cognitive approach psychology case study examples

• Abnormal Psychology
• Assessment (IB)
• Biological Psychology
• Cognitive Psychology
• Criminology
• Developmental Psychology
• Extended Essay
• General Interest
• Health Psychology
• Human Relationships
• IB Psychology
• IB Psychology HL Extensions
• Internal Assessment (IB)
• Love and Marriage
• Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder
• Prejudice and Discrimination
• Qualitative Research Methods
• Research Methodology
• Revision and Exam Preparation
• Social and Cultural Psychology
• Studies and Theories
• Teaching Ideas

Key Study: HM’s case study (Milner and Scoville, 1957)

Travis Dixon January 29, 2019 Biological Psychology , Cognitive Psychology , Key Studies

• Click to share on Facebook (Opens in new window)
• Click to share on Twitter (Opens in new window)
• Click to share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window)
• Click to share on Pinterest (Opens in new window)
• Click to email a link to a friend (Opens in new window)

HM’s case study is one of the most famous and important case studies in psychology, especially in cognitive psychology. It was the source of groundbreaking new knowledge on the role of the hippocampus in memory. 

Background Info

“Localization of function in the brain” means that different parts of the brain have different functions. Researchers have discovered this from over 100 years of research into the ways the brain works. One such study was Milner’s case study on Henry Molaison.

The memory problems that HM experienced after the removal of his hippocampus provided new knowledge on the role of the hippocampus in memory formation (image: wikicommons)

At the time of the first study by Milner, HM was 29 years old. He was a mechanic who had suffered from minor epileptic seizures from when he was ten years old and began suffering severe seizures as a teenager. These may have been a result of a bike accident when he was nine. His seizures were getting worse in severity, which resulted in HM being unable to work. Treatment for his epilepsy had been unsuccessful, so at the age of 27 HM (and his family) agreed to undergo a radical surgery that would remove a part of his brain called the hippocampus . Previous research suggested that this could help reduce his seizures, but the impact it had on his memory was unexpected. The Doctor performing the radical surgery believed it was justified because of the seriousness of his seizures and the failures of other methods to treat them.

Methods and Results

In one regard, the surgery was successful as it resulted in HM experiencing less seizures. However, immediately after the surgery, the hospital staff and HM’s family noticed that he was suffering from anterograde amnesia (an inability to form new memories after the time of damage to the brain):

Here are some examples of his memory loss described in the case study:

• He could remember something if he concentrated on it, but if he broke his concentration it was lost.
• After the surgery the family moved houses. They stayed on the same street, but a few blocks away. The family noticed that HM as incapable of remembering the new address, but could remember the old one perfectly well. He could also not find his way home alone.
• He could not find objects around the house, even if they never changed locations and he had used them recently. His mother had to always show him where the lawnmower was in the garage.
• He would do the same jigsaw puzzles or read the same magazines every day, without ever apparently getting bored and realising he had read them before. (HM loved to do crossword puzzles and thought they helped him to remember words).
• He once ate lunch in front of Milner but 30 minutes later was unable to say what he had eaten, or remember even eating any lunch at all.
• When interviewed almost two years after the surgery in 1955, HM gave the date as 1953 and said his age was 27. He talked constantly about events from his childhood and could not remember details of his surgery.

Later testing also showed that he had suffered some partial retrograde amnesia (an inability to recall memories from before the time of damage to the brain). For instance, he could not remember that one of his favourite uncles passed away three years prior to his surgery or any of his time spent in hospital for his surgery. He could, however, remember some unimportant events that occurred just before his admission to the hospital.

Brenda Milner studied HM for almost 50 years – but he never remembered her.

Results continued…

His memories from events prior to 1950 (three years before his surgery), however, were fine. There was also no observable difference to his personality or to his intelligence. In fact, he scored 112 points on his IQ after the surgery, compared with 104 previously. The IQ test suggested that his ability in arithmetic had apparently improved. It seemed that the only behaviour that was affected by the removal of the hippocampus was his memory. HM was described as a kind and gentle person and this did not change after his surgery.

The Star Tracing Task

In a follow up study, Milner designed a task that would test whether or not HMs procedural memory had been affected by the surgery. He was to trace an outline of a star, but he could only see the mirrored reflection. He did this once a day over a period of a few days and Milner observed that he became faster and faster. Each time he performed the task he had no memory of ever having done it before, but his performance kept improving. This is further evidence for localization of function – the hippocampus must play a role in declarative (explicit) memory but not procedural (implicit) memory.

Cognitive psychologists have categorized memories into different types. HM’s study suggests that the hippocampus is essential for explicit (conscious) and declarative memory, but not implicit (unconscious) procedural memory.

