.
• Cancer and the refugee population: Addressing the challenges and barriers to healthcare.
• The impact of cancer on veterans' mental health: Analyzing post-traumatic stress disorder and survivorship.
• The correlation between cancer and sleep disturbances: Investigating the link and potential interventions.
• Cancer and the disabled population: Addressing unique challenges and supportive care.
• The role of artificial intelligence in cancer prognosis: Discussing predictive models and decision support systems.
• Cancer prevention through HPV vaccination: Analyzing the impact on cervical and other related cancers.
• The impact of cancer on children's social development and peer relationships.
• Cancer and the prison population: Addressing the disparities in access and treatment.
• The role of telemedicine in cancer care: Discussing remote consultations and monitoring.
• Cancer prevention in the aging population: Analyzing challenges and tailored interventions.
• The correlation between cancer and smoking: Investigating the link and effective cessation strategies.
• Cancer and mental health: Exploring the reciprocal relationship and potential interventions.
• The impact of cancer on the LGBTQ+ elderly population: Addressing unique challenges and supportive care.
• Cancer prevention through lifestyle modifications: Analyzing the role of diet, exercise, and stress management.
• The role of genetic counseling in cancer risk assessment: Discussing the benefits and ethical considerations.
• Cancer and environmental justice: Analyzing disparities in exposure to carcinogens.
• The impact of cancer on adolescents' educational attainment and career prospects.
• Cancer and the indigenous population: Addressing cultural and access barriers to care.
• The role of social media influencers in cancer awareness campaigns: Assessing their impact and ethical considerations.
• Cancer prevention through workplace policies: Analyzing the importance of occupational safety measures.

These essay topic ideas offer a wide range of possibilities for exploring the complex and multifaceted nature of cancer. Depending on your interests and expertise, you can choose a topic that resonates with you and delve into it with extensive research, analysis, and critical thinking. Remember to approach the topic with sensitivity and empathy, as cancer affects millions of lives and demands a compassionate approach to understanding and addressing its challenges.

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Cancer extended essay?

By Manuela Arroyave January 2, 2017 in Extended Essay

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Manuela arroyave.

I am very interested in the topic of cancer and am wanting to write my EE over it. I was thinking maybe a biochemistry essay of sorts, but I am having problems coming up with a good RQ. I've read on other sites that cancer is too broad of a topic for an EE, but I have access to a cancer researcher and a research center and am very passionate about this topic so I do want to write it over this if possible. Any ideas or feedback? 

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It's doable, you just need to have a specific RQ that fits the criteria of whatever subject your'e writing it in (either Bio or Chem I assume?). Truthfully, cancer itself is too broad of a topic, but you can narrow it down to perhaps a specific type of cancer and the causes, effects or treatments surrounding it. 

• 3 years later...

helpplsiprocrastinated

Hi, I am doing the same thing as a bio essay rather than lab for my experiment, connected to economics. Did you end up doing your EE on it?

• 1 month later...

Theresawesome

Oh, I'm really late.  I was thinking about a topic in cancer as well, how did it go?

1 hour ago, Theresawesome said: Oh, I'm really late.  I was thinking about a topic in cancer as well, how did it go?

i was also! what topic do you want to do yours on?

• 3 months later...

I am also interested in the Cancer EE topic. Cant find anything that is specific.

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271 Cancer Research Topics for Undergraduates and High School Students

Are you looking for the best oncology research topics? You’re at the right place! StudyCorgi has prepared a list of cancer research topics for undergraduates and high school students! Read on to find a good title for your projects or term papers on prostate, breast, and other cancer types.

