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Farsi, also known as Persian, is an Iranian language belonging to the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European language family. It is primarily spoken in Iran (where it is the official language), Afghanistan, and Tajikistan. The Persian language has a rich literary tradition, with notable contributions to poetry, philosophy, and various fields of science.

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A Step-by-Step Guide to Reading and Writing in Persian Script

The Persian script is an elegant and beautiful writing system used for the Persian language and several other languages spoken in the Middle East and Central Asia. Learning to read and write in Persian script opens up a world of literature, poetry, and cultural understanding.

Whether you are planning to travel to Iran, have Persian heritage, or simply have a fascination with languages, this step-by-step guide will provide you with the necessary tools to navigate and master the Persian script. From understanding the alphabet and pronunciation to developing reading and writing skills, this comprehensive guide will take you on a journey toward fluency in Persian script.

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1- introduction to the persian script, history and significance of persian script.

The Persian script has a rich history that dates back to the 9th century. It is derived from the Arabic script but adapted to accommodate the unique sounds and phonetics of the Persian language. This script has great significance as it is not only used to write Persian but also several other languages spoken in Iran and neighboring countries.

Differences Between Persian Script and Roman Alphabet

One of the main differences between the Persian script and the Roman alphabet that we are familiar with is the direction of writing. Persian script is written from right to left, which may feel a bit disorienting at first for those accustomed to left-to-right scripts. Another difference is the existence of some additional letters in the Persian script to represent sounds that do not exist in the English language.

2- Understanding the Persian Alphabet

Overview of persian alphabet.

The Persian alphabet consists of 32 letters, each representing a specific sound. These letters are divided into two categories: vowels, and consonants. Understanding the Persian alphabet is the first step towards reading and writing in Persian script.

Vowels and Consonants in Persian Script

In Persian script, vowels are represented by diacritic marks placed above or below the consonants. This means that the same consonant can have different vowel sounds depending on its placement in a word. Consonants, on the other hand, are represented by distinct letters and are categorized into six groups based on their phonetic properties.

Pronunciation Guide for Persian Alphabet

Learning the pronunciation of some Persian alphabet can be a bit challenging for English speakers. However, with practice and some guidance, it becomes easier. Paying attention to the subtle differences in phonetics and practicing the sounds regularly can help improve your pronunciation skills in Persian script.

3- Mastering Persian Pronunciation

Essential sounds in the persian language.

To master Persian pronunciation , it is important to familiarize yourself with the essential sounds of the language. Persian has some unique sounds that may not exist in English, such as the “خ – kh” sound, which is pronounced deep in the throat. Understanding these sounds and training your tongue and vocal cords to produce them accurately will greatly enhance your pronunciation skills.

Common Pronunciation Challenges for English Speakers

English speakers may face certain challenges when pronouncing Persian sounds due to differences in phonetic systems. For example, the rolled “r” sound commonly found in English is not present in Persian. Additionally, the Persian script includes sounds that English speakers may find difficult to reproduce initially. Being aware of these challenges can help you focus on specific areas of improvement.

Tips for Improving Persian Pronunciation

Improving Persian pronunciation requires practice and dedication. One helpful tip is to listen to native Persian speakers and imitate their pronunciation. You can also make use of online resources or language exchange programs to practice speaking with native speakers. Consistency and patience will go a long way in refining your Persian pronunciation skills.

4- Developing Reading Skills in Persian Script

Reading practice with simple words.

To develop your reading skills in Persian script, start with simple words that you can easily understand. Practice reading aloud and gradually increase the complexity of the words as you become more comfortable. Reading simple texts, such as children’s books or beginner-level materials, can also be helpful in building your reading proficiency.

Reading Comprehension Strategies

When reading in Persian, it’s important to employ effective comprehension strategies. Start by understanding the context of the text and identify familiar words. Break down unfamiliar words into smaller parts and try to infer their meanings from the context. Using a dictionary or language learning apps can also aid in expanding your vocabulary and improving comprehension.

Common Vocabulary in Persian Script

Building your vocabulary is crucial for reading in Persian script. Start by learning common words used in everyday conversation and gradually expand your repertoire. Practice using new words in sentences to reinforce their meaning and usage. Flashcards or vocabulary lists can be handy tools to enhance your Persian vocabulary.

5- Building Vocabulary and Comprehension in Persian

Expanding your persian vocabulary.

Building your Persian vocabulary is like collecting gems to adorn your language skills. One way to expand your vocabulary is by learning new words every day. Start with basic everyday words like “سلام – salâm” (hello) and “خوبم – khubam” (I’m fine), and gradually move on to more complex words. You can also use flashcards or language-learning apps to practice and memorize new words. Remember, a rich vocabulary opens doors to better comprehension and expression in Persian.

Strategies for Comprehending Persian Texts

Reading Persian texts might seem a little challenging, but fear not! There are strategies to help you comprehend what you read. Start by reading simple texts and gradually progress to more challenging ones. Break down sentences and look up unfamiliar words. Context is your trusty guide, so pay attention to the surrounding words and phrases. And don’t forget to practice reading aloud to improve your pronunciation and fluency. With time and practice, Persian texts will become less intimidating and more enjoyable.

Resources for Building Farsi Language Skills

In your journey to master Persian, having the right resources is like having a treasure map that leads you to success. There are different resources available online and offline. There are some websites that offer audio lessons, vocabulary lists, and cultural insights. Persian textbooks such as Persian-English dictionaries and grammar books can be valuable companions, providing explanations and examples. Additionally, joining language exchange apps or finding a language partner can enhance your learning experience. Remember, with the right resources, you’ll be on your way to Persian proficiency in no time!

6- Writing in Persian: Basic Rules and Techniques

Introduction to the persian writing system.

Persian script is written from right to left, and each letter has multiple forms depending on its position in a word. Vowels are represented by diacritical marks placed above or below the consonants. It may seem intricate at first, but with practice, it will become easier.

Basic Rules of Persian Script Writing

Start by familiarizing yourself with the alphabet and the different forms of each letter. Pay attention to the placement of vowels, as they are crucial for accurate pronunciation. Practice writing individual letters, then move on to simple words and sentences. Remember to take it one step at a time, and soon you’ll be writing Persian like a pro.

Writing Exercises for Practice

Practice makes perfect, and when it comes to writing in Persian , it’s no exception. Start with simple writing exercises like copying Persian sentences or writing short paragraphs about everyday topics. As you gain confidence, challenge yourself with more complex exercises, such as summarizing articles or writing creatively. Don’t forget to review your work and ask for feedback to identify areas for improvement. With consistent practice and a dash of determination, your Persian writing skills will shine brightly.

Online Farsi courses on YouTube :

• Learn Farsi in 100 Days Course
• Read and Write the Persian Language in 7 Days
• Learn to Speak Persian / Farsi Fast

7- Advanced Writing Skills in Persian Script

Enhancing writing fluency in persian.

Once you have a solid foundation in the Persian script, it’s time to take your writing skills to the next level. Enhancing writing fluency involves practicing regularly and exposing yourself to different genres of writing. Write a message to friends, engage in online discussions, or even attempt creative writing projects. The more you immerse yourself in writing, the more natural it will become.

Writing Complex Sentences and Paragraphs

Writing complex sentences and paragraphs in Persian is like weaving a tapestry of words that captivates the reader. To achieve this, enhance your sentence structure by incorporating conjunctions, adverbs, and adjectives. Practice forming compound and complex sentences to express your ideas with depth and clarity. Remember to vary your sentence lengths to create a balanced and engaging flow.

Tips for Improving Persian Writing Style

Developing a unique and captivating writing style in Persian is like painting a masterpiece with your words. To enhance your writing style, read Persian literature and pay attention to the techniques used by skilled writers. Experiment with different writing techniques, such as metaphor, simile, and personification. Embrace your creativity and let your personality shine through your writing. Remember, the more you write, the more your distinct style will emerge.

8- Tips for Practicing and Improving Persian Script Proficiency

Effective strategies for regular practice.

Consistency is key when it comes to improving your Persian script proficiency. Incorporate regular practice into your daily routine. Set aside dedicated time for reading and writing in Persian. Practice with a variety of materials, such as books, or online articles. Embrace the challenge and keep pushing yourself to progress.

Utilizing Technology for Persian Script Learning

In this digital age, technology can be your loyal companion in mastering Persian script. Use language-learning apps to practice reading and writing. Online forums and language exchange platforms offer opportunities to connect with native Persian speakers. You can also find digital flashcards and pronunciation guides that make learning more engaging and interactive.

Seeking Language Exchange and Immersion Opportunities

Immersing yourself in the Persian language and culture is like diving into an ocean of opportunities for growth. Seek out language exchange partners who are native speakers of Persian or join online language exchange groups. Immerse yourself in Persian music , movies , and podcasts to improve your listening skills . Consider traveling to Iran to experience the language in its natural environment. Embrace every chance to practice and immerse yourself, and you’ll see your Persian script proficiency soar.

As you conclude this guide, you are now equipped with the essential knowledge and skills to read and write in Persian script. Remember, practice is key to improving your proficiency, so continue to engage in regular reading and writing exercises. Embrace the beauty of the Persian language and script, and explore the rich literary and cultural heritage it offers. With dedication and perseverance, you will unlock new opportunities for communication and connection with Persian-speaking communities around the world.