Was his memory 100% gone? Another follow-up study

Interestingly, HM showed signs of being able to remember famous people who had only become famous after his surgery, like Lee Harvey Oswald (who assassinated JFK in 1963). (Image: wikicommons)

Another fascinating follow-up study was conducted by two researchers who wanted to see if HM had learned anything about celebrities that became famous after his surgery. At first they tested his knowledge of celebrities from before his surgery, and he knew these just as well as controls. They then showed him two names at a time, one a famous name (e.g. Liza Minelli, Lee Harvey Oswald) and the other was a name randomly taken from the phonebook. He was asked to choose the famous name and he was correct on a significant number of trials (i.e. the statistics tests suggest he wasn’t just guessing). Even more incredible was that he remembered some details about these people when asked why they were famous. For example, he could remember that Lee Harvey Oswald assassinated the president. One explanation given for the memory of these facts is that there was an emotional component. E.g. He liked these people, or the assassination was so violent, that he could remember a few details. 

HM became a hugely important case study for neuro and cognitive Psychologists. He was interviewed and tested by over 100 psychologists during the 53 years after his operation. Directly after his surgery, he lived at home with his parents as he was unable to live independently. He moved to a nursing home in 1980 and stayed there until his death in 2008. HM donated his brain to science and it was sliced into 2,401 thin slices that will be scanned and published electronically.

Critical Thinking Considerations

• How does this case study demonstrate localization of function in the brain? (e.g.c reating new long-term memories; procedural memories; storing and retrieving long term memories; intelligence; personality) ( Application )
• What are the ethical considerations involved in this study? ( Analysis )
• What are the strengths and limitations of this case study? ( Evaluation )
• Why would ongoing studies of HM be important? (Think about memory, neuroplasticity and neurogenesis) ( Analysis/Synthesis/Evaluation )
• How can findings from this case study be used to support and/or challenge the Multi-store Model of Memory? ( Application / Synthesis/Evaluation )

Exam Tips This study can be used for the following topics: Localization – the role of the hippocampus in memory Techniques to study the brain – MRI has been used to find out the exact location and size of damage to HM’s brain Bio and cognitive approach research method s – case study Bio and cognitive approach ethical considerations – anonymity Emotion and cognition – the follow-up study on HM and memories of famous people could be used in an essay to support the idea that emotion affects memory Models of memory – the multi-store model : HM’s study provides evidence for the fact that our memories all aren’t formed and stored in one place but travel from store to store (because his transfer from STS to LTS was damaged – if it was all in one store this specific problem would not occur)

Milner, Brenda. Scoville, William Beecher. “Loss of Recent Memory after Bilateral Hippocampal Lesions”. The Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry. 1957; 20: 11 21. (Accessed from web.mit.edu )

The man who couldn’t remember”. nova science now. an interview with brenda corkin . 06.01.2009.       .

  Here’s a good video recreation documentary of HM’s case study…

Travis Dixon is an IB Psychology teacher, author, workshop leader, examiner and IA moderator.

10 Cognitive Psychology Examples (Most Famous Experiments)

Cognitive psychology is the scientific study of mental processes. This includes trying to understand how people perceive the world around them, store and recall memories, acquire and use language, and engage in problem-solving.

Although not the first to study mental processes, Ulric Neisser helped cement the term in the field of psychology in his 1967 book Cognitive Psychology .

He offered an elaborate definition of cognitive psychology, with key points quoted below:

“ The term cognition refers to all processes by which sensory input is transformed, reduced, elaborated, recovered, and used…Giving such a sweeping definition, it is apparent that cognition is involved in everything a human being might possibly do” (p. 4).

In the mid-20 th century, there was significant divide in psychology between behaviorism and cognitive psychologists.

The behaviorists, such as Skinner, argued that only observable phenomena should be studied. Since mental processes could not be observed, they could not be studied scientifically.

Neisser countered, stating that:

“Cognitive processes surely exist, so it can hardly be unscientific to study them” (p. 5).  

Cognitive Psychology Examples (Famous Studies)

1. the forgetting curve and the serial position effect.

The contributions of Hermann Ebbinghaus to cognitive psychology were so significant that his individual studies could consume all 10 examples in this article.

Some believe that his book Über das Gedächtnis (1902) “…records one of the most remarkable research achievements in the history of psychology” (Roediger, 1985, p. 519).

Two of his most influential discoveries on memory include: the forgetting curve and the serial position effect .

To make his research on memory scientific, he created a list of over 2,000 nonsense syllables (e.g., BOK, YAT). Using commonly used vocabulary words would be too heavily associated with meaning, but nonsense syllables had no prior associations.