🏆 Best Research Topics on Cancer

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• The Cobalt-60 Machine in the Fight Against Cancer
• The New Cancer Cure
• Cervical Cancer: Case Study
• The Colon Cancer: Main Aspects
• Physical and Mental Care for Cancer Patients
• Breast Cancer: The Story of One Patient
• Breast Cancer: Literature Review
• Type C Personality as a Risk Factor for Cancer The paper is on the scientific relationship between personality C and the aspects of gene and hormonal activity that leads to the build-up of cancer cells.
• Lung Cancer Pathophysiology Like any other type of cancer, tumors in lungs have a characteristic of an uncontrolled cell growth that takes places in lung tissues.
• Cultural Sensitivity in Medicine and Cancer Treatment Any medical practitioner should understand the cultural aspects of a community for him to be able to come up with a lasting solution for cancer treatment.
• Cervical Cancer Screening Methodology This paper reviews cervical cancer screening methodology and provides a rationale for applying each recommendation to a specific group of the population.
• Cancer: Symptoms and Consequences The research of the symptoms of cancer and its consequences to evaluate the seriousness of the problem in the USA but and the whole world.
• Breast Cancer and Effective Medical Treatment The aim of this paper is to characterize breast cancer and to describe the modern methods of its treatment and prevention.
• BRCA Gene Mutation and Breast Cancer This study aims to determine how BRCA 1 and BRCA 2 gene mutations contribute to breast cancer, to analyze the role of BRCA1 and BRCA 2 in the restoration of the damaged DNA.
• Understanding Epigenetic Mechanisms in Breast Cancer Human cells become cancerous when they undergo genetic modifications that make them acquire growth and multiplication advantages.
• Epidemiology of Breast Cancer in UK As of 2011, the incidences of breast cancer have been increasing continuously over forty years. Also, there was a general reduction in the rate of mortality caused by breast cancer.
• Breast Cancer: Research Review Paper Plenty of scholars’ investigations help doctors, nurses, and patients to take precautionary and care measures to improve their physical and psychological condition.
• Esophageal Cancer and Its Treatment The paper researches the causes of esophageal cancer, its various symptoms, diagnostic, treatment and possible ends.
• Pancreatic Cancer: Symptoms and Treatment Treatment is complicated by the fact that pancreatic cancer often does not cause any symptoms until it reaches a large size or does not spread to other tissues.
• Disease Research: Breast Cancer Breast cancer is a multifactorial, complex illness that demands proper clinical understanding and a multidisciplinary way to determine diagnosis and treatment.
• Cervical Cancer: Pathophysiological Processes Cervical cancer is a serious disease that may take human lives in a short period of time because its signs and symptoms are not always easily recognized.
• Cancer Management: Effective Diagnosis, Treatment, Lessening the Effects of Complications Cancer refers to any dangerous and abnormal mass of tissue caused by hysterical dissection of cells in the body. Effective management of cancer entails timely and effective diagnosis.
• Conference: Breast Cancer Survival In the medical sphere, cancer studies are one of the most essential and necessary specialties. For millions of cancer patients worldwide, life is a continued fight for survival.
• Stomach Cancer: Diagnosis and Treatment Stomach cancer is a malignant neoplasm that develops in the organ’s gastric mucosa cells and first affecting the epithelium and then growing into the stomach tissue.
• Postoperative Breast Cancer Care The chosen for the paper articles support the implementation of risk reduction strategies for depression in post-operative breast cancer patients.
• Cancer Biology: Oncogenes and Tumor Suppressor Genes This paper seeks to interpret the role oncogenes and tumor suppressors play in transformation during cancer formation.
• Colorectal Cancer Intervention Model The unique skills needed are for successful colorectal cancer intervention includes knowledge of the behavioral challenges, interventions strategies, and health policies.
• Approach to Care. Human Cancer Cancer is a group of diseases caused by the uncontrolled division of cells. There is a great variety of cancers, and they are ranked by the type of sell, which the tumor imitates.
• Breast Cancer: Analysis and Data Collection The study to determine the quality of health was a qualitative research study because it showed a significant improved in the quality of life for the breast cancer victims.
• Ethical Dilemma: Handling a Request for No Further Cancer Treatment Modern technologies can prolong a person’s life and interrupt it, and this is a person’s choice of which decision to make.
• “Preferences for Photographic Art Among Hospitalized Patients With Cancer” the Article by Grossman, A., Schroeter, K., Hanson, A. and Hanson, H. The article reviewed in the scope of this paper is titled “Preferences for Photographic Art among Hospitalized Patients with Cancer.”
• Colorectal Cancer: Factors and Prevention Colorectal cancer is a serious disease that is estimated to affect many individuals in the US by 2030. The primary approach to preventing it is regular screenings.
• Cancer Patients and Survivors Support Group This paper dwells upon some peculiarities of managing a support group consisting of young adult cancer patients and cancer survivors.
• Inner Strength in Women Survivors of Cancer This is a summary of the article “The role of inner strength in quality of life and self-management in women survivors of cancer” by C. Dingley and G. Roux.
• Postmenopausal Women with Breast Cancer This research discusses, Experience of adjuvant treatment among postmenopausal women with breast cancer: health-related quality of life, symptom experience, stressful events and coping strategies.
• The Importance of Nutrition in Cancer Prevention In the last few decades, the role that diet and nutrition play in the development, progress, and management of cancer has become an important area of study.
• Bilateral Mastectomy for Breast Cancer Prevention One of the options for preventing the development of breast cancer is a bilateral mastectomy. But it may not be a good preventive choice for genetic markers of breast cancer.
• Social Determinants of Health and Cancer A larger population of the black community suffering from cancer loses their lives while receiving treatment at the hospital due to failed cancer care.
• Skin Cancer Prevention in Australia Skin cancer, or melanoma, is the abnormal behavior of skin cells that is mainly caused by prolonged exposure of unprotected skin to ultraviolet rays.
• Addressing Cancer: The Nursing Process Nurses must use as much information and resources as possible to offer the highest-quality patient-oriented care.
• Health Promotion to Reduce Lung Cancer: Grant Proposal Template The project aims to reduce the rate of lung cancer infection and deaths among Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people in South Australia.
• Breast Cancer: Pathophysiology, Types and Treatment Breast cancer is a common malignant neoplastic disease in women and mostly develops in the stage of women postmenopausal.
• Cancer Treatment and Role of Nurses The primary purpose of this paper is to draw attention to current issues related to the treatment of cancer and the role of nurses.
• Wellness Programs for Colorectal Cancer In this plan, the researcher intends to give a clear intervention plan that can help address the problem of colorectal cancer that has affected so many elderly people in our society.
• Deathography of Cancer From an early age, children get to learn about relatives and friends who have passed away and who passed away during their lifetime.
• A Family Experience of a Child Being Diagnosed With Cancer Family members of a child being diagnosed with cancer have to go through a long and complicated road that regrettably, not always leads to success.
• Cancer Prevalence and Health Care More than 5 million people living today in the US are living with cancer. Sixty three percent of 65 years and above have had cancer.
• Approach to the Care of Cancer This paper discusses cancer, including the approach to cancer care, cancer complications and side effects, and the ways of addressing the side effects.
• Colorectal Cancer and Other Cancer Signs and Diagnoses The reasons for increased colorectal cancer rates and decreased cervical cancer rates in Western society may be related to preferred lifestyles.
• Colorectal Cancer Screening and Its Importance Colorectal cancer screening is recommended by the United States Preventive Services Task Force as an effective way to reduce disease-related morbidity and mortality.
• Researching of Cervical Cancer In its initial stages, the cancer process is asymptomatic and is only detected during an extensive gynecological examination.
• Cancer Treatment Process Perceived by Women With Ovarian Cancer The current paper explores how the process of treating ovarian cancer affects the well-being and physical and emotional state of women.
• Smoking and Gender Factors of Lung Cancer The rising prevalence of lung cancer in young females compared to young males is widespread and not entirely explained by gender variations in smoking habits.
• Breast Cancer: Diagnosis and Treatment Recent efforts from medical professionals and interest groups like Breast Cancer Awareness Month facilitate open discussion around breast cancer.
• Drug Repurposing in Cancer Treatment This article examines the concept of drug repurposing in the context of pharmaceutical companies’ innovation policy: the methods and economic feasibility of repurposing drugs.
• Cancer: Disease Specifics and RNA-Based Detection The paper presents the analysis of cancer as one of the most common causes of death. It shows that there are many types of this disease.
• Breast Cancer: Diagnostic and Treatment Breast cancer is one of the most common oncology disorders among females. It has a complicated chain of immune reactions and various structures identified histologically.
• Diet, Physical Activity, Obesity and Related Cancer Risk The paper addresses the connection between cancer and physical activity, diet, and obesity in Latin America and the USA. The transitions in dietary practices may be observed.
• Thyroid Cancer as a Public Health Issue Due to the explosion and fire at the Chornobyl Nuclear Power Plant, a huge quantity of radioactive iodine and cesium penetrated the air.
• EBP Guideline for the National Comprehensive Cancer Network The National Comprehensive Cancer Network clinical guidelines are the recognized standard and most synoptic evidence-based practice policies.
• The Ethics of Control Groups in Cancer Research A study is proposed to determine whether women with breast cancer who underwent a mastectomy have a higher rate of survival.
• Health-Related Misconceptions Regarding Antiperspirants and Breast Cancer There is a myth about the use of antiperspirants, especially aluminum-containing ones, as a risk factor for breast cancer.
• Physical Activity and Cancer Prevention Physical activity (PA) has to be efficient in preventing cancer, evading cancer repetition, and increasing good results.
• Esophageal Cancer: Description, Population Affected, and Prognosis In esophageal cancer, malignant cells develop in the esophagus tissues, leading to tumor formation; it accounts for 1% of all malignancies diagnosed in the USA each year.
• Diet, Physical Activity, Obesity, and Related Cancer Risk One’s health is affected by their lifestyle, which should be well managed since childhood to set a basis for a healthier adulthood.
• The Cancer Trial: Useful Medical Tool A cancer trial is a tool that helps medical professionals examine and trace the illness to develop its background and establish treatment methods.
• Macmillan Cancer Support Organization’s Data-Driven Decision-Making Macmillan Cancer Support Organization’s stakeholders must examine the cancer care workforce and predict how the future ratio might look for strategic management.
• Low-Income Men With Prostate Cancer The paper shows the clinical importance of post-treatment prostate cancer. Low-income disadvantaged men face various barriers, including knowledge.
• Cancer Screening Promotion for Middle-Aged Adults Public health policy among middle-aged adults that promotes cancer literacy and the importance of frequent screenings is likely to yield positive results.
• Naturalistic Observation of Couples Coping With Breast Cancer Couples who are suffering with cancer and their spouses’ psychological well-being were explored in study, which focused on the natural setting and substance of dialogues.
• Passive Smoking and Pancreatic Cancer in Women The association between ETS and pancreatic cancer is weak. The pancreatic cancer risk associated is confounded by environmental tobacco smoke exposures.
• Breast Cancer: Preventive Measures and Support Methods One of the most common types of cancer that women encounter worldwide is breast cancer. This disease was the cause of approximately 570,000 deaths in 2015.
• Health & Medicine: Breast Cancer in XIX Century The disease of breast cancer was a disease of women, which began to be actively noticed from the beginning of the nineteenth century.
• Breast Cancer: Threat to the Patients Cancer is developed from mutations, namely from atypical changes in genes that regulate cell growth and keep them healthy.
• Environmentally and Lifestyle Linked Cancer The paper argues it is critical to clearly understand the causes of cancer to avoid public misinformation that’s why the paper presents etiology and diagnosis of cancer.
• Case Brief on Colon Cancer and Colostomy The paper presents a medical case brief on a 54-year-old patient suffering from colon cancer who had undergone a surgery known as colostomy.
• Post-operative Breast Cancer Patients With Depression: Annotated Bibliography This paper is an annotated bibliography about risk reduction strategies at the point of care: Post-operative breast cancer patients who are experiencing depression.
• Cancer Insurance Evaluation An evaluation of what cancer insurance is, what it covers, how it works, the best providers, and how it differs from health insurance can facilitate a better sense of the policy.
• How to Lower your Cancer Risk. Nutrition Action Health Letter Cancer is the abnormal growth of cells. If a person is genetically predisposed to the disease, it can be difficult to avoid getting it.
• Cancer Patients: The Effectiveness of Pain Diary The pain diary assists the cancer patients in pain management by helping them to identify the nature of pain and where it is localized.
• Herceptin and Breast Cancer Treatment Cancer growth is a series of processes that are driven by alterations of genes that bring about the progressive conversion of usual body cells into extremely malignant imitation.
• The Diagnosis and Staging of Cancer The essay describes the diagnosis of cancer. It also highlights three complications associated with cancer. The discussion offers a detailed approach towards better care of cancer.
• American Cancer Society: The Aspects of Melanoma The current paper discusses the aspects of melanoma. It is a type of skin cancer caused by the uncontrolled growth of melanocytes.
• HIV-AIDS, Nutrition and Cancer in Society Patients suffering from HIV/AIDS need to have a perfect schedule for their nutrition. It is important that they watch their diet to boost their immunity.
• Cancer Early Detection, Prevention, and Survivorship in Arab Countries This paper aims to analyze perception, attitudes, and practice towards cancer early detection, prevention, and survivorship in Arab countries and Oman.
• Public Health Initiative on Prostrate Cancer Among Maryland’s Blacks The primary goal of the public health initiative is to improve the quality of life for all people in the US and reduce the racial prostate cancer disparities.
• Researching of Testicular Cancer Men with undescended testicles are at increased risk of developing testicular cancer. If the undescended testicle is not in the groin but in the abdomen, the risk is even higher
• Lung and Bronchus Cancer in Smoking Americans Among the causes of lung and bronchus cancer, smoking is the first to be distinguished, which is the reason for the vast majority of incidence cases.
• Breast Cancer and Exercise. Article Summary The research study focused on breast cancer survivors in the Rocky Mountain Cancer Rehabilitation Institute (RMCRI) who had already been treated.
• Dental Caries Among Survivors of Childhood Cancer Some professionals considered caries to be one of the long-term health consequences experienced after cancer while others do not support such an idea.
• The Risk Factors of Breast Cancer This paper will throw light upon what breast cancer is all about, the risk factors, the distribution, and determinants of the same.
• A Collaborative Stress Management Initiative for Mothers of Cancer Children The article explored the psychological stress experienced by mothers who have cancerous children. The research is current and relevant to contemporary health issues.
• Multicausality: Reserpine, Breast Cancer, and Obesity All the factors are not significant in the context of the liability to breast cancer development, though their minor influence is undeniable.
• Reducing Cancer Risk With Diet and Lifestyle Change This paper explores the reasons why a strict diet together with changes in lifestyle could significantly reduce the risk of cancer.
• Prostate Cancer Among the Blacks in the State of Maryland Empirical evidence reveals that race or ethnicity is the leading risk factor in the predisposition of men to prostate cancer.
• Breast Cancer: Etiology, Signs and Symptoms Breast cancer is believed to have claimed many human lives in the last four decades, but its prevalence rate has decreased significantly due to improved disease awareness.