Let’s start!

1- Is learning Persian script difficult?

Learning any new writing system can be challenging, but with the right resources and practice, mastering Persian script is definitely achievable. With its logical structure and consistent rules, you can gradually develop your reading and writing skills over time.

2- Do I need to know the Persian language to learn Persian script?

No, you do not need to be fluent in Persian to learn the Persian script. However, having some understanding of the Persian language can certainly enhance your learning experience and help you make connections between the script and its linguistic context.

3- Can I use this guide to learn other Arabic-based scripts?

While this guide primarily focuses on the Persian script, many of the principles and techniques discussed can be applied to other Arabic-based scripts, such as Arabic itself, or languages like Urdu. However, it’s important to note that each script has its own unique features and characteristics, so additional resources specific to the desired script may be required.

4- Are there any online resources or tools recommended for learning Persian script?

Yes, there are several online resources and tools available to aid your learning journey. Websites, mobile apps, and online language courses can provide interactive lessons, drills, and practice materials to help you improve your skills in reading and writing Persian script.

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The Fundamentals of Reading and Writing in Persian (Farsi)- It's Easier Than You Think!

To celebrate the launch of our long long awaited Persian (Farsi) Reading and Writing Course here at Learn Persian with Chai and Conversation, we thought it would be nice to provide a little introduction to the fundamentals of reading and writing in the Persian language. In this article, we hope to

• Introduce you to the Persian alphabet
• Provide an overview of the letters of the alphabet
• Show the differences between the Persian and English Alphabet

But first,-

Why learn how to read and write in the Persian language?

In Chai and Conversation, we’ve always emphasized conversational Persian, and aim to get students verbally communicating effectively as quickly as possible. Learning a whole new alphabet and new system for reading may seem intimidating for people learning a new language, and for this reason, all of our Conversational Persian lessons feature the words we’re learning in phonetic English spelling. This eliminates one of the largest hurdles many people have to diving into the Persian language in the first place.

However, in truth, you will not be able to understand a language fully until you can read and write it in its original form. If you want to truly understand the Persian language, it’s important to be able to read and write as well.  Although it may seem difficult at first, once you understand a few basic principles, it’s quite easy to get the hang of it.

An Overview of the Persian Alphabet

The Persian alphabet consists of 32 letters . Although it is based on the Arabic alphabet, there are four letters in the Persian alphabet that do not appear in Arabic- these are پ , چ , ز , and گ ( pé , ché , zé and gé ).

There are several letters in the Persian alphabet that look different but make the same sound . For example, there are four letters that represent the sound ‘z’- ذ، ز، ض and ظ . Although they all look different, they all sound the same. Knowing which letter to use is a matter of memorization. This is actually a holdover from converting the alphabet from Arabic to Persian- in Arabic, the different versions DO make different sounds, but not when reading and writing in Persian. The sound 's' and 't' also have several different versions that look the same, but sound different. You can see them all in the alphabet reference guide below.

Most letters of the Persian alphabet have two different versions - what we call a bozorg (big) version and a koocheek (small) version , similar to capital versus lowercase versions in the English language. Depending on where the letter occurs in the word, they take on different versions. It's fairly intuitive to know which version to use based on placement in a given word- this simply comes with practice, and isn't something you need to worry about in the beginning of learning to read and write.

Also, many letters in the Persian alphabet are distinguished by the number and the positions of dots they have. So, many letters have the same base structure, but depending on the placement and number of dots, they are completely different sounds. For example- ت، ب and ث have similar 'bases,' and what differentiates them is the placement and numbers of dots they have.

Another slightly more complicated aspect of Persian writing is that many of the vowels are in the form of an 'accent' - and although they are provided when you're first learning to read and write, eventually, they are presumed to be understood and are not written at all. So for example, the word bad in Persian is written like this: بَد . The accent above the first letter is actually the vowel sound a. In most written Persian, the word will simply appear as بد as the writer will assume that you know based on the context of the word which accent it would have. Again, this sounds very complicated, but becomes intuitive fairly easily once you begin practicing reading and writing.

Alphabet Reference Guide

A note on the names of the letters in the Persian alphabet: Each letter of the alphabet has a formal name, and a sound that it makes. This is the same as in English- the letter ‘W’ for instance has a formal name (double you) and a sound (wa). Please see the end of the article for our pronunciation guide.

Differences Between the English and Persian Alphabets

One of the biggest differences between Persian and English is that Persian is written from right to left . So not only are words and sentences written from right to left, but books also open in the opposite direction from English books.

Another difference between Persian and English is that Persian letters are connected whether in print or in handwriting. For instance, in English, letters are connected only when writing in cursive. In Persian, however, they are always connected, even in print writing.

Persian writing is also more phonetic than English writing. For instance- in the word Pacific Ocean, the letter 'c' sounds different in every single instance of its use. Persian writing is not like this. When you see the letter س it always sounds like 's', no matter what.

Vowels in Persian Writing

The Persian language has 6 vowel sounds total . This is in contrast to English which, although there are only 5 letters representing vowels, there are a total of 15 vowel sounds, created by combining those vowels in different ways.

There are only three letters of the Persian alphabet that are purely vowels. These are و، آ and ی ( ā , oo , and ee ). The other three vowel sounds are in the form of accents. They are َ، ِ، and ُ. As said above these accents are provided in the beginning when you are learning to read and write, but later, they are assumed to be understood. So you must make an educated guess about which vowel a word has based on its context.

Ready to Learn More About Reading and Writing in Persian?

Not to worry- our highly anticipated Reading and Writing in Persian (Farsi) series is now available! The series features easy to understand videos, as well as comprehensive PDF Guides that will have you reading and writing in no time. If you're not a member of Chai and Conversation already, you can sign up for a free 30 day trial of the program, and begin learning!

PRONUNCIATION GUIDE:

a    short a     like in hat ā    long a        like in autumn é    ending ‘e’    like in elf ō    ending o    sharp o. listen to podcast for exact sound

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Farsi Language Essay

Introduction, farsi language in iranian classroom, iranian pronunciation in the english language, challenges of efl learning in iran, influences of english speaking on efl learners.

The purpose of writing this essay will be to examine the various varieties of English that exist in Farsi language classrooms and also to determine the type of English language pronunciation that Iranian learners are aiming for and the interference of Farsi language in attaining the desired pronunciation levels. The focus or context of the study will be on Iranian children between the ages of 16 and 18 years who are in high school and are learning English as a foreign language (EFL).

The reason for selecting high school students is that the teaching of English as a foreign language has been on the increase in most high schools in Iran for the past two decades. Despite this increasing interest in learning English within educational institutions, little knowledge exists on what actually happens within Iranian EFL classrooms in most high schools in the country (Rezvani and Rasekh 2011).

This study will seek to address this gap by determining the varieties of English that exist in Farsi language classrooms as well the type of pronunciation that most Iranian students seek to attain. The use of metaphors during English learning lessons within Iranian schools will also be explored as metaphorical expressions have contributed significantly to the pronunciation of Farsi speakers undertaking English language lessons.

The study will also address the influences of English which have mostly been attributed to the globalization process around the world and the growing need to communicate in English (Davis 2006). English as an international language (EIL) refers to how it is viewed as a global means of communicating within very many dialects and how the English language is viewed as an international language.

As a world-renown language, English mostly places importance on learning the diverse parlances and other forms of speaking, writing and reading English and it aims to provide individuals with the necessary linguistic tools which will allow them to communicate in a more global or international context.

English as an international language is also used to develop and nurture the communication skills of various people who exist in diverse cultures around the world because it is a common language (Acar 2006). There are very many varieties of English with some of the most common being American English and British English.

The British English dialect differs from American English in terms of accent, pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar. The British dialect mostly accentuates the English grammar and pronunciation and their dialect differs from that of American English in terms of accent.

The pronunciation of English words varies significantly amongst British speakers when compared to American speakers of the language. American English, which is mostly used in many Iranian schools, incorporates differences in pronunciation and vocabulary and also the dialect.

The other dialects of English, which are used in the various countries around the world include Burmese English, which is spoken by people from Burma in the Asian continent, Portuguese English, Australian English, European English, Caribbean English and other forms of English (Wakelin 2008).

While American English is used in most English learning classes in Iran, the pronunciation of the language is basic or general English meaning that English learners in the country do not have any American or British accents when speaking the language.

In their analysis of how Farsi or Persian language is used in the classroom setting, Tucker and Corson (1997) noted that the type of tasks students were involved in during class time varied significantly in Farsi speakers that were studying English as a foreign language.

Varieties in English grammar, pronunciation and vocabulary were mostly notable in direct translations, visual descriptions and grammatical explanations. This demonstrated that an accurate measurement of inter-language competency was needed to take into account different conditions and stages of English speaking and learning within Farsi language classrooms (Majd 2008).

The strategic competence of Iranian students when it came to inter-language use was explored by Yarmohamadi and Seif in their 1992 study where they set out to determine the communicative ability of these students in handling problematic English concepts.

Iranian students that were studying English at the various levels and stages of high school were assessed based on their placement of primary stress and emphasis on English words and the use of morphological, syntactic and phonological hierarchies to determine the complexity of English words.