By conducting testing on himself, he was able to eliminate numerous other variables that would result from using people with varied backgrounds, experiences, and mental acuities.

So, he would present himself with lists of nonsense syllables and then test his memory at various intervals afterward.

This led to the discovery of the forgetting curve : forgetting begins right after the initial presentation of information and continues to degrade from then on.

The serial-position effect is the tendency to remember the first and last items in a list more so than the items in the middle.

2. The Magical Number 7 

One of the most often cited papers in psychology was written by cognitive psychologist George Miller of Harvard University in 1956.

The paper did not describe a series of experiments conducted by Miller himself. Instead, Miller outlines the work of several researchers that point to the magical number 7 as the capacity of short-term memory.

He made the case that this capacity is the same no matter what form the stimuli takes; whether talking about tones or words.

He also suggested that information is organized in “chunks,” not individual bits. A word is just one chunk for a native speaker, but for someone learning the language, the word consists of several bits of information in the form of individual letters.

Therefore, the capacity of the native speaker is 7 words, but for the beginner, it may only be two, or just 7 letters.

Miller concludes the paper by making a point about the number 7 itself:

“And finally, what about the magical number seven? What about the seven wonders of the world, the seven seas, the seven deadly sins, the seven daughters of Atlas in the Pleiades, the seven ages of man, the seven levels of hell, the seven primary colors, the seven notes of the musical scale, and the seven days of the week?” (p. 96).

See Also: Short-Term Memory Examples

3. The Framing Bias 

Tversky and Kahneman (1981) discovered the framing bias , which occurs when a person’s decision is influenced by the way information is presented. 

A typical study involved presenting information to participants, but varying one or two words in how the information was described.

For example:

“Imagine that the U.S. is preparing for the outbreak of an unusual Asian disease, which is expected to kill 600 people. If Program C is adopted 400 people will die. [22 percent] If Program D is adopted there is 1/3 probability that nobody will die, and 2/3 probability that 600 people will die. [78 percent] Which of the two programs would you favor?” (p. 453).

Although both programs lead to the same mortality rate, most research participants preferred Program D.

As the researchers explain, “the certain death of 400 people is less acceptable than the two-in-three chance that 600 will die” (p. 453).

Moreover, the effects were far from trivial:

“They occur when the outcomes concern the loss of human lives as well as in choices about money; they are not restricted to hypothetical questions and are not eliminated by monetary incentives” (p.  457).

4. Schema: Assimilation and Accommodation 

Jean Piaget’s research in the 1950’s and 60’s on cognitive development had a profound impact on our understanding of children. He detailed the way in which children perceive and make sense of the world and identified the stages of that developmental sequence which we still follow today.  

According to Piaget, children develop a schema , usually defined as a mental framework that organizes information about a concept.

As the child grows and experiences the world, everything they encounter will be processed within that schema. This is called assimilation . When the schema is altered or a new schema is developed, it is called accommodation .

He conducted a great deal of his research by observing his own three children and taking excruciatingly detailed notes on their behavior.

During the sensorimotor stage (birth to 2 years old), Piaget highlights a milestone that demonstrates the infant is now exploring their environment with intent.

“…the definitive conquest of the mechanisms of grasping marks the beginning of the complex behavior patterns which we shall call “assimilations through secondary schemata” and which characterize the first forms of deliberate action” (Piaget, 1956, p. 88).

Although this milestone takes place in the sensorimotor stage, it is much more than a sensory experience. It is driven by intent, a purely cognitive construct.

Priming occurs when exposure to a stimulus has an effect on our behavior or how we respond to information presented subsequently. It can occur outside of conscious awareness.  

Priming affects how we process all kinds of information and is a widely used concept in marketing.

Meyer and Schvaneveldt (1971) were among the first to study priming.

They presented research participants with various pairs of associated words (Bread/Butter), unassociated words (Bread/Doctor), or nonwords.

The participants were instructed to indicate “yes” if both words were real words or “no” if one was not a real word.

The results revealed that participants were able to make this decision much faster when the pair of words were associated than when they were unassociated.

Although not conclusive and in need of further research, this pattern indicated that words that have strong connections in memory are activated more easily than words that are less connected.

Research since has identified numerous types of priming, including: perceptual, semantic, associative, affective, and cultural.

6. Semantic Memory Network and Spreading Activation

Further research on priming was conducted by Collins and Loftus (1975). Their studies led to more conclusive evidence that information is stored in a memory network of linked concepts.

When one concept is activated, that activation spreads throughout the network and activates other concepts.