• Behavioral Theory: Education Program for Oral Cancer This article uses the social learning theory and the theory of planned behavior to demonstrate the tenets of an effective health education program for the prevention of oral cancer.
• The Epidemiology of Breast Cancer in Young Women The researcher has clearly outlined the essence of the referenced study as aimed at reviewing the epidemiology of breast cancer in young women.
• Factors of Older Adults’ Decision on Cancer Treatment Puts et al. conducted a qualitative study in order to establish the factors that affect the elderly in making a decision to accept or reject cancer treatment.
• Optimal Care For Patients With All Forms of Cancer The nursing profession can benefit from several findings in this study. Optimal care for patients with all forms of cancer can indeed improve the quality of life.
• “Identifying Dietary Patterns Compatible With the Reduction of Cancer Risk” Article Review The review analyzes the purpose of the study aimed at assessing the viability of building healthy eating guidelines in four international settings.
• Processed Meat Consumption Causes Pancreatic Cancer In the United States, more than 30,000 Americans are diagnosed with pancreatic cancer annually, whereas in Europe over 60,000 people suffer from pancreatic cancer yearly.
• Addressing Risk Factors for Lung Cancer Lung cancer cannot be pinpointed to a particular cause. The first prevention measure is ceasing smoking as cigarettes carry chemicals poisonous to the lungs.
• Skin Cancer Types, Cells of Origin Melanoma is the severest form of skin cancer that grows quickly, and it can appear as a spot of a red, brown, black, or grey color with asymmetric sides.
• Genetic Alterations and Cancer The paper will discuss cancer symptoms, causes, diagnosis, treatment, side-effects of treatment, and also its link with a genetic alteration.
• Approach to Cancer Care: Diagnosing and Treatment This paper will discuss the process of diagnosing and staging cancer, the complications that are common among patients, and the various treatment remedies available.
• Prostate Cancer Among Blacks in Maryland: Cost-Effectiveness Analysis In the context of the black community in Maryland, the cost-effectiveness analysis portrays the ability of the chosen intervention to minimize the consequences of prostate cancer.
• The Relationship Between Breast Cancer and Genes Cancer, in general, is a disease caused by genes that have mutated or adapted in a different way than was intended.
• Does Marijuana Use and Misuse Cause Cancer? The purpose of this paper is to review two studies that have attempted to define the possible link between marijuana use/misuse and lung cancer.
• How Cancer Affects the Skin? Melanoma represents a type of cancer that affects the melanocytes based in the epidermis section of the skin, and it presents itself as patches of lesions on the skin.
• Functional Characterization of MicroRNAs in Prostate Cancer Prostate cancer is the name given to cancer that starts in the prostate gland. The prostate is a part of the man’s reproductive system and is as big as a walnut.
• Pathology the Respiratory System: Lung Cancer Lung cancer is among the leading causes of death through respiratory illnesses and it has posed a major challenge to the global healthcare system.
• A Perfusion Based 3D Cancer Model for Micro Tumor Formation In vitro perfused 3D cancer model, developed in this thesis, proved valuable for cancer cell culture and related anti-cancer drug tests.
• Breast Cancer Development and Progression: Understanding Epigenetic Mechanisms The development and progression of breast cancer have been attributed to a series of cellular and molecular events, most of which are not well understood.
• Cervical Cancer: Nursing Research and Evidence-Based Practice This essay seeks to discuss the annual cervical cancer screening practice to identify the EBP that can be used to replace it.
• Impact of Alcohol Abuse on Breast Cancer Risk in Women This paper will examine the effects of alcohol abuse on the development of breast cancer in women to uncover its devastating consequences.
• Cancer Pain Experiences in Caucasians vs. Minorities Race, age, genetics, cancer type, culture, and psychosocial context have all been shown to impact the manner in which cancer patients experience pain during their illness.
• Cancer Treatment Practice Data Research Evidence-based practice in the nursing profession is fundamental towards effective delivery of care services to patients.
• Effects of Nutrition on Cancer and Cardiovascular Disease Control The high prevalence rate of cancer and heart disease has necessitated the need to underline not only the use of drugs but also the role of nutrition in eradicating cancer.
• Virtual Colonoscopy to Screen for Colon Cancer The aim of this paper is to estimate the technology of virtual colonoscopy from the perspective of several factors, for filling the mentioned gap with the proper amount of arguments.
• African American Women and Cancer The existing disparities regarding healthcare services provision in the United States is a critical issue related to such phenomena as racial and gender discrimination.
• Americcan College of Radiology Protocol and Cancer Therapy Response to Antiangiogenetic Drug Chemotherapy and antiangiogenic drug use are essential in the process of treatment the organs affected with caner cells because the drugs are aimed at reducing the effect of cancer.
• Lung Cancer: Causes and Treatment In the current paper, the crucial peculiarities of lung cancer, as well as the reasons that cause it, will be discussed.
• Grant Proposal: Cancel Cancer To ensure that patients diagnosed with cancer can effectively reduce their stress and anxiety levels, a grant is needed to use the program of emotional relief.
• Socioeconomic Factors of Oral Cancer The significant probability of oral cancer being incident in unemployed people was high since the OR (odds ratio) is 2.27.
• Summaries of Three Articles About Lung Cancer One of the most straightforward and efficient ways to understand the pathogenesis of lung cancer is researching the molecular mechanisms that slowly initiate it.
• Cervical Cancer: Symptoms and Treatment Cervical cancer is a condition that affects the cells close to the vagina that can be located in the lower section of the uterus, which is called the cervix.
• Prophylaxis Breast Cancer This paper examines the majority of the parts in detail and considers every risk linked to the development of this dangerous disease.
• Expanded Treatment Options in the Adjuvant Therapy of Colon Cancer Nurses can make a difference in improving survival rates for stage III and IV patients by remaining up to date about treatment options offered by new adjuvant agents.
• Pancreatic Cancer: Diagnostics and Treatment The article analyses the most recent techniques in the diagnosis and management of pancreatic cancer malignancy with a very poor prognosis.
• Nutrition Research With Reference to Colorectal Cancer The present paper is concerned with evaluating the validity and reliability of nutrition research with reference to colorectal cancer.
• Nutritional “Cures” for Clients With Cancer or HIV-AIDS The paper analysis nutrition, which can play a pivotal role in providing some relief to patients especially those with HIV/AIDS.
• Human Patient Simulation for Skin Cancer Prevention Kuhrik et al. conclude that human patient simulation (HPS) can benefit future healthcare providers and promote early prevention and detection.
• The Disease of Breast Cancer: Definition and Treatment Breast cancer is a serious disease during which the breast cells experience abnormal growth. Females usually have a higher risk of developing the disease.
• Cancer and Humor in Children: Approach to Research The paper has discussed the factors that a researcher must consider when planning to investigate the relationship between the sense of humor and hospitalized childhood cancer stressors.
• Synthetic Lethality Approach as Used in Cancer Treatment The essay aims to demonstrate that Synthetic Lethality (SL) is an effective therapy that triggers two mutations in cancer cells that lead to cell death in the result.
• Virtual Colonoscopy – Colon Cancer Screening Virtual Colonoscopy is constantly becoming more and more popular, in comparison with the traditional approach and conventional colonoscopy in particular.
• Genetic Mechanism of Colorectal Cancer Colorectal Cancer (CRC) occurrence is connected to environmental factors, hereditary factors, and individual ones.
• Care of Breast Cancer-Related Lymphoedema The lymphoedema’s clinical manifestations include swelling of the upper or lower extremities, violation of skin nutrition, and subcutaneous fat tissue.
• Lung Cancer among Indigenous Australians A great number of severe diseases are widespread among the Indigenous Australian community. Cancer, especially lung cancer, is one of the most frequent cases.
• Spread of Respiratory Cancer and Ethnicity of the Patient Based on the descriptive statistics, it is possible to study how the spread of respiratory cancer and the ethnicity of the patient are related.
• The Use of Nanotechnology: Cancer Diagnostics and Treatment This article provides an overview of research and presentations on the use of nanotechnology for cancer treatment.
• Cancer: Definition, Epidemiology, and Pain Management Cancer is estimated to reveal itself in as many as 100 types. Statistically, in 2008 the mortality rate from cancer was at the level of 62%.
• Women’s Disease: Breast Cancer and Its Consequence Breast cancer is one of the most common cancer types worldwide amounting to 25-30% of all cancer cases detected yearly among women.
• Listing Occupational Carcinogens and Cancer Prevention Occupational carcinogens make up bulk of the known human carcinogens. In the quest to define occupational carcinogens the number of staff exposed is of paramount importance.
• Evidence-Based Clinical Practice Guidelines: Lung Cancer The evidence-based clinical practice guidelines (CPGs) target early detection of lung cancer in patients based on screening tools and techniques suggested by the recent literature.
• Cancer Problem for Today’s Women The critique imposed in the study encompasses the fullness of the knowledge base in medical innovative therapies and pre-caution procedures for women living with cancer.
• Racism in Breast Cancer Treatment Cancer treatment is the least studied field that arises numerous ambiguities and requires a more sophisticated approach in studying.
• Cancer Interference With Dna Replication Reports indicate that a greater percentage of human cancers originate from chemical substances as well as environmental substances.
• Skin Cancer, Its Causes and Preventive Measures Skin cancer is one of the most common of all cancers, therefore, society needs to know the risks involved and must be better educated when it comes to preventative measures.
• Understanding the Skin Cancer Causes and Protecting the Skin Exposure to too much sun can lead to skin cancer. If we do not change our habits majority of us will one time get skin cancer during our lifetime and many people will die from it.
• Cancer and Contemporary Therapeutic Approaches
• Breast Cancer: Discussion of the Problems and Way of Treatment
• Colon Cancer: Possible Treatment Analysis
• Lung Cancer Early Screening in African Americans
• “Preferences for Photographic Art Among Hospitalized Patients With Cancer” the Article by Hanson et al.
• “Preferences for Photographic Art Among Hospitalized Patients With Cancer” the Article by Asmus, K., & Grossman, A., Hanson, H. and Schroeter, K.
• “Preferences for Photographic Art Among Hospitalized Patients With Cancer” the Article by Hanson, H., Schroeter, K., Hanson, A., Asmus, K., & Grossman, A.
• Computed Tomography and Related Cancer Risks
• Breast Cancer Epidemiology and Prevention
• Miami Breast Cancer Conference: Scholarly Activity
• Databases in Early Lung Cancer Screening
• Evaluating Intrinsic and Non-Intrinsic Cancer Risk Factors
• Recommendations for Breast Cancer Screening: USPSTF Guidelines
• Factors Influencing Breast Cancer Screening in Low-Income African Americans in Tennessee
• The Approach to the Care of Cancer
• American Cancer Society: Risk Factors, Effective Care and Enhancing Nursing Knowledge
• Cancer: Approach to Care
• American Cancer Society Guidelines Implementation
• “A Culturally Tailored Internet Cancer Support Group for Asian American Breast Cancer Survivors”: Article Analysis
• Lung & Bronchus Cancer Rates in the United States
• Alternative Medicine in Cancer Pain Management
• Cancer Pain Management and Education Programs
• Depression in Female Cancer Patients and Survivors
• Cervical Cancer Intervention in Clinical Practice
• Skin Cancer in Latin American Population
• Breast Cancer and Stress Heightening
• Prevention of Breast Cancer
• Pain Management Issues in Cancer Patients
• Reactive Oxygen Species and Cancer Cells Relationship
• Anthem Blue Cross: Breast Cancer Screenings
• Cancer Care, Diagnostics and Complications
• Women’s Healthcare: Breast Cancer Prevention & Treatment
• Colon Cancer Among Male Hispanic Population
• Vomiting and Nausea in Patients with Gastric Cancer
• Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia and Prostate Cancer
• Breast Cancer Inheritance Biophysical Factors
• Cancer: Diagnosis and Treatment
• Gastric Cancer Treatment: Research Instrument
• Cancer Stages, Treatment and Side Effects
• Anxiety and Depression Among Females with Cancer
• Breast Cancer Screening Promotion
• Cancer Risk Factors: Biology Concepts
• Bladder Cancer, Its Mortality Trends and Projection
• Mindfulness-Based Music Therapy and Cancer Treatment
• Mammary Cancer: Health Screening Initiative
• Mammography Screening and Breast Cancer Mortality
• Skin Cancer: Examination and Prevention
• Cervical Cancer in the UK
• Cancer Effects Management Methods
• Cancer Burden and Prevention Strategies
• Mindfulness-Based Therapy for Cancer Patients
• Cervical Cancer Prevention Among British Women
• Breast Cancer Studies: Evaluation and Analysis of Scientific Papers
• Value Care of Cancer
• Community Cancer Screening and Detection Project
• Cancer Care Approaches: Diagnosis, Side Effects, and Treatment
• Music Therapy Effects for Breast Cancer Patients
• Gastric Cancer Treatment: Data Collection
• Cancer: Steps of the Implementation Plan
• Endometrial Cancer Symptoms in Women After 35
• Birth Control Pills and Cervical Cancer Development
• Lung Cancer, Its Etiology Pathophysiology
• Who Work with Cancer Patients?
• Cancer Diagnostics, Staging and Complications
• Breast Cancer: Disease Screening and Diagnosis
• Mindfulness-Based Music Therapy in Cancer Patients
• Prostate Cancer: African American Cancer Initiative
• Cancer Treatment Research: Informed Consent
• Possible Trends in the Cause of Cancer
• Cancer Diagnosis, Complications and Treatment
• Approaches to Cancer Care
• From Breast Cancer to Zika Virus – Nursing Issues
• Tanning Booths and Skin Cancer Relationship – Medicine
• Massage Therapy vs. Simple Touch to Improve Pain and Mood in Patients with Advanced Cancer: A Randomized Trial
• A Research of Breast Cancer Survival
• Can Aspirin Help Reduce the Risk of Lung Cancer?
• What Are the Challenges for Relative Effectiveness Assessment and Early Access of Cancer Immunotherapies in Europe?
• Does Cellular Phone Use Contribute to Cancer Formation?
• Has Medical Innovation Reduced Cancer Mortality?
• Can Diet and Exercise Help Prevent Cancer?
• Does Detecting Breast Cancer with MRIs Increase the Rate of Mastectomies?
• How Are Cancer Cells Structurally Different From Normal?
• Can Elderly Patients With Pancreatic Cancer Gain Survival Advantages Through More Radical Surgeries?
• How Does Cancer Affect Individuals From All Backgrounds?
• Can Immunogenic Chemotherapies Relieve Cancer Cell Resistance to Immune Checkpoint Inhibitors?
• Does Diet Really Help Prevent Colon Cancer?
• Why Do African American Women Contract Breast or Cervical Cancer More Than Any Other Ethnic Group?
• How Does Cancer Form and Spread in the Human Body?
• Can Korean Red Ginseng Increase the Life Span of Cancer Patients?
• Does Natural Killer Cell Deficiency Increase the Risk of Cancer?
• Why Do Women Generally Get Breast Cancer Rather Than Other Cancers?
• Should the Cervical Cancer Vaccine for Girls Be Compulsory?
• Can Religion Help the Healing Process of Cancer?
• Does Green Tea Offer the Prescription for Beating Cancer?
• How Can Nanomedicine Help Cure Cancer?
• What Are the Symptoms and Treatments for Breast Cancer?
• Does Medicare Coverage Improve Cancer Detection and Mortality Outcomes?
• Are Pet Owners Really at Greater Risk of Cancer?
• How Can People Protect Themselves From Cancer?
• Does the Immune System Naturally Protect Against Cancer?
• Understanding cancer: causes, types, and risk factors.
• Complementary and alternative medicine for cancer patients.
• Environmental factors affecting cancer risk.
• The connection between cancer and aging.
• The role of artificial intelligence in cancer diagnosis.
• Strategies for improving quality of life after cancer treatment.
• Precision oncology: how it works.
• The significance of biomarkers in cancer diagnosis and prognosis.
• The role of diet in preventing and managing cancer.
• Ways to reduce cancer risks.
• Breast cancer awareness campaign: causes and prevention.
• Art therapy sessions for cancer patients.
• A healthy eating cookbook for a balanced diet during chemotherapy.
• Inspirational storytelling: collecting personal stories of cancer survivors.
• Raising awareness of the effects of smoking on cancer risk.
• Cancer prevention podcast: interviewing experts.
• Decision-making guide for cancer treatment for patients and their families.
• Surveying the impact of cancer treatment on patients’ daily lives.
• Volunteer-based transportation services for cancer patients.
• A social media campaign for raising awareness about cancer.

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StudyCorgi. (2021, September 9). 271 Cancer Research Topics for Undergraduates and High School Students. https://studycorgi.com/ideas/cancer-essay-topics/

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StudyCorgi . "271 Cancer Research Topics for Undergraduates and High School Students." September 9, 2021. https://studycorgi.com/ideas/cancer-essay-topics/.

StudyCorgi . 2021. "271 Cancer Research Topics for Undergraduates and High School Students." September 9, 2021. https://studycorgi.com/ideas/cancer-essay-topics/.

These essay examples and topics on Cancer were carefully selected by the StudyCorgi editorial team. They meet our highest standards in terms of grammar, punctuation, style, and fact accuracy. Please ensure you properly reference the materials if you’re using them to write your assignment.

This essay topic collection was updated on January 5, 2024 .

Essay on Cancer for Students and Children

500+ words essay on cancer.

Cancer might just be one of the most feared and dreaded diseases. Globally, cancer is responsible for the death of nearly 9.5 million people in 2018. It is the second leading cause of death as per the world health organization. As per studies, in India, we see 1300 deaths due to cancer every day. These statistics are truly astonishing and scary. In the recent few decades, the number of cancer has been increasingly on the rise. So let us take a look at the meaning, causes, and types of cancer in this essay on cancer.

Cancer comes in many forms and types. Cancer is the collective name given to the disease where certain cells of the person’s body start dividing continuously, refusing to stop. These extra cells form when none are needed and they spread into the surrounding tissues and can even form malignant tumors. Cells may break away from such tumors and go and form tumors in other places of the patient’s body.

Types of Cancers

As we know, cancer can actually affect any part or organ of the human body. We all have come across various types of cancer – lung, blood, pancreas, stomach, skin, and so many others. Biologically, however, cancer can be divided into five types specifically – carcinoma, sarcoma, melanoma, lymphoma, leukemia.

Among these, carcinomas are the most diagnosed type. These cancers originate in organs or glands such as lungs, stomach, pancreas, breast, etc. Leukemia is the cancer of the blood, and this does not form any tumors. Sarcomas start in the muscles, bones, tissues or other connective tissues of the body. Lymphomas are the cancer of the white blood cells, i.e. the lymphocytes. And finally, melanoma is when cancer arises in the pigment of the skin.

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Causes of Cancer

In most cases, we can never attribute the cause of any cancer to one single factor. The main thing that causes cancer is a substance we know as carcinogens. But how these develop or enters a person’s body will depend on many factors. We can divide the main factors into the following types – biological factors, physical factors, and lifestyle-related factors.

Biological factors involve internal factors such as age, gender, genes, hereditary factors, blood type, skin type, etc. Physical factors refer to environmental exposure of any king to say X-rays, gamma rays, etc. Ad finally lifestyle-related factors refer to substances that introduced carcinogens into our body. These include tobacco, UV radiation, alcohol. smoke, etc. Next, in this essay on cancer lets learn about how we can treat cancer.

Treatment of Cancer

Early diagnosis and immediate medical care in cancer are of utmost importance. When diagnosed in the early stages, then the treatment becomes easier and has more chances of success. The three most common treatment plans are either surgery, radiation therapy or chemotherapy.

If there is a benign tumor, then surgery is performed to remove the mass from the body, hence removing cancer from the body. In radiation therapy, we use radiation (rays) to specially target and kill the cancer cells. Chemotherapy is similar, where we inject the patient with drugs that target and kill the cancer cells. All treatment plans, however, have various side-effects. And aftercare is one of the most important aspects of cancer treatment.

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Stress and Cancer

What is stress, and how does the body respond to stress.

Stress—also known as psychological stress—describes what people experience when they are under mental, physical, or emotional pressure. Stressors—factors that can cause stress—can arise from people’s daily responsibilities and routines, including work, family, and finances. Other stressors include external factors such as early life adversity, exposure to certain environmental conditions, poverty, discrimination, and inequities in the social determinants of health . Serious health issues, such as a cancer diagnosis in oneself or a close friend or family member, can also cause stress. 

The body responds to external stressors by releasing stress hormones (such as epinephrine and norepinephrine ) that increase blood pressure , heart rate, and blood sugar levels. This response, often referred to as the fight-or-flight response, helps a person act with greater strength and speed to escape a perceived threat.

Although the fight-or-flight response helps the body manage momentary stress, when this response is caused by long-term, or chronic, stress it can be harmful. Research has shown that people who experience chronic stress can have digestive problems, heart disease, high blood pressure, and a weakened immune system . People who experience chronic stress are also more prone to having headaches, sleep trouble, difficulty concentrating, depression, and anxiety and to getting viral infections, including SARS-CoV-2 , the virus that causes COVID-19 ( 1 ).

Can stress cause cancer?

Although chronic stress can lead to many health problems, whether it is linked to cancer is not clear. Studies conducted to date have had varying results. For example, 

• One case-control study among Canadian men found an association between workplace stress and the risk of prostate cancer, whereas a similar study did not find such an association ( 2 , 3 ). 
• A prospective study  among more than 100,000 UK women reported no association between the risk of breast cancer and perceived stress levels or adverse life events in the preceding 5 years ( 4 ).
• A 15-year prospective study of Australian women at increased risk of familial breast cancer found no association between acute and chronic stressors, social support , optimism , or other emotional characteristics and the risk of breast cancer ( 5 ). 
• In a 2008 meta-analysis of 142 prospective studies among people in Asia, Australasia, Europe, and America, stress was associated with a higher incidence of lung cancer ( 6 ). 
• A 2019 meta-analysis of nine observational studies in Europe and North America also found an association between work stress and risk of lung, colorectal, and esophageal cancers ( 7 ). 
• A meta-analysis of 12 cohort studies in Europe found no link between work stress and the risk of lung, colorectal, breast, or prostate cancers ( 8 ). 

Even when stress appears to be linked to cancer risk, the relationship could be indirect. For example, people under chronic stress may develop certain unhealthy behaviors, such as smoking, overeating, becoming less active, or drinking alcohol, that are themselves associated with increased risks of some cancers.

How does stress affect people who have cancer?

Evidence from laboratory studies in animal models and human cancer cells grown in the laboratory suggests that chronic stress may cause cancer to get worse (progress) and spread (metastasize) ( 9 – 11 ). For example, some studies have shown that when mice bearing human tumors were kept confined or isolated from other mice—conditions that increase stress—their tumors were more likely to grow and metastasize ( 10 , 12 ). 

Laboratory studies have found that norepinephrine , released as part of the body’s fight-or-flight response, stimulates angiogenesis and metastasis ( 10 ). This hormone may also activate neutrophils, a type of immune cell. In some cases, neutrophils can help tumors grow by shielding them from the body’s immune system; they may also “awaken” dormant cancer cells ( 13 ).

Chronic stress may also lead to the release of a class of steroid hormones called glucocorticoids . Glucocorticoids may inhibit a type of tumor cell death called apoptosis and increase metastasis and resistance to chemotherapy ( 14 ). They may also prevent the body’s immune system from recognizing and fighting cancer cells ( 15 ). 

Although some studies have reported decreased survival among people with cancer who are experiencing stress ( 6 , 16 , 17 ), the evidence that stress directly affects survival remains weak overall ( 10 ). 

How can people who have cancer learn to cope with stress?

Emotional and social support can help patients learn to cope with stress. Such support can reduce levels of depression , anxiety , and disease- and treatment-related symptoms among patients. NCI’s page on Emotions and Cancer has tips for coping with the many emotions that arise with cancer.

There is some evidence that successful management of stress through social support is associated with better clinical outcomes for people with breast cancer ( 10 ). Social support has also been linked to lower levels of stress-related hormones that can promote tumor progression in ovarian cancer ( 10 , 18 ). 

Another approach to cope with stress is by being physically active. A report of the 2018 American College of Sports Medicine International Multidisciplinary Roundtable on Physical Activity and Cancer Prevention and Control found “sufficient” evidence to conclude that moderate-intensity physical activity during and after cancer treatment can reduce anxiety and depressive symptoms among cancer survivors ( 19 ). There is also evidence suggesting that physical activity is helpful in preventing depression among survivors of childhood cancer ( 20 ).

People who are experiencing significant stress with a cancer diagnosis may also want to consult their doctors about a referral to an appropriate mental health professional. In fact, some expert organizations recommend that all cancer patients be screened with an appropriate tool, such as with a distress scale or questionnaire, soon after diagnosis as well as during and after treatment ( 21 , 22 ) to gauge whether they need help managing stress or are at risk for distress ( 23 ).

Treatment of significant distress, depression, and anxiety under the care of a mental health professional might include psychotherapy (talk therapy) and/or antidepressants or other medication. The choice of treatment should be personalized, ideally as a joint decision between the patient and the health care provider. 

Researchers are studying novel psychotherapeutic approaches to lessen depressive symptoms such as distress and hopelessness in people with cancer. In one randomized clinical trial of people who had recently been diagnosed with advanced cancer, three to six sessions of a tailored psychotherapy intervention reduced symptoms of depression ( 24 ). Results from the trial also suggest that the approach may help prevent the onset of depression in those with advanced disease.

Another randomized clinical trial compared two different mindfulness-based cognitive therapy interventions—one delivered in person, the other electronically—with usual treatment in reducing psychological distress in people with cancer ( 25 ). Both interventions reduced elements of distress like fear of cancer recurrence and increased mental health–related quality of life , mindfulness skills, and positive mental health.

A resurgence of academic research into the therapeutic potential of psychedelic drugs has produced preliminary evidence for the possible role of psilocybin -assisted psychotherapy in the treatment of cancer-related anxiety, depression, and existential distress ( 26 ).

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Home > Cancer Research Catalyst > Cancer Survivors: In Their Words

Cancer Survivors: In Their Words

This year alone, an estimated 1.8 million people will hear their doctor say they have cancer. The individual impact of each person can be clouded in the vast statistics. In honor of National Cancer Survivor Month,  Cancer Today would like to highlight several personal essays we’ve published from cancer survivors at different stages of their treatment. 

In  this essay , psychiatrist Adam P. Stern’s cerebral processing of his metastatic kidney cancer diagnosis gives rise to piercing questions. When he drops off his 3-year-old son to daycare, he ponders a simple exchange: his son’s request for a routine morning hug before he turns to leave. “Will he remember me, only a little, just enough to mythologize me as a giant who used to carry him up the stairs? As my health declines, will he have to learn to adjust to a dad who used to be like all the other dads but then wasn’t?” he questions. 

In  another essay from a parent with a young child, Amanda Rose Ferraro describes the abrupt change from healthy to not healthy after being diagnosed with acute myeloid leukemia in May 2017. After a 33-day hospital stay, followed by weeklong chemotherapy treatments, Ferraro’s cancer went into remission, but a recurrence required more chemotherapy and a stem cell transplant. Ferraro describes harrowing guilt over being separated from her 3-year-old son, who at one point wanted nothing to do with her. “Giving up control is hard, but not living up to what I thought a mother should be was harder. I had to put myself first, and it was the hardest thing I had ever done,” she writes.

In January 1995, 37-year-old Melvin Mann was diagnosed with chronic myelogenous leukemia, which would eventually mean he would  need to take a chance on a phase I clinical trial that tested an experimental drug called imatinib—a treatment that would go on to receive U.S. Food and Drug Administration approval under the brand name Gleevec. It would also mean trusting a system with a documented history of negligence and abuse of Black people like him: “Many patients, especially some African Americans, are afraid they will be taken advantage of because of past unethical experiments like the infamous Tuskegee syphilis study​,” Mann writes, before describing changes that make current trials safer. Mann’s been on imatinib ever since and has enjoyed watching his daughter become a physician and celebrating 35 years of marriage.

In  another essay , Carly Flumer addresses the absurdity of hearing doctors reassure her that she had a good cancer after she was diagnosed with stage I papillary thyroid cancer in 2017. “What I did hear repeatedly from various physicians was that I had the ‘good cancer,’ and that ‘if you were to have a cancer, thyroid would be the one to get,’” she writes.

In another piece for Cancer Today , Flumer shares  how being diagnosed with cancer just four months after starting a graduate program shaped her education and future career path.

For Liza Bernstein, her breast cancer diagnosis created a paradox as she both acknowledged and denied the disease the opportunity to define who she was. “In the privacy of my own mind, I refused to accept that cancer was part of my identity, even though it was affecting it as surely as erosion transforms the landscape,” she writes . “Out in the world, I’d blurt out, ‘I have cancer,’ because I took questions from acquaintances like ‘How are you, what’s new?’ literally. Answering casual questions with the unvarnished truth wasn’t claiming cancer as my identity. It was an attempt to dismiss the magnitude of it, like saying ‘I have a cold.’” By her third primary breast cancer diagnosis, Bernstein reassesses and moves closer to acceptance as she discovers her role as advocate.

As part of the staff of  Cancer Today , a magazine and online resource for cancer patients, survivors and caregivers, we often refer to a succinct tagline to sum up our mission: “Practical knowledge. Real hope.” Part of providing information is also listening closely to cancer survivors’ experiences. As we celebrate National Cancer Survivor Month, we elevate these voices, and all patients and survivors in their journeys.

Cancer Today is a magazine and online resource for cancer patients, survivors, and caregivers published by the American Association for Cancer Research.  Subscriptions to the magazine are free ​ to cancer patients, survivors and caregivers who live in the U.S. 

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Home — Essay Samples — Nursing & Health — Oncology — Breast Cancer

Essays About Breast Cancer

Brief description of breast cancer.

Breast cancer is a type of cancer that forms in the cells of the breast. It is the second most common cancer in women and can also affect men. Breast cancer can be invasive or non-invasive and is often detected through screening and self-examination. Early detection and treatment are crucial for improving outcomes and survival rates.

Importance of Writing Essays on This Topic

Essays on breast cancer are significant for academic and personal exploration as they provide an opportunity to raise awareness about the disease, its risk factors, prevention, and treatment options. Writing about breast cancer also allows individuals to share personal experiences, advocate for research and support, and contribute to the ongoing dialogue surrounding this prevalent health issue.

Tips on Choosing a Good Topic

• Consider exploring the latest research and advancements in breast cancer treatment and prevention.
• Reflect on personal experiences or those of loved ones affected by breast cancer for a more personal and impactful essay.
• Investigate the societal and cultural impact of breast cancer, including awareness campaigns, advocacy, and support networks.

Essay Topics

• The Role of Genetic Testing in Breast Cancer Prevention
• The Impact of Lifestyle Choices on Breast Cancer Risk
• The Emotional and Psychological Effects of Breast Cancer Diagnosis and Treatment
• The Importance of Early Detection and Screening for Breast Cancer
• The Societal Stigma and Misconceptions Surrounding Breast Cancer
• Exploring Alternative and Complementary Therapies for Breast Cancer Patients
• The Influence of Support Networks and Advocacy Groups in Breast Cancer Awareness
• Analyzing the Economic and Social Burden of Breast Cancer on Patients and Families
• Debunking Common Myths and Misinformation about Breast Cancer
• The Role of Hormone Therapy in Breast Cancer Treatment

Concluding Thought

By writing essays on breast cancer, individuals can contribute to a better understanding of the disease, its impact, and the importance of ongoing research and support. Engaging with this topic through writing can help raise awareness, provide support, and inspire positive change within the community.

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SEER indicates Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results.

ER indicates estrogen receptor; metro, metropolitan area; PR, progesterone receptor; and PSA, prostate-specific antigen. To convert PSA to micrograms per liter, multiply by 1.0.

eTable 1. Frequency Distribution of Noncancer Causes of Death in the Cancer Cohorts

eTable 2. Crosstabulations of Race vs Income and Race vs Residence (Metropolitan)

eTable 3. Estimates From LASSO for Breast Cancer Cohort, Prostate Cancer Cohort, and Colon Cancer Cohort

eFigure 1. Survival Time Ratio of Noncancer Specific Mortality Among Patients With Breast, Prostate, Colon and Rectal Cancer

eFigure 2. Cumulative Mortality for Patients With Breast, Prostate, Colon, and Rectal Cancer Who Were Categorized as Intermediate Risk

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KC M , Fan J , Hyslop T, et al. Relative Burden of Cancer and Noncancer Mortality Among Long-Term Survivors of Breast, Prostate, and Colorectal Cancer in the US. JAMA Netw Open. 2023;6(7):e2323115. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2023.23115

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Relative Burden of Cancer and Noncancer Mortality Among Long-Term Survivors of Breast, Prostate, and Colorectal Cancer in the US

• 1 Yale Cancer Outcomes, Public Policy, and Effectiveness Research Center, New Haven, Connecticut
• 2 Department of Biostatistics, Yale School of Public Health, New Haven, Connecticut
• 3 Sidney Kimmel Cancer Center, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
• 4 Section of Medical Oncology, Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut
• 5 Department of Chronic Disease Epidemiology, Yale School of Public Health, New Haven, Connecticut
• 6 Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut
• 7 Department of Urology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut
• 8 Department of Surgery, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut
• 9 Department of Health Policy and Management, Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
• 10 Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
• 11 Department of Population Health Sciences, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina
• 12 Duke Cancer Institute, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina

Question   What is the relative burden of oncologic and nononcologic mortality among long-term survivors of cancer in the US?

Findings   In this cohort study of 627 702 patients surviving 5 years or more from an initial diagnosis of early-stage breast, prostate, or colorectal cancer, the risk of dying from the index cancer varied widely relative to noncancer-specific causes of death. Patients with low oncologic risk at the time of diagnosis had at least 3-fold higher risk of noncancer death compared with death from the index cancer.

Meaning   This study suggests that risk-stratified care may help quantify the relative importance of oncologic and primary care surveillance for long-term survivors of cancer.

Importance   Improvements in cancer outcomes have led to a need to better understand long-term oncologic and nononcologic outcomes and quantify cancer-specific vs noncancer-specific mortality risks among long-term survivors.

Objective   To assess absolute and relative cancer-specific vs noncancer-specific mortality rates among long-term survivors of cancer, as well as associated risk factors.

Design, Setting, and Participants   This cohort study included 627 702 patients in the Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results cancer registry with breast, prostate, or colorectal cancer who received a diagnosis between January 1, 2003, and December 31, 2014, who received definitive treatment for localized disease and who were alive 5 years after their initial diagnosis (ie, long-term survivors of cancer). Statistical analysis was conducted from November 2022 to January 2023.

Main Outcomes and Measures   Survival time ratios (TRs) were calculated using accelerated failure time models, and the primary outcome of interest examined was death from index cancer vs alternative (nonindex cancer) mortality across breast, prostate, colon, and rectal cancer cohorts. Secondary outcomes included subgroup mortality in cancer-specific risk groups, categorized based on prognostic factors, and proportion of deaths due to cancer-specific vs noncancer-specific causes. Independent variables included age, sex, race and ethnicity, income, residence, stage, grade, estrogen receptor status, progesterone receptor status, prostate-specific antigen level, and Gleason score. Follow-up ended in 2019.

Results   The study included 627 702 patients (mean [SD] age, 61.1 [12.3] years; 434 848 women [69.3%]): 364 230 with breast cancer, 118 839 with prostate cancer, and 144 633 with colorectal cancer who survived 5 years or more from an initial diagnosis of early-stage cancer. Factors associated with shorter median cancer-specific survival included stage III disease for breast cancer (TR, 0.54; 95% CI, 0.53-0.55) and colorectal cancer (colon: TR, 0.60; 95% CI, 0.58-0.62; rectal: TR, 0.71; 95% CI, 0.69-0.74), as well as a Gleason score of 8 or higher for prostate cancer (TR, 0.61; 95% CI, 0.58-0.63). For all cancer cohorts, patients at low risk had at least a 3-fold higher noncancer-specific mortality compared with cancer-specific mortality at 10 years of diagnosis. Patients at high risk had a higher cumulative incidence of cancer-specific mortality than noncancer-specific mortality in all cancer cohorts except prostate.

Conclusions and Relevance   This study is the first to date to examine competing oncologic and nononcologic risks focusing on long-term adult survivors of cancer. Knowledge of the relative risks facing long-term survivors may help provide pragmatic guidance to patients and clinicians regarding the importance of ongoing primary and oncologic-focused care.

Due to improvements in early detection, treatment, and oncologic outcomes, many survivors of cancer are now living longer and are thus more likely to experience or die from conditions other than their original cancer, 1 - 4 with two-thirds of all patients with cancer now living 5 years or more after diagnosis. 5 Risk-stratified models of care have emerged as a critical strategy that could be used to appropriately allocate care intensity between the oncologist and primary care physician (PCP) 6 - 10 and has been highlighted by the American Cancer Society, the American Society of Clinical Oncology, and the National Cancer Institute as an area of priority research. 1 , 6 , 11 These models emphasize coordination between oncologists and PCPs while accommodating the unique oncologic and nononcologic health needs of survivors of cancer 12 - 14 and have the potential to dramatically reduce large-scale inefficiencies in care while improving the quality of care. 15 Population-level studies have considered competing risks of cancer vs noncancer mortality in breast, prostate, and colorectal cancers 16 - 20 and have helped provide insights into the relative association of each with mortality, but they have not focused on long-term (≥5 years) survivors of definitively treated disease. 21 - 24 Long-term survivors should be studied to help inform the management of patients under surveillance by their oncologist who reach the 5-year mark and require pragmatic risk assessment in the upcoming years.

As such, there is a critical need to provide quantitative risk estimates of oncologic and nononcologic outcomes among long-term survivors of cancer in representative US cohorts. Given that breast, prostate, and colorectal cancers account for half of all diagnoses for survivors of cancer, individuals with these cancers provide the ideal study population for survivorship risk stratification research. 25 , 26 The ability to directly inform survivorship care is hampered in that these studies (1) often included patients who did not undergo curative treatment and/or had metastatic disease, (2) were not focused on long-term survivors (ie, those surviving at ≥5 years from diagnosis), (3) did not attempt to differentiate factors associated with cancer-specific vs noncancer-specific mortality, and (4) did not define cancer-specific vs noncancer-specific events from an optimal surveillance perspective. As such, relevant empirical data are lacking to inform long-term survivors of these common cancers of their relative risk of cancer-specific vs noncancer-specific mortality, which could be used to help inform models of survivorship care that are tailored to patients’ unique risk profiles.

In this study, our objective was to assess the absolute and relative risks of cancer-specific vs noncancer-specific mortality among long-term (≥5 years) survivors of breast, prostate, colon, and rectal cancers within the US, to ultimately promote risk assessments to inform the implementation of risk-stratified survivorship pathways.

We used data from the most recent data set (2021) of the National Cancer Institute’s Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER) program. 27 The SEER program collects population-based cancer incidence and survival data across 18 registries in the US covering approximately 48.0% of the US population. The Yale institutional review board approved this study as exempt because SEER-Medicare data were deidentified, and informed consent was not required. This study followed the Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology ( STROBE ) reporting guideline.

Patients who received a diagnosis of breast, prostate, or colorectal cancer from January 1, 2003, through December 31, 2014, with documented receipt of definitive treatment and who had survived at least 5 years from diagnosis were included. Definitive treatment was defined by site-directed surgery and, among patients with prostate cancer, also included radiotherapy. Patients with stage IV disease and those diagnosed at autopsy or on a death certificate were excluded. In addition, patients with missing information on demographic characteristics, clinical factors, or duration of follow-up were excluded ( Figure 1 ; eMethods in Supplement 1 ).

The outcomes of interest were cancer-specific mortality and noncancer-specific mortality. The outcomes were defined based on SEER cause-of-death classification variables. 28 Mortality due to the primary cancer was classified as cancer-specific mortality. Mortality due to causes other than the primary cancer was classified as noncancer-specific mortality. Hence, for a patient whose index cancer was breast cancer, a death from any other cancer, as well as any noncancer condition, would be classified as noncancer-specific. The clinical motivation for the study was to prioritize the need for cancer-specific vs noncancer-specific (eg, primary care, cardiology, and pulmonology) clinician surveillance at 5 years after the diagnosis of a definitively treated, early-stage cancer. Although the 5-year benchmark is somewhat debatable, it remains a practical window after which nononcologic follow-up is considered for many cancers. For example, the National Institutes of Health have used a 5-year horizon in multiple requests for applications to investigate long-term survivors of cancer. 29 Cancer-specific events were defined as death from the incident cancer, which would presumably be most effectively detected and/or managed by a patient’s initial oncologist.

All demographic and clinical factors were collected at the time of diagnosis, including patients’ age, sex (colorectal cancer only), race and ethnicity (Hispanic, Non-Hispanic American Indian or Alaska Native, Non-Hispanic Asian or Pacific Islander, Non-Hispanic Black, and Non-Hispanic White), year of diagnosis, median household income (county level), and area of residency (metropolitan vs nonmetropolitan) and were included in the analysis. Race and ethnicity were classified by the SEER program. The SEER program determines race and ethnicity through medical record abstraction or by using a computer algorithm that searches surnames of the reported cases to determine Hispanic origin. Although certain cancer characteristics do vary across racial and ethnic groups, race and ethnicity were included in the study not as a biological construct, but as a proxy for structural racism. Age at diagnosis was categorized into 5 categories: younger than 50 years, 50 to 54 years, 55 to 59 years, 60 to 64 years, 65 years or older. All patients lived at least 5 years after diagnosis. Therefore, patients aged 65 years or older at the time of diagnosis were 70 years or older at their entry into the study.

Tumor-related factors at the time of diagnosis included stage, grade, nodal status, hormone receptor (estrogen and progesterone) status (breast cancer only), laterality (breast cancer only), prostate-specific antigen (PSA) level (prostate cancer only), and Gleason score (prostate cancer only). We used American Joint Committee on Cancer staging reported in SEER for cancer stage. Grade IV disease was infrequently reported and therefore grouped with grade III. Prostate-specific antigen level was categorized as low (<10 ng/mL), intermediate (10-20 ng/mL), or high (>20 ng/mL) (to convert to micrograms per liter, multiply by 1.0). Gleason score was also categorized as low (≤6), intermediate (7), or high (≥8). Treatment-related factors included chemotherapy and radiotherapy.

Statistical analysis was conducted from November 2022 to January 2023. A least absolute shrinkage and selection operator (LASSO) was used to select the factors associated with cancer-specific and noncancer-specific mortality separately. Variables with a regression coefficient equal to zero after the shrinking process were excluded from the model, and variables with nonzero coefficients were included in survival analysis (eTable 3 in Supplement 1 ). Models estimating cancer-specific and noncancer-specific mortality for each cancer site were created. Due to differences in the epidemiology and treatment of rectal cancers, independent models for colon and rectal cancers were built.

Because the proportional hazards assumption was not satisfied for several covariates, we used accelerated failure time (AFT) models, which do not rely on the proportional hazards assumption. 30 - 32 Parameter estimates from AFT models were converted to time ratio (TR) estimates to interpret the effect of a covariate on the time scale. A TR greater than 1 indicates that the covariate is associated with accelerated survival time (ie, longer median survival), whereas a TR less than 1 indicates that the covariate is associated with decelerated survival time (ie, shorter median survival).

Based on established risk factors of cancer-specific mortality, patients with cancer were grouped into 3 risk groups of oncologic mortality: low risk, intermediate risk, or high risk. 33 - 37 For patients with breast cancer, risk groups were categorized as (1) low risk (≥65 years and stage I), (2) high risk (<65 years and stages II-III), or (3) intermediate risk (everyone else). Patients with prostate cancer were classified as (1) low risk (≥65 years and Gleason score of 6), (2) high risk (<65 years and Gleason score >6), or (3) intermediate risk (everyone else). Patients with colorectal cancer were classified as (1) low risk (≥65 years and stage I), (2) high risk (<65 years and stages II-III), or (3) intermediate risk (everyone else).

The cumulative incidence function curves of cancer-specific and noncancer-specific mortality by risk groups were generated for all cancer sites. Statistical analyses were conducted using SAS, version 9.4 (SAS Institute Inc), Stata, version 17 (StataCorp LP), and R, version 4.0.4 (R Group for Statistical Computing). All P values were from 2-sided tests and results were deemed statistically significant at P  < .05. The package grpreg was used to perform LASSO regularization in R.

We identified 627 702 patients (mean [SD] age, 61.1 [12.3] years; 434 848 women [69.3%]): 364 230 with breast cancer, 118 839 with prostate cancer, 104 488 with colon cancer, and 40 145 patients with rectal cancer with stage I, II, or III disease diagnosed between 2003 and 2014 and treated with definitive intent surgery and/or radiotherapy.

A total of 123 701 patients with breast cancer (34.0%), 57 958 patients with prostate cancer (48.8%), 56 839 patients with colon cancer (54.4%), and 15 464 patients with rectal cancer (38.5%) were aged 65 years or older ( Table 1 ). A total of 446 058 patients (71.1%) across all cancer cohorts were non-Hispanic White. Tumor stage at diagnosis varied substantially by cancer site. Approximately 10% of patients with breast cancer (35 560 [9.8%]) and 16 030 patients with prostate cancer (13.5%) received a diagnosis of stage III disease, whereas 31 399 patients with colon cancer (30.0%) and 13 593 patients with rectal cancer (33.8%) received a diagnosis of stage III disease.

Among patients with breast cancer, 301 897 (82.9%) were estrogen receptor (ER) positive and 264 768 (72.7%) were progesterone receptor positive ( Table 1 ). A total of 7541 patients with prostate cancer (6.3%) had a PSA level higher than 20 ng/mL, and 17 977 (15.1%) had a Gleason score of 8 or higher.

Across all cancer cohorts, most patients died of noncancer-related causes. Heart disease was the leading cause of noncancer-specific deaths, followed by Alzheimer disease, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), and cerebrovascular disease (eTable 1 in Supplement 1 ). Heart disease accounted for more than one-fourth of all noncancer-related deaths.

In the breast cancer cohort, two-thirds of patients died of causes other than their primary cancer, of which 24.0% (9210 of 38 348) were associated with heart disease (eTable 1 in Supplement 1 ). After heart disease, Alzheimer disease (7.1% [2727 of 38 348]), cerebrovascular diseases (6.6% [2522 of 38 348]), and COPD (6.5% [2474 of 38 348]) were also the common causes of noncancer-specific deaths among patients with breast cancer. In the prostate cancer cohort, 77.9% of total deaths (7179 of 9220) were noncancer specific; heart disease (24.5% [1758 of 7179]) was the most common cause of noncancer-related deaths, followed by COPD (6.1% [441 of 7179]), cerebrovascular diseases (4.8% [343 of 7179]), and Alzheimer disease (3.5% [249 of 7179]).

Among patients with colorectal cancer, more than two-thirds died of noncancer-related causes, of which almost one-third were associated with heart disease (eTable 1 in Supplement 1 ). The other common causes of noncancer-specific deaths included COPD, cerebrovascular diseases, and Alzheimer disease.

Patients with stage III breast cancer had a 46% reduction in median survival time for breast cancer–specific mortality than those with stage I disease (TR, 0.54; 95% CI, 0.53-0.55). Likewise, patients with grade III breast cancer had a 24% reduction in median survival time for breast cancer–specific mortality than those with grade I disease (TR, 0.76; 95% CI, 0.75-0.78) ( Figure 2 ). Patients with stage III breast cancer had a 19% (TR, 0.81; 95% CI, 0.79-0.82) reduction in median survival time for noncancer-specific mortality, and those with grade III breast cancer had a 2% (TR, 0.98; 95% CI, 0.97-0.99) reduction in median survival time for noncancer-specific mortality (eFigure 1 in Supplement 1 ).

In the prostate cancer cohort, patients with a PSA level higher than 20 ng/mL had a 22% reduction in median survival time for prostate cancer–specific mortality (TR, 0.78; 95% CI, 0.76-0.81), and those with a Gleason score of 8 or higher had almost a 40% reduction in median survival time for prostate cancer–specific mortality (TR, 0.61; 95% CI, 0.58-0.63) ( Figure 2 ). Patients with a PSA level higher than 20 ng/mL had an 11% (TR, 0.89; 95% CI, 0.88-0.91) reduction in median survival time for nonprostate cancer–specific mortality, and those with a Gleason score of 8 or higher had a 13% (TR, 0.87; 95% CI, 0.85-0.88) reduction in median survival time for nonprostate cancer–specific mortality (eFigure 1 in Supplement 1 ). Patients with stage III colon cancer, compared with stage I, had a 40% (TR, 0.60; 95% CI, 0.58-0.62) reduction in median survival time for colon cancer–specific mortality and an 8% (TR, 0.92; 95% CI, 0.91-0.93) reduction in median survival time for noncolon cancer–specific mortality ( Figure 2 ; eFigure 1 in Supplement 1 ). Compared with stage I rectal cancer, patients with stage III disease had a 29% reduction in median survival time for rectal cancer–specific mortality (TR, 0.71; 95% CI, 0.69-0.74) ( Figure 2 ).

Based on established risk factors of cancer-specific mortality, which were also confirmed by our analysis, patients were categorized into 3 risk groups. After 10 years of cancer diagnosis, there was a substantially different risk of cancer-specific vs noncancer-specific mortality between the low-risk and high-risk groups ( Figure 3 ; eFigure 2 in Supplement 1 ). For patients with breast cancer in the low-risk group, defined as those 65 years or older and with stage I disease, the cumulative incidence of nonbreast cancer–specific mortality was almost 7 times higher than the cumulative incidence of breast cancer–specific mortality ( Table 2 ). However, patients in the high-risk group, defined as those younger than 65 years and with stage II to III disease, had almost 2.5 times higher breast cancer–specific mortality than nonbreast cancer–specific mortality.

Among patients with prostate cancer, the low-risk group had an almost 9 times higher cumulative incidence of nonprostate cancer–specific mortality compared with the cumulative incidence of prostate–specific mortality ( Table 2 ). The cumulative incidence of nonprostate cancer–specific mortality was also 1.8 times higher than the cumulative incidence of prostate cancer–specific mortality among those in the low-risk group, defined as those 65 years or older and with a Gleason score of 6 or lower. The cumulative incidence of noncancer-specific mortality among the low-risk colon and rectal cancer cohorts was 7 times and 3 times higher than cancer-specific mortality, respectively.

Estimating the relative risk of cancer-specific vs noncancer-specific mortality among long-term survivors of cancer is a critical first step in the development of risk-stratified models of care. Although many studies have previously examined competing oncologic vs nononcologic risks of common cancers, 16 - 24 , 29 , 38 to our knowledge, this study is the first to focus on long-term (≥5 years) survivors. We found that the risk of oncologic and nononcologic mortality among long-term survivors of cancer varied widely by risk group. Ten years after cancer diagnosis, the noncancer-specific mortality was substantially higher than the cancer-specific mortality among patients with low oncologic risk, as assessed using standard prognosticating markers including stage or Gleason score. Conversely, cancer-specific mortality was high among those with adverse prognostic factors for their cancer (ie, high oncologic risk), except patients with prostate cancer. By quantifying the relative long-term risks of oncologic vs nononcologic mortality among these patients, we hope to help patients and clinicians place the relative importance of oncologic and nononcologic care into perspective. Although defining risk-stratified management is beyond the scope of this study, our findings suggest that patient groups with relatively high risks of nononcologic mortality, such as those 65 years or older with lower-stage disease, may particularly benefit from higher-intensity primary care surveillance. Given that the benefit associated with preventive care takes years to manifest, increased intensity of primary care may be most effective if initiated shortly after diagnosis, which could take place concurrently with oncologic management.

The factors associated with mortality among long-term survivors varied depending on patients’ age, tumor biology, and stage at diagnosis. Patients with low oncologic risk—defined as those aged 65 years or older, with a low tumor stage, and with a low Gleason score (for prostate cancer)—had substantially higher mortality associated with causes other than their initial cancer. Heart disease, Alzheimer disease, COPD, cerebrovascular disease, and lung disease were the dominant causes of death among patients with low oncologic risk across all cancer sites. In the low oncologic risk group, the ratio of cumulative mortality of noncancer-specific vs cancer-specific causes of death between 5 and 10 years after diagnosis was highest in the prostate cancer cohort (9-fold) followed by the colon (7-fold), breast (7-fold), and rectal (3-fold) cancer cohorts.

Previous studies have suggested that high-risk biology and stage at diagnosis increase the risk of cancer-related mortality among young women with breast cancer. 20 , 33 , 36 , 37 , 39 - 42 For example, a recent study using SEER data found a greater risk of breast cancer–specific mortality among younger women with more advanced and aggressive disease than older women with hormone receptor–positive and low-grade breast cancer, but that age was not independently associated with an increased risk of mortality for other tumor subtypes. 43 However, such studies were not restricted to long-term survivors. In our cohort of long-term survivors, we found that older age (ie, ≥60 years) was associated with poor cancer-specific survival. This finding is consistent with longer-term studies of breast cancer, which have reported an increased risk of cancer-specific mortality among older women compared with younger women. 44 - 47 Our study used 5 years as the definition of long-term survivors. Other definitions of survivorship windows have been reported, 48 and one could consider using different definitions for different cancers based on differences in the natural history of different cancers. We chose this milestone because it represents a highly pragmatic time point at which many survivors of cancer and their managing clinicians reexamine plans for cancer surveillance and general health maintenance. In support of the 5-year milestone, the longest running study of long-term survivors of cancer, to our knowledge, the Childhood Cancer Survivor Study, is limited entirely to patients who have survived 5 years from their cancer diagnosis. 49 - 52 Last, although not the focus of this study, there can be a difference in risk profiles of patients before vs after 5 years from diagnosis. For example, we found that patients with ER-negative tumors were associated with higher cancer-specific mortality during the initial 5 years after diagnosis but with lower risk of cancer-specific mortality after 5 years, presumably because most ER-negative recurrences take place within 5 years.

There are several limitations to this study. First, validation of the models was performed through internal data validation only. Second, there were only a few clinical- and treatment-related factors in the SEER database. We included information about cancer stage and treatment at the time of diagnosis; however, we did not have information on the entire course of treatment, disease recurrence, or progression, which are crucial in estimating mortality for populations with cancer. Most important, data on patient comorbidities were not available, and therefore comorbidities could not be examined in our study. Variations in treatment and access to care can be significantly associated with cancer outcomes, particularly in racial and ethnic minority groups that often experience disparities in accessing quality health care services (eTable 2 in Supplement 1 ). Structural racism is likely associated with the disparities in treatment based on race and ethnicity, resulting in limited availability of specialized cancer treatments and support for these groups. However, this study could not assess treatment patterns or access to care due to data limitations.

In obtaining cancer vs noncancer risk assessments, this cohort study stratified patients with cancer into 3 risk groups (low, intermediate, and high) of mortality based on cancer-specific prognostic factors that are associated with mortality. We found that the risk of cancer-specific vs noncancer-specific mortality varied substantially by cancer risk group, further informing the need for a personalized, risk-stratified approach to care that would eliminate unnecessary extended oncologic follow-up by optimizing the coordination between treating oncologists and PCPs. Future studies should include more follow-up information regarding treatment and disease recurrence.

Accepted for Publication: May 28, 2023.

Published: July 12, 2023. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2023.23115

Open Access: This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the CC-BY License . © 2023 KC M et al. JAMA Network Open .

Corresponding Author: Michaela A. Dinan, PhD, Department of Chronic Disease Epidemiology, Yale School of Public Health, PO Box 208034, 60 College St, New Haven, CT 06420 ( [email protected] ).

Author Contributions: Drs KC and Dinan had full access to all of the data in the study and take responsibility for the integrity of the data and the accuracy of the data analysis.

Concept and design: KC, Hassan, Cecchini, Silber, Leapman, Leeds, Wheeler, Spees, Gross, Lustberg, Oeffinger, Dinan.

Acquisition, analysis, or interpretation of data: KC, Fan, Hyslop, Cecchini, Wang, Silber, Leapman, Leeds, Wheeler, Spees, Lustberg, Greenup, Justice, Dinan.

Drafting of the manuscript: KC, Fan, Hyslop, Hassan, Dinan.

Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content: KC, Fan, Hyslop, Cecchini, Wang, Silber, Leapman, Leeds, Wheeler, Spees, Gross, Lustberg, Greenup, Justice, Oeffinger, Dinan.

Statistical analysis: KC, Fan, Hyslop, Justice, Dinan.

Obtained funding: Justice, Dinan.

Administrative, technical, or material support: KC, Hyslop, Hassan, Cecchini, Leapman, Justice.

Supervision: Cecchini, Silber, Leapman, Wheeler, Gross, Lustberg, Justice, Dinan.

Conflict of Interest Disclosures: Dr Cecchini reported receiving a National Cancer Institute (NCI) Mentored Clinical Scientist Research Career Development Award; personal fees from Bayer Pharmaceuticals, DAVA Oncology, Taiho Pharmaceuticals, Seattle Genetics, MacroGenics, and Daiichi Sankyo; and holding stock options from Parthenon Therapeutics outside the submitted work. Dr Wang reported receiving grants from the NCI and the American Cancer Society during the conduct of the study. Dr Leeds reported receiving personal fees from Intuitive outside the submitted work. Dr Wheeler reported receiving grants from Pfizer outside the submitted work. Dr Gross reported receiving grants from Johnson & Johnson and the National Comprehensive Cancer Network (AstraZeneca); and personal fees from Genentech outside the submitted work. Dr Oeffinger reported serving on the advisory board for Grail LLC outside the submitted work. Dr Dinan reported receiving grants from the NCI outside the submitted work. No other disclosures were reported.

Funding/Support: Research reported in this publication was supported by grant RSG-21-039-01 from the American Cancer Society.

Role of the Funder/Sponsor: The funder had no role in the design and conduct of the study; collection, management, analysis, and interpretation of the data; preparation, review, or approval of the manuscript; and decision to submit the manuscript for publication.

Data Sharing Statement: See Supplement 2 .

Additional Contributions: The authors acknowledge the efforts of the NCI; the Office of Research, Development and Information, Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services; Information Management Services Inc; and the Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results Program tumor registries.

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Cancer Control: Knowledge Into Action: WHO Guide for Effective Programmes: Module 4: Diagnosis and Treatment. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2008.

Cancer Control: Knowledge Into Action: WHO Guide for Effective Programmes: Module 4: Diagnosis and Treatment.

A plan for the diagnosis and treatment of cancer is a key component of any overall cancer control plan. Its main goal is to cure cancer patients or prolong their life considerably, ensuring a good quality of life. In order for a diagnosis and treatment programme to be effective, it must never be developed in isolation. It needs to be linked to an early detection programme so that cases are detected at an early stage, when treatment is more effective and there is a greater chance of cure. It also needs to be integrated with a palliative care programme, so that patients with advanced cancers, who can no longer benefit from treatment, will get adequate relief from their physical, psychosocial and spiritual suffering. Furthermore, programmes should include a awareness-raising component, to educate patients, family and community members about the cancer risk factors and the need for taking preventive measures to avoid developing cancer.

Where resources are limited, diagnosis and treatment services should initially target all patients presenting with curable cancers, such as breast, cervical and oral cancers that can be detected early. They could also include childhood acute lymphatic leukaemia, which has a high potential for cure although it cannot be detected early. Above all, services need to be provided in an equitable and sustainable manner. As and when more resources become available, the programme can be extended to include other curable cancers as well as cancers for which treatment can prolong survival considerably.

This module on diagnosis and treatment is intended to evolve in response to national needs and experience. WHO welcomes input from countries wishing to share their successes in diagnosis and treatment. WHO also welcomes requests from countries for information relevant to their specific needs. Evidence on the barriers to diagnosis and treatment in country contexts – and the lessons learned in overcoming them – would be especially welcome (contact at http://www.who.int/cancer ).

All rights reserved. Publications of the World Health Organization can be obtained from WHO Press, World Health Organization, 20 Avenue Appia, 1211 Geneva 27, Switzerland (tel.: +41 22 791 3264; fax: +41 22 791 4857; e-mail: tni.ohw@sredrokoob ). Requests for permission to reproduce or translate WHO publications – whether for sale or for noncommercial distribution – should be addressed to WHO Press, at the above address (fax: +41 22 791 4806; e-mail: tni.ohw@snoissimrep ).

• Cite this Page Cancer Control: Knowledge Into Action: WHO Guide for Effective Programmes: Module 4: Diagnosis and Treatment. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2008. CONCLUSION.
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