The results of their assessment demonstrated that the use of such measures was able to determine the communication proficiency of many of the students as well as their pronunciation of the varieties of English that were used during classroom instruction (Yarmohamadi and Seif 1992).

With regards to the varieties of English within Iranian classrooms, Taki (2010) conducted an assessment where two groups of Persian and English language teachers were selected to provide some correspondence for metaphorical equivalents based on their use of both Farsi and English languages during the instruction of students.

The criteria used by Taki was whether they taught the high school students with their native language, their familiarity with metaphorical languages, expressions and the basic knowledge that they had of concepts or figures of speech. A total of 40 animal terms were selected for comparison between English and Persian languages to determine the metaphorical variety that existed between the two languages.

The purpose of conducting this study was to determine whether the use of metaphorical expressions aided Iranian students in their English learning activities (Taki 2010).

The results of Taki’s study revealed that the metaphorical expressions used in both languages were 20% similar for animal terms that were presented to the respondents. This corroborated the idea many linguists have developed on the partial mappings or metaphorical expressions that exist between the same source of information and the target domains of both the Farsi and English languages.

The results also revealed that 50% of the metaphorical expressions used to describe animal images were similar for both the English and Farsi languages and they also differed in separate ways. This meant that the metaphors worked in different ways for both languages when they were used in different contexts as they elicited different meanings from both languages (Taki 2010).

The results of the study pointed to the various similarities and differences that existed between both languages, especially when used within the school context. Metaphors played a great role in enabling the Iranian students to better understand what was being communicated to them in the English lessons.

They heightened the comprehension abilities of the students while at the same time enhancing their understanding of the English language.

Rezvani and Rasekh (2011) conducted a study to determine the teaching patterns of four Iranian EFL teachers when it came to language alternation and Farsi speaking language within the classroom setting.

The results of their study demonstrated that the four EFL teachers used code-switching tendencies during classroom interaction sections and also in the discipline of students, which was otherwise known as classroom management.

The authors viewed code-switching to be an important activity for many Iranian teachers as it enabled them to successfully interact with their students who were mostly Iranian native speakers (Rezvani and Rasekh 2011).

Most of the teaching language used by these Iranian teachers was Farsi or Persian language and therefore teaching students without any code-switching strategies proved to be difficult in relaying the proper pronunciation, grammatical representation and vocabulary of certain words (Nilep 2006: Myers-Scotton 1997).

Another study conducted by Gholamain and Geva (1999) examined the extent to which basic reading skills in both the Farsi language and American English could be understood by students after considering their underlying cognitive processes and by understanding the unique characteristics of the alphabets between the two language systems.

Farsi or the Persian language makes extensive use of sound-symbol correspondences during the pronunciation of Persian words when compared to the English language which makes limited use of sound-symbols.

Gholamain and Geva (1999) examined Persian students who were enrolled in school systems where the language of instruction was English. The researchers noted that the students performed better in measures of English reading and cognitive capabilities when compared to Farsi reading and understanding of the Persian language.

Farsi or the Persian language has been the main tool that is used for literacy and scientific contributions in the eastern part of the Islamic and Muslim world. The language is similar to that of many contemporary European languages and it has considerable influence on various languages such as Turkic languages which are used in Central Asia, Caucasus and Anatolia.

Farsi language is classified to belong to the western group of the Iranian branch of the Indo-European language family and it is termed to originate from three periods of Iranian history which include the Old period where the Achaemenid language was introduced, the Middle period which was also known as the Sassanid era and the Modern or post-Sassanid period.

The Persian language has been termed as the only Iranian language that has a close genetic relationship will all the three historic periods (Katzner 2002).

Farsi language can be spoken in three dialects which include Iranian Persian or Farsi which is mostly spoken by many people in Iran, Afghan Persian otherwise known as Dari which is used by many people in Afghanistan and Tajik Persian or Tajiki which is a common Persian language spoken in countries such as Russia, Uzbekistan and Cyria (Henderson 1994).

All these three dialects are based on classical Persian literature, which was a period in Persian history that was marked with some of the world’s best Persian language poets and linguists from the eastern parts of the world such as Rudaki, Omar Khayyam and Varand (Clawson 2004).

The heavy influence of the Persian language from the classical period has mostly been witnessed in many parts of the Islamic world especially since it is viewed as an important piece of literary work as well as a prestigious language that is used amongst the educated elite in the fields of Persian art and literature as well as in Qawwali music (Perry 2005).

Educated people from most of the Middle Eastern countries are able to comprehend each other with an elevated level of clearness, but the differences are only noticeable in their vocabulary, grammar and pronunciation. This has been termed by many linguistic scholars to be similar to the same differences in vocabulary or pronunciation that exist between British English and American English.

In terms of Farsi language morphology, Persian grammar is mostly made up of suffixes and a limited number of prefixes where there is no grammatical gender in Farsi language and there are no pronouns that can be used to denote natural gender.

The syntax that is used for the language involves declarative sentences that are structured as (S) (PP) (O) V which means that sentences can be made up of optional subjects, objects and phrases (Megerdoomian 2000).

The vocabulary that is used in Farsi languages involves the use of word-building affixes as well as nouns and adjectives. The language mostly makes the use of adding derived affixes to the base of a word so as to create a new word, noun or adjective (Perry 2005).

Since the Farsi language is part of the Indo-European languages, most of the words between English and Persian are similar like for example the English name of daughter in Persian is pronounced dokhtar, mother in English is pronounced as madar in Persian while the English name of brother is pronounced as baradar in Persian.

This demonstrates that many words that are of Persian origin have been incorporated into the English language. Most of the English vocabulary has been influenced by the Persian language and the Persian language has also had most of its grammar and pronunciation influenced by the English (Majd 2008).

This essay seeks to determine the varieties of English that are used within many high school classrooms in Iran as well as the other Middle Eastern countries that use Persian in speaking and learning activities.

In addressing the question of English pronunciation amongst Iranian high school students, Hayati (2010) notes that the pronunciation of Iranian high school students should be based on their ability to accurately and correctly pronounce different words of the English language correctly as well as hold proper dialogues with their peers.

Hayati (2010) notes that while the pronunciation of most Iranian high school students is poor, it can be improved further by sensitizing students in the conversational tactics that they use when they converse in their native language.

Most Iranian students as well as Iranian EFL learners aim to have “proper” English pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary, which have been evidenced by the growing number of EFL learners within the country.

Hayati (2010) in his case study of how Iranian EFL high school students were taught on English pronunciation focused on various factors that influenced the pronunciation of most of the EFL learners within the Iranian classroom context.

Hayati (2010) divided the factors into direct and indirect factors where he identified the direct factors to be those that influenced the correct pronunciation of English words. These included the English proficiency of the English teacher and the English proficiency of the Iranian learners.

In most Iranian high schools, students were usually advised by their EFL instructors to read and translate English words that were mostly found in magazines, academic books, journals and articles. This was done to enable them collect important information which they would use for specific areas of interest during their English lessons.

Since English is viewed by most Iranians as a second language, the EFL programs in many of the high schools have directed their efforts towards teaching students how they can read and translate English words (Hayati 2010).

A lower emphasis has therefore been placed on the accurate pronunciation of English words, which has in turn registered a low proficiency for EFL learners. This further underlines the importance of understanding the English words that need to be pronounced as proper pronunciation ensures that the learner is able to understand the meaning of the words (Hayati 2010).

To counter this, English teachers in Iran need to concentrate on the language proficiency of their students by involving the use of language proficiency tests and English learning material that is meant to aide in the English pronunciation of the students.

With regards to the indirect factors, Hayati focused on aspects such as the time assigned for English classes, which was usually limited for most EFL classes taking place in Iranian high schools. The limited amount of time made it difficult for most EFL instructors to be able to complete the outlined English learning objectives in time which meant that most EFL learners emerged from these classes half-baked.

Hayati (2010) also identified another indirect factor which affected the pronunciation of high school students to be that of large numbers of students in one classroom session. The high number of students in most high school classrooms in Iran which ranges from 60 to 70 made it difficult for teachers to effectively monitor and control the performance of students during pronunciation exercises.

The large numbers also made it difficult for most teachers to follow their lesson plans properly which meant that certain parts of the EFL course were omitted (Hayati 2010).

Yarmohammadi (2000) conducted a study on the English pronunciation of Iranian students by examining their level of context-free sentences, where he assessed the phonological elements of the student’s native language (L1) and the elements of the English language (L2).

Yarmohammadi (2000) was able to make the observation that student’s were able to learn the proper pronunciation of English words because of the similarities and differences that existed between their native language (L1) and the English language (L2). Yarmohammadi was also able to measure the pronunciation efficiency of those students by measuring their contextualization abilities.

Contextualization during most EFL lessons involves integrating pronunciation instructions into other important elements of instruction that will enable the student or learner to grasp the meaning of the word in various contexts.

He was able to note that contextualization allowed teachers and students to be able to deal with different pronunciation problems that were presented through the use of different techniques. Yarmohammadi (2000) was able to note that storytelling enabled many of the EFL learners to contextualize their English pronunciation thereby improving their proficient communication of the language.

Despite the use of various EFL learning techniques, researchers such as Brown (2001) and Rifkin (2003) have noted that many Iranian EFL learners will be unable to acquire an accent-free command of the language because of the limited amount of pressure that has been placed on speaking the language.

The two authors noted that young English learners would be able to acquire as many foreign language skills as they could, but they would find it difficult to shed off their Iranian accents which would be made more difficult if they understood certain English concepts in their native languages.

Rifkin (2003) recommended that for students to be able to acquire the proper pronunciation of the language, parents had to begin teaching their children the language during their early or formative years. This would ensure that they did not have an accent when it came to speaking or pronouncing in English.

Based on his research, Ansari (2011) was able to note that a major challenge for most English learners in Iranian classrooms was their inability to properly express themselves through the English language. This is mostly attributed to their heavy use of their native language as a means for communication.

This means that they cannot properly communicate in English within the classroom setting which Ansari has attributed to the kind of instruction given to these children, the type of textbooks used for instruction, the procedures and techniques used by most instructors when teaching English and the poorly defined objectives that make it difficult for students to overcome English language learning problems.

The learning objectives set by most of the EFL teachers are poorly defined, which means that students do not know what their learning outcomes will be from the EFL lessons.

The challenge that continues to face most Iranian English learning classes is the focus on the traditional method of teaching foreign languages where students are required to write out the pronunciation of English words in their own language rather than speaking the language itself. This has contributed to the poor pronunciation skills that many high school students have of the language.

In pronouncing various English words; p, t and k are voiceless in Farsi language and they are commonly replaced with the words b and g in pronunciations that require the use of p, t, and k . Other words that Farsi speakers are unable to pronounce properly include t, f, s, z, h and d which are also voiceless.

These words are usually substituted with words such as n, m, b, and g because Farsi speakers find it easier to pronounce these words within sentences and also during speech exercises (Hall 2007).

Ferguson and Donno (2003) have recommended that in-service classes have to be introduced in many ESL programs to ensure that English tutors in Iran are able to collect the theoretical and practical information of the English language, which will enable them communicate appropriate course materials to their students.

Apart from these classes, textbooks can also play an important role in improving the English language proficiency of many Iranian EFL students.

Textbooks allow instructors to be knowledgeable on the material design of the course where they are able to refer to English textbooks as core resources during their instruction and also as supplemental materials that can be used to support the pronunciation activities of students within the programs (Ferguson and Donno 2003).

The major factor that has influenced the increasing number of high school students in Iran to take part in EFL lessons is globalisation and the changing cultural world where more and more young people are becoming ethnically diverse in their language background.

More young people are now taking time to experience different cultures while at the same time learning new languages that will enable them communicate with people from different cultures around the world.

Since most young people in Iran communicate in Farsi languages, the introduction of EFL programs within school systems in Iran has provided them with an opportunity to communicate in another language that is different from their native language.

The increasing internationalization of many activities performed within various countries around the world has also played a major role in influencing the English learning activities of many students and adults within EFL programs (Taki 2011).

Another major influence that has determined the English language capabilities of students in Iran has been the increasing growth of international relations that Iran has with the rest of the world.

After the Iranian Revolution of 1979, the government that came into office strived to foster international relations with westernised countries to ensure that Iran would be able to enjoy a beneficial relationship with many developed countries in the world.

Some of the benefits that would be accrued from these relationships would be an improvement in the educational systems that within the country where subjects and course programs would be tailored to meet the international needs of the global market rather than the needs of the Iranian market (Clawson 2004).

The growing interest in the technological and scientific fields around the world has also played a contributing factor to the growing English learning activities in many Iranian high schools. In Iran, English is the dominant language that is mostly used in international conferences, foreign trade affairs and in other forms of communication within the country.

The growing number of international book fairs and foreign trade exhibitions that have taken place in the country have also influenced the increasing number of EFL programs in most of the high schools within the country. Such events have shown that Iran is capable of maintaining international relations with the international market through the use of the English language.

The cooperation of Iran with major international organizations such as the United Nations, OPEC, NATO and other regional offices around the world has increased the practicality of using English amongst the various nationals who work for these organizations (Clawson 2004).

The influence of Farsi language plays an important role in determining how language transfer will take place during the EFL lessons and also how pronunciation exercises will influence the language outcomes of students.

Katzner’s review of various studies has revealed that the differences in pronunciation of the target language can be used to measure the overall pronunciation accuracy of native speakers who use their mother tongue to communicate. Apart from transfer, other factors that influence the pronunciation of Farsi speakers include typological and universal factors which at times function separately from language transfer.

Typological and universal factors such as cultural backgrounds, religious affiliations and societal factors influence how the native speakers will be able to effectively utilise the target or foreign language (Katzner, 2002).

The focus of the study was on high school students in Iran who were undertaking English speaking lessons. By focusing on this group and analysing various research work conducting on the Farsi language, the paper was able to determine the varieties of English that are used in Farsi language classrooms with the most common being British English and American English.

The study has also focused on the type of pronunciation that many Iranian students and EFL learners want to achieve, which is American English. The study has also highlighted the factors or aspects that influence EFL learners to take part in English learning activities one of which being to gain a more global perspective of the world and also learn about other cultures apart from that of Iran.

Many Iranian students are influenced to participate in EFL learning programs in Iran because of the increasing nature of international relations within Iran as well the changing educational systems, which now require most students to be more conversant with the English language.

The study also addressed the challenges of English learning among Iranian students where one challenge of English learning was the inability of the students to properly express themselves in the English language. Because Iranian children are raised to talk and express themselves in their mother tongue, it becomes difficult for them to learn to communicate in another language apart from their own.

Another challenge of English learning, especially when it comes to pronunciation is that the students pronounce English words with a heavy Iranian accent. This is a challenge when communicating with proper English speakers who might find it difficult to understand what the speaker is saying.

While study was able to address the pronunciation and influences of most Farsi speakers in Iranian high schools, more research needs to be conducted on Farsi and English languages to determine the similarities and differences that exist in both languages. More research also needs to be conducted on whether Farsi speakers are able to lose their accents once they start communicating in the English language.

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Language and Terminology Planning in Iran

• First Online: 02 January 2020

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• Fatemeh Akbari 2  

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This chapter will shortly review the history of borrowing in New Persian as well as language planning in Iran, with a focus on terminology planning. It will explain one of its main challenges after the contact with the English language. We will see that previous language planning institutes were mainly involved in constructing Persian equivalents for full forms borrowed from different languages. However, recent language policy makers and planners have encountered the new challenge of English abbreviated forms. Finally, the main policy principles that apply to official terminology planning in Iran at the present time will be introduced.

• Language policy
• Language planning
• Terminology
• Persia or Iran
• Persian or Farsi
• Academy of Persian Language and Literature
• History of the Persian language

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Akbari, F. (2020). Language and Terminology Planning in Iran. In: Iran’s Language Planning Confronting English Abbreviations. SpringerBriefs in Linguistics. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-35383-4_2

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Works of the classical period that appear in multiple translations

[Editor’s Note: This week, we relaunch our monthly Bookmarks feature with a five-part series on 100 essential books by Iranian writers available in English, researched and curated by author and translator Niloufar Talebi.  Read the introductory essay to the series and the first list of books here . Below, find an introduction today’s installment and jump down to the list of classics in translation .]

◻︎◻︎◻︎

*The variations in spelling of names and titles arise from different systems of transliteration, one reflecting more closely the modern Persian parlance in Iran and the other closer to the romanization of Arabic. Translated works are peppered throughout this list. To understand why more English translations of literature by Iranians are not available and do not appear on most literary and translation awards lists, I contacted several independent publishers of literature in translation that have not published works by Iranian authors to ask why. 

The half that responded expressed that they were still looking for “the right fit.” One graciously attempted to qualify that elusive fit: “…writing we believe speaks to or against the best contemporary writing in English: we want our books to excite and challenge readers in the same ways the best new books in English do.” 

The qualifier seems antithetical to the project of publishing translated literature, colonial to its very core. What does it say when literature from other cultures is ignored for its own native offerings, but rather weighed against literature in English, the Anglophone center? What happened to literature being our passport to the world? 

Now on to the variables in the production of translations themselves, which result in a myriad of possibilities, the full discussion of which is beyond the scope of this introduction, but I will briefly mention a few factors: 

The argument that translators without fluency in the original language do not produce or at least participate in producing valuable translations is invalid. This assumption is often conflated with another factor, that of producing loose renditions that veer too far from the original, which is an interpretive and formal choice, and not necessarily resulting from a lack of fluency in the original language and culture. There there is a spectrum on which translators reference cultural elements. More flavor from the original culture moves the new reader closer to the author, while more flavor from the new reader’s culture moves the author to that reader. This used to be referred to as a dichotomy of foreignization versus domestication. Each approach has benefits and drawbacks, each engaging and constructing different versions and readers. 

Given that these variables lead to infinite possibilities, the more and diverse translations that exist of a work, the more we can interact with it. Quality is key, but sometimes quantity has its advantages—not only do more translations increase the chances for high quality interpretation and translations, but also because collectively, they provide scaffolding for future readings, interpretations, and translations. Even unsuccessful translations have their function when they inspire the birth of new translators who aim to do better. There is great value and pleasure in comparative readings of translations. But such readings are only possible when multiple translations exist—a luxury the works of many Iranian authors do not have. Thankfully, some of the works of the classical period do appear in multiple translations. Here is a selection:

62. The poetry of Hafez Shirazi (1315-1390)

Hafez (also spelled Hafiz) is considered one of the greatest poets of the Persian language. The 14th century poet lived almost all his life in the southern city of Shiraz where he was involved in the court circles of various rulers and played an important role in the vibrant literary and spiritual life of the times. His poetry is collected in his Divan , which contains nearly 500 ghazals and some other verse. Hafez has been appropriated through various adaptations and productions not listed here. For further reading on this, see Omid Safi’s “ Fake Hafez: How a Supreme Persian Poet of Love was Erased ,” and Manash Firaq Bhattacharjee’s “ Faking Hafez: Daniel Ladinsky and the Art of Translation. “ Translations include:

— Faces of Love: Hafez and the Poets of Shiraz (and Obayd-e Zakani and Jahan Malek Khatun) , edited and translated by Dick Davis ( Mage Publishers, 2019 ). This bilingual edition has the original Persian verses facing the English translations of its three contemporaneous Shirazi poets.

— Radical Love: Teachings from the Islamic Mystical Tradition , edited and translated from the Persian by Omid Safi ( Yale University Press, Reprint edition, 2019 ). This is a collection of the love poetry and mystical teachings at the heart of the Islamic tradition in accurate and poetic original translations by leading scholar of Islam Omid Safi who brings together for the first time passages of the Koran sought by Muslim sages, mystical sayings of the Prophet, the poetry of several classical Persian poets including Hafez, Rumi, Sa’di, and Attar, and teachings of the path of “Divine love.”

— Hafez: Translations and Interpretations of the Ghazals , translated from the Persian by Irish poet Geoffrey Squires ( Miami University Press, 2014 ). Squires, who lived in Iran for three years, captures the energy and depth of Hafez in contemporary English without archaisms or a predetermined interpretation, and gives powerful insight into the Persian culture. Based on 248 ghazals (just over half the Divan), this is one of the most comprehensive translations to appear and also one of the most varied, revealing aspects of the work—courtly, lyrical, satirical, mystical—that will surprise and delight many. Squires brings a poet’s ear to the task, capturing the energy, wit and beauty of the original which after all this time still speaks to us. He also breaks new ground in terms of translation strategy, using short interstitial prose pieces to punctuate and point the text. Detailed background notes are provided, and there is an extensive bibliography in Persian, English and French.

— The Poems of Hafez , translated from the Persian by Reza Ordoubadian ( IBEX Publishers, 2005 ). Reza Ordoubadian’s translations make the poems of Hafez accessible to the English language reader, while remaining faithful to the nuances of Hafez’s language and thought in the original Persian.

— Wine and Prayer : Eighty Ghazals from the Divan of Hafiz (Library of Persia) , translated by Elizabeth T. Gray, Jr. and Iraj Anvar ( White Cloud/Caveat Press; 2nd Edition, 2019 ). This bilingual edition includes clean, modern translations, an afterword by Daryush Shayegan, a broad-ranging introduction, plus extensive and helpful notes to the translation. Hafiz was the unrivaled master of the ghazal , a lyric form roughly equivalent to the English sonnet in length, intensity, and complexity. In this volume, Gray has joined with Iraj Anvar, a scholar of Sufism and Persian poetry to present translations that capture the subtleties, paradoxes, and spiritual depths of the poet hailed by Persians as “the Tongue of the Invisible” and the “Interpreter of Mysteries.” Forthcoming from Gray is a new selection of Forugh Farrokhzad poems in her translation (New Directions, 2022).

— The Illuminated Hafiz: Love Poems for the Journey to Light , edited by Nancy Owen Barton ( Sounds True, 2019 ). Vivid translations by Omid Safi, Coleman Barks, Robert Bly, Meher Baba, and others combine with Michael and Saliha Green’s stunning illustrations to bring the immortal poetry of the great Persian master to life.

63. The poetry of Sa’di Shirazi (1210-1291)

The 13th century Persian poet and prose writer, Sa’di (also spelled Saadi), a contemporary of Rumi, is one of the luminaries of the Persian literary canon. His works include the Bustan and Golestan (also spelled Gulistan ), four books of ghazals, qasidas in both Persian and Arabic, quatrains, and short pieces. Sa’di is well known for his aphorisms, the most famous of which, Bani Adam , part of the Golestan, is displayed at the United Nations building in Edward Eastwick’s translation:

“ All human beings are members of one frame, Since all, at first, from the same essence came. When time afflicts a limb with pain The other limbs at rest cannot remain. If thou feel not for other’s misery A human being is no name for thee.”

Translations include:

— The Golestan , translated by Abdolmahmud Rezvani ( UNESCO and Shiraz University, 2018 ) Though this title seems not to be available for sale outside of Iran, the creation of this high quality translation in Iran by an acclaimed Iranian professor of translation studies is noteworthy.  

— The Gulistan (Rose Garden) of Sa’di: Bilingual English and Persian Edition with Vocabulary , translated by Thackston M. Wheeler ( IBEX Publishers, 2017 ). The Gulistan , imbued with practical life wisdom, is a collection of moral stories divided into eight themes: The Conduct of Kings, The Character of Dervishes, The Superiority of Contentment, The Benefits of Silence, Love and Youth, Feebleness and Old Age, The Effects of Education, and The Art of Conversation. In this first complete English translation of the work in more than a century, Professor Thackston has faithfully translated Sa’di into clear, contemporary English. — Selections from Saadi’s Gulistan (FARSI HERITAGE SERIES), translated with an introduction by Richard Jeffrey Newman ( Global Scholarly Publications; First Edition, 2004 ). Newman has also translated a selection from the Bustan ( Global Scholarly Publications, 2006 ). Both of the translations are accessible and of high literary quality. These translations were commissioned by an organization with ties to the Iranian government, the now-defunct International Society for Iranian Culture, and the selections to be translated were pre-selected by a committee in Iran. Both books are currently out of print, but available for download on Academia.edu.

There are more scholarly studies and translations of Sa’di’s Golestan and Bustan available, but no complete and contemporary literary translations of them, a vacuum to hopefully be filled. 

64. The poetry of Jalāl ad-Dīn Muhammad Rumi (1207-1273)

Rumi was born to Persian-speaking parents in the greater Khorasan area of greater Iran at a time when it was a major center of Persian culture and Sufism. The exact place is unknown, but it would be in present-day Afghanistan or Tajikistan. When the Mongols invaded Central Asia sometime between 1215 and 1220, his family migrated westward and settled in Konya (in present-day Turkey), where Rumi eventually began a public life as an Islamic jurist and teacher, as his father and grandfather had been. Rumi’s shrine in Konya, where he died and is buried, has become a place of pilgrimage. A 1244 meeting with the wandering mystic, Shams-e Tabrizi, became a turning point in Rumi’s life. Shams challenged Rumi to question his scriptural education, debated the Koran with him, steered him to the idea of spirituality as oneness with God. Thus was Rumi transformed from an accomplished teacher and jurist into an ascetic. Four years later, when Shams disappeared one night, Rumi’s love for, and his bereavement at, the death of Shams found expression in an outpouring of lyric poems, which became Rumi’s Divan-e Shams-e Tabrizi . Rumi’s other major works include the Masnavi-ye Ma’navi , a six-volume spiritual epic that holds a distinguished place within the rich tradition of Persian Sufi literature, and Fihi Ma Fihi , a prose book of 72 short discourses.

Rumi has been described as the “most popular” and “best selling” poet in the United States. Lifestyle gurus, Hollywood A-listers, and pop stars have appropriated popular offerings attributed to Rumi to spawn and celebrate their enlightenment. This popularity was perhaps sparked by new-agey renditions of Rumi by Coleman Barks after Robert Bly introduced him to Cambridge professor, A.J. Arberry’s literal and footnoted translations of Rumi, charging Barks with the task of “freeing them from their academic cages.” Barks would base his loose versions on A. J. Arberry’s and R. A. Nicholson ’s earlier translations, and his collaboration with John A. Moyne . Often, critics of Barks’ renditions point to the fact that he is not fluent in Persian and works from previous translations. In my opinion, this approach to assessing a translation is problematic. Fluency versus access to the original text and its culture are two different matters. That Barks skips lines from the original and remixes poems to generate his aphorism-like morsels have less to do with his fluency or access to the original source, and more with his formal and interpretive choice. The criticisms likely stem from the erasure of the Islamic provenance of the original texts from the renditions. 

One of the most common requests I get is to recommend my favorite translation of Rumi. I say: there are so many—indulge in comparative readings, particularly those by translators who provide the source from which the translation is drawn. Without this information, it’s close to impossible to compare translations or even be confident that the original was Rumi’s. Translations include: — The Masnavi of Rumi, Book One: A New English Translation with Explanatory Notes , translated by Alan Williams ( I. B. Tauris & Company, 2020 ). In Book 1 of the Masnavi , the first of six volumes, Rumi opens the spiritual path towards higher spiritual understanding. Alan Williams’s new translation is rendered in easily readable blank verse and includes the original Persian text of the Masnavi edited by Mohammad Este’lami for reference, as well as an introduction, analysis, commentary, explanatory, and supplementary text by Williams. True to the spirit of Rumi’s poem, this new translation establishes the Masnavi as one of the world’s great literary achievements for a global readership.

— The Masnavi , translated by Jawid Mojaddedi (Oxford World’s Classics) (Oxford University Press, Book 1, 2008 ; Book 2, 2008 ; Book 3, 2014 ; Book 4, 2017 ). The Masnavi is widely considered to be the greatest Sufi poem ever written, and nicknamed “the Persian Koran.” Rumi composed his work to convey his message of divine love and unity, threading together entertaining stories. Drawing from folk tales as well as sacred history, Rumi’s poem is often funny as well as spiritually profound. Mojaddedi’s sparkling new verse translation is consistent with the aims of the original work in presenting Rumi’s most mature mystical teachings in simple and attractive rhyming couplets. — Swallowing the Sun , translated from the Persian by Franklin D. Lewis ( Oneworld Publications, 2013 ) This volume draws from the breadth of Rumi’s work, spanning his prolific career from start to finish. From the uplifting to the mellow, these polished translations will prove inspirational to both keen followers of Rumi’s work and readers discovering the great poet for the first time. Dr. Lewis is the editor (with Farzin Yazdanfar ) of In a Voice of Their Own: A Collection of Stories by Iranian Women Written Since the Revolution of 1979 (Bibliotheca Iranica: Persian Fiction in Translation Series) (Mazda Pub; First Edition, 1996).

— Rumi’s Little Book of Life: The Garden of the Soul, the Heart, and the Spirit , translated by Maryam Mafi and Azima Melita Kolin ( Hampton Roads Publishing Company, 2012 ). This is a collection of 196 poems by Rumi previously unavailable in English, translated by native Persian speakers. The translated works are referenced back to their original sources, and are accompanied by an index of first lines, how the original Persian poetry is indexed. Maryam Mafi has produced more Rumi books . — Say Nothing: Poems of Jalal al-Din Rumi in Persian and English , translated by Iraj Anvar and Anne Twitty ( Morning Light Press, 2008 ). Say Nothing captures the rich and varied tones of a mature voice that retains its youthful capacity for exaltation and revelation. This fully annotated, bilingual edition contains both short quatrains and longer ghazals, alternating forms that reflect the shifts in Rumi’s moods and inspirations. — A Bird In The Garden Of Angels: On the Life and Times and an Anthology of Rumi , translated from the Persian by John A. Moyne and Richard Jeffrey Newman ( Mazda Pub, 2007 ). This book is a Rumi reader for the general public. It contains a brief chapter on the history and doctrine of Sufism and mysticism, and a second chapter on the life and times of Rumi and his close associates. The rest of the book is divided into sections, each section containing an introduction and selections chosen and translated from the prolific writings of Jalaluddin Rumi and from a few other sources dealing with Rumi and his circle. Much of Rumi’s poetry and some of his prose have already been translated at various times and in various styles into many languages, including English. During the past two decades, there has been a surge of popular interest in Sufism and Sufi literature, and new translations in different poetic styles have been appearing. A few of the pieces in this volume were previously translated by Moyne and published jointly with Coleman Barks, but they are presented here in revised versions. Some of the prose and poetry in this book, however, has not been previously translated into English. — Signs of the Unseen: The Discourses of Jalaluddin Rumi (Revised) , translated from the Persian by Wheeler M. Thackston ( Shambhala, 1999 ). A collection of Fihi Ma Fihi , Rumi’s lectures, discourses, conversations, and comments on various topics. Even in conversation Rumi expresses his spiritual insights in a style rich in allusion and figurative language. His themes include God’s beauty and beneficence, the continuum between form and substance, the here and the hereafter, and the centrality of love in the soul’s development.

— Rumi: Unseen Poems , translated and edited by Brad Gooch and Maryam Mortaz ( Everyman’s Library, 2019 ). In this new translation — composed almost entirely of untranslated gems from Rumi’s vast oeuvre — Gooch and Mortaz aim to achieve greater fidelity to the originals while still allowing Rumi’s lyric exuberance to shine.

— The Rumi Collection , edited by Kabir Helminski ( Shambhala, 2005 ). This is a selection from various works of Rumi. Translators include Camille Helminski, Kabir Helminski, Robert Bly, and  John A. Moyne and Coleman Barks. To display the major themes of Rumi’s work, each of the eighteen chapters in this anthology are arranged topically, such as “The Inner Work,” “Praise,” and “Purity.” Also contained here is an index of titles and first lines, a biography of Rumi by Andrew Harvey, as well as an introductory essay by Kabir Helminski on the art of translating Rumi’s work into English.

For further reading:

— Rumi’s Secret: The Life of the Sufi Poet of Love by Brad Gooch ( Harper, 2017 ), Rumi’s Secret reveals the unfolding of Rumi’s devotion to a “religion of love,” remarkable in his own time and made even more relevant for the twenty-first century by this compelling account.

— Rumi – Past and Present, East and West: The Life, Teachings, and Poetry of Jalal al-Din Rumi by Franklin Lewis ( Oneworld Publications, 2014 ). Said to be a definitive study of Rumi in English, this book draws on a vast array of sources, from writings of the poet himself to the latest scholarly literature, this new anniversary edition of the award-winning work examines the background, the legacy, and the continuing significance of Rumi. With new translations of over fifty of Rumi’s poems and including never before seen prose, this landmark study celebrates the astounding appeal of Rumi, still as strong as ever, 800 years after his birth.

65. The Poetry of Fariduddin Attar (1145-1221)

Attar was a Persian-language poet, theoretician of Sufism, and hagiographer. Attar’s work has had enduring influence on Persian poetry and Sufism. His notable work in the English language is his Manteq-ot-Teyr (also spelled Mantiq-ut-Tayr ), generally called The Conference of the Birds in English translation. Among other notable works are the Divan of ghazals, and the Tadhkirat Al-Auliya (Biographies of the Saints), a hagiographic collection of teaching stories about Muslim saints and mystics, culminating in accounts of the execution of the Sufi, Mansur al-Hallaj, who had uttered the words “Ana’l-Haqq,” meaning “I am the Truth” in a state of ecstatic contemplation, as well as the Elahi-Nameh (also spelled Ilāhī-Nāma) ( The Book of Divine ), a story in verse about a king who is confronted with the materialistic and worldly demands of his six sons. The Conference of the Birds is written in a masnavi form of rhyming couplets. In the allegorical tale about the soul’s search for meaning, the birds of the world gather to choose their sovereign. The wisest of them, the hoopoe (a bird often associated with King Solomon of the Bible), suggests they seek the legendary and mythical bird, Simorgh, who lives in the mountain at the edge of the world, then leads the birds—each of whom represent a different flaw that prevents humankind from attaining enlightenment—through seven valleys in order to reach the Simorgh. They learn the journey is not simple, and on the way, many of the birds drop out or die, only thirty of them arriving at the realm of the Simorgh. The word “Simorgh” in the Persian means thirty ( si ) birds ( morgh ). The lesson they learn is that they themselves are the Simorgh.

— The Conference of the Birds , translated from the Persian by Sholeh Wolpé ( W. W. Norton & Co., 2018 ). Wolpé recreates the original Persian in a combination of English verse and poetic prose, and has adapted the poem as a stage play.

— The Canticle of the Birds ( Éditions Diane de Selliers, 2014 ), based on the complete and further revised translation by Afkham Darbandi and Dick Davis (see below) and published by Éditions Diane de Selliers, it includes over 200 miniatures from the Metropolitan Museum of Art’s Persio-Afghan manuscript from the fifteenth to seventeenth centuries as well as additional illustrations from Persian, Turkish, Central Asia, and Indo-Pakistani sources. The result is a tapestry of illuminated manuscripts with commentaries by Michael Barry and contributions by Leili Anvar that contextualize the art and the text in the history of eastern culture. — The Conference of the Birds by Peter Sis ( Penguin Books, 2013 ). This version for adults by illustrator and children’s book author Peter Sis, who consulted the Avery edition, is inspired by the Darbandi and Davis translation, but is ultimately stripped of its Islamic context. 

— The Conference of the Birds by Alexis York Lumbard, illustrated by Demi, with a forward by Seyyed Hossein Nasr ( Wisdom Tales, 2012 ). This version is adapted for children 4-8 years in both prose and verse. — The Conference of the Birds , translated from the Persian by Afkham Darbandi and Dick Davis ( Penguin Books, 2011 ). This book was originally published by Penguin Classics in 1984 and was revised in 2011 when a Prologue and Epilogue were added. Though the listing cites 1984 as the publication date, Dr. Davis confirmed that this is the 2011 revised edition. 

Dick Davis has translated other classical works of Persian literature including Fakhraddin Gorgani’s Vis & Ramin . Davis is also the editor and translator of bilingual The Mirror of My Heart: A Thousand Years of Persian Poetry by Women, as well as the translator of discrete episodes from Ferdowsi’s Shahnameh (published by Mage Publishers , a US-based press dedicated to Persian literature and culture) , and of the Shahnameh itself, a work that appears elsewhere on this list, but worth listing more translations of: — Shahnameh: Persian Book of King s , translated from the Persian by Dick Davis ( Penguin Classics; Deluxe Edition, 2007 ). This prose and poetry version of almost the entirety of the work (excluding the exordium, the introductory portion of the oration), is so far the most complete English-language edition.

— The Teller of Tales: Stories from Ferdowsi’s Shahnameh , translated from English by Richard Jeffrey Newman ( Junction Press, 2011 ). This book, which contains the only contemporary translation of parts of Ferdowsi’s exordium, covers the stories of the first five kings in the Shahnameh. The translations are based on the Warner brothers’ verse translation, as well as Ruben Levy’s prose version, The Teller of Tales realizes Edward G. Brown’s ambition to translate the Shahnameh into an alliterative verse form.

— In the Dragon’s Claws: The Story of Rostam and Esfandiyar from the Persian Book of Kings , translated from the Persian by Jerome W. Clinton ( Mage Publishers; First Edition, 1999 ). The story of Rostam and Esfandyar is one of the most tragic episodes of the Shahnameh . It expresses a profound ambivalence about the demands of heroism, and is sharply critical of a monarch who exploits the courage and loyalty of his heroes to further his own selfish ends.

Back to Attar translations : — The Speech of the Birds , translated from the Persian by Peter Avery ( Islamic Texts Society, 1998 ). This is a complete and annotated translation in verse. — Bird Parliament , rendered by Edward FitzGerald ( free PDF linked here ). According to the Encyclopedia Iranica , FitzGerald worked on the Bird Parliament , the third of his Persian translations, intermittently between 1856 and 1862. He probably realized it was his least successful translation, demonstrated by the fact that he did not attempt to publish it. He cut the poem so extensively (from roughly 4500 to 1500 lines) that the poem’s structure, on which he commented disparagingly, as he clearly did not understand its details, all but disappeared. He also made some glaring changes to the text. There are some fine passages of English poetry in the translation, notably towards the end when the birds meet the Simorgh, and in the beautifully rendered brief anecdote of the child sent out on a windy night with a lamp.

— Muslim Saints and Mystics: Episodes from the Tadhkirat Al-Auliya‘ translated by A.J. Arberry ( Penguin Books, 1990 ). This is an abridged English translation. 

*In addition to my own research, I consulted Kaveh Bassiri’s 2014 essay, “ The Gathering of the Conference of the Birds ” as it appears in the Michigan Quarterly Review.

66. The poetry of Nezami Ganjavi (1141-1209)

Nezami (also spelled Nizami), considered the greatest romantic epic poet in Persian literature, brought a colloquial and realistic style to the Persian epic. Nezami is best known for a set of five long narrative poems known as the Khamsa (Quintet) or Panj Ganj (Five Treasures): Makhzan-ol-Asrâr (The Treasury of Mysteries) , Khosrow o Shirin (Khosrow and Shirin), Leyli o Majnun ( Layli and Majnun ), Eskandar-Nâmeh (The Book of Alexander), and Haft Peykar (The Seven Beauties).

— Layli and Majnun , translated from the Persian by Dick Davis ( Mage Publishers, 2020 ). Leyli and Majnun is a tragic love story about the 7th-century poet Qays ibn al-Mullawah and his ladylove Layla bint Mahdi. In the same way that Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet has become the archetypal Western love story, Nezami’s Layli and Majnun occupies an uncontested place as the iconic love story of the Middle East. Nezami collected material from various sources about Majnun and portrayed a vivid picture of the famous lovers. This story is passed to Persian, Turkish, and Indic languages from fragments in Arabic, most famously through the narrative poem composed in 1188 by Nezami as the third part of his Khamseh . Dick Davis brings Nezami’s classic to life for the first time in brilliant and moving English verse that captures all the extraordinary power and ingenuity of the original poem. Meanwhile, an introduction and copious explanatory notes shed a fascinating light on Nezami’s life and work, and the astonishing virtuosity of his poetic style, that help set the stage for the reader’s enjoyment of this tour de force of Persian literature. Many imitations have been contrived of Nezami’s work, several of which are original literary works in their own right, including Majnun o Leyli by Amir Khusrow Dehlavi (1299), and Jami (1484), Hatefi (d. 1520), and Fuzûlî (d. 1556), whose Azerbaijani language version of the story was adapted by the Azerbaijani composer Uzeyir Hajibeyov as what became the Middle East’s first opera, premiering in 1908. — Haft Peykar, A Medieval Persian Romance , translated from the Persian by Julie Scott Meisami ( Hackett Publishing Company, Inc.; UK ed. Edition, 2015 ). This volume contains an introduction, explanatory notes, a glossary, and a chronology of Nezami’s life. Completed in 1197, the Haft Peykar is an allegorical romance of great beauty and depth, its central theme of self-knowledge as the path to human perfection conveyed in rich and vivid imagery and complex symbolism. It tells the story of the Sassanian ruler Bahram V Gur and of his spiritual progress. He is guided towards wisdom and moral enlightenment by the seven tales of love told to him by his brides, the Princesses of the Seven Climes. Each tale depicts a love-quest which ends sometimes in failure, more often in fulfilment, as desire is guided by virtue. Haft Paykar means ‘Seven Images/Portraits/Beauties’, and it refers to the seven princesses, their seven tales, and the seven planets. — Mirror of the Invisible World: Tales from the Khamseh of Nizami Ganjavi (English and Persian Edition) translated by Peter J. Chelkowski, ( Metropolitan Museum of Art; First Edition first Printing edition, 1975 ). This book contains the stories of Khosrow and Shirin, Layla and Majnun, and the Seven Princesses (or Beauties) told in prose and accompanied by the classical illustrations of their scenes. The publication of this book coincided with the opening of the newly installed Islamic Galleries in the Metropolitan Museum of Art. This volume appears to be out of print, but a free PDF of its English-only edition is available through the link provided above.

67. The poetry of Omar Khayyam (1048-1131)

Omar Khayyam was a Persian mathematician, astronomer, philosopher, and poet born in Neyshabur, in northeastern Iran. The poetic output attributed to Khayyam was in the form of quatrains (ruba’i) that celebrated song and wine and lovers and doubted the afterlife. What became widely known to the English-reading world as the Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam is a loose rendering by Edward FitzGerald (1809-1883), first published in 1859. According to Louis Untermeyer’s preface in the 1946 Random House edition, FitzGerald was snubbed and decided to self-publish his rendering anonymously, which went unnoticed and unreviewed. Over his lifetime and through several editions of the work, he arrived at one hundred and one quatrains he considered the final version. FitzGerald’s effort was a combination of aspects of Khayyam’s original verses with his own poetic and editorial input. It was the Pre-Raphaelite poet and painter, Dante Gabriel Rossetti, who browsing bargains in penny boxes of old treasures discovered a copy and quoted from it wherever he went. Soon, there was a buzz about the poem. Some thought the mysteriously unsigned work was not a translation but a disguise, others argued that it was an extraordinary hoax.

— The Rubáiyát of Omar Khayyam: A New Translation from the Persia n by Juan Cole ( I.B. Tauris, April 2020 ), a modern translation, complete with critical introduction and epilogue.

— The Rubáiyát of Omar Khayyám: First and Fifth Editions by Edward FitzGerald ( Dover Publications, 2011 ) This edition has FitzGerald’s first and fifth editions, so readers can see the progression of his renditions.

— The Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam: The Astronomer-Poet of Persia by Edward FitzGerald, edited by Daniel Karlin ( Oxford University Press, USA , 2010 ). Daniel Karlin’s richly annotated edition focuses on the poem as a work of Victorian literary art, considering that the late-Victorian and Edwardian popularity of the poem rested on a shallow reading based on its shimmering surface, thereby doing justice to the scope and complexity of FitzGerald’s rendering of Omar Khayyam, who as FitzGerald put it, sang of what all men feel in their hearts but was not expressed in verse before . Karlin provides a critical introduction which documents the poem’s treatment of its Persian sources, along with its multiple affiliations with English and Classical literature and to the Bible. A selection of contemporary reviews offers an insight into the poem’s early reception, including the first attack on its status as a translation.

— The Ruba’iyat of Omar Khayyam , translated from the Persian by Peter Avery and John Heath-Stubbs ( Penguin Books, revised 1981 ). This selection is accompanied by illustrations, and its translations of 235 ruba’i are based on selections made by Sadegh Hedayat, and Muhammad’ Ali Furughi and Qasim Ghani.

— The Wine of Nishapur: A Photographer’s Promenade in the Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam by photographer Shahrokh Golestan, translator Karim Emami, and calligrapher Nasrollah Afjei ( Mazda Pub; Reprint Edition, 1997 ). This photographic journey into Khayyam’s world of the rubaiyat is accompanied by new English translations by noted critic, editor, and leading Iranian translator, Karim Emami , and the original poems penned in calligraphy. In compositions of exquisite beauty, the plates are the fruit of extensive research into form and color.

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Niloufar Talebi is an author, award-winning translator, interdisciplinary artist, and producer.

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Published: 03/08/2023

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The Persians are people who live in Iran, speak Persian language, which is very similar to the Iranian languages, and preserve Persian culture and traditions. The Persian culture is highly symbolic. The Persian lion, for instance, used to be its emblem, but it is not since the Revolution which happened in 1979 ("Culture of Iran - History, People, Clothing, Traditions, Women, Beliefs, Food, Customs, Family" n.p.). 1. History The Persians are said to be the part of Indo-European tribes that migrated to Iran from Central Asia. Later these Indo-European tribes divided into two main groups. The first group is called the Persians, and the other is called the Medes ("| World Public Library - Ebooks | Read Ebooks Online" n.p.). 2. Music Persian music was very influential, especially the Sassanid music. In this music, there were seven tones in one octave, but later there have already been twelve tones in the octave. For Persian music, small intervals and one-minute transitions were characteristic. This makes Persian music different from that of the European neighbors. Besides, it did not have notes. It was composed based on harmony and harmonious phrases. This fact also makes Persian music a specific one. Persians used many unique musical instruments. Nowadays Persian music is close to the modern European and American music, and there is even such genre of Persian music as Persian rap ("| World Public Library - Ebooks | Read Ebooks Online" n.p.). 3. Carpets Persia was known worldwide for carpet weaving, and Persian textile art is still highly appreciated in the whole world. The production of rugs and carpets was centralized in Persian city Sardis. The residents of this city are very proud to be a part of carpet production. Persia was always rich in luxurious textiles, like carpets. They were embroidered, and had Persian figures. There even was a carpet “worked with gold, and silver, and embroidered with jewels and colored stones” ("| World Public Library - Ebooks | Read Ebooks Online" n.p.). 4. Religion There were three main religions, which Persians worshipped: Zoroastrianism, Manichaeism, and the Baha’i Faith. Mazdakism is a religion of ancient Iran that was influenced mainly by the communistic ideology ("| World Public Library - Ebooks | Read Ebooks Online" n.p.). Sunny, a form of Islam, was prevailing in Iran for a long time, but in the seventeenth century its dominance was substituted by Shia, which became the official religion of the state ("Culture Of Iran - History, People, Clothing, Traditions, Women, Beliefs, Food, Customs, Family" n.p.). 5. Language The Persian language is still used today, though it is being among the oldest languages in the world. Persian is the language, which is primary spoken in Iran. This language was widely used in poetry. Modern Persian is a graceful and flexible language. Many people know Persian language as Farsi. The origin of the name Farsi may be explained by the fact that Arabs could not pronounce the sound ‘p’, and consequently could not pronounce the word Persian. Nowadays, people in Iran may be divided into two categories according to their first language. As a rule, those people, who have command of Persian language, which is their first language, tend to be monolingual. Others have a tendency to be bilingual ("Culture of Iran - History, People, Clothing, Traditions, Women, Beliefs, Food, Customs, Family" n.p.).

Works Cited

"| World Public Library - Ebooks | Read Ebooks Online". Worldlibrary.org. Web. 8 May 2016. "Culture of Iran - History, People, Clothing, Traditions, Women, Beliefs, Food, Customs, Family". Everyculture.com. Web. 8 May 2016.

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LinguaJunkie.com

A very cranky language blogger dishing out brutal language tips.

How to Introduce Yourself in Persian in 10 Lines

Want to speak Persian? Yes? Good – keep reading. This is for those that truly want to learn the language. Here’s how you introduce yourself in Persian in 10 easy lines … and this might take you 2 to 3 minutes or less. With this lesson…

• You get the Persian phrases and English translations.
• Read out loud to practice your speaking.
• Feel free to print this sheet out for extra review.

Here’s how you introduce yourself in Persian. Let’s go.

…if you REALLY want to learn Persian with effective audio & video lessons by real teachers – Sign up at PersianPod101 (click here) and start learning! I recommend it.

1) Hello, It’s nice to meet you.

Hello and Nice to meet you in Persian are a must-know phrases. And any introduction will probably will start with these words.

• Hello, it’s nice to meet you.
• Salaam, (az molaaghaat baa shomaa) khoshvaghtam.

2) My name is _____.

This is simple. To say “my name is” in Persian, you just follow this formula “Esm-e man ____ ast.” Then stick in your name your name. For example, if the name is Maryam, it would be like this…

• My name is Maryam.
• Esm-e man maryam ast.

For yourself, just add your name below.

• My name is ______.
• Esm-e man ______ ast.

3) I am from ______.

So, where are you from? America? Europe? Africa? Asia? Just stick the name of your country inside this phrase. We’ll use Iran as an example.

• I’m from Iran.
• Man irani hastam.

4) I live in ______.

What about now – where do you live? Just fill in the blank with the country or city (if famous) into this phrase. I’ll use Teheran as an example.

• I live in Teheran.
• Man dar tehraan zendegi mikonam.

5) I’ve been learning Persian for _____.

How long have you been learning Persian for? A month? A year?

• I’ve been learning Persian for a year.
• Man yek saal ast ke daram zabaan-e farsi yad migiram.

6) I’m learning Persian at _____.

Where are you learning Persian? At school? At home? This would be a great line to know and use when you’re introducing yourself. Here’s my example:

• I’m learning Persian at PersianPod101.com.
• Man daram zabaan-e farsi raa dar perzhen paad vaan o vaan yaad migiram.

7) I am ____ years old.

Here’s how to say how old you are in Persian.

• I’m 27 years old.
• Man bist-o-haft sal sen daram.

8) I am ______.

What about your position? Are you a student? Yoga teacher? Lawyer for the potato industry? Potato salesman? Super important question that people like to ask (and judge you about – Hey, I’m just a blogger! ).n.

• I’m a teacher.
• Man moallem hastam.

9) One of my hobbies is _____.

Now, let’s move onto personal interests – hobbies! My hobbies are languages, linguajunkieing and such. How about you? You’ll definitely need this line when introducing yourself in Persian.

Here’s an example to use:

• One of my hobbies is reading.
• Yeki az sargarmi-haaye man ketaab khaandan ast.

10) I enjoy listening to music.

Now, this is just another example line about your hobbies . You can use something else where.

• I enjoy listening to music.
• Az goosh daadan be mmoosighi lezzat mibaram.

So now you know how to introduce yourself in Persian in 10 lines. I’m sure there’s a ton more you can say – but this is an easy, simple start that any beginner can put to use. It’s all about starting easy.

See if you can introduce yourself below. Leave me a comment.

I read all comments!

Hope you enjoyed this!

– The Main Junkie

P.S. I highly recommend this for Persian learners. If you REALLY want to learn to Persian with effective lessons by real teachers – Sign up for free at PersianPod101 (click here) and start learning!

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Essay on persian language and indian literature.

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Essay on Persian Language and Indian Literature!

Persian came to India with the Ghaznavids and the Ghurids. The age of the Khaljis was a great period for Persian literature in India, the two outstanding personalities of the time being Amir Khusrau and Shaikh Najmuddin Hasan, popularly known as Hasan-i-Dihlavi.

Amir Khusrau was a prolific writer whose five literary masterpieces—Khamsah— composed as a rejoinder to those of Nizami were Mutla-ul-Anwar, Stirin Khusrau, Laila Majnun, Aina-i-Sikandari and Hasht Bihisht. Khusrau’s writings have great historical value; his Khaza-in-ul-Futuh describes Alauddin’s conquests; the Tughlaq-Nama presents the rise of Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq; the Miftah-ul-Futuh gives an account of Jalaluddin Khalji’s victories; and the Nuh-Sipihr contains a poetic description of Qutubuddin Mubarak Shah Khalji’s reign and describes in admiring tones things found in India.

Hasan- i-Dehlvi wrote ghazals that won him the name of ‘Saadi’ of India. Historians of note adorned the court of Mohammed bin Tughlaq. Diyauddin Barani is a famous historian.

The Mughal Empire brought a new era in Indo-Persian literature. Babur wrote his own biography, Tuzuk-i-Baburi, in Turkish, which was later, translated into Persian by Abdul Rahim Khab-i-Khanan. Humayun’s sister Gulbadan Begum was a prose-writer who wrote Humayun Namah.

In the reign of Akbar, several poets came from Persia to his court. Outstanding historical works were written; Abul Fazl’s Akbar Namah and Ain-i-Akbari, Mulla Nizamuddin Ahmad Harawi’s Tabaqut-Akbari and Abdul Haqdihlavi’s Dhikr-ul-Mulak. Emperor Jahangir wrote Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri. Mutammad Khan’s Iqbal Namah and Masum Bhakkari’s Tarikh-i-Kashmir are works of note.

Shah Jahan’s reign is described in the Padshah-Namahs of Abdul Hamid Lahori and Mohammad Wariz, and in Shah Jahan Namah by Mohammad Salih Kanbo. Aurangzeb was a great scholar whose mastery over the Persian language is well-known.

Agil Khan Razi’s Zafar Namah-i-Alamgiri, Mirza Mohammad Kazim’s Alamgir Namah and Bhimsena’s Dilkusha are historical works pertaining to Aurangzeb’s rule. Dara Shikoh did much to harmonise Hindu and Islamic religious ideals. His Sirr-i-akbar contains a Persian rendering of fifty-two Upanishads.

Related Articles:

• The Development of Literature during the Mughal Period | Essay
• Essay on Sindhi Language (582 Words)

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