The stronger the connection between concepts, the more likely one will activate the other. Eventually, the activation loses energy and dissipates.

Collins and Loftus provide a thorough explanation of the semantic memory network :

“The more properties two concepts have in common, the more links there are between the two nodes via these properties and the more closely related are the concepts…When a concept is processed (or stimulated), activation spreads out along the paths of the network in a decreasing gradient” (p. 411).

This research led to a more complete understanding of how information is stored and organized in memory. This has helped us understand a wide range of psychological phenomena such as how we form impressions of others and make decisions.

7. The ELM Model of Persuasion

Understanding how people form an attitude has been an area of study in cognitive psychology for more than 50 years.

Researchers Petty and Cacioppo (1986) formulated the Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM) of persuasion to explain how message factors and personality characteristics affect attitude formation.

The ELM identifies two routes to persuasion: central and peripheral.

The central route to persuasion is activated when the message recipient engages in a critical analysis of the message content. This occurs when the message is about an issue considered important by the recipient.

In this scenario, a person will be persuaded by the quality of arguments in the message.

The central route results

“…from a person’s careful and thoughtful consideration of the true merits of the information presented…” (1986, p. 125).

The peripheral route to persuasion involves very little cognitive processing of the message content. This occurs when the issue is unimportant to the recipient.

In this scenario, a person will be persuaded by the status of the person expressing their opinion.

The peripheral route results from:

“…some simple cue in the persuasion context (e.g., an attractive source) that induces change without necessitating scrutiny of the true merits of the information presented” (p. 125).

Findings from ELM research apply to everything from product advertising, to public health campaigns, to political debate.

Go Deeper: The Six Types of Persuasion

8. The Bobo Doll Study

The Bobo Doll study by Albert Bandura in 1963 may be one of the most famous studies in psychology and a founding study for the social cognitive theory . It had a tremendous impact on society as well.

It took place at a time in the U. S. in which there was great concern and debate over the growing prevalence of violence depicted on television.

In the study, children watched a video of an adult either playing violently or not violently with a Bobo doll.

Afterwards, each child was placed in a room with a Bobo doll. Their behavior was carefully observed by trained raters.

Children that watched the violent video were more aggressive towards the doll than those that watched the non-violent video.

This type of study was among the first demonstrate the powerful effect of television on children’s behavior. It led to decades of research and intense debate throughout society.

9. Bystander Intervention: The First Study

In 1964 in New York City, late at night, a young woman was murdered just steps away from her apartment.

The newspapers reported that nearly 40 residents heard her pleas for help, but that no one actually did anything. That reporting has now been found to have many inaccuracies.

However, the story created a national debate about crime and helping those in need.

This was the impetus for a study conducted by Latané and Darley (1968) on “ the bystander effect .”

The methodology was simple. Over 60 college students at New York University were taken to individual rooms to discuss an issue via an intercom system.

The students knew that several people would be participating in the discussion simultaneously.

One “participant” spoke about their difficulties adjusting to college life and their medical condition which sometimes led to seizures. This was a pre-recorded script and included a part where the “participant” acted as if they were feeling physical distress. They eventually stopped communicating with the other participants.

The results revealed that:

“The number of bystanders that the subject perceived to be present had a major effect on the likelihood with which she would report the emergency. Eighty-five percent of the subjects who thought they alone knew of the victim’s plight reported the seizure before the victim was cut off, only 31% of those who thought four other bystanders were present did so” (p. 379).

This was the beginning of a long program of research that identified the decision-making steps that determine the likelihood of a bystander intervening in an emergency situation.

10. The Car Crash Experiment: Leading Questions

Dr. Elizabeth Loftus and her undergraduate student John Palmer designed a study in 1974 that shook our confidence in eyewitness testimony.

Research participants watched videos that depicted accidents between two cars. Afterward, participants were asked to estimate how fast the two cars were traveling upon impact.  

“How fast were the two cars going when they ______ into each other?”

However, the word in the blank varied. For some participants the word in the blank was “smashed” and for other participants the word was “contacted.”

The results showed that estimates varied depending on the word.

When the word “smashed” was used, estimates were much higher than when the “contacted” was used. 

This was the first in a long line of research conducted on how phrasing can result in leading questions that affect the memory of eyewitnesses.

It has had a tremendous impact on law enforcement interrogation practices, line-up procedures, and the credibility of eyewitness testimony .

Today’s article was about 10 famous studies in cognitive psychology. Ten is actually a low number given how many studies have had substantial impact on the field.

The studies described above include the famous work of Ebbinghaus, who used himself as a test subject. This entire article could have consisted of his work.

Also included above was just one study by Tversky and Kahneman. The two researchers have identified so many heuristics and cognitive biases that only choosing one was just unfair.

Two studies by Loftus were included because they were both groundbreaking: one in memory and the other in eyewitness testimony.

Of course, Bandura’s Bobo Doll study was included because of its fame and impact on public discourse.

The ELM model and the earliest study on bystander intervention were also included. Both have had profound impacts in not just our understanding about the given subjects, but have also had substantial practical applications in various professions and matters in real-life.

Bandura, A. (1977).  Social Learning Theory . Prentice Hall.

Bandura, A., Ross, D., & Ross, S. A. (1963). Imitation of film-mediated aggressive models. The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 66 (1), 3–11. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0048687

Ebbinghaus, H. (1902). Grundz Üge der Psychologic. Leipzig, Germany: von Veit.

Ebbinghaus, H. (1964). Memory: A contribution to experimental psychology (H. A. Ruger, C. E. Bussenius translators). New York: Dover.

Ebbinghaus, H. (1913). On memory: A contribution to experimental psychology . New York: Teachers College.

Kitchen, P., Kerr, G., Schultz, D., Mccoll, R., & Pals, H. (2014). The elaboration likelihood model: Review, critique and research agenda. European Journal of Marketing, 48 (11/12), 2033-2050. https://doi.org/10.1108/EJM-12-2011-0776

Loftus, E. F., & Palmer, J. C. (1974). Reconstruction of automobile destruction: An example of the interaction between language and memory. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 13 (5), 585–589.

Miller, G. A. (1956). The magical number seven plus or minus two: some limits on our capacity for processing information. Psychological Review , 63 (2), 81–97.

Neisser, U. (1967). Cognitive psychology . Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Roediger, H. (1985). Remembering Ebbinghaus. PsycCRITIQUES, 30(7), 519-523.

Petty, R.E. & Cacioppo, J.T. (1986). The Elaboration Likelihood Model of persuasion. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 19 , 123-205. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2601(08)60214-2

Piaget, J. (1956; 1965). The origins of intelligence in children . International Universities Press Inc. New York.

Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D. (1981). The framing of decisions and the psychology of choice .  Science ,  211 (4481), 453-458.

Dave Cornell (PhD)

Dr. Cornell has worked in education for more than 20 years. His work has involved designing teacher certification for Trinity College in London and in-service training for state governments in the United States. He has trained kindergarten teachers in 8 countries and helped businessmen and women open baby centers and kindergartens in 3 countries.

• Dave Cornell (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/dave-cornell-phd/ 25 Positive Punishment Examples
• Dave Cornell (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/dave-cornell-phd/ 25 Dissociation Examples (Psychology)
• Dave Cornell (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/dave-cornell-phd/ 15 Zone of Proximal Development Examples
• Dave Cornell (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/dave-cornell-phd/ Perception Checking: 15 Examples and Definition

Chris Drew (PhD)

This article was peer-reviewed and edited by Chris Drew (PhD). The review process on Helpful Professor involves having a PhD level expert fact check, edit, and contribute to articles. Reviewers ensure all content reflects expert academic consensus and is backed up with reference to academic studies. Dr. Drew has published over 20 academic articles in scholarly journals. He is the former editor of the Journal of Learning Development in Higher Education and holds a PhD in Education from ACU.

• Chris Drew (PhD) #molongui-disabled-link 25 Positive Punishment Examples
• Chris Drew (PhD) #molongui-disabled-link 25 Dissociation Examples (Psychology)
• Chris Drew (PhD) #molongui-disabled-link 15 Zone of Proximal Development Examples
• Chris Drew (PhD) #molongui-disabled-link Perception Checking: 15 Examples and Definition

Leave a Comment Cancel Reply

Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *

Cognitive Psychology: Experiments & Examples

Cognitive psychology reveals, for example, insights into how we think, reason, learn, remember, produce language and even how illogical our brains are.

Fifty years ago there was a revolution in cognitive psychology which changed the way we think about the mind.

The ‘cognitive revolution’ inspired cognitive psychologists to start thinking of the mind as a kind of organic computer, rather than as an impenetrable black box which would never be understood.

This metaphor has motivated cognitive psychology to investigate the software central to our everyday functioning, opening the way to insights into how we think, reason, learn, remember and produce language.

Here are 10 classic examples of cognitive psychology studies that have helped reveal how thinking works.

1. Cognitive psychology reveals how experts think

Without experts the human race would be sunk.

But what is it about how experts think which lets them achieve breakthroughs which we can all enjoy?

The answer is in how experts think about problems, compared with novices, cognitive psychology reveals.

That’s what Chi et al. (1981) found when they compared how experts and novices represented physics problems.

Novices tended to get stuck thinking about the surface details of the problem whereas experts saw the underlying principles that were operating.

It was partly this deeper, abstract way of approaching problems that made the experts more successful.

2. Short-term memory lasts 15-30 seconds

Short-term memory is a lot shorter than many think, cognitive psychologists find.

In fact it lasts about 15-30 seconds.

We know that because of a classic cognitive psychology study carried out by Lloyd and Margaret Peterson ( Peterson & Peterson, 1959 ).

Participants had to try and remember and recall three-letter strings, like FZX.

When tested, after 3 seconds they could recall 80 percent of them, after 18 seconds, though, they could only remember 10 percent.

That’s how short-term short-term memory is.

3. Cognitive psychology finds people are not logical

People find formal logic extremely difficult to cope with–that’s normal, cognitive psychology finds.

Here’s a quick test for you, and don’t be surprised if your brain overheats:

“You are shown a set of four cards placed on a table, each of which has a number on one side and a coloured patch on the other side. The visible faces of the cards show 3, 8, red and brown. Which card(s) must you turn over in order to test the truth of the proposition that if a card shows an even number on one face, then its opposite face is red?”

The answer is you have to turn over the ‘8’ and the brown card (for an explanation search for “Wason selection task” — even after hearing it, many people still can’t believe this is the correct answer).

If you got it right, then you’re in the minority (or you’ve seen the test before!).

When Wason conducted this classic experiment, less than 10 percent of people got it right (Wason, 1968).

Cognitive psychology finds that our brains are not set up for this kind of formal logic.

4. Example: framing in cognitive psychology

The way you frame a problem, argument or statement can have huge effects on how people perceive it.

For example, think about risk for a moment and the fact that people don’t like to take chances.

They dislike taking chances so much that even the whiff of negativity is enough to send people running for the hills.

That’s what cognitive psychologists Kahneman and Tversky (1981) demonstrated when they asked participants to imagine 600 people were affected by a deadly disease.

There was, they were told, a treatment, but it is risky.

If you decided to use the treatment, here are the odds:

“A 33% chance of saving all 600 people, 66% possibility of saving no one.”

When told this, 72 percent of people thought it was a good bet.

But, when presented the problem this way:

“A 33% chance that no people will die, 66% probability that all 600 will die.”

…the number choosing it dropped to 22 percent.

The beauty of the study is that the outcomes are identical, it’s just the framing that’s different.

Cognitive psychology shows that the way we think is heavily influenced by the terms in which issues are expressed.

5. Attention is like a spotlight

We actually have two sets of eyes — one set real and one virtual, cognitive psychology finds.

We have the real eyes moving around in their sockets, but we also have ‘virtual eyes’ looking around our field of vision, choosing what we pay attention to.

People are using their virtual eyes all the time: for example, when they watch each other using their peripheral vision.

You don’t need to look directly at an attractive stranger to eye them up, you can look ‘out of the corner of your eye’.

Cognitive psychologists have called this the ‘spotlight of attention’ and studies have actually measured its movement.

It means we can notice things in the fraction of a second before our eyes have a chance to reorient.

→ Read on: The Attentional Spotlight

6. The cocktail party effect in cognitive psychology

It’s not just vision which has a kind of spotlight, our hearing is also finely tuned, cognitive psychologists have discovered.

It’s like when you’re at a cocktail party and you can tune out all the voices, except the person you’re talking to.

Or, you can tune out the person you’re talking to and eavesdrop on a more interesting conversation behind.

A beautiful cognitive psychology demonstration of this was carried out in the 1950s by Cherry (1953) .

He found that people could even distinguish the same voice reading two different messages at the same time.

→ Read on: The Cocktail Party Effect

7. Children’s cognitive psychology example

If you take a toy duck and show it to a 12-month-old infant, then put your hand under a cushion, leave the duck there and bring your hand out, the child will only look in your hand, almost never under the cushion.

At this age, children behave as though things they can’t see don’t even exist.

As the famous child psychologist Jean Piaget noted:

“The child’s universe is still only a totality of pictures emerging from nothingness at the moment of action, to return to nothingness at the moment when the action is finished.”

And yet, just six months later, a child will typically look under the cushion, studies in cognitive psychology have found.

It has learnt that things that are hidden from view can continue to exist — this is known as object permanence .

This is just one miracle amongst many in developmental  psychology and cognitive psychology.

8. The McGurk effect in cognitive psychology

The brain is integrating information from all our senses to produce our experience, cognitive psychology shows.

This is brilliantly revealed by the McGurk effect ( McGurk & MacDonald, 1976 ).

Watch the following clip from a BBC documentary to see the effect in full.

You won’t believe it until you see and hear it yourself.

The sensation is quite odd:

9. Implanting false memories

People sometimes think of their memories as being laid down, then later either recalled or forgotten, with little change in the memories themselves between the two.

In fact, cognitive psychology shows that the reality is much more complex and, in some cases, alarming.

One of the most dramatic examples of these studies demonstrated that memories can be changed, or even implanted later, was carried out by Elizabeth Loftus.

In her study, a childhood memory of being lost in a mall was successfully implanted in some people’s mind, despite their families confirming nothing like it had ever happened to them.

Later research in cognitive psychology have found that 50 percent of participants could have a false memory successfully implanted.

→ Read on: Implanting False Memories

10. Why the incompetent don’t know they’re incompetent

There all kinds of cognitive biases operating in the mind, cognitive psychology has found.

The Dunning-Kruger effect , though, is a favourite because it explains why incompetent people don’t know they’re incompetent.

David Dunning and Justin Kruger found in their studies that people who are the most incompetent are the least aware of their own incompetence.

At the other end of the scale, the most competent are most aware of their own shortcomings.

→ Explore more: Cognitive Biases : Why We Make Irrational Decisions

Author: Jeremy Dean

Psychologist, Jeremy Dean, PhD is the founder and author of PsyBlog. He holds a doctorate in psychology from University College London and two other advanced degrees in psychology. He has been writing about scientific research on PsyBlog since 2004. He is also the author of the book "Making Habits, Breaking Habits" (Da Capo, 2013) and several ebooks. View all posts by Jeremy Dean

Join the free PsyBlog mailing list. No spam, ever.

What Is the Cognitive Psychology Approach? 12 Key Theories

Maintaining focus on the oncoming traffic is paramount, yet I am barely aware of the seagulls flying overhead.

These noisy birds only receive attention when I am safely walking up the other side of the road, their cries reminding me of childhood seaside vacations.

Cognitive psychology focuses on the internal mental processes needed to make sense of the environment and decide on the next appropriate action (Eysenck & Keane, 2015).

This article explores the cognitive psychology approach, its origins, and several theories and models involved in cognition.

Before you continue, we thought you might like to download our three Positive Psychology Exercises for free . These science-based exercises explore fundamental aspects of positive psychology, including strengths, values, and self-compassion, and will give you the tools to enhance the wellbeing of your clients, students, or employees.

This Article Contains:

What is the cognitive psychology approach, a brief history of cognitive psychology, cognitive psychology vs behaviorism, 12 key theories, concepts, and models, fascinating research experiments, a look at positive cognitive psychology, interesting resources from positivepsychology.com, a take-home message.

The upsurge of research into the mysteries of the human brain and mind has been considerable in recent decades, with recognition of the importance of cognitive process in clinical psychology and social psychology  (Eysenck & Keane, 2015).

As a result, cognitive psychology has profoundly affected the field of psychology and our understanding of what it is to be human.

Perhaps more surprisingly, it has had such an effect without clear boundaries, an integrated set of assumptions and concepts, or a recognizable spokesperson (Gross, 2020).

So, what exactly is the cognitive psychology approach?

Cognitive psychology attempts to understand human cognition by focusing on what appear to be cognitive tasks that require little effort (Goldstein, 2011).

Let’s return to our example of walking down the road. Imagine now that we are also taking a call. We’re now combining several concurrent cognitive tasks:

• Perceiving the environment Distinguishing cars from traffic signals and discerning their direction and speed on the road as well as the people ahead standing, talking, and blocking the sidewalk.
• Paying attention Attending to what our partner is asking us on the phone, above the traffic noise.
• Visualizing Forming a mental image of items in the house, responding to the question, “Where did you leave your car keys?”
• Comprehending and producing language Understanding the real question (“I need to take the car. Where are your keys?”) from what is said and formulating a suitable reply.
• Problem-solving Working out how to get to the next appointment without the car.
• Decision-making Concluding that the timing of one meeting will not work and choosing to push it to another day.

While cognitive psychologists initially focused firmly on an analogy comparing the mind to a computer, their understanding has moved on.

There are currently four approaches, often overlapping and frequently combined, that science uses to understand human cognition (Eysenck & Keane, 2015):

• Cognitive psychology The attempt to “understand human cognition by using behavioral evidence” (Eysenck & Keane, 2015, p. 2).
• Cognitive neuropsychology Understanding ‘normal’ cognition through the study of patients living with a brain injury.
• Cognitive neuroscience Combining evidence from the brain with behavior to form a more complete picture of cognition.
• Computational cognitive science Using computational models to understand and test our understanding of human cognition.

Cognitive psychology plays a massive and essential role in understanding human cognition and is stronger because of its close relationships and interdependencies with other academic disciplines (Eysenck & Keane, 2015).

In 1868, a Dutch physiologist, Franciscus Donders, began to measure reaction time – something we would now see as an experiment in cognitive psychology (Goldstein, 2011).

Donders recognized that mental responses could not be measured directly but could be inferred from behavior. Not long after, Hermann Ebbinghaus began examining the nature and inner workings of human memory using nonsense syllables (Goldstein, 2011).

By the late 1800s, Wilhelm Wundt had set up the first laboratory dedicated to studying the mind scientifically. His approach became known as structuralism . His bold aim was to build a periodic table of the mind , containing all the sensations involved in creating any experience (Goldstein, 2011).

However, the use of analytical introspection to uncover hidden mental processes was gradually dropped when John Watson proposed a new psychological approach that became known as behaviorism (Goldstein, 2011).

Watson rejected the introspective approach and instead focused on observable behavior. His idea of classical conditioning – the connection of a new stimulus with a previously neutral one – was later surpassed by B. F. Skinner’s idea of operant conditioning , which focused on positive reinforcement (Goldstein, 2011).

Both theories sought to understand the relationship between stimulus and response rather than the mind’s inner workings (Goldstein, 2011).

Prompted by a scathing attack by linguist and cognitive scientist Noam Chomsky, by the 1950s behaviorism as the dominant psychological discipline was in decline. The introduction of the digital computer led to the information-processing approach , inspiring psychologists to think of the mind in terms of a sequence of processing stages (Goldstein, 2011).

Download 3 Free Positive Psychology Exercises (PDF)

Enhance wellbeing with these free, science-based exercises that draw on the latest insights from positive psychology.

Download 3 Free Positive Psychology Tools Pack (PDF)

By filling out your name and email address below.

Moore (1996) recognized the tensions of the paradigm shift from behaviorism to cognitive psychology.

While research into cognitive psychology, cognitive neuropsychology, cognitive neuroscience , and computational cognitive science is now widely accepted as the driving force behind understanding mental processes (such as memory, perception, problem-solving, and attention), this was not always the case (Gross, 2020).

Moore (1996) highlighted the relationship between behaviorism and the relatively new field of cognitive psychology, and the sometimes mistaken assumptions regarding the nature of the former approach:

• Behaviorism is typically only associated with studying publicly observable behavior. Unlike behaviorism, cognitive psychology is viewed as free of the restrictions of logical positivism, which rely on verification through observation.

Since then, modern cognitive psychology has incorporated findings from many other disciplines, including evolutionary psychology , computer science, artificial intelligence , and neuroscience (Eysenck & Keane, 2015).

• Unlike behaviorism, cognitive psychology is theoretical and explanatory. Behaviorism is often considered merely descriptive, while cognitive psychology is seen as being able to explain what is behind behavior.

Particular ongoing advances in cognitive psychology include perception, language comprehension and production, and problem-solving (Eysenck & Keane, 2015).

• Behaviorism cannot incorporate theoretical terms. While challenged by some behaviorists at the time, it was argued that behaviorism could not incorporate theoretical terms unless related to directly observable behavior.

At the time, cognitive psychologists also argued that it was wrong of behaviorists to interpret mental states in terms of brain states.

Neuroscience advances, such as new imaging techniques like functional MRI, continue to offer fresh insights into the relationship between the brain and mental states (Eysenck & Keane, 2015).

Clearly, the relationship between behaviorism and the developing field of cognitive psychology has been complex. However, cognitive psychology has grown into a school of thought that has led to significant advances in understanding cognition, especially when teamed up with other developments in computing and neuroscience.

This may not have been possible without the shift in the dominant schools of thought in psychology (Gross, 2020; Goldstein, 2011; Eysenck & Keane, 2015).

And while it is beyond the scope of this article to cover the full breadth or depth of the areas of research, we list several of the most important and fascinating specialties and theories below.

It is hardly possible to imagine a world in which attention doesn’t play an essential role in how we interact with the environment, and yet, we rarely give it a thought.

According to cognitive psychology, attention is most active when driven by an individual’s expectations or goals, known as top-down processing . On the other hand, it is more passive when controlled by external stimuli, such as a loud noise, referred to as bottom-up processing (Eysenck & Keane, 2015).

A further distinction exists between focused attention (selective) and divided attention . Research into the former explores how we are able to focus on one item (noise, image, etc.) when there are several. In contrast, the latter looks at how we can maintain attention on two or more stimuli simