research topics in public international law

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International Law Guide

• International Courts and Tribunals
• International Organizations
• Private International Law
• Selected Topics in Public International Law

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Foreign Law Guide

General Guides and Resources for Public International Law

• GlobaLex Research guides to international law (by subject) and foreign law (by jurisdiction) from NYU's Hauser Global Law School Program.

• ASIL Research Guide to Public International Law An up-to-date guide to treaty and other public international law research with an emphasis on online resources. From the American Society of International Law.

Criminal Law

• ASIL Research Guide to International Criminal Law
• Research Guides to the International Criminal Courts for the Former Yugoslavia, Rwanda and Sierra Leone From GlobaLex.
• Comparative Criminal Procedure: A Selected Bibliography From GlobaLex.
• International Criminal Court Legal Tools Provides access to documents important to international criminal law, including treaties, judgments and decisions, summaries of domestic criminal justice systems in many countries including relevant statutes or codes, and commentary on international criminal law and other aspects of international law.

Environmental Law

• ECOLEX: A Gateway to Environmental Law
• United Nations Environment Programme
• ASIL Research Guide to International Environmental Law
• A Basic Guide to International Environmental Legal Research From GlobaLex.

Human Rights and Humanitarian Law

• UN Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR)
• OHCHR Jurisprudence Database Contains recommendations and findings from the various UN human rights committees that consider complaints from individuals.
• Refworld UNHCR's comprehensive information source on refugee status includes treaties, legislation and court decisions, as well as information organized by country and topic.
• European Court of Human Rights Pending cases, judgments, basic texts and a complete index to all ECHR judgments.
• Bayefsky.com: The United Nations Human Rights Treaties
• ICRC's Customary International Humanitarian Law Database A free online version of their two-volume publication.
• University of Minnesota Human Rights Library
• Human Rights Library: Collections on the Inter-American Court of Human Rights and Inter-American Commission on Human Rights From the University of Minnesota.
• ESCR-Net Caselaw Database Database of domestic, international, and quasi-judicial cases and decisions on economic, social and cultural rights.
• U.S. Department of State - Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor
• Project Diana: An Online Human Rights Case Archive From Yale Law School.
• ASIL Research Guide to International Human Rights
• ASIL Research Guide to International Humanitarian Law
• International Human Rights Research Guide From GlobaLex.
• ICJ E-bulletin on Counter-Terrorism and Human Rights International Commission of Jurist's free monthly publication of legal developments in the fields of counter-terrorism and human rights.

Intellectual Property

• WIPO: World Intellectual Property Organization
• WIPO Lex Collection of intellectual property legislation (in English) from WIPO member countries.
• AIPPI - International Association for the Protection of Intellectual Property An international NGO devoted to the "the development and improvement of intellectual property." The Questions/Committees section contains country-by-country reports on specific intellectual property law topics.
• European Patent Office
• U.S. Patent & Trademark Office General information, forms, and a free searchable patent and trademark database.
• U.S. Copyright Office Copyright basics, law, forms, and other materials available through the Library of Congress, the entity responsible for copyrights.
• ASIL Research Guide to International Intellectual Property Law
• IP Precedents Database Database of English translations of precedential domestic court decisions on IP topics; from the Research Center for the Legal System of Intellectual Property.

Law of the Sea

• United Nations: Oceans and Law of the Sea
• International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea
• International Seabed Authority
• UVA Center for Oceans Law & Policy
• ASIL Research Guide to Law of the Sea

Trade, Investment or Economic Law

• GATT Documents Online From the WTO.
• GATT Digital Library From Stanford University.
• WorldTradeLaw.net
• International Trade Database: Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods From Pace University.
• Trans-Lex.org Research platform for transnational commercial law from the Center for Transnational Law, Cologne University, Germany.
• SICE - Foreign Trade Information System From the Organization of American States.
• United States International Trade Commission
• United States Trade Representative
• Harmonized Tariff Schedule

• ASIL Research Guide to International Economic Law
• ASIL Research Guide to International Commercial Arbitration
• Research Guide on the Harmonization of International Commercial Law From GlobaLex.

Women's Rights

• Women's Human Rights Resources From the University of Toronto.
• Women's Human Rights Documents From the University of Minnesota.
• Women's Rights Links From the University of Minnesota.
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• URL: https://libguides.law.virginia.edu/international
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Public International Law Research

• Introduction to Public International Law
• U.S. Treaties
• Non-U.S. Treaties
• United Nations
• World Trade Organization
• African Union
• Association of Southeast Asian Nations
• Council of Europe
• Organization of American States
• International Court of Justice
• International Criminal Court
• African Court on Human and Peoples' Rights
• European Court of Human Rights
• Inter-American Court of Human Rights
• Ad Hoc International Criminal Tribunals

Reference Librarian

Research Guide Overview

Public international law research guide  .

"World Flag Map" by Mason Vank. Licensed under Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0 International via Wikimedia Commons - https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:World_Flag_map.png .

Public international law can be generally defined as "the law of nations." It encapsulates a variety of different legal subjects, including diplomatic relations, treaties, international organizations, and customary international law. It largely governs and structures the interactions between nation states and international organizations. In certain instances, public international law can also govern the legal interactions between nation states and individual citizens. It should not be confused with private international law , which is concerned with the conflicts between national laws and determining which national law to apply to specific situations.

This guide provides an overview of the major topics in international law and highlights important resources and research strategies that can be used when researching in this area of the law. This Research Guide is organized into the following sections, each with multiple subsections:

International Organizations

International Courts & Tribunals

• African Court on Human and Peoples' Rights
• Ad Hoc International Criminal Tribunals  

Related Research Guides

The UNC Law Library also provides more in-depth treatment of the following international law topics:

• International Humanitarian Law
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• Last Updated: Oct 19, 2023 4:42 PM
• URL: https://guides.lib.unc.edu/internationallaw

Public International Law Research - A Brief Guide

• Getting Started
• Books/Publicists

Why Articles Are Useful

Full-text tools for finding law review articles, index to legal periodicals & books retrospective, finding articles - the peace palace library, legal & non-legal articles - google scholar, is the journal i need at usf.

• Customary Law
• Courts/Decisions
• United Nations/IGOs
• Learning More

"Cheat Sheet" for IFLP

• Index to Foreign Legal Periodicals - Cheat Sheet Tips for searching for article citations using the Index to Foreign Legal Periodicals

Law review articles, legal essays, and their ilk are extremely useful for finding discussions of narrow issues in international law. They will also cite to relevant treaties and cases, to sources giving evidence of customary law and state practice, and to other scholarship on the issue. The resources described on this page will lead you to articles on the country or topic you are researching.

This guide emphasizes "indexes" — article-finding tools that allow very precise searching but do not themselves contain the full-text of articles. For searching for full-text articles (with tools like HeinOnline's Law Journal Library), and for comparisons of the various article-finding tools, take a look at the Zief Library's Finding Articles research guide.

• Law Journal Library - HeinOnline This link opens in a new window Almost complete, full-text coverage of all United States law reviews and journals, in most cases starting with the first volume of the journal and including all but the most recent volume. For search tips, see the cheat sheet . (For current USF students, faculty, and staff.) [If remote access is not working, try this on-campus link for the Law Journal LIbrary .]
• Law Reviews & Journals - Westlaw Use the "advanced" search template to boost the relevance of your results.
• Law Reviews and Journals - Lexis Advance Use the "Advanced Search" template to boost the relevance of your results.
• Nexis Uni This link opens in a new window For articles, click “All Nexis Uni” next to the main search box on the home screen. From the resulting “Narrow By” choices, check the box next to “Law Reviews and Journals” in the “Category section.” (For current USF non-law students, faculty and staff.) [ On-campus link for Nexis Uni .]
• Legal Scholarship Network - SSRN This link opens in a new window Scholarly working papers (articles in progress) and articles recently accepted for publication. Not a comprehensive source. (Available to all.)
• Index to Legal Periodicals & Books Retrospective This link opens in a new window Comprehensive citations to articles from 1908 to 1981. Full text available for selected articles. (For current USF students, faculty, and staff.) (ILP for years prior to 1908 is available in print at K 33 .I54 Law Reference.)

Index to Legal Periodicals includes citations to almost all articles from almost every U.S. law review or journal for the time periods it covers. Searches using broad, general terms — searches that often get too many irrelevant results in full-text search tools — often succeed in Index to Legal Periodicals.

The Peace Palace Library serves Hague institutions such as the International Court of Justice, the Permanent Court of Arbitration, and the Hague Academy of International Law, as well as international law scholars from around the world.

Its catalog has been customized for international law research and is a great way to find citations to relevant articles and book chapters. While the Peace Palace Library catalog does not supply full text, it can alert you to articles that you otherwise would not have known about.

Once you know of a useful article, use USF's Journal Finder (see below) to see if we have the journal that contains the article, or ask about an interlibrary loan.

• Basic Search - Peace Palace Library Catalog Search or browse by key word, subject headings (topics), title, author, and more.
• Advanced Search - Peace Palace Library Catalog Powerful and user-friendly interface for crafting precise searches. Offers the option of limiting results to articles. (Searches limited to articles will also retrieve citations to book chapters, which can otherwise be hard to find.)
• Subject Headings - Peace Palace Library The Peace Palace Library's customized subject headings (topical labels) are specifically geared to research in international law. Browse or search to find subject headings that describe your topic, then use them to search the Peace Palace Library catalog.
• Google Scholar After you search, you can use "Advanced Search" option to limit by author, journal, or date. For search tips and advice, see Google Scholar Help & Search Tips

Google Scholar, while not comprehensive, provides a quick way to get a cross-disciplinary set of articles. It can be especially useful as you start your research and are still refining your search terms.

So you have a citation to a great-sounding article — but not  direct link to the full text....

How do you tell if the article is available at USF?

Just use USF's "Journal Finder" to look up the title of the journal that published the article. If that journal is available at USF, it will (usually) show up in the journal finder.  

(One caveat : the Journal Finder doesn't tell you if a journal is on Westlaw or on Lexis Advance.)

• Journal Finder - USF Libraries This link opens in a new window Enter the title of the journal to see if USF has the journal and article you need. (A link to "USF Print and Online Journal Holdings" means that one of the USF libraries has the journal - or some years of it - in print.) (For off-campus access to digital journals in your Journal Finder results, enter your last name and USF ID number.)
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Public International Law

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International Law Research Paper Topics

This page presents a comprehensive collection of international law research paper topics , curated to aid students studying law in their research endeavors. International law is a multifaceted field with diverse areas of study, and this page aims to provide students with an extensive list of topics that can serve as a foundation for their research papers. By exploring these topics, students can delve into various aspects of international law, such as human rights, criminal law, environmental law, trade law, and humanitarian law, among others. This page also offers insights into how to choose compelling international law research paper topics, tips on writing a coherent and impactful paper, and highlights the custom international law research paper writing services provided by iResearchNet. The ultimate goal is to empower students to embark on an enriching and successful academic journey in the realm of international law research.

100 International Law Research Paper Topics

International law encompasses a vast array of subjects, reflecting the intricate and interconnected nature of global affairs. As students of law, exploring these topics can open new horizons and deepen their understanding of how international legal frameworks shape our world. This comprehensive list presents 10 categories, each comprising 10 diverse and thought-provoking international law research paper topics. Whether you are interested in human rights, environmental protection, trade regulations, or armed conflicts, these topics offer a wealth of opportunities for academic exploration and intellectual growth.

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• The Universality of Human Rights: A Global Perspective
• Human Rights and Armed Conflicts: Challenges and Protections
• Gender Equality and Women’s Rights in International Law
• The Role of Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) in Promoting Human Rights
• Freedom of Speech and Expression in the Digital Age
• Human Rights Violations and the Responsibility to Protect (R2P)
• Children’s Rights and Child Protection Laws Internationally
• The Right to Asylum: Refugee Protection and International Law
• Combating Human Trafficking: International Legal Frameworks
• Indigenous Peoples’ Rights and Cultural Heritage Preservation
• Climate Change and Global Efforts for Environmental Protection
• Biodiversity Conservation and the Convention on Biological Diversity
• Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and Environmental Justice
• Transboundary Pollution and International Liability
• The Role of International Courts and Tribunals in Environmental Disputes
• The Precautionary Principle in International Environmental Law
• Oceans Governance and the Protection of Marine Resources
• International Agreements on Wildlife Conservation and Endangered Species
• Indigenous Peoples and Environmental Rights: Perspectives and Challenges
• The Economics of Environmental Protection: Balancing Trade and Conservation
• World Trade Organization (WTO) and the Multilateral Trading System
• Free Trade Agreements (FTAs) and Regional Economic Integration
• Investor-State Dispute Settlement (ISDS) Mechanisms in Trade Agreements
• Intellectual Property Rights and International Trade
• Trade and Labor Standards: Addressing Social Issues in Global Commerce
• Environmental Protection in International Trade: Conflicts and Synergies
• Trade Remedies: Anti-dumping, Countervailing, and Safeguard Measures
• Trade Liberalization and Economic Development: Case Studies
• Cross-Border E-Commerce and Digital Trade Regulations
• Challenges of Trade in Services: Legal and Regulatory Perspectives
• The International Criminal Court (ICC) and Its Role in Ending Impunity
• Prosecuting War Crimes and Crimes Against Humanity: Legal Challenges
• Genocide Prevention and the Responsibility to Prosecute
• The Evolution of International Criminal Law: From Nuremberg to the ICC
• The Principle of Universal Jurisdiction: Holding Perpetrators Accountable
• Truth and Reconciliation Commissions in Post-Conflict Societies
• The Role of the United Nations in Combating International Crimes
• War Criminals and Refugees: The Intersection of Criminal and Migration Law
• Cyberwarfare and the Application of International Criminal Law
• Combating Terrorism: Legal Approaches and Human Rights Concerns
• The Geneva Conventions and the Protection of War Victims
• Targeted Killings and Drones: The Legal Challenges of Modern Warfare
• The Principle of Proportionality in Armed Conflicts
• War Crimes and Accountability in Non-International Armed Conflicts
• The Protection of Cultural Property in Armed Conflicts
• Autonomous Weapons and the Ethics of Lethal Autonomous Systems (LAS)
• The Role of National Courts in Prosecuting War Crimes
• The Humanitarian Impact of Economic Sanctions and Trade Embargoes
• Children in Armed Conflicts: From Recruitment to Rehabilitation
• Humanitarian Assistance and the Challenges of Providing Aid in Conflict Zones
• Comparative Constitutional Law: Analyzing Different Legal Systems and Their Impact on Global Governance
• The Role of International Law in Shaping Domestic Constitutions
• Constitutional Design and State Building in Post-Conflict Societies
• Human Rights and Constitutional Protections: Assessing the Impact of International Treaties
• Constitutionalism and the Rule of Law: Ensuring Effective Governance in International Relations
• Judicial Independence and the Enforcement of Constitutional Rights in International Contexts
• The Impact of International Institutions on National Constitutions
• The Right to Privacy in the Digital Age: Balancing National Security and Civil Liberties
• Federalism and the Division of Powers in Constitutional Design
• The Role of Constitutional Courts in Protecting Democratic Principles
• Cross-Border Mergers and Acquisitions: Legal and Regulatory Challenges
• International Commercial Arbitration: Enforcement and Recognition of Awards
• Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) and Multinational Corporations
• Foreign Investment Protection and Bilateral Investment Treaties (BITs)
• International Contract Law and Choice of Law Clauses
• Dispute Resolution in International Trade: Litigation vs. Arbitration
• Intellectual Property Rights and International Business Transactions
• International Trade Law and the World Trade Organization (WTO)
• Corporate Governance and Compliance in International Business
• Environmental and Social Responsibility in International Business
• Double Taxation Treaties: Legal Implications and Challenges
• Transfer Pricing and Base Erosion and Profit Shifting (BEPS)
• Tax Havens and Their Impact on Global Taxation
• Taxation of Digital Economy and E-commerce Transactions
• Taxation of Multinational Corporations: Fairness and Equity Concerns
• Tax Avoidance vs. Tax Evasion: Legal Distinctions and Consequences
• Taxation of Foreign Source Income and Territorial vs. Worldwide Tax Systems
• Developing Countries and International Taxation: Bridging the Gap
• The Role of International Organizations in Shaping Global Tax Policies
• Addressing Tax Challenges Arising from the COVID-19 Pandemic
• The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) and Its Implementation
• Maritime Boundaries and Dispute Resolution in the South China Sea
• Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZ) and Marine Resource Management
• Freedom of Navigation and Maritime Security in the Indian Ocean
• Environmental Protection in the High Seas: Addressing Pollution and Overfishing
• Piracy and Armed Robbery at Sea: Legal Responses and Jurisdictional Challenges
• Submarine Cables and Cybersecurity in International Waters
• The Role of International Tribunals in Resolving Maritime Disputes
• Deep Sea Mining and the Regulation of Exploitation of Marine Resources
• Indigenous Rights and Traditional Knowledge in Marine Conservation
• Diplomatic Negotiations and Conflict Resolution in International Relations
• The Role of Mediation in Resolving International Disputes
• International Arbitration: Institutional Frameworks and Best Practices
• The Use of Force and Armed Conflict: Legal Perspectives on Peacekeeping
• Compliance with International Court Judgments and Decisions
• The Settlement of Territorial Disputes: Case Studies and Legal Approaches
• The Role of Non-State Actors in International Conflict Resolution
• The Legality of Targeted Sanctions and Economic Coercion
• The Use of International Courts and Tribunals in Human Rights Disputes
• The Role of Regional Organizations in Conflict Mediation and Resolution

In conclusion, the field of international law offers a vast array of research topics that delve into critical global issues, ranging from human rights and environmental protection to trade and business regulations. Scholars and students of law can explore the complexities of international relations, the challenges of cross-border disputes, and the ever-evolving legal frameworks that shape the international community. The comprehensive list of international law research paper topics provided above serves as a starting point for students to delve deeper into their areas of interest and contribute to the understanding and development of international law. Through diligent research and critical analysis, they can further advance the principles of justice, equality, and cooperation on the global stage.

Exploring the Range of International Law Research Paper Topics

International law is a complex and dynamic field that governs the interactions between nations and other actors in the global community. As a crucial component of the global legal system, international law encompasses a diverse range of topics that have significant implications for peace, security, human rights, trade, and cooperation among nations. Researching international law research paper topics offers students a unique opportunity to delve into the intricacies of international relations, diplomatic relations, and the role of international organizations in promoting peace and stability.

• The Sources of International Law : This topic explores the various sources of international law, including treaties, customary international law, general principles of law, and decisions of international courts and tribunals. Students can investigate the hierarchy of these sources and their application in resolving disputes between states.
• International Human Rights Law : This area of international law deals with the protection and promotion of human rights on a global scale. Research topics may cover issues like the role of international human rights organizations, the enforcement of human rights treaties, and the impact of human rights violations on international relations.
• International Humanitarian Law : Also known as the law of armed conflict or the law of war, this branch of international law governs the conduct of parties during armed conflicts. Students can explore topics such as the protection of civilians in armed conflicts, the use of force in self-defense, and the prosecution of war crimes.
• International Environmental Law : With growing concerns about climate change and environmental degradation, international environmental law has become increasingly relevant. Research topics may include international agreements on climate change, biodiversity conservation, and the responsibility of states for transboundary environmental harm.
• International Criminal Law : This field focuses on the prosecution of individuals for international crimes, such as genocide, crimes against humanity, and war crimes. Students can investigate the role of international criminal tribunals, the challenges of obtaining evidence in international cases, and the pursuit of justice for victims of international crimes.
• International Trade Law : International trade is essential for global economic development and cooperation. Research topics in this area may cover international trade agreements, dispute settlement mechanisms in trade disputes, and the impact of trade policies on developing nations.
• Law of the Sea : This branch of international law governs the use and protection of the world’s oceans and resources. Students can explore topics such as the rights and responsibilities of states in their maritime zones, the protection of marine biodiversity, and the resolution of disputes over territorial waters.
• International Investment Law : As globalization continues to shape economic relationships, international investment law has gained prominence. Research topics may include the regulation of foreign direct investment, investor-state dispute settlement mechanisms, and the balance between investor rights and host state regulatory powers.
• International Arbitration and Mediation : International dispute resolution is essential for maintaining peaceful relations among states. Students can explore topics such as the effectiveness of international arbitration and mediation in resolving conflicts, the role of international organizations in facilitating dispute resolution, and the enforcement of arbitral awards.
• Cybersecurity and International Law : With the rise of cyber threats and cyber warfare, international law has grappled with issues of cyber sovereignty, cyber espionage, and the application of existing legal principles to cyberspace. Research topics may delve into the challenges of attributing cyber-attacks, the development of international norms for responsible state behavior in cyberspace, and the protection of human rights in the digital age.

In conclusion, international law offers a vast array of research paper topics that reflect the complexities and challenges of the global legal landscape. As students delve into these topics, they gain a deeper understanding of the intricacies of international relations, human rights, trade, and conflict resolution. Exploring the multifaceted nature of international law research allows students to critically analyze the role of law in shaping the conduct of states and the broader international community, fostering a deeper appreciation for the significance of international law in today’s interconnected world.

How to Choose International Law Research Paper Topics

Selecting a compelling and relevant research paper topic is essential to the success of any academic endeavor. In the context of international law, choosing the right research topic requires careful consideration of various factors that can shape the scope and impact of the research. Whether you are a law student, an aspiring international lawyer, or a researcher interested in global legal issues, the following guide provides valuable insights on how to choose international law research paper topics that are engaging, insightful, and contribute meaningfully to the field of international law.

• Identify Your Area of Interest : International law is a vast and diverse field encompassing numerous sub-disciplines, including human rights law, environmental law, international trade law, and more. Start by identifying your specific area of interest within international law. Reflect on the subjects that intrigue you the most and the issues you are passionate about. This will serve as the foundation for selecting a research topic that resonates with your academic and professional aspirations.
• Stay Abreast of Current Developments : International law is constantly evolving to address contemporary global challenges and opportunities. Keeping up to date with current international legal developments, landmark cases, and significant treaties and agreements can provide valuable inspiration for research topics. Consider exploring emerging issues and debates in the field, as these can offer unique opportunities for original research and innovative insights.
• Analyze Relevant Legal Frameworks : International law operates within a complex web of legal frameworks, including treaties, conventions, and customary international law. Analyzing these legal sources can help you identify gaps, contradictions, or areas where further research is needed. Topics that delve into the interpretation and application of international legal instruments can add depth and value to your research.
• Consider Timeliness and Relevance : A relevant and timely research topic is more likely to capture the attention of readers and contribute to ongoing discussions in the field. Consider the significance of your chosen topic in the context of current global events, policy debates, or emerging challenges. Topics that address pressing international issues, such as climate change, human rights violations, or cybersecurity threats, can have a significant impact on both academic and policy circles.
• Review Existing Literature : Conduct a thorough literature review to understand the existing body of research on your chosen topic. This will help you identify gaps in the literature that you can explore in your research. Additionally, reviewing existing studies can provide insights into the methodologies and approaches used by other researchers, informing your own research design.
• Balance Complexity and Feasibility : While it is essential to select a topic that reflects the complexities of international law, it is equally important to ensure that your research is feasible within the scope and limitations of your academic assignment or project. Avoid overly broad or ambitious topics that may be challenging to address comprehensively within the available time and resources.
• Consult with Professors and Experts : Seek guidance and advice from your professors, academic advisors, or experts in the field of international law. They can provide valuable insights into potential research topics, relevant literature, and methodologies. Engaging in discussions with experienced scholars can help refine your research question and add depth to your analysis.
• Focus on Practical Implications : Consider the practical implications of your research topic in the real world. How might your findings impact international relations, legal practices, or policymaking? Research that offers practical solutions to global challenges or sheds light on pressing legal issues can have a more significant impact on the field of international law.
• Address Controversial Issues : International law often involves contentious and complex topics that evoke strong opinions and debates. Embracing controversial issues can lead to thought-provoking research that challenges existing norms and perceptions. However, ensure that you approach such topics with sensitivity and a commitment to unbiased analysis.
• Conduct a Preliminary Study : Before finalizing your research topic, conduct a preliminary study to gather relevant information and assess the availability of data and resources. This will help you determine whether your chosen topic is viable and whether you can access the necessary materials to conduct a comprehensive study.

In conclusion, choosing the right international law research paper topic is a critical step in producing a successful and impactful piece of academic work. By identifying your area of interest, staying informed about current developments, analyzing legal frameworks, and considering the timeliness and relevance of your topic, you can select a research question that is both intellectually stimulating and practically significant. Engage with existing literature, seek guidance from experts, and balance the complexity and feasibility of your research to ensure a rewarding and insightful exploration of international law issues.

How to Write an International Law Research Paper

Writing an international law research paper requires careful planning, rigorous research, and a structured approach to presenting your arguments and findings. Whether you are a law student or a seasoned researcher, mastering the art of academic writing in the field of international law is essential to communicate your ideas effectively and contribute to the broader legal discourse. This section provides a comprehensive guide on how to write an international law research paper, from choosing a suitable research question to crafting a well-organized and persuasive paper.

• Define Your Research Question : The first step in writing an international law research paper is to define a clear and focused research question. Your research question should be specific, relevant, and aligned with your area of interest within international law. It should address a significant legal issue or gap in the literature and demonstrate your research objectives.
• Conduct a Thorough Literature Review : Before diving into your research, conduct a comprehensive literature review to understand the existing scholarship on your chosen topic. This will help you identify key debates, theoretical frameworks, and gaps in the literature that your research can address. A strong literature review serves as the foundation for your research paper and provides context for your study.
• Develop a Well-Structured Outline : Organize your research paper with a clear and logical structure. Create an outline that includes an introduction, literature review, methodology, main body sections, analysis of findings, and conclusion. Each section should flow seamlessly into the next, guiding the reader through your research process.
• Craft a Compelling Introduction : The introduction sets the tone for your research paper and should capture the reader’s attention. Start with a hook or a thought-provoking question related to your research topic. Provide background information on the issue at hand and clearly state your research question and objectives. Conclude the introduction with a strong thesis statement that outlines the main argument of your paper.
• Conduct Rigorous Research : International law research papers require a robust research methodology. Depending on your research question, you may use various methods, such as legal analysis, case studies, empirical research, or comparative analysis. Ensure that you use credible and authoritative sources for your research and cite them properly using the appropriate citation style (e.g., APA, MLA, Chicago).
• Analyze and Present Your Findings : In the main body of your research paper, present your findings and analyze them in-depth. Use a clear and coherent structure to present your arguments and evidence. Use relevant case law, treaties, and legal principles to support your analysis and draw well-reasoned conclusions.
• Address Counterarguments : Acknowledge and address counterarguments to your research findings. Demonstrating that you have considered opposing viewpoints and providing a thoughtful rebuttal strengthens the credibility and persuasiveness of your research.
• Consider Policy Implications : In international law, research often has practical implications for policymakers and legal practitioners. Discuss the potential policy implications of your findings and offer recommendations for addressing the legal issue at hand. This demonstrates the real-world relevance of your research.
• Maintain a Cohesive Writing Style : Use clear and concise language throughout your research paper. Avoid jargon and technical terms that may confuse the reader. Maintain a cohesive writing style, ensuring that each paragraph and section contributes to the overall argument of your paper.
• Write a Strong Conclusion : The conclusion is your opportunity to summarize your key findings, restate your thesis statement, and highlight the significance of your research. Avoid introducing new information in the conclusion and instead, focus on leaving the reader with a lasting impression of your research’s importance and potential impact.
• Edit and Revise : After completing your first draft, take the time to edit and revise your research paper. Check for clarity, coherence, grammar, and proper citation. Consider seeking feedback from peers or professors to gain valuable insights and improve the overall quality of your paper.
• Review Formatting and Citations : Ensure that your research paper adheres to the required formatting guidelines, such as font size, margins, and line spacing. Double-check your citations and references to avoid plagiarism and maintain academic integrity.

By following these steps and guidelines, you can craft a well-structured, persuasive, and impactful international law research paper. Remember to approach your research with curiosity and dedication, as it is through thorough exploration and analysis that you can make meaningful contributions to the field of international law.

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Public International Law

International Law, also known as Public International Law and Law of Nations , is the set of rules, norms, and standards generally accepted in relations between nations. It establishes normative guidelines and a common conceptual framework to guide states across a broad range of domains, including war, diplomacy, trade, and human rights. International Law thus provides a means for states to practice more stable, consistent, and organized international relations.

Public International Law refers to the body of legal rules and principles which determine the international rights and obligations of nation-states and regulate the operations of international organizations. Also non-governmental entities and individuals have become part of Public International Law. The scope of activities covered by Public International Law has grown over the years to include additional topics, e.g., human rights, international environmental law, international criminal law, and international economic law. The normative system of Public International Law is derived from the four sources, listed in Article 38.1 of the International Court of Justice Statute, i.e., treaties, customary international law,  general principles of law, and ‘judicial decisions and the teachings of the most highly qualified publicists of the various nations, as a subsidiary means for the determination of rules of law’. Various international courts and arbitration tribunals provide for the settlement of disputes in the field of Public International Law. For detailed guidance on individual topics of Public International Law, see the individual research guides on the various special topics.

This Research Guide is intended as a starting point for research on Public International Law. It provides the basic legal materials available in the Peace Palace Library, both in print and electronic format. Handbooks, leading articles, bibliographies, periodicals, serial publications and documents of interest are presented in the Selective Bibliography section. Links to the PPL Catalogue are inserted. The Library's subject heading (keyword) Public International Law is instrumental for searching through the Catalogue. Special attention is given to our subscriptions on databases, e-journals, e-books and other electronic resources. Finally, this Research Guide features links to relevant websites and other online resources of particular interest.

Klabbers, J., International Law, Fourth Edition, 2024

Sources of international law.

• Besson, S. and J. D'Aspremont (eds.), The Oxford Handbook on the Sources of International Law , Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2017.
• Boyle, A. and C. Chinkin, The Making of International Law , Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2007.
• D'Amato, A., International Law Sources , Leiden, Nijhoff, 2004.
• D'Aspremont, J., Formalism and the Sources of International Law: A Theory of the Ascertainment of Legal Rules , Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2011.
• Degan, V.D., Sources of International Law , The Hague, Nijhoff, 1997.
• Dekker, I.F. and H. Meijers (eds.), On the Foundations and Sources of International Law , The Hague, T.M.C. Asser Press, 2003.
• Hoof, G.J.H. van, Rethinking the Sources of International Law , Deventer, Kluwer, 1983.
• Kolasa, Jan, et al. The Nature of Source in International Legal Order . E-Wydawnictwo. Prawnicza i Ekonomiczna Biblioteka Cyfrowa. Wydział Prawa, Administracji i Ekonomii Uniwersytetu Wrocławskiego, 2017.
• Koskenniemi, M. Sources of International Law , Aldershot, Ashgate/Dartmouth, 2000.
• Les sources , Grandes pages du droit international, Volume II, Paris, Editions A. Pedone, 2016.
• Müller, J.P. und L. Wildhaber, Praxis des Völkerrechts , 3. Auflage, Bern, Stämpfli, 2000.
• Pellet, A. and D. Muller, "Article 38", in: The Statute of the International Court of Justice: A Commentary , Oxford; New York, Oxford University Press, 2012.
• Roberts, A. and S. Sivakumaran, "The Theory and Reality of the Sources of International Law", in M.D. Evans (ed.), International Law , Fifth Edition, Oxford, Oxford University, 2018, pp. 89-118.
• Shelton, D., Jus Cogen s, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2021.
• "Sources of International Law",  Thesaurus Acroasium , 19 (1992).
• Thirlway, H., The Sources of International Law , Second Edition, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2019.
• Tladi, D., Peremptory Norms of General International Law (Jus Cogens): Disquisitions and Disputations , Leiden; Boston, Brill Nijhoff, 2021.
• League of Nations Treaty Series

The online League of Nations treaty collection includes treaties registered with the Secretariat of the League of Nations and published in the print League of Nations Treaty Series. Coverage is from 1920 through 1944.

• United Nations Treaty Series Online

This treaty database may be searched by popular name, title, and party. Coverage is from 1946 –present and includes treaties that have entered into force and are registered with the UN Treaty Office. Unavailability of more recent documents may be due to delays in producing the required translated treaty texts. In the event the researcher experiences inconsistent or absent search results, searching alternative government or commercial resources may be necessary to locate the treaty document.

The United Nations Treaty Series (UNTS) is a publication produced by the Secretariat of the United Nations containing all treaties and international agreements registered or filed and recorded by the Secretariat since 1945, pursuant to Article 102 of the Charter . Previously only available in printed format, the UNTS is now available as a fully-searchable on-line database. To search for a specific treaty or group of treaties please use the Advanced Search tool.

Mandated by Article 102 of the UN Charter and the General Assembly Regulations to give effect to Article 102, the UNTS includes the texts of treaties in their authentic language(s) along with translations into English and French, as appropriate. All integral elements of treaties, such as various types of maps, charts, sketches of boundary delimitation, annexes, protocols, exchanges of letters, etc. are also published.

Registration numbers for instruments included in the UNTS consist of a Roman numeral and an Arabic numeral, joined by a colon (i.e., I:54321;II:965). The Roman numeral indicates treaties and international agreements registered with the Secretariat; Roman numeral II indicates treaties and international agreements filed and recorded by the Secretariat. The Arabic numeral indicates the serial number assigned to the instrument within categories I and II.

The texts of treaties are published in the following formats: full publication, partial publication and limited publication . For more information on the publication policy under the UNTS please see the Limited Publication Policy page.

Collections and compilations of treaties and other documents of international law

• Beham, M.P., M. Fink und R. Janik (bearb.), KODEX Völkerrecht 2020 , 4. Auflage, Stand 1.10.2019, Wien, LexisNexis, 2019.
• Brownlie, I. (ed.), Basic Documents in International Law , Sixth Edition, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2009.
• Código Derecho Internacional , Las Rozas (Madrid), Wolters Kluwer, 2019.
• David, E. et C. Van Assche, Code de droit international public: textes en vigueur au 1er janvier 2016 , 6e édition, Bruxelles, Bruylant, 2016.
• Dupuy, P.-M. et Y. Kerbrat, Les grands textes de droit international public , 11e édition, Paris, Dalloz, 2022.
• Eriksson, M.K. and O. Mårsäter, Documents in Public International Law , Third Edition, Stockholm, Norstedts Juridik, 2015.
• Evans, M.D. (ed.), Blackstone's International Law Documents , 15th Edition, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2021.
• Gouveia, J. Bacelar (comp.),  Textos fundamentais de direito internacional público , 5.a edição, revista e atualizada, Coimbra, Almedina, 2021.
• Pabel (hg.), Vö lkerrecht: Fassung vom 1.9.2022 , 2. Auflage, Wien, Facultas/FlexLex, 2022.
• Parry, C. and B.H.W. Hill (eds.), The Consolidated Treaty Series , Dobbs Ferry, Oceana Publications, 1961-1986.
• Pereira, Maria de Assunção do Vale,  Textos de direito internacional , 2a edição, Coimbra, Almedina, 2022.
• Tomuschat, C. und C. Walter, Völkerrecht: Textsammlung , 8. Auflage, Baden-Baden, Nomos, 2018.
• Torres Ugena, N., Derecho internacional público: instrumentos normativos , 2a edición, Valencia, Tirant lo Blanch, 2017.
• Ziegler, A.R. et S. Besson [éd.], Traités internationaux (et droit des relations extérieures de la Suisse): Recueil de textes 2012 , 2e éd., Berne, Stämpfli, 2012.

General principles of law

There is no treaty or other instrument that clearly spells out what is meant by 'general principles of law', so the parameters of this source have been explored primarily through international jurisprudence and scholarly writings.

• Andenas, M. (et al.) (eds.), General Principles and the Coherence of International Law , Leiden, Boston, Brill Nijhoff, 2019.
• Cheng, B., General Principles of Law as Applied by International Courts and Tribunals , London, Stevens, 1953.
• Degan, V.D., "General Principles of Law (A Source of General International Law)", The Finnish Yearbook of International Law , 3 (1992), pp. 1-102.
• Ellis, J., "General principles and Comparative Law", European Journal of International Law , 22 (2011), No. 4, pp. 949-971.
• Jain, N., "Comparative International Law at the ICTY: The General Principles Experiment", American Journal of International Law , 109 (2015), No. 3, pp. 486-497.
• Jain, N., "Judicial Lawmaking and General Principles of Law in International Criminal Law", Harvard International Law Journal , 57 (2016), No. 1, pp. 111-150.
• Kotuby, C.T. and L.A. Sobota, General Principles of Law and International Due Process: Principles and Norms Applicable in Transnational Disputes , New York, Oxford University Press, 2017.
• McNair, A., "The General Principles of Law Recognized by Civilized Nations", British Year Book of International Law , 33 (1957), pp. 1-19.
• Raimondo, F., General Principles of Law in the Decisions of International Criminal Courts and Tribunals , Leiden, Nijhoff, 2008.
• Vázquez-Bermúdez, M. and Crosato, A., "General Principles of Law: The First Debate within the International Law Commission and the Sixth Committee", Chinese journal of international law , 19 (2020), No. 1, pp. 157-172.
• Abass, A., International Law: Text, Cases, and Materials , Second Edition, 2014.
• Annual Digest of Public International Law Cases , (1919-1949 )
• Bjørge, E. and C. Miles (eds.), Landmark Cases in Public International Law , Oxford, Portland, Hart Publishing , Reprinted, 2017.
• Damrosch, L.F. and S.D. Murphy, International Law: Cases and Materials , Seventh Edition, St Paul, West Academic Publishing, 2019.
• Damrosch, L.F. and S.D. Murphy, Basic Documents Supplement to International Law: Cases and Materials , Sixth Edition, St Paul, West Academic Publishing, 2014.
• Harris, D., and S. Sivakumaran, Cases and Materials on International Law , Eight Edition, London, Sweet & Maxwell, Thomson Reuters , 2015.
• Heinze, E. and M. Fitzmaurice (eds.), Landmark Cases in Public International Law , London, The Hague, Boston, Kluwer Law International, 1998.
• International Law Reports , (1950-..)    [More info]
• International Legal Materials    [More info]
• Janis, M.W., J.E. Noyes and L.N. Sadat, International Law: Cases and Commentary , Sixth Edition, St. Paul, MN, West Academic Publishing, 2020.

UN Declarations and Resolutions

Although resolutions and decisions of international organizations cannot themselves constitute international law or serve as conclusive evidence of a rule of customary law, such resolutions do have value in providing evidence of existing or emerging law. Focus your research on the actions of the United Nations and its various organs.

'United Nations - Uphold International Law'

The UN Charter , in its Preamble , set an objective: "to establish conditions under which justice and respect for the obligations arising from treaties and other sources of international law can be maintained". Ever since, the development of, and respect for international law has been a key part of the work of the United Nations Organization. This work is carried out in many ways - by courts, tribunals, multilateral treaties - and by the Security Council, which can approve peacekeeping missions, impose sanctions, or authorize the use of force when there is a threat to international peace and security, if it deems this necessary. These powers are given to it by the UN Charter, which is considered an international treaty. As such, it is an instrument of international law, and UN Member States are bound by it. The UN Charter codifies the major principles of international relations, from sovereign equality of States to the prohibition of the use of force in international relations.

• Official Document System Search. ODS is the UN's Official Document System. You can search for UN declarations, resolutions and other documents by keywords, then narrow your search. 

The Official Document System (ODS) is an online database of UN documents that was first launched in 1993 and updated in 2016. ODS has full-text, born-digital UN documents published from 1993 onward, including documents of the Security Council, the General Assembly, the Economic and Social Council and their subsidiaries, as well as administrative issuances and other documents. The database also includes scanned documents published between 1946 and 1993, including all resolutions of the principal organs, all documents of the Security Council and the General Assembly Official Records. Documents are available in the official languages of the UN; some documents are also available in German. ODS does not have the following types of materials: documents issued before 1993 that have not yet been digitized, press releases, sales publications, such as the Yearbook and the Treaty Series, and documents that do not have a UN symbol. ODS is maintained by the Office of Information and Communications Technology (OICT). New documents are added by the Department for General Assembly and Conference Management (DGACM). Scanned documents and metadata are contributed by the Dag Hammarskjöld Library and the UN Office at Geneva Library.

More information can be found on the website of the United Nations. The following pages are of special interest:

• Universal Declaration of Human Rights
• General Assembly Resolutions
• Security Council Resolutions
• Secretary-General's Annual Reports
• Abbott, K. and D. Snidal, "Hard and Soft Law in International Governance", in International Law: Classic and Contemporary Readings , Boulder; London, Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2009, pp. 21-48.
• Boyle, A.E., "Soft Law in International Law-Making", in M.D. Evans (ed.), International Law , Fifth Edition, Oxford, Oxford University, 2018, pp. 119-137.
• Boyle, A.E., "The Choice of a Treaty: Hard Law versus Soft Law", in The Oxford Handbook of United Nations Treaties , New York, Oxford University Press, 2019, pp. 101-117.
• Bradlow, D.D. and D. Hunter (eds.), Advocating Social Change through International Law: Exploring the Choice between Hard and Soft International Law , Leiden; Boston, Brill, 2020.
• Klabbers, J., " The Redundancy of Soft Law", Nordic Journal of International Law , 65 (1996), No. 2, pp. 167-182.
• Kolb, R., "To what Extent may Hard Law Content be Incorporated into Soft Instruments?", Schweizerische Zeitschrift für internationales und europäisches Recht = Revue suisse de droit international et de droit européen, 29 (2019), No. 3, pp. 335-344.
• Le Floch, G., "L'évolution de la soft law vers la hard law est-elle comparable en droit interne et international?", in Regards croisés sur la soft law en droit interne, européen et international , Issy-les-Moulineaux, LGDJ, 2018, pp. 335-345.
• Pronto, A.N., "Understanding the Hard/Soft Distinction in International Law", Vanderbilt Journal of Transnational Law , 48 (2015), No. 4, pp. 941-956.
• Nasser, S.H., Sources and Norms of International Law: a Study on Soft Law , Berlin, Galda & Wilch, 2008.

Reference works

• Arnauld, A. von, Völkerrecht , 5., neu bearbeitete Auflage, Heidelberg, C.F. Müller, 2023.
• Beham, M., M. Fink und R. Janik, Völkerrecht verstehen: Lehrbuch , 2. überarbeitete Auflage, Wien, Facultas, 2019.
• Carreau, D., P. Lagarde, H. Synvet (dir.), Répertoire de droit international , Paris, Dalloz, (2004-..)
• Gaeta, P., J.E. Viñuales and S. Zappalà,  Cassese's International Law , Oxford, Oxford University Press , Third Edition, 2020.
• Crawford, J., B rownlie's Principles of Public International Law , Oxford, Oxford University Press, Ninth Edition, 2019.
• Herdegen, M., Völkerrecht , 22., überarbeitete und erweiterte Auflage, München, C.H. Beck, 2023.
• Klabbers, J., International Law , Fourth Edition, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2024.
• López Martín, A.G., Derecho internacional público , 5a edición, Madrid, Dilex, 2019.
• Shaw, M.N., International Law , Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, Eight Edition, 2017.
• Slagter, T.H., J.D. van Doorn and W.R. Slomanson, Fundamental Perspectives on International Law , Seventh Edition, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2023.
• Graf Vitzthum, W. und A. Proelß (Hrsg.), Völkerrecht , 8., neu bearbeitete Auflage, Berlin, De Gruyter, 2019.
• Wolfrum, R. (ed.), Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law , Oxford, Oxford University Press, 10 Vols, 2012.

We have selected these reference works for you based on relevance, author and imprint. Of course there are many more and it is almost impossible to show them all here. More reference works can be found in the following overviews classified by language: English , French , Spanish , German .

Selected books and articles

• Abi-Saab, G., K. Keith, G. Marceau and C. Marquet (eds.), Evolutionary Interpretation and International Law , Oxford; London, Hart, 2020.
• Bennouna, M., International Law: Between the Letter and the Spirit - General Course on Public International Law, The Hague, The Hague Academy of International Law, 2018.
• Bull, H.N., The Anarchical Society: A Study of Order in World Politics , London, Macmillan, 1977. [Read this in combination with The Anarchical Society at 40: Contemporary Challenges and Prospects ]
• Cançado Trindade , A.A., International Law for Humankind: Towards a New "Jus Gentium" , Leiden, Boston, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers , Second Revised Edition, 2013.
• Distefano, G., Fundamentals of Public International Law: A Sketch of International Legal Order , Leiden, Boston, Brill Nijhoff , 2019.
• Evans, M.D. (ed.), International Law , Fifth Edition, Oxford, Oxford University, 2018.
• Franck, T.M., The Power of Legitimacy among Nations , Oxford; New York, Oxford University Press , 1990.
• Friedmann, W.G., The Changing Structure of International Law , London, Stevens & Sons, 1964.
• Goldsmith, J.L. and E.A. Posner, The Limits of International Law , New York, Oxford University Press, 2005.
• Guzman, A.T., How International Law Works: A Rational Choice Theory , Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2008.
• Hathaway, O.A. and H.H. Koh. (eds.), Foundations of International Law and Politics , New York, Foundation Press, 2005.
• Henkin, L., International Law: Politics and Values , Dordrecht, Nijhoff, 1995.
• Higgings, R.,  Problems and Process , Oxford, Clarendon Press; New York, Oxford University Press, 1994.
• Johns, L., Politics and International Law: Making, Breaking, and Upholding Global Rules , Cambridge; New York, Cambridge University Press, 2022.
• Khan, D.-E., E. Lagrange, S. Oeter and C. Walter (eds), Democracy and Sovereignty: Rethinking the Legitimacy of Public International Law , Leiden; Boston, Brill Nijhoff, 2023.
• Koskenniemi, M., The Politics of International Law , Oxford, Hart, 2011.
• Koskenniemi, M., "What is International Law For?", in in M.D. Evans (ed.), International Law , Fifth Edition, Oxford, Oxford University, 2018, pp. 28-50.
• Ku, C. and P.F. Diehl (eds.), International Law: Classic and Contemporary Readings , 3rd Edition, Boulder, Lynne Rienner, 2009.
• Müllerson, R., Ordering Anarchy: International Law in International Society , The Hague, Nijhoff, 2000.
• Lauterpacht, H., The F unction of Law in the International Community , Oxford, Oxford University Press , First Published 1933, This Edition 2011.
• Nussbaum, A Concise History of the Law of Nations , revised edition, New York, NY, Macmillan, 1954.
• Ollino, A., Due Diligence Obligations in International Law , Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2022.
• Research Handbook on the Theory and History of International Law , Cheltenham, Edward Elgar, 2011.
• Scicluna, N.,  The Politics of International Law , Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2021.
• Tunkin, G,I., Theory of International Law , 2nd Edition, London, Wildy, Simmonds and Hill, 2003.
• Weiler, J. and A.T. Nissel, International Law: Critical Concepts in La w, 6 Vols., London, Routledge, 2011.

For all peer-reviewed articles in the PPL Catalogue,  click here .

Periodicals, serial publications

• African Journal of International and Comparative Law
• African Yearbook of International Law
• Air and Space Law
• American Journal of Comparative Law
• American Journal of International Law
• American University International Law Review
• Amsterdam Law Forum
• Anuario colombiano de direito internacional
• Anuario Iberamericano de derecho internacional penal
• Annuaire français de droit international
• Arbitration International
• Arab Law Quarterly
• Archiv des Völkerrechts
• Arizona Journal of International and Comparative Law
• Asian International Arbitration Law Journal
• Asian Journal of International Law
• Asian Yearbook of Human Rights and Humanitarian Law
• Asian Yearbook of International Law
• Asia-Pacific Journal of Ocean Law and Policy
• Australian Yearbook of International Law
• Baltic yearbook of international law
• Berkeley Journal of International Law
• Boston University International Law Journal
• British Yearbook of International Law
• Brooklyn Journal of International Law
• Canadian Yearbook of International Law
• California Western International Law Journal
• Case Western Reserve Journal of International Law
• Chicago Journal of International Law
• Chinese Journal of International La w
• Climate Law: a Journal on Climate Change and the Law
• Columbia Journal of Transnational Law
• Common Market Law Review
• Comparative and International Law Journal of Southern Africa
• Connecticut Journal of International Law
• Cornell International Law Journal
• Creighton International and Comparative Law Journal
• Cuadernos de Derecho Transnacional
• Czech Yearbook of Public and Private International Law
• Denver Journal of International Law and Policy
• Diritti Umani e Diritto Internazionale
• Dispute Resolution International
• Duke Journal of Comparative and International Law
• Emory International Law Review
• ERA Forum: Journal of the Academy of European Law
• Erasmus Law Review
• Ethics and International Affairs
• Ethiopean Yearbook of International Law
• Europäische Grundrechte Zeitschrift
• European Journal of Crime, Criminal Law and Criminal Justice
• European Journal on Migration and Law
• European Human Rights Law Review
• European Intellectual Property Review
• European International Arbitration Review
• European Journal of International Law
• European Journal of International Security
• European Law Review
• European Review of Private Law
• Eyes on the ICC
• Florida Journal of International Law
• Fordham International Law Journal
• Foreign Affairs
• Friedens-Warte: Journal of International Peace and Organization
• George Washington International Law Review
• Georgetown Journal of International Law
• Georgia Journal of International and Comparative Law
• German Law Journal
• German Yearbook of International Law
• Global Journal of Comparative Law
• Global Responsibility to Protect - GR2P
• Global Trade and Customs Journal
• Göttingen Journal of International Law
• Gonzaga Journal of International Law
• GRUR-Prax: Praxis im Immaterialgüter- und Wettbewerbsrecht
• Hague Journal of Diplomacy
• Hague Journal on the Rule of Law
• Hague Yearbook of International Law
• Harvard International Law Journal
• Hastings International and Comparative Law Review
• Houston Journal of International Law
• Humanitares Volkerrecht: Informationsschriften
• Human Rights and International Legal Discourse
• Human Rights Law Review
• Human Rights Review
• ICSID Review: Foreign Investment Law Journal
• ILSA Journal of International and Comparative Law
• Indian Journal of International Law: a Quarterly
• Indiana International and Comparative Law Review
• Indonesian Journal of International and Comparative Law
• International Affairs
• International and Comparative Law Quarterly
• International Arbitration Law Review
• International Community Law Review
• International Criminal Law Review
• International Environmental Agreements: Politics, Law and Economics
• International Human Rights Law Review
• International Journal of Constitutional Law
• International Journal of Cultural Property
• International Journal of Human Rights
• International Journal of Law in Context
• International Journal of Legal Information
• International Journal of Marine and Coastal Law
• International Journal of Procedural Law
• International Journal of Refugee Law
• International Journal of Transitional Justice
• International Legal Materials
• International Organization
• International Organizations Law Review
• International Peacekeeping
• International Review of the Red Cross
• International Sports Law Journal
• Israel Law Review
• Italian Yearbook of International Law
• Journal du droit international
• Journal européen des droits de l’homme
• Journal of African Law
• Journal of Air Law and Commerce
• Journal of Comparative Law
• Journal of Conflict and Security Law
• Journal of East Asia and International Law
• Journal of Immigration, Asylum and National Law
• Journal of Intellectual Property Law and Practice
• Journal of International Arbitration
• Journal of International Criminal Justice
• Journal of International Dispute Settlement
• Journal of International Economic Law
• Journal of International Humanitarian Legal Studies
• Journal of International Law and International Relations
• Journal of International Maritime Law
• Journal of International Peacekeeping
• Journal of International Wildlife Law and Policy
• Journal of Modern African Studies
• Journal of Private International Law
• Journal of the History of International Law
• Journal of World Intellectual Property
• Journal of World Investment and Trade
• Journal on the Use of Force and International Law
• Juridica International
• Korean Journal of International and Comparative Law
• Law and Practice of International Courts and Tribunals
• Legal Issues of Economic Integration
• Leiden Journal of International Law
• London Review of International Law
• Loyola of Los Angeles International and Comparative Law Review
• Manchester Journal of International Economic Law
• Maryland Journal of International Law
• Max Planck Yearbook of United Nations Law
• Melbourne Journal of International Law
• Michigan Journal of International Law
• Michigan State International Law Review
• Minnesota Journal of International Law
• Natur und Recht
• Netherlands International Law Review
• Netherlands Yearbook of International Law
• New Journal of European Criminal Law
• New York University Journal of International Law and Politics
• New Zealand Journal of Public and International Law
• New Zealand Yearbook of International Law
• Nordic Journal of Human Rights
• Nordic Journal of International Law
• North Carolina Journal of International Law
• Northwestern Journal of International Law and Business
• Notre Dame Journal of International and Comparative Law
• L’observateur des Nations Unies
• Ocean and Coastal Law Journal
• Ocean Development and International Law
• Ocean Yearbook online
• Pace International Law Review
• Penant: Revue de droit des pays d'Afrique
• Pepperdine Dispute Resolution Law Journal
• Polish Yearbook of International Law
• Praxis des internationalen Privat- und Verfahrensrecht: IPRAX
• Proceedings of the ASIL Annual Meeting
• Questions of International Law
• Rabels Zeitschrift für ausländisches und internationales Privatrecht
• Recht der internationalen Wirtschaft
• Reports of International Arbitral Awards
• Review of European, Comparative and International Environmental Law
• Review of International Studies
• Revista de Direito Internacional
• Revista EJIL
• Revista Electronica de Estudios Internacionales
• Revista Espanola de Derecho Internacional
• R evista derecho PUCP = Agenda internacional
• Revista Tribuna Internacional
• Revue belge de droit international
• Revue critique de droit international privé
• Revue de droit des affaires internationales
• Revue de droit international et de droit comparé
• Revue de l’arbitrage
• Revue du droit de l‘Union Européenne
• Revue française de droit aérien et spatial
• Revue générale de droit international public
• Revue hellenique de droit international
• Revue québécoise de droit international
• Revue trimestrielle des droits de l’homme
• Revue trimestrielle de droit Européen
• Rivista di diritto internazionale
• Rivista ordine internazionale e diritti umani
• Romanian Journal of International Law
• San Diego International Law Journal
• Santa Clara Journal of International Law
• Schweizerische Zeitschrift für internationales und europäisches Recht
• Sicherheit und Frieden: Vierteljahreszeitschrift für Sicherheit und Frieden
• South African Yearbook of International Law
• Southwestern Journal of International law
• Spanish Yearbook of International Law
• Sri Lanka Journal of International Law
• Stanford Journal of International Law
• Studies in Conflict and Terrorism
• Suffolk Transnational Law Review
• Syracuse Journal of International Law and Commerce
• Temple International and Comparative Law Journal
• Texas International Law Journal
• Transnational Dispute Management
• Transnational Environmental Law
• Transnational Law and Contemporary Problems
• Trinity College Law Review
• Tulane Journal of International and Comparative Law
• Tydskrif vir hedendaagse Romeins-Hollandse reg
• Uniform Law Review
• UC Davis Journal of International Law and Policy
• UCLA Journal of International Law and Foreign Affairs
• United Nations Disarmament Yearbook
• University of Miami Inter-American Law Review
• University of Miami International and Comparative Law Review
• University of Pennsylvania Journal of International Law
• Utrecht Journal of International and European Law: Merkourios
• Vanderbilt Journal of Transnational La
• Vereinte Nationen: Zeitschrift fur die Vereinten Nationen
• Virginia Journal of International Law
• Washington International Law Journal
• Willamette Journal of International Law and Dispute Resolution
• Wisconsin International Law Journal
• World Trade Review
• Yale Journal of International Law
• Yearbook of International Humanitarian Law
• Yearbook of Islamic and Middle Eastern Law
• Yearbook of Polar Law online
• Yearbook of Private International Law
• Zeitschrift für Außen- und Sicherheitspolitik
• Zeitschrift für ausländisches öffentliches Recht und Völkerrecht
• Zeitschrift fur europaisches Privatrecht
• Zeitschrift für internationale Strafrechtsdogmatik
• Zeitschrift fur Japanisches Recht
• Zeitschrift fur Luft- und Weltraumrecht
• Zeitschrift fur Vergleichende Rechtswissenschaft

Bibliographies

• Oxford Bibliographies in International Law is designed to provide authoritative guidance. The field is rife with debate and controversy, as with most anything that deals with such a complex system of rules and principles meant to govern the relations between states and other institutional subjects, such as the United Nations or the European Union. Because scholarship in this field is so bound up with diplomacy, the vast array of potentially relevant material that appears on the free web can overwhelm even the savviest scholars. With advances in online searching and database technologies, researchers can easily access library catalogs, bibliographic indexes, records of court decisions, and other lists that show thousands of resources that might also be useful to them. In this situation what is most needed is expert guidance. Researchers at all levels need tools that help them filter through the proliferation of information sources to material that is reliable and directly relevant to their inquiries.  Oxford Bibliographies in International Law will offer a trustworthy pathway through the thicket of information overload.
• Public International Law: a Current Bibliography of Articles, (1975-2016) This bibliography has, since 1975, made available to scholars and practitioners information on articles published on all aspects of public international law which are contained in journals, yearbooks, and commemorative compilations, e.g. festschriften. Starting with Vol. 16 (1990), Public International Law , subtitled A Current Bibliography of Books and Articles , has also listed published monographs and collections of essays in addition to commemorative compilations. This bibliography in print has been discontinued as of 2016.

Nowadays, comprehensive bibliographies of public international law are no longer published, simply because library catalogs are more exhaustive. The bibliographies below are some of the latest attempts in print available at the Peace Palace Library.

• Beyerly, E., Public International Law: A Guide to Information Sources , London, Mansell, 1991.
• Delupis, I., Bibliography of International Law , London; New York, Bowker, 1975.
• Merrills, J.G., A Current Bibliography of International Law , London, Butterworths, 1978.
• Wiktor, C.L., Canadian Bibliography of International Law , Toronto, University of Toronto Press, 1984.

Dictionaries

• Bemba, J., Dictionnaire de la justice internationale, de la paix et du développement durable: principaux termes et expressions , 3ième édition, Paris,  L'Harmattan, 2018.
• Boczek. B.A., T he A to Z of International Law , Lanham, Scarecrow Press, 2010.
• Doebbler, C.F.J., Dictionary of Public International Law , Lanham, Rowman & Littlefield, 2018.
• Gärtner, H., Internationale Sicherheit und Frieden: Definitionen von A - Z , 3th expanded and updated edition, Baden-Baden, Nomos, 2018.
• Gómez-Robledo Verduzco, A. y J. Witker (coord.), Diccionario de Derecho Internacional , México, Ed. Porrúa, 2001.
• Parry, C., J.P. Grant and J.C. Barker, Encyclopaedic Dictionary of International Law , 3rd ed., New York, Oxford University Press, 2009.
• Salmon, J., Dictionnaire de droit international public , Bruxelles, Bruylant, 2001.
• ASIL Electronic Resource Guide "Researching Public International Law" by Kelly Vinopal

HeinOnline (HOL) is a premier online database launched in 2000 by William S. Hein & Co., Inc. (WSH Co), a Buffalo, New York publisher specializing in legal materials. It contains more than 178 million pages and 270,000 titles of historical and government documents in a fully searchable, image-based format. HeinOnline bridges an important research gap by providing comprehensive coverage from inception of more than 2,700 law-related periodicals. In addition to its vast collection of academic journals, HeinOnline contains the entire Congressional Record, Federal Register, and Code of Federal Regulations, complete coverage of the U.S. Reports back to 1754, and entire databases dedicated to treaties, constitutions, case law, world trials, classic treatises, international trade, foreign relations, U.S. Presidents, and much more.

HeinOnline’s powerful search engine and user-friendly interface combine to provide both new and experienced users with an excellent research experience. Locating documents is quick, and searching includes facets to guarantee relevant search results. The Peace Palace Library has subscriptions to various HeinOnline databases. Please, make sure you are logged in to PPL.

HeinOnline Databases (general overview)

European Centre for Minority Issues Foreign & International Law Resources Database Foreign Relations of the United States Hague Academy Collected Courses Online Harvard Research in International Law History of International Law Index to Foreign Legal Periodicals International & Non-U.S. Law Journals International Commission of Jurists Library International Law Association Reports Israel Law Reports Kluwer Law International Journal Library Law in Eastern Europe Legal Classics United Nations Law Collection U.S. Treaties and Agreements Library World Constitutions Illustrated: Contemporary & Historical Documents and Resources World Treaty Library World Trials Library

• Max Planck Encyclopedias of International Law

A trusted reference work in international law, the Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law , as well as the newly-launched Max Planck Encyclopedia of International Procedural Law . The two Encyclopedias can be searched and browsed together, or separately by using appropriate filters. Please, make sure you are logged in to PPL.

The Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law (MPEPIL) was first published as an online database by Oxford University Press in 2008. It has since become one of the most widely read and quoted reference works in international law. A ten-volume print edition , complemented by an index volume, appeared in 2012.

MPEPIL articles are hybrids in character insofar as they combine elements of a reference work with a law journal approach. Authors are requested to cover their topic comprehensively and impartially but also to add a personal assessment. All articles are peer-reviewed. As a contemporary restatement of international law the publication is designed to assist both practitioners and scholars. So far, more than 900 academics and practitioners from across the world have contributed to the Encyclopedia, which contains over 1,700 entries. In 2013, the MPEPIL was cross-linked with the OPIL platform, allowing research across a number of OUP databases and full text sources.

In September 2019, the Max Planck Encyclopedia of International Procedural Law (MPEiPro), edited by the Max Planck Institute Luxembourg, began being published online by Oxford University Press. This Encyclopedia is conceived of as a resource for practitioners, scholars, legal advisers, policy-makers and observers of international relations and global governance. It will be enriched each month with new in-depth manuscripts, eventually reaching over 1,000 articles.

The scope of the Max Planck Encyclopedia of International Procedural Law takes a broad notion of procedure that embraces decision-making by international organs in general, including political and administrative bodies whose purpose is not that of adjudicating or otherwise settling a dispute or a legal issue. However, the life cycle of the Encyclopedia has started with a focus on dispute settlement and adjudication, encompassing non-contentious and non-binding forms of international adjudication performed by public international law institutions, but also domestic and transnational ones, that is, all those institutions whose essential purpose is to lay down and/or apply rules of obvious international relevance. Later, the Encyclopedia will extend to non-adjudicatory modes of dispute settlement before tackling non-adjudicatory institutional decision-making processes.

• Oxford Reports on International Law
• Recueil des Cours

The courses of The Hague Academy of International Law are published in the series Recueil des cours de l'Académie de Droit International de la Haye = Collected courses of The Hague Academy of International Law ( or in short Recueil des cours ) , which now spans over more than 400 volumes and is undoubtedly the most important encyclopedic publication on public and private international law. Since 2008 the  Recueil des cours  are also available in this fully searchable online edition.

• United Nations Audiovisual Library of International Law

The Codification Division of the United Nations Office of Legal Affairs created the Audiovisual Library of International Law under the Programme of Assistance to give the United Nations the capacity to provide high quality international law training and research materials to an unlimited number of recipients around the world. The Audiovisual Library is a virtual training and research centre which aims to enhance the dissemination and wider appreciation of international law. It also performs a unique and invaluable function by preserving in a vivid and informative manner the audiovisual heritage of legal developments within the United Nations system and promoting a greater awareness of the unparalleled legacy of the United Nations in the codification and progressive development of international law.

How to Do Research in International Law? A Basic Guide for Beginners

Jan 25, 2021 | Essays , Online Scholarship

By: Eliav Lieblich *

[Click here for PDF]

Introduction

So, you want to do research in international law? Good choice. But it can be difficult, especially in the very beginning. In this brief guide for students taking their first steps in legal research in international law, I will try to lay down the basics—just enough to nudge you towards the rabbit-hole of research. This guide is about how to think of and frame research questions, primary sources, and secondary sources in the research of international law. Or, to be precise, it is about how I think about these things. It is not about how to write in the technical sense, how to structure your paper, or about research methods (beyond some basic comments). This guide also focuses mostly on questions that are especially pertinent when researching international law. For this reason, it does not address general questions such as how and when to cite authorities, what are relevant academic resources, and so forth.

As you begin your work, you will find that legal research in international law is both similar to and different from legal research in domestic law. Research in international law and domestic law are similar in their basic requirements: 1) you need a research question, 2) you need to understand the problem you are approaching (both in terms of the legal doctrine and its underlying theory), 3) you need a method to answer your question. and 4) you need to rely on primary and secondary sources. Research in international law is different because international law, in its quest to be universal, is practiced everywhere. There is no “single” international law, and for this reason it is an area of law that is almost always contested. Furthermore, international law is not hierarchical unlike most domestic legal systems, and many times, several legal frameworks might apply to one single question ( “ fragmentation ”). [1] Additionally, international law’s sources include customary law, which is notoriously difficult to pinpoint. [2] This makes describing “the law” as an object of research much trickier. This guide attempts to give you the initial tools to navigate this terrain, but rest assured that it is also difficult for experienced researchers.

The guide is structured as follows. Section 2 is about research questions. It first offers a simplified typology of research question, including a few words on theory and method, and then suggests some thoughts about thinking of and framing your question. Section 3 is about secondary and primary sources in the research of international law. It includes some advice about the way to approach international legal scholarship in a world of hegemony and information overflow. The guide then becomes a bit more technical, offering tips about finding primary sources relevant for the research of international law.

A caveat is in order. This guide does not seek to offer the most theoretically robust or comprehensive introduction to international legal research. Rather, it should be viewed as practical advice to help you take your first steps into the field. The guide, of course, reflects my own understanding. Other researchers might approach these issues differently.

I. Research Questions

A. types of research questions: descriptive, normative, and critical.

Finding a research question will be one of the most important and challenging parts of your research. Every research has a question at its foundation. The research question is simply the question that your research seeks to answer. In all fields of legal scholarship, there are basically three families of research questions: 1) descriptive research questions, 2) normative research questions, and 3) critical research questions. Very broadly speaking, descriptive questions seek to tell us something about the legal world as it is . Normative questions ask what ought to be the state of things in relation to law. Critical questions seek to expose the relations between law and power, and, as I explain later, are somewhat in the middle between descriptive and normative questions. In truth, there is a lot of interaction between all three types of questions. But for our sake, we keep it simple, and as a starting point for research, it is better to think about research questions in these terms. Thinking clearly about your research question will help you frame your work, structure your paper, and look for relevant sources.

Descriptive research questions are questions about the state of things as they are. Much of traditional international legal scholarship is descriptive in the sense that it seeks to describe “the law” as it is, whether in abstract (e.g., “what is the content of the Monetary Gold principle in international adjudication?”) or in relation to a specific situation. For instance, in their excellent writing on Yemen , Tom Ruys and Luca Ferro look at the Saudi-led intervention in the Yemeni Civil War and ask whether that intervention is lawful. [3]   From a theoretical standpoint, this type of research can be broadly described as positivist , in the sense that it looks only into legally relevant sources (the lex lata ), as autonomous bodies of knowledge. We can call such questions descriptive doctrinal research questions since they seek to analyze and describe the doctrine from an internal point of view. Of course, some doubt whether it is at all possible to describe authoritatively what the law “is,” beyond very basic statements, without making any normative judgments about what “the law” should be. It could even be said that the mere decision to discuss law as an autonomous sphere is a value-laden choice. These and related critiques have been levelled against doctrinal scholarship for over a century by legal realist and critical approaches, both domestically and internationally. [4] This resulted in the gradual marginalization of such research questions, at least in the United States. Yet, from a global perspective, doctrinal research into international law remains a central strand of research.

Doctrinal questions are not the only type of descriptive research questions. Descriptive questions can also follow the tradition of law and society approaches. This type of research looks at the law from the outside and is mostly interested in law’s interaction with society, rather than in legal doctrine per se . Historically, the emergence of this way of thinking relates to the insight, first articulated by legal realists, that law does not exist in an autonomous sphere and gains meaning only with its actual interaction with society. Research questions of this type might ask whether and when law is effective, how people think about the law, or how judges make decisions. For instance, in her recent book , Anthea Roberts asks whether international law is truly “international” by looking at how it is studied in different parts of the world. [5] This type of scholarship can also seek to explain law from a historical point of view. For example, Eyal Benvenisti and Doreen Lustig inquire into the interests that shaped the origins of modern international humanitarian law (“IHL”) and argue that the law was shaped more by the interests of ruling elites than by humanitarian impulses. [6] For the purposes of this guide, these are socio-legal research questions .

Normative research questions , in general, ask what the law ought to be, whether in general or in a specific instance. For example,  in “The Dispensable Lives of Soldiers,” Gabriella Blum asks what ought to be the rules for the targeting of combatants in armed conflict. [7] As she suggests, these rules should consider the specific threat they pose and not only their legal status as combatants. The difficulty in normative questions—and from my own experience, this is one of the major challenges for students in their first research papers—is that to answer them, we need external parameters for assessing law . In other words, we need a theory on what is considered “good,” in light of which we can present an argument about what the law should be. Otherwise, we run into a classic problem: we cannot draw from facts alone (what law “is”) what ought to be (what law should be). [8] It is here where theory plays a key role. Normative legal theories are there to help us articulate our benchmarks for assessing what law should be. Returning to Blum’s article as an example, she uses insights from ethics to consolidate her point. She argues from an ethical, extra-legal vantage point, that since soldiers’ lives have moral worth, law should be understood in a manner that best reflects this moral idea.

Now, there is a myriad of normative approaches to international law, which I will not address here. A good place to start on theories of international law, including normative ones, is Andrea Bianchi’s excellent and accessible book on international legal theories. [9] Just to give you a sense of things, older natural law theories would simply identify law with morality and would inquire into morality—either as handed down by God or as exposed by reason—in order to ascertain law. [10] In newer scholarship, it is much more common to use ethics as a way to criticize positive law or to read moral standards into the interpretation of law itself —in accordance with the moral theory to which we subscribe. [11] This, for instance, is Ronald Dworkin’s approach , when he urges to interpret law “in its best light.” [12] In international law, for instance, a notable example for such thinking is Thomas Franck’s theory of legitimacy and international law. [13] Franck—although careful not to frame his theory in explicitly moral terms—argues that legal rules should have certain characteristics, such as clarity and coherence, in order to enjoy a “compliance pull” that induces state compliance. If, for example, we were to adopt Franck’s theory, we would assess law in light of his standards of legitimacy.

Normative theories can also be utilitarian. The best known example for such way of thinking, of course, is law and economics . [14] Another family of instrumental normative theories can be roughly described as policy approaches to international law. In the simplest sense, policy approaches ask what the law should be, in terms of its ability to bring about good policy consequences. The New Haven School of International Law, for instance, analyzed international law from the point of a global standard of human dignity. [15] It is safe to say that almost all current scholarship on international law, especially in the United States, utilizes policy approaches, even if not explicitly. [16] To sum this point, when framing normative research questions, we should be aware that at some point, we will need to commit to a yardstick through which to assess our normative conclusions.

Critical research questions inquire into the power relations that shape law or into the relations between law and politics in the broad sense of the term. In this sense, they aim to be descriptive: they seek to describe law as a product of power relations and expose the manner in which law conceals and neutralizes political choices. [17] Like normative scholarship, critical research questions also rely on theories (“ critical theories ”). For example, Martti Koskenniemi seeks to describe how the structure of the international legal argument collapses into politics, using insights from Critical Legal Studies (“CLS”). [18] Aeyal Gross inquires whether  the application of international human rights law might harm rather than benefit Protected Persons in occupied territories, on the basis of theoretical tools from CLS and Legal Realism. [19] Anthony Anghie asks how colonialism shaped the origins of international law, on the basis of postcolonial theory (and specifically in international law, Third World Approaches to International Law). [20] Ntina Tzouvala considers whether and how the 19th century standards of civilization in international law continue to live on in the international system through its capitalist underpinnings, by applying Marxian analysis. [21] From a feminist approach, Fionnuala Ní Aoláin explores what are the gendered aspects of the law of occupation. [22] It should be emphasized that critical research questions are also normative in the deeper sense: by seeking to expose power relations, they imply that something is wrong with law. Some critical research proceeds, after exposing power dynamics, to offer solutions—and some simply conclude that the project of law is a lost cause.

It is crucial to understand that both normative and critical research questions usually have descriptive sub-questions. For instance, Blum’s normative claim is that the current rule on targeting combatants is no longer tenable and should be changed. But to do so, she first has to give a proper account of the current understanding of law. And that is, of course, a descriptive question. The same applies to critical questions. Good critical scholarship should give a valid account of its object of critique. For example, in Tzouvala’s piece, a significant part offers a description of the standards of civilization, before the main critique is applied.

B. A Note about Theory and Methods

The term theory has been used quite liberally in the previous section. Now, there are several ways to understand this term. Here, theory is used in the sense of the general intellectual framework through which we think about law or a certain legal question. It is our view on the world, if you will—the prism through which we analyze or assess a question. The term theory must be distinguished from method . Methods, in legal research, encompass at least two meanings. The first, more common in descriptive socio-legal research, refers to the way in which we seek to find and arrange the information required to answer our question. For instance, if my question is “do judges in international courts cite scholarship from the Global South,” my method would be the manner in which I gather and arrange the data about judges’ citation practices. Do I search all relevant decisions for citations and create a large dataset (empirical quantitative methods)? Do I conduct interviews with prominent judges and extrapolate from their positions (qualitative methods)? Descriptive doctrinal research, too, has its version of methods in this sense. When we analyze treaties, legislation, state practice, or case law, we apply a method of collecting, analyzing, and categorizing this information.

The second manner in which the term method is used, is more pertinent in normative and critical legal research. For example, in an American Journal of International Law symposium on methods in international legal research, “methods” were defined as “the application of a conceptual apparatus or framework—a theory of international law—to the concrete problems faced by the international community”. [23] Meaning, methods are defined here as the way in which we apply theory to specific instances —or in other words, as applied theory.  It is in this sense that you will hear terms like “feminist methods” or “critical methods” used.

In truth, much of legal research—with the exception of certain strands of law and society research—is quite loose in its awareness to methods and in its use of them. This is perhaps because most of us are socialized, in our earliest days as law students, into the general method of doctrinal approaches to law—legal interpretation, case analysis, analogy, and allusions to consideration of “legal policy” in order to solve dilemmas.  The extent to which you will be required to be strict about methods in legal research, would probably differ between instructors and their own backgrounds.

C. Framing and Finding Your Research Question

What is expected from a research question, at least in the initial stage of your work? Of course, this differs between instructors and advisors. Here, I offer some insights that I think are generally applicable, with specific reference to international law.

First, a lot depends on the stage of your studies. In most seminars at the J.D. or LL.B. level, instructors do not necessarily require that your question be entirely novel, in the sense that no one has asked it before. Of course, most instructors value originality and would be happy if you come up with a reasonably original question (provided that you can answer it, but more about that in a bit). On the Master’s or Ph.D. levels, this might be very different. Framing a question that would be “an original contribution to the field” is one of the crucial parts of writing a dissertation at that level.  But since this is a beginners’ guide, do not worry about that.

Second, a research question must be tailored to the scope of your work, or in other words, it must be a question that you can reasonably answer within the space you have been given. Most seminar papers are around 10,000 words, inclusive of footnotes. This length suits a question like “should the duty to take precautionary measures under IHL require risking soldiers’ lives?” but probably not “the legal history of proxy wars during the Cold War.” The unfortunate nature of seminars is that you will usually have very limited time to think of a research question, and since you are new in the field, you would probably have trouble figuring out whether your question fits the scope of your paper.  Most instructors (I hope) would be happy to let you know if your question is too wide.

Third, a research question should be one that you are capable of answering with the skills you have, or with skills—the methodological proficiency –that you have the time to reasonably acquire during your research (whether independently or with the assistance of your instructor). By the time students write seminar papers, most have a reasonable grasp of how to do legal reasoning from an internal-legal point of view and accordingly have the basic skills to answer descriptive doctrinal questions . Concerning most normative and critical research questions, the basic skills required—at least at the level required in seminar papers in most law schools—can be acquired during your research: to me, learning new theories and the ways to apply them is precisely what seminars should be about! The trick is to find the question and the normative or critical approach that you would like to explore. However, things get much trickier if you select a descriptive socio-legal question . These require, sometimes, research methods that most law students do not possess at this stage.  If you are thinking about such questions, consult with your instructor to see whether she can or is willing to instruct you about the method you need.

But wait! We said nothing about how to actually find your research question. Here, I might disappoint you: there is no way around some of the difficulties we encounter when looking for a question. Finding a research question is hard, in particular when you are just starting out and have a limited grasp on the field. In truth, there is no one way—if there is even a way—to find a research question. A research question begins from an idea, and we cannot really control how our ideas emerge. Even the most experienced researchers will probably tell you that they get their ideas serendipitously when taking a shower, walking the dog, or folding the laundry. “Eureka” moments rarely pop-up when we summon them. So rather than attempting to give (a futile) account on a sure-shot way to find your research questions, I suggest ways that might be conducive to spark the creative thought process needed to get a good idea.

First, ask yourself what interests you, in the most intuitive way, in terms of specific fields of international law. If you are enrolled in a thematic course, such as International Trade Law, or International Criminal Law, then this narrows your selection of course. But even within fields, there are numerous sub and sub-sub fields and questions. In international criminal law, for example, there is a world of difference between questions of jurisdiction and theories of punishment. Start by opening a general textbook in the field. Scan the contents. See the types of issues and dilemmas that arise. See what direction triggers your interest. Most textbooks will highlight controversial issues. Ask yourself whether any of these issues both interest you and can be phrased as a research question that conforms to the requirements discussed above.

Second, follow blogs in the field. There are many high quality blogs on international law, which offer good analysis on current events and legal dilemmas. These blogs can help you to map burning and interesting questions.  Leading blogs such as EJIL: Talk! , Just Security , Legal Form , Opinio Juris , and Lawfare are good places to start. For those of you really willing to take the plunge, there is a very vibrant community of international law scholars on Twitter (although it might lead you to question the general sanity of the field). International legal institutions and organizations also maintain active Twitter profiles, and so do states.

Third, it is ok to begin with a somewhat general or imprecise research question, and narrow it down and refine as you go. For instance, let’s assume that you begin with “should the duty to take precautionary measures under IHL require risking soldiers’ lives.” As you read, you will find that there are several different precautions under IHL. Depending on the scope of your research, you might want to refine your question to something like “should the duty to give advance warning to civilians require exposing soldiers to potential harm?” In other words, it is perfectly fine to make adjustments to your question as you go.

Fourth, be proactive in your communications with your instructor. There are different types of instruction on the seminar level, but most instructors would be happy to participate with you in a ping-pong of ideas on your research question—as long as you have done some thinking and come with ideas to discuss, even if these are half-baked.

II. Secondary and Primary Sources in International Legal Research

Once we have the research question, we need information to answer it. This information is found in research sources . In academic research, it is common to differentiate between primary and secondary sources. In simple terms, primary sources comprise raw information or first-hand accounts of something. By way of example, these include diary entries, interviews, questionnaires, archival data, and meeting records. In basic legal research, primary sources can include black letter law, rulings, and so forth. Another way to look at primary sources is that they give you direct, unmediated access to the objective of your research.  Secondary sources, conversely, are writings about primary sources: they interpret primary sources for you. These include primarily academic books, book chapters, and journal articles. Of course, there are dialectics between primary and secondary sources. Sometimes, secondary sources can become primary sources, depending on our perspective. If, for example, I want to write about the international legal philosophy of Hans Kelsen, then Kelsen’s writings become my primary sources. Other people’s writings about Kelsenwould be my secondary sources. Similarly, a judicial decision can be a primary source when we study what the law “is,” but it can also be secondary source when it describes other things, such as facts, opinions, or ideas.

In international law, there is another idiosyncrasy. If we want to know what the law “is,” secondary sources might be considered primary, to an extent, because according to international law itself, “the teachings of the most highly qualified publicists” are subsidiary means to determine the positive law. [24]

B. The Intricacies of Secondary Sources of International Law: Managing Hegemony and Information Overload

Is there something special that we need to know about secondary sources in international legal research? On its face, secondary sources on international law are not much different from such sources in any other field. For this reason, I will not get into questions that are relevant to all fields of research, such as how to account for newspaper stories, the value of Wikipedia for research (very limited), etc. Rather, I will point out some things that are especially important to consider when approaching secondary sources in international law.

First, since international law presumes to apply everywhere, there might be relevant literature on your question in any language you can imagine. At the seminar paper level, most instructors will expect you to rely on literature in languages reasonably accessible to you. In more advanced levels of research, things might be different. As a rule of thumb, if you cannot access writings in at least English or French, your research will unfortunately be limited. Of course, we can criticize this situation in terms of the hegemony it reflects; [25] however, this is the reality as it stands. A possible exception is if your question focuses on the application of law in a specific jurisdiction. But here, too, you will be limited since without access to literature in other languages, your comparative ability will be diminished.

Second—and this is an understatement—there are differing perceptions of international law, both in general and on specific questions, across different legal cultures. Risking pandering to stereotypes, U.S. scholarship tends to be more inclined towards policy approaches to law, while continental European scholarship might be more positivist. [26] Scholarship from the Global South might view law from postcolonial perspectives. It is crucial to be aware of these differences, in the sense that no single perspective can give you the entire picture. This is not to say that you cannot focus on one specific legal culture—depending on your research question—just be aware that you might be getting a particular point of view.

Third, even within a specific legal culture, there are interpretive “camps” on most questions of international law. Very roughly speaking, writers affiliated with state institutions might interpret law in a manner more permissive of state action, while others might be more suspicious of states and approach law from a more restrictive perspective. For instance, in the field of IHL, David Luban identifies “two cultures” of interpretation—military and “humanitarian” lawyers—that differ almost on every legal question. [27] You will find comparable divisions on international trade, investment arbitration, and international environmental law—and in any other field for that matter. Here, too, it is very important to be aware of the “camp” of the author you are reading. You will not get a complete view if all of your secondary sources belong to this or that camp.

Fourth, be aware and critical of hierarchies. Traditionally, secondary sources of international law were organized around major treatises (which are textbooks that deal systematically with an issue), such as Oppenheim’s international law. [28] This tendency derives from the special status that major scholarship enjoys in the formation of international law, as mentioned above. Of course, major “classic” textbooks are still invaluable tools to get into the field and at least to understand its mainstream at a given moment. However, many canonical treatises—to be blunt—have been written by white western men from major empires, with certain perspectives about the world. Often, these writers went in and out of diplomatic service and might be generally uncritical of their states’ legal policies. Many newer versions of these textbooks internalize these critiques and are much better in terms of incorporating diverse authors and views. Nonetheless, in order to get the fuller picture on your question, diversify your sources.

Fifth, and notwithstanding the need to take into account the problem of hierarchies, it is still important to get a good grasp of the “important” writings on your research question, in order to understand the predominant views on the issue. In an age of information overload, this is particularly difficult to do. There are, however, several (imperfect) ways to mitigate this problem. One way to do so is by using Google Scholar and Google Books as entry portals into your subject. These search engines allow you both to search for titles and specific phrases within titles. They are free, simple and fast, and Google Books even allows you to preview most books. Google Scholar and Books also present a citation count for each source. Citation counts refer to the number of times a work has been cited by other authors, which gives you a rough measure of the centrality of the work.  However, Google’s search engines should be taken with a grain of salt. Google is a data-for-profit company, and its effects on academic research have been criticized . [29] The basic problem is that nobody knows how Google arranges its results  and what interests it serves by doing so. In other words, Google creates a new hierarchy of sources, and we do not know exactly how to account for it.

Another way to get a sense of the important writings relating to your question is to look at general, introductory works on your subject. These textbooks usually provide a good overview of the major discussions and dilemmas relating to the fields they cover, and when doing so, they present the central views on these questions. See which writings they discuss and cite. A good place to start, in order to gain access to initial secondary (and sometimes primary) sources on a specific question, is the Max Planck Encyclopedias of International Law or the Oxford Bibliographies of International Law .

Still, always be mindful that the “central views” on a question are not necessarily the best views. For instance, many times, citation practices simply reproduce geographic, institutional, racial, or gendered hierarchy. They are not meaningless, but be critical about them. After you get the “central views” on the question go to more “neutral” search engines such as your library’s general database or commercial databases such as Hein and Westlaw that arrange scholarship in a more transparent manner. One radical suggestion is to visit your library physically (!) and go to the relevant shelf. Libraries are nice, and you will often find titles that you missed in your electronic search.

C. Primary Research Sources of International Law: What are They and Where to Find Them

What are the primary sources for research in international law? The answer, of course, flows from the type of your research question. The sources for doctrinal research questions would generally follow material that would be relevant for the study of the legal sources of international law, namely those found in Article 38(1) of the Statute of the International Court of Justice (“ICJ”): 1) treaties, 2) state practice and opinio juris (as elements of customary law), 3) general principles of law, and 4) as subsidiary means, judicial decisions and scholarly work.

However, even when conducting doctrinal research, not everyone subscribes to an exclusively formalist understanding of legal sources. For instance, there are many forms of formal and informal regulation in various global governance frameworks. Non-binding resolutions of international organizations, for example, and instruments of “soft law” can also be viewed as part of the doctrine, broadly speaking. [30] Additionally, legal realists might argue that whatever is perceived by international actors as authoritative and controlling in specific instances can be analyzed as a legally relevant source. [31] The important takeaway is that the primary sources for doctrinal research follow the author’s approach to the sources relevant for international law, and this changes between legal formalists and realists. This complicates your work, but even as a beginner, you would need to decide which way to go in terms of identifying relevant primary sources. If you are confused about this, consulting with your instructor is probably wise here.

As discussed earlier on, normative and critical research questions tend to have descriptive doctrinal sub-questions. For the doctrinal parts in normative and critical research, the above primary sources are relevant also. The normative and critical parts of such research, conversely, would usually rely on the application to the descriptive findings of theory found in secondary sources (and recall the definition of method as applied theory, suggested in the AJIL symposium). [32]

For socio-legal research questions, primary sources can extend much wider, depending on the specific research method selected. Since the challenges of identifying sources for socio-legal research are not unique in the context of international legal research and require treatment beyond this limited guide, I do not address them here.

After clearing that up (hopefully), we now move to a more technical part: where can we find primary sources for doctrinal research in international law (or doctrinal parts within otherwise non-doctrinal research)? Of course, there are virtually endless options. Here, I seek only to give an overview of some of the best ways to look for such sources, or at least, those that I prefer. Note, that I do not get into the nitty-gritty of each search engine or database, such as how to run searches and where to click. They are usually quite easy to get a handle on, and if not, most law school libraries have very capable personnel to assist in the more technical aspects of things. In the same vein, I do not get into the specifics of document indexing systems of various institutions (see, for instance, here ).

1. Curated Collections of Important Primary Sources

Before delving into specific primary sources and where we can find them, it is good to know that some publications select especially important sources and publish them with commentary. These publications do not include all primary sources, but if you want to search for especially pertinent sources on your subject, they can be helpful. For example, International Legal Materials (“ILM”) is a publication of the American Society of International Law that periodically selects important primary sources, with expert commentary. Although ILM is a very old publication, it is fortunately online, and you can search its database.

2. Treaties and Treaty Bodies

Moving on to treaties. In general, you can access the text of almost every treaty directly from any internet search engine. For comprehensive research, however, the United Nations Treaty Collection (“UN Treaty Collection”) has a sophisticated search page , allowing you to find treaties by title, signatories, dates, and many other categories.  When you click on a treaty, you can also find the list of state parties, including reservations, declarations, etc. Take note of that the UN Treaty Collection includes only treaties registered with the United Nations . The most important treaties are indeed registered. Those that are not might be found in secondary sources, in governmental websites, and so forth. Last, Oxford Historical Treaties is a great source for older treaties.

Treaties can also be found in the homepages of relevant international organizations. For instance, the World Trade Organization website includes all of the organization’s founding agreements and other relevant treaties. Regional organizations, also, mostly follow this practice. The International Committee of the Red Cross (“ICRC”) website has an index of all historical and in-force IHL treaties. These are only examples.

For the purpose of your research, you might want to look at the travaux préparatoires —which include the official negotiation records of the treaty, its drafting history, and other preparatory documents. These are important both to interpret and understand the history and rationales of the treaty. There is no single way in which these records are published. Many times, they can be found in official volumes, whether online or in hardcopy. For example, the travaux of the European Conventions of Human Rights can be found online here . You can find more information about finding travaux at the UN Library on this page .

Many treaties establish organs that oversee their execution or interpret their provisions (“treaty bodies”). These organs, in turn, create their own documents, decisions, and comments. This is a particularly important feature of international human rights law treaties. Luckily, the UN keeps a searchable treaty body database in which you can search for virtually any type of document produced by these bodies. For example, you can find various reports submitted to these bodies by states; you can also find decisions (“jurisprudence”) of treaty bodies, as some of them are empowered to decide on individual and interstate claims.  For more information about research in human rights law, Georgetown Law produced this great guide (on both secondary and primary sources).

3. Judicial Decisions

Judicial decisions constitute important primary sources in international legal research like in any legal research. However, as opposed to domestic jurisdictions, the terrain of international legal tribunals is heavily fragmented. [33]   As you probably know by now, there is no “supreme court of the international community” to which all other courts are subject. Most tribunals are limited in their jurisdiction to a certain subject matter or to a certain group of states or individuals. To make things even more complicated, domestic courts also frequently rule on international legal questions or refer to international law in their decisions. A crucial point when conducting your research is to figure out whether there is an international tribunal that might have jurisdiction over issues relating to your question and whether these issues were addressed in a substantial way by domestic courts.

Fortunately, there are search engines that allow us to search for specific things across many international tribunals and dispute settlement mechanisms. The Oxford Reports on International Law , for instance, allows you to search across virtually all international tribunals and arbitration mechanisms (as well as treaty bodies). It includes not only ICJ rulings, but also rulings and decisions of subject-area specific dispute settlement mechanisms such as the International Tribunal on the Law of the Sea (“ITLOS”) and others. Furthermore, the search engine allows you also to look for domestic rulings that apply international law in many jurisdictions. Be mindful, however, that the database on domestic rulings is not comprehensive, and many times does not include the newest rulings since it takes time for the regional reporters to report them.  The Cambridge Law Reports is another very reputable and established source for international case law and domestic rulings relating to international law.

It should be noted that in addition to these databases, most tribunals have their own websites. Just by way of example, the ICJ , the European Court of Human Rights , the International Criminal Court (“ICC”), and the WTO Dispute Settlement mechanism all have very helpful sites with their own advanced search engines. Similarly, the International Center for Settlement of Investment Disputes (“ICSID”) allows you to search for decisions in investment-state arbitrations. Many other tribunals and dispute settlement arrangements have similar systems.  The added value of the tribunals’ own sites is that they usually include not only decisions, but also oral and written proceedings and other documents of interest for in-depth research. Moreover, it might be that they are updated faster with new decisions.

Note, however, that many questions are never resolved by any tribunal. International law is more of an ongoing process than a system of adjudication, [34] and the fact that a dispute or dilemma has not been formally addressed by courts does not mean that it is not important or that there are no highly relevant primary sources on the issue. Ironically, often the opposite is true: some important questions do not come up for adjudication precisely because actors do not want to risk losing in adjudication.

4. United Nations Documents

Documents produced by the different organs of the UN—as well as by states when interacting in and with the UN—are of special importance for international legal research. Resolutions by the UN Security Council (“UNSC”) can be binding; resolutions by the UN General Assembly might reflect the international consensus, can be declarative of customary international law, or crystallize into binding law as time passes. Reports by the UN Secretary General and by Special Rapporteurs are also important in this sense, not to mention the work of the UN International Law Commission (“ILC”). Letters by states and their statements in various UN fora are also crucial as sources for state practice and opinio juris. Fortunately, The UN’s Official Document System allows you to run searches into the majority of publicly available UN documents.  Additionally, the UN Library provides another, more guided, entry point to the universe of UN documents.

Sometimes, if you know the specific type of document you need, it can be helpful to head to the website of the relevant UN organ. For example, the UNSC ’s site has all of the UNSC’s resolutions, presidential statements, reports and meeting records by year (as well as documents relating to sub-organs such as Sanctions Committees). You can find, for instance, a specific meeting and its full verbatim records (what states said). The same holds for the UN General Assembly , Human Rights Council and other organs of interest. These websites are generally self-explanatory, although they might be clunky sometimes, and the UN tends to move pages around for mysterious reasons. Explore a bit, and you will usually find what you need.

Last, sometimes you would want to get a general picture about how a specific incident, event, or issue was dealt with across the UN in a specific time. The best place to get this information is the Yearbook of the United Nations . Just look in the specific yearbook for the year in which your event of interest took place, and you will find summaries of the discussion of the issue across the UN. A huge bonus is that the yearbooks include an index of documents for each issue or event that you can then retrieve—using the document’s symbol—from the UN’s Official Document System. Note, however, that unfortunately the Yearbook is only published several years after the relevant year. As of 2020, the 2015 Yearbook hasn’t been released yet.

5. Practice and Statements

State practice and statements are important in order to ascertain customary international law, but also to understand general international approaches towards your question. At least for the latter purpose, the same holds with regard to practice and statements by international organizations and NGOs. Now, since state practice and statements can manifest in endless forms—from Twitter rants to official statements by heads of states (which are, nowadays, sometimes one and the same)—there is no one-stop shop for this type of primary source. Much can be found in UN documents, but this is by no means a comprehensive source because a lot of relevant interactions take place outside of the UN.

Nevertheless, some publications and other databases collect important pieces of (mainly state) practice.  Just by way of example, each issue of the American Journal of International Law has a section on contemporary U.S. practice on international law. The U.S. State Department compiles an annual digest on U.S. State Practice, accessible here . German practice in international law can be found here (in English). Some other digests of state practice are listed by the Institute of Advanced Legal Studies library.

Additionally, after you select a research question, it is helpful to run a search and see if there is a subject-matter digest of practice relating to your question. For example, the Journal on the Use of Force and International Law includes, in each issue, a digest of practice on the use of force, divided by regions. The ICRC Customary Law Study website contains an updating database of practice on IHL. But again, these are only examples.

Unfortunately, a lot of relevant material is not compiled or indexed anywhere, and you will have to look for it in other places. Beyond the UN databases, you can find states’ positions in their governmental websites (typically the ministry of foreign affairs). NGO reports can be found in the specific organization’s website. A lot of information can be found in trustworthy media outlets (and we leave the discussion of what is “trustworthy” for another day). The New York Times’ searchable archive is a formidable tool for finding different positions of various actors in relation to current and historical events. For delving deeper, access into institutional archives might be needed.

Furthermore, sometimes, to gain access to relevant practice, you will need to search domestic legislation and rulings, beyond those found in the general databases mentioned above (such as the Oxford databases). Domestic legislation and rulings are especially pertinent when looking for “ general principles of law ,” which form a part of the sources of international law. [35] There is no single way to look for sources in domestic jurisdictions: each jurisdiction has its own system and databases. For instance, for English-speaking jurisdictions, Westlaw and Lexis are leading databases.

Last, nowadays, it is important not to neglect social media. For better or for worse, states and other international actors often share positions (and, ahem, insults) on Twitter. [36] These might also be relevant for your research.

III. Conclusion

All in all, there is no single way to think about any of the issues discussed in this guide. Some researchers will contest many of the definitions and suggestions offered here. This just serves to emphasize that determining the “best” way to approach research has a strong individual component. At least in legal research, beyond strict methodological requirements that might apply in socio-legal research, each researcher develops her own way and understandings as she gains knowledge and experience. I hope that this guide helps you to begin to find your own.

*    Associate Professor, Tel Aviv University Buchmann Faculty of Law.

[1]   See, e.g. , Martti Koskenniemi & Päivi Leino, Fragmentation of International Law? Postmodern Anxieties , 15 Leiden J. Int’l L. 553 (2002).

[2]   Compare Monica Hakimi, Making Sense of Customary International Law , 118 Mich. L. Rev. 1487 (2020) with Kevin Jon Heller, Customary International Law Symposium: The Stubborn Tenacity of Secondary Rules , Opinio Juris (Jul. 7, 2020).

[3]  Tom Ruys & Luca Ferro,  Weathering the Storm: Legality and Legal Implications of the Saudi-Led Military Intervention in Yemen , 65 Int’l & Comp. L.Q. 61 (2016).

[4]  Felix S. Cohen,  Transcendental Nonsense and the Functional Approach , 35 Colum. L. Rev. 809 (1935).

[5]   Anthea Roberts, Is International Law International? (2017).

[6]  Eyal Benvenisti & Doreen Lustig, Monopolizing War: Codifying the Laws of War to Reassert Governmental Authority, 1856–1874 , 31 Eur. J. Int’l L. 127 (2020).

[7]  Gabriella Blum, The Dispensable Lives of Soldiers , 2 J. Leg. Analysis 115 (2010).

[8]  For an explanation, see Scott J. Shapiro, Legality 47–49 (2011).

[9]   Andrea Bianchi, International Law Theories: An Inquiry into Different Ways of Thinking (2016).

[10]   See Emmerich de Vattel, The Law of Nations, bk. I, ch. IV, §§38–39 (Béla Kapossy & Richard Whatmore eds., 2008) (1758).

[11]   See, e.g. , Adil Ahmad Haque, Law and Morality at War (2017).

[12]  Ronald Dworkin, Law’s Empire (1986).

[13]  Thomas M. Franck, Legitimacy in the International System, 82 Am. J. Int’l L. 705 (1988)

[14]  Jeffrey L. Dunoff & Joel P. Trachtman,  Economic Analysis of International Law , 24 Yale J. Int’l L. 1 (1999).

[15]  W. Michael Reisman, The View from the New Haven School of International Law , 86 Am. Soc’y Int’l L. Proc. 118 (1992).

[16]   See Harlan Grant Cohen, Are We (Americans) All International Legal Realists Now?, in Concepts on International Law in Europe and the United States (Chiara Giorgetti & Guglielmo Verdirame, eds., forthcoming), https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3025616.

[17]  Martti Koskenniemi, What Is Critical Research in International Law? Celebrating Structuralism , 29 Leiden J. Int’l L. 727 (2016).

[18]  Martti Koskenniemi, The Politics of International Law , 1 Eur. J. Int’l L. 4 (1999).

[19]  Aeyal M. Gross, Human Proportions: Are Human Rights the Emperor’s New Clothes of the International Law of Occupation?,  18 Eur. J. Int’l L. 1 (2007).

[20]  Antony Anghie, Francisco de Vitoria and the Colonial Origins of International Law , 5 Soc. & Leg. Stud. 321 (1996); see also Sundhya Pahuja, The Postcoloniality of International Law , 46 Harv. J. Int’l L. 459 (2005).

[21]  Ntina Tzouvala, Civilization, in Concepts for International Law: Contributions to Disciplinary Thought 83 (Jean d’Aspremont & Sahib Singh eds., 2019).

[22]  Fionnuala Ní Aoláin, The Gender of Occupation , 45 Yale J. Int’l L. 335 (2020).

[23]  Steven R. Ratner & Anne-Marie Slaughter,  Appraising the Methods of International Law: A Prospectus for Readers , 93 Am. J. Int’l L. 291, 292 (1999).

[24]  Statute of the International Court of Justice, Art. 38(1)(d), June 26, 1945, 59 Stat. 1055, 33 U.N.T.S. 933.

[25]   See Justina Uriburu, Between Elitist Conversations and Local Clusters: How Should we Address English-centrism in International Law?, Opinio Juris (Nov. 2, 2020), https://opiniojuris.org/2020/11/02/between-elitist-conversations-and-local-clusters-how-should-we-address-english-centrism-in-international-law/.

[26]   See Cohen, supra note 15. See also William C. Banks & Evan J. Criddle, Customary Constraints on the Use of Force: Article 51 with an American Accent, 29 Leiden J. Int’l L. 67 (2016).

[27]  David Luban, Military Necessity and the Cultures of Military Law , 26 Leiden J. Int’l L. 315 (2013); see also Eyal Benvenisti, The Legal Battle to Define the Law on Transnational Asymmetric Warfare , 20 Duke J. Comp. & Int’l L. 339, 348 (2010).

[28]  1 Lassa Oppenheim, International Law: A Treatise (1912).

[29]  Jake Goldenfein, Sebastian Benthall, Daniel Griffin & Eran Toch, Private Companies and Scholarly Infrastructure — Google Scholar and Academic Autonomy (Oct. 28, 2019), https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3476911.

[30]   See, e.g. , Kenneth W. Abbott & Duncan Snidal, Hard and Soft Law in International Governance , 54 Int’l Org. 421 (2000).

[31]  For this type of thinking, see Hakimi, supra note 2.

[32]   See Ratner, supra note 23.

[33] See Koskenniemi, supra note 1.

[34]  Harold Hongju Koh, Is there a “New” New Haven School of International Law? , 32 Yale J. Int’l L. 559 (2007).

[35]   See, e.g. , M. Cherif Bassiouni,  A Functional Approach to “General Principles of International Law” , 11 Mich J. Int’l L. 768 (1990).

[36]  Francis Grimal, Twitter and the jus ad bellum: threats of force and other implications , 6 J. Use of Force & Int’l L. 183 (2019).

Dr. Eliav Lieblich is an Associate Professor at Tel-Aviv University’s Buchmann Faculty of Law. He teaches and researches public international law, with a focus on the laws on the use of force, just war theory, international humanitarian law, and the history and theory of international law. Dr. Lieblich has been awarded two Israel Science Foundations grants, as well as the Alon Fellowship for Outstanding young faculty, awarded by the Council of Higher Education. His scholarship was published, among others, in the European Journal of International Law, the British Yearbook of International Law, and the Hastings Law Journal.

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• Truth Commissions
• International News
• International Elections and Opinion

Middle East

• South America/Caribbean
• Theories of IR, A-F
• Theories of IR, G-N
• Theories of IR, O-S
• Theories of IR, T-Z
• Additional Research and Writing Guides

Legal Databases

Legal Research Databases

• Annotated Leading Cases of International Criminal Tribunals [from Law Library's alphabetical e-resources list] -- provides full-text access to important decisions in various international tribunals and commentary about those decisions from international criminal law experts.
• British and Irish Legal Information Institute -- a full-text database of British and Irish case law and legislation, European Union case law, Law Commission reports, and other law-related British and Irish material.
• Constitute -- this site offers access to the world’s constitutions so that users can systematically compare them across a broad set of topics. The system includes the currently-in-force constitution for nearly every independent state in the world, as well as some draft and historical texts. It allows you to quickly find relevant excerpts on a particular subject, no matter how they are worded on topics, such as, “right to privacy” or “equality regardless of gender.” Filtered searching can be used to view results for a specific region or time period, or explore draft or historical texts. All of Constitute’s URLs are deep links, meaning you can link to a particular topic search, constitutional comparison, or even a specific constitutional provision directly, or share them on your social media accounts.
• European Justice -- provides access to information on justice systems and justice throughout the European Union, in 23 languages. The database covers legal information regarding family matters for cross-border issues, legislation, procedures, fees, and forms regarding financial issues, legal procedures in civil and criminal cases, detailed information on the process of taking legal action in the EU, various pages pertaining to EU citizens' rights, information on business, land and insolvency registers at EU and national level, and applicable legislation to EU citizens and case law judgements. The advanced search option can be used to limit results to a specific country, language, and time period.
• Foreign Law Guide   -- contains both primary and secondary source legal information for more than 170 jurisdictions from major nations to crown colonies, semi-independent states, and supra-national regional organizations.
• Global-Regulation -- a comprehensive, user-friendly search engine of machine-produced English translations of regulatory laws from approximately 128 data sources representing jurisdictions throughout the world, including the European Union.
• HeinOnline Law Journal Library   -- provides access to more than 3,000 searchable, pdf formatted legal and other disciplinary journals . Coverage is from the first issue published for all periodicals. Excellent resource for searching the legal literature on any aspect of law.
• Human Rights Studies Online -- a research database that provides comparative documentation, analysis, and interpretation of major human rights violations and atrocity crimes worldwide from 1900 to 2010. The growing collection takes a case study approach in providing access to primary and secondary evidence across multiple media formats (more than 75,000 pages of text and 150 hours of video) that give voice to the countless victims of human rights crimes, including Armenia, the Holocaust, Cambodia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Rwanda, Darfur, and more than thirty other major subject areas.
• Index to Foreign Legal Periodicals [from Law Library alphabetical e-resources list] -- multilingual index to more than 800 legal journals worldwide from 1984 to the present. The database covers international (public and private), comparative, and municipal law of countries other than the United States, the U.K., Canada, and Australia. Full-text of articles are available for journals in the HeinOnline system. Otherwise, you can access most journals at the Law Library .
• LEXIS/NEXIS Academic -- a database that includes full text access to law review journals, federal and state case law, European Union Cases, and the complete contents of the International Legal Materials publication from the American Society of International Law.
• Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law [from law library e-resources list] -- this online version is a peer reviewed, regularly updated, and comprehensive work covering the central and essential topics in international law. Particular attention has been paid to the contextualization of each topic within international law as well as the presentation of current trends while maintaining a focus on the mainstream/majority view.
• Philosopher's Index -- indexes articles from over 550 English and foreign language philosophy journals covering topics such as ethics, social and political philosophy, and the philosophy of law, religion, science, history, education, and language.
• World Legal Information Institute [WorldLII] Database [ copy and paste this link: http://www.worldlii.org/ ]  -- an open access database of Internet-accessible legislation, constitutions, statutes, case law, superior or high court decisions, journals, treaties, law reform, domain name decisions, secondary materials, and related legal material from around the globe.

Descriptions of resources are adapted or quoted from vendor websites.

Research Guides by Topic

Below are select online research guides to international law:

• Georgetown Law School
• New York University Law Library
• UCLA School of Law
• USC Gould School of Law

United Nations Human Rights Research Guides

• Drafting of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights
• Enhancing the Human Rights Treaty Body System
• Human Rights Special Procedures: Thematic Mandates
• Indigenous Issues
• International Commissions of Inquiry, Fact-finding Missions
• UDHR70: 30 Articles - 30 Documents
• UN Convention Against Torture (1984)
• UN Documentation: Human Rights
• Universal Declaration of Human Rights for Children and Youth

United Nations

United Nations--Overview and Finding Aids

• General Website
• A-Z Site Index
• Directory of United Nations System Organizations
• Global Issues Overview Website
• Yearbook of the United Nations

Core Research Databases

• UN Digital Library
• United Nations Official Documents System

Other Databases/Documents Collections

• 1540 Committee Legislative Database
• Database of the Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC)
• General Assembly Resolutions
• Index to Emergency Special Sessions
• Index to Special Sessions
• Journal of the United Nations
• Maritime Space: Legislation and Treaties
• UN Archives Collections Online
• United Nations Peacemaker
• United Nations Treaty Collection Database

Human Rights Information

• Universal Human Rights Index

Legal Structure

• International Court of Justice

Charter-based Bodies

• Human Rights Council
• Universal Periodic Review
• Special Procedures of the Human Rights Council
• United Nations Human Rights Office of the High Commissioner

Treaty-based Bodies

There are eight human rights treaty bodies that monitor the implementation of the   core international human rights treaties :

• Human Rights Committee (CCPR)
• Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (CESCR)
• Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination (CERD)
• Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW)
• Committee Against Torture (CAT) and Optional Protocol to the Convention against Torture (OPCAT) - Subcommittee on Prevention of Torture
• Committee on the Rights of the Child (CRC)
• Committee on Migrant Workers   (CMW)
• Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD)

United Nations Human Rights Treaty System

• Fact Sheet no. 30

Other important United Nations agencies concerned with international law and human rights:

• DESA (Department of Economic and Social Affairs)
• Division for the Advancement of Women (DAW)
• Food and A griculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)
• Inter-Agency Standing Committee (IASC)
• International Labour Organization (ILO)
• International Money Laundering Information Network
• International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea
• Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS)
• Office of the Special Adviser on Gender Issues and the Advancement of Women (OSAGI)
• United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF)
• United Nations Commission on International Trade Law (UNCITRAL)
• United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)
• United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)
• United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR)
• United Nations Human Settlements Programme (HABITAT)
• United Nations Mine Action
• United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs
• United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs
• United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA)
• World Health Organization (WHO)

Economic and Social Council

• Resolutions

The following bodies report directly to Economic and Social Council:

• Commission on Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice
• Commission on Narcotic Drugs
• Commission on Science and Technology for Development
• Commission for Social Development
• Commission on the Status of Women
• Commission on Sustainable Development
• Population Division
• Statistical Commission
• United Nations Forum on Forests

Regional Commissions

• Economic Commission for Africa (ECA)
• Economic Commission for Europe (ECE)
• Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (CEPAL)
• Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP)
• Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia (ESCWA)

United Nations Security Council

The following bodies report directly to the Security Council:

• 1540 Committee
• Counter-Terrorism Committee
• Informal Working Group on Documentation and Other Procedural Question
• International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (Legacy Site)
• International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (Legacy Site)
• Peacekeeping Operations and Missions
• Sanctions Committees
• United Nations Compensation Commission
• United Nations International Residual Mechanism for Criminal Tribunals
• United Nations Peacebuilding Commission
• Working Group on Children and Armed Conflict

United Nations Research Guides

• United Nations Dag Hammarskjold Library Research Guides

Internet Resource Guides and Other Sources

Below is a select list of web sites with links to additional resources on international law.

• Australasian Legal Information Institute
• Cornell Law School: Legal Information Institute
• FLAG Foreign Law Guide
• Globalex: Foreign Law; Subject Law Collections on the Web
• Guide to Law Online: Nations of the World
• The Hague Justice Portal
• University of Minnesota Human Rights Library
• WorldLII: World Legal Information Institute
• World Law Guid e

Current Awareness and Blogs

• Global Legal Monitor
• Justia's List of Blawgs
• International Law Reporter
• Yale University's Foreign and International Law Blog

Related Social Sciences Databases

Social and Behavioral Sciences Databases

Listed below are databases that provide access to legal research applied to specific fields of study.

• ABI/Inform Global [legal aspects of business and management]
• AgeLine [legal aspects of social gerontology and aging and the rights of the elderly]
• America: History and Life [historical aspects of law in the United States and Canada]
• Anthropology Plus [cultural aspects of law]
• ATLA Religion Database [legal aspects of religion and religious rights]
• Child Development and Adolescent Studies  [children's rights]
• Communication Source [legal aspects of communication and the media]
• Criminal Justice Database [criminal law and penology]
• EconLit [economic aspects of law and economic rights]
• Environment Index [legal aspects of the environment and energy practice]
• ERIC [legal aspects of education and right to education; teaching of law ]
• Ethnic NewsWatch   [legal rights of minority, indigenous, and ethnic groups]
• Family and Society Studies Worldwide [legal aspects of families and individuals within the family unit]
• Historical Abstracts [historical aspects of law, excluding the United States and Canada]
• LGBT Life   [law applied to the rights of LGBTQ communities]
• Linguistics and Language Behavior Abstracts [legal aspects of language protection and sociolinguistic approaches to law]
• Pollution Abstracts  [legal aspects of toxic waste and pollution management]
• PsycInfo   [psychological aspects of law]
• Public Administration Abstracts [legal aspects of administrative structures and public organizations and services]
• Sociological Abstracts [legal aspects of human social relationships and institutions]
• SPORTDiscus [legal aspects of sports]
• Violence and Abuse Abstracts [legal aspects of family violence, sexual assault, and emotional abuse]
• Water Resources Abstracts [legal aspects of water resource management and water rights]
• Women's Studies International [women's rights and feminist approaches to law]
• Worldwide Political Science Abstracts [political aspects of law]

News Sources

• Access World News

Multidisciplinary

• GovInfo [U.S. government documents]
• JSTOR [multidisciplinary journal article archive]
• ProQuest Multiple [multidisciplinary newspapers, magazines, and journals]

Human Rights Law

Below is a select list of web sites with links to additional resources on human rights law.

• Amnesty International
• ASEAN Human Rights Mechanism
• Country Reports on Human Rights Practices
• European Court of Human Rights
• Inter-American Commission on Human Rights
• World Legal Information Institute

Document Collections

• University of Texas Human Rights Documentation Initiative

Human Rights Research Guide

• American Society of International Law

Listed below are organizations and advocacy groups that research, provide information about, or advocate for human rights.

• Global Campus for Human Rights -- an interdisciplinary center formed by universities from all European Union member states committed to the promotion of high-level inter-disciplinary human rights education, research, training, and culture, and a shared global understanding of human rights and democracy.
• Global Alliance of National Human Rights Institutions -- unites, promotes, and strengthens the global network of National Human Rights Institutions to operate in line with the Paris Principles and provides leadership in the promotion and protection of human rights.Includes access to the SDGs and Human Rights Toolbox that compiles resources (training materials, reports, databases, etc.) from relevant organizations, covering a wide range of thematic areas and issues of pertinence to specific regions and stakeholders and a database of human rights publications, reports, and official documents.
• Global Health and Human Rights Database -- a free online database of law from around the world relating to health and human rights. The database offers an interactive, searchable, and fully indexed website of case law, national constitutions and international instruments.
• International Justice Resource Center -- a nonprofit human rights organization that aims to educate and empower individuals to better understand their human rights as global citizens. IJRC has extensive overviews of human rights laws, its directories of the international courts and bodies that monitor them, and its accompanying research aids. Within these aids, there are Thematic Research Guides—comprehensive primers outlining specific human rights (e.g., citizenship, education, asylum, immigration) and their associated oversight mechanisms and latest developments. The website also provides resources for staying up to date on recent global developments through “News and Events” and its “Media and Publications” section, where visitors can download various manuals and even view videos of some of their prior training sessions.

International Environmental Law

Below is a select list of web sites with links to additional resources on international environmental law.

• ECOLEX: A Gateway to Environmental Law
• Environmental Legal Instruments (UNEP)
• Environmental Treaties and Resource Indicators
• European Union Directorate-General for the Environment
• Pace Virtual Environmental Law Library

International Environmental Law Research Guide

• International Society of International Law

International Courts and Tribunals

Listed below are standing institutions intended to settle disputes between sovereign States through binding decisions based on international law:

Criminal Bodies

• Ad Hoc Court for East Timor
• Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia
• International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda
• International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia
• Special Court for Sierra Leone
• Special Tribunal for Lebanon
• War Crimes Panel in Bosnia-Herzegovina

Organizations

• Project on International Courts and Tribunals
• WorldLII, International Courts & Tribunals Database

Regional Bodies

• African Court on Humans and People's Rights
• Common Market of Eastern and Southern African (COMESA) Court of Justice
• East African Community (EAC) Court of Justice
• Economic Community of Central African States (ECCAS/CEEAC) Court of Justice
• Economic and Monetary Community of Central Africa (CEMAC) Court of Justice
• Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS/CEDEAO) Court of Justice
• Organization for the Harmonization of African Business Law (OHADA/OHABLA) Common Court of Justice and Arbitration
• Southern African Development Community (SADC) Tribunal
• West African Economic and Monetary Union (WAEMU/UEMOA) Court of Justice
• Arab Commission for Human Rights
• Arab Maghreb Union (AMU/UMA) Judicial Authority
• Caribbean Court of Justice
• Court of Justice of the Andean Community
• Inter-American Court of Human Rights
• System of Central American Integration

Arbitration

• International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes
• North American Free Trade Agreement
• Permanent Court of Arbitration
• Court of Justice of the Benelux Economic Union
• Court of Justice of the European Communities and Court of First Instance
• Court of Justice of the European Free Trade Agreement

International Residual Mechanism for Criminal Tribunals -- organization of the UN mandated to perform a number of essential functions previously carried out by the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (“ICTR”) and the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (“ICTY”). In carrying out these essential functions the Mechanism maintains the legacies of these two pioneering  ad hoc  international criminal courts and strives to reflect best practices in the field of international criminal justice.

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• Last Updated: Mar 27, 2024 1:22 PM
• URL: https://libguides.usc.edu/IR

Articles on International law

Displaying 1 - 20 of 407 articles.

International prosecution of Israeli or Hamas leaders wouldn’t bring quick justice − and even bringing them to court will be difficult

Victor Peskin , Arizona State University

Elon Musk vs Australia: global content take-down orders can harm the internet if adopted widely

Dan Jerker B. Svantesson , Bond University

Technology makes it easy for lawyers to work across borders: regulations should too

Temitope Lawal , Bond University

Albanese government gives its special adviser on aid workers’ deaths in Gaza a wide brief

Michelle Grattan , University of Canberra

Gaza war: countries selling Israel weapons are violating international law – legal expert

Lawrence Hill-Cawthorne , University of Bristol

Gaza war: is UN security council ‘demand’ for a ceasefire legally binding? Here’s what international law says

Amanda Cahill-Ripley , University of Liverpool

Gaza update: the prospect of mass famine is beginning to change minds in Washington

Jonathan Este , The Conversation

British troops operating on the ground in Ukraine – what international law says

Christoph Bluth , University of Bradford

By boat or by plane? If you’re seeking asylum in Australia, the outcome is similarly bleak

Savitri Taylor , La Trobe University

NZ is bound by international mental health agreements – statistics for Māori show we’re failing to uphold them

Claire Breen , University of Waikato ; Robert Joseph , University of Waikato , and Thilini Karunaratne , University of Waikato

With airstrikes on Houthi rebels, are the US and UK playing fast and loose with international law?

Christian Henderson , University of Sussex

UN court ruling against Israel shows limits of legal power to prevent genocide − but rapid speed

What is rule 39? UK government tells civil servants to ignore European court of human rights on Rwanda deportations

Kanstantsin Dzehtsiarou , University of Liverpool

Western moral credibility is dying along with thousands of Gaza citizens

Shaun Narine , St. Thomas University (Canada)

What are the principles of civilian immunity in war? A scholar of justice in war explains

J. Toby Reiner , Dickinson College

South Africa has made its genocide case against Israel in court. Here’s what both sides said and what happens next

Paul Taucher , Murdoch University and Dean Aszkielowicz , Murdoch University

What enforcement power does the International Court of Justice have in South Africa’s genocide case against Israel?

South Africa’s legal team in the genocide case against Israel has won praise. Who are they?

Narnia Bohler-Muller , Human Sciences Research Council

South Africa is taking Israel to court for genocide in Palestine. What does it mean for the war in Gaza?

Donald Rothwell , Australian National University

South Africa’s genocide case against Israel: expert sets out what to expect from the International Court of Justice

Magnus Killander , University of Pretoria

Related Topics

• Asylum seekers
• Human rights
• International Criminal Court
• Ukraine invasion 2022
• United Nations

Top contributors

Associate Professor in Human Rights and International Law, University of Newcastle

Course Co-ordinator, International Law Clinical Program, ANU College of Law, Australian National University

Associate Professor, The University of Western Australia

Executive Director, University of Dayton Human Rights Center, University of Dayton

Challis Chair of International Law, Sydney Law School, University of Sydney

Adjunct Professor, Institute for Marine and Antarctic Studies, University of Tasmania

Associate Professor of Law, Deakin Law School, Deakin University

Associate Professor of Politics and Global Studies, Arizona State University

Emeritus Professor of International Law, Western Sydney University

Professor of Law, University of Waikato

Lecturer in Law, Murdoch University

Reader (Associate Professor) in Law, University of Kent

Senior Lecturer in Law, University of Westminster

Professor, University of Wollongong

Senior Lecturer, Deakin University

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International Legal Research: Introduction

Introduction.

• Sources of Law
• Court Decisions
• General Principles
• Treatises & Law Review Articles
• EU Treaties & Secondary Legislation
• Official Publication of EU Law
• Europa and Eur-Lex
• EU Legislative Process
• National Legislation
• EU Court Decisions
• Overview of UN
• U.N. Documentation
• U.N. Resources & Research Tools
• Other Sources of UN Documents
• World Trade Organization
• International Arbitration
• Finding Arbitral Decisions
• Harmonization of International Trade
• Bilateral Investment Treaties
• Human Rights Resources, Research Guides & Journals
• U.N. Human Rights System
• Regional Human Rights Systems
• International Human Rights Cases
• NGOs & Country Reports
• Constitutions
• Harmonization of Foreign Law
• Subject Collections
• Treaty Subject Collections
• Treaty Status
• Citing to Treaties
• Treaty Interpretation
• Treaty Implementation
• International Environmental Law
• International Intellectual Property Law

Public international law, as traditionally defined, is the law governing relations between nation states.

Foreign law is simply the national law (also known as domestic or municipal law) of another country.

Private international law is a confusing term in that it refers to the national law(s) governing the cross-border interactions of private (non-state) parties, rather than international law. The question that often arises in such instances is "which country's law applies?". Private international law is, therefore, sometimes referred to as conflicts of laws, although the parties can select the law which governs their transaction by contract. A number of private international law topics are covered by treaty (i.e. family law, estates and trusts, litigation). Since treaties are characteristic of the public international law system, the idea that a treaty would apply to a private international law issue can be confusing as well. Often the aim of such treaties is to harmonize national laws. 

The sources of public international law are enumerated under Article 38 of the Statute of the International Court of Justice , which is appended to the Charter of the United Nations. Those sources are, as follows: treaties, custom, general principles and case law and scholarly commentary as a subsidiary means for determining the rules of law. Treaties, custom and general principles are primary sources of law in the public international legal system. Court decisions and scholarly writings are secondary sources. T reaties are written agreements between nations. Customary law is state practice which is done out of a sense of obligation. General principles are those general legal principles which courts all over the world have recognized. Note that the documentation of inter-governmental organizations (IGOs) like the United Nations or so called "soft law" is not listed as a source of law under the ICJ Statute, perhaps because the Statute was drafted before the proliferation of IGOs.

Treaties are written instruments which can be found in several sources, both official and unofficial. In contrast, custom and general principles are not written down. Evidence of custom and general principles must be derived from other sources, such as treaties, UN documentation and court decisions.

The purpose of this guide is to introduce researchers to basic treaty and other sources for researching public and private international law. In addition, this guide will cover foreign law research and specific topics in international law, including international human rights law, intellectual property, international trade and international environmental law.

International legal materials are generally found under Library of Congress (LC) call number KZ .

Sample Library of Congress subject headings include:

• International Law
• International Organization

Comparative legal materials (i.e. titles which compare or contain laws of multiple countries) can be found under call number K or subject headings, like those below, with no specific jurisdiction designation:

• Trademarks (International Law)
• Consolidation and merger of corporations----Law and Legislation
• International Business Enterprises

Catalogs are the key to using any library collection. Use the catalog when you want to find book titles on a particular topic. In addition to checking the UIC Law Library catalog , you can expand your search for relevant books titles to other libraries throughout the world by using Worldcat . Note that the same LC call numbers and subject headings used in this library's catalog are used in other law libraries and Worldcat.

Worldcat , as its name suggests, is a catalog of book titles held by libraries all over the world. Worldcat uses the same Library of Congress subject headings as those used in the UIC Law Library catalog. Thus, you can use Worldcat to expand your research beyond the four walls of this Library. Use the advanced search template to search as shown below.

A traditional catalog is a tool designed to enable researchers to find book titles in a library collection. To find articles, researchers have to use a separate but similar tool known as an index. However, some catalogs now blur this distinction by including records for book titles and journal articles. 

The Peace Palace Library catalog is an example of this new hybrid. It makes international legal research very efficient as researchers can now find book titles, chapters and articles on international law issues all in one place. 

For more information on the use of catalogs and indexes, see the  Treatises and Law Review Articles tab.  

Reference Titles: Dictionaries

Boczek, International Law: a dictionary. 6th floor Reference KZ1161 .B63 2005

Fellmeth, Guide to Latin in International Law . 6th floor Reference K52 .L37 F45 2009

Parry & Grant Encyclopaedic Dictionary of International Law . 3rd ed. 6th floor Reference   KZ1161 .P37 2009

Oxford English Dictionary

Encyclopedias

Ozmanczyk, The Encyclopedia of the United Nations and International Agreements, 7th floor KZ4968 .O86 2003

Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law, 10th floor KZ1160 .E52 1981

Abbreviations & Citation

Cardiff Index to Legal Abbreviations

Request a Research Appointment

Need more help? Reference librarians are available to meet with students in one-on-one sessions (or in small groups) to discuss research strategies, recommend relevant resources or review specific topics of legal research. 

Contact [email protected] with the subject you're researching and when you would like to meet. A librarian will get back to you to set up an appointment. You can also schedule an appointment on the library homepage by clicking "Schedule an Online Research Appointment." We ask that you request your appointment at least 2 days in advance, but remember that you can always stop by the reference desk for immediate help with a quick research question.

• Next: Sources of Law >>
• Last Updated: Feb 1, 2024 3:47 PM
• URL: https://libraryguides.law.uic.edu/intres

• University Libraries
• Research Guides
• International Law & Human Rights: A Short Guide
• Special Topics

International Law & Human Rights: A Short Guide: Special Topics

• Basic Resources
• Human Rights by COUNTRY

Land Rights

• Land Portal
• FAO Gender and Land Rights Database
• Contemporary Land Grabbing, Research, and Bibliography by Jootaek Lee 107 Law Library Journal (Spring 2015) Northeastern University School of Law Research Paper No. 216-2015
• Global Health & Human Rights Resources & Databases (University of Southern California)
• Health and Human Rights Syllabi Database (USC) Syllabi from institutions worldwide.
• Gender, equity and human rights Programme (WHO)
• Special Rapporteur on the right of everyone to the enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health (UN)
• SHARIASource Portal (Harvard) A Portal for organizing the world’s information on Islamic law. It is a project of the Program in Islamic Law at Harvard Law School,
• SHARIASource Blog (Harvard) News and information from the Program in Islamic Law at the Harvard Law School.
• SHARIASource Newsletter Newsletter archives from the Program in Islamic Law at the Harvard Law School.
• Laws Criminalizing Apostasy in Selected Jurisdictions (2014) by Hanibal Goitom, Global Legal Research Center (Library of Congress) Covers: Afghanistan, Algeria, Bahrain ,Brunei, Egypt, Indonesia, Iran ,Iraq , Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco, Oman, Pakistan, Qatar, Sudan, Syria , Tunisia ,United Arab Emirates , & Yemen
• What Countries Criminalize Religious Conversion? Our New Report Examines this Question June 12, 2014 by Hanibal Goitom
• Special Rapporteur on freedom of religion or belief (UN) See links (on right) to reports, documents, and more.
• Feminist Sexual Ethics Project (Brandeis University) Many topics covered, including: ---Slavery, Religion and Sexual Ethics ---Jewish Sexual Ethics ---Muslim Sexual Ethics ---Christian Sexual Ethics
• KARAMAH: Muslim Women Lawyers for Human Rights. Articles and research about "...Shari’ah in general and the rights afforded to women in Islam, as well as conflict resolution, civil rights, and leadership....KARAMAH also disseminates the scholarship of Muslim jurists and other scholars from around the world... on Islamic Law..."
• US Court cases on Islamic Law From KARAMAH: Muslim Women Lawyers for Human Rights. "...Case studies are provided as a brief overview of how different courts in the U.S. have decided on matters relating to Islamic Law...."

Human Rights of Women

• Gendering Documentation: A Manual For and About Women Human Rights Defenders. Women Human Rights Defenders International Coalition (PDF; 105 pages.)
• Women in International Law: Research Sources (2002) (L. Louis-Jacques,U. Chicago)
• Honour Crimes Project (The Centre of Islamic and Middle Eastern Law)
• Feminist Sexual Ethics Project (Brandeis University) 
Covers: Marriage and divorce; Dating; Sexual orientation; Family; Women's rights; Family planning; Sex education; Sexual harassment; Rape; Child sexual abuse; Clergy sexual misconduct; Sex workers; Trafficking in women. Includes:
Slavery, Religion and Sexual Ethics, 
Jewish Sexual Ethics,
Muslim Sexual Ethics, 
Christian Sexual Ethics, & 
Resources
• International Family Law: A Selective Resource Guide (2000) (by Marylin J. Raisch)
• Transnational and Comparative Family Law: Harmonization and Implementation (2013) (Globalex Research Guide by Marylin Johnson Raisch)
• Women’s Human Rights Conventions from: University of Minnesota Human Rights Library
• Legal Profiles (Islamic Family Law—Emory University)
• Sexual and Reproductive Health (WHO)
• Law Students for Reproductive Justice (If/When/How) Academic Resources
• women's rights & gender equality (The Guardian) In depth articles, interactive databases, video, photos, and more (from The Guardian)
• Rights of Women (OAS) Office of the Rapporteur on the Rights of Women, Inter-American Commission on Human Rights (IACHR).
• Gender Equality and Women (RefWorld) UNHCR
• Trafficking in Human Beings (RefWorld) UNHCR
• Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity (RefWorld) UNHCR
• Browse SSRN Networks & eJournal Subject Areas Included are: -Women, Law, & Human Rights eJournal (SSRN) http://www.ssrn.com/link/Women-Law-Human-Rights.html -Women, Gender & the Law eJournal (SSRN) http://www.ssrn.com/link/women-gender-law.html -Sexuality & the Law eJournal (SSRN) http://www.ssrn.com/link/Sexuality-Law.html -Reproductive Justice, Law & Policy eJournal (SSRN) http://www.ssrn.com/link/Reproductive-Justice.html -Family & Children's Law eJournal (SSRN) http://www.ssrn.com/link/family-law.html
• Making Laws, Breaking Silence: Case Studies from the Field edited by RANGITA DE SILVA DE ALWIS. This book "grows out of a high level roundtable convened by Penn Law, UN Women, UNESCO, UN SDG Fund, and IDLO in March 2017. "
• Global Gender Equality Constitutional Database (UN Women) A repository of gender equality related provisions in 195 constitutions from around the world.

Same-Sex Marriage

• Same-Sex Marriage: Global Comparisons Council on Foreign Relations, CFR Backgrounder Author: Danielle Renwick, Copy Editor/Writer Updated: August 31, 2015

Subject Guide

Films & Videos

• Global Health Films Database (USC) List of films that "address global health topics—ranging from documentaries to animated shorts to docu-series—categorized by title, topic, year, run time, genre, producer and other relevant key words. To reorganize the list by a certain category, simply click on the heading. Use the search bar to type in topics, regions or other categories, and the list will be filtered to your search terms."
• Kanopy Streaming Service Kanopy offers more than 6,500 films in a wide variety of subject areas and from several educational film distributors including: Criterion Collection, Symptom Media, PBS, Green Planet Films, First Run Features, California Newsreel, BBCActive, NEVCO and German Film. Faculty can create clips/playlists and embed any video or clip in UBLearns.
• Swank Digital Campus A collection of more than 19,000 feature films, classic films, and documentaries can now be embedded directly into the UB Learns course management system and will allow students the flexibility of semester-long, 24/7 access to course-assigned films beyond the traditional classroom setting.
• Foreign, Comparative, and International Law and Justice on Film and TV: An A to Z List compiled by Lyonette Louis-Jacques, August 2010 rev
• Foreign, Comparative, and International Law and Justice on Film and TV videography, by Country/General. compiled by Lyonette Louis-Jacques. August 2010 rev.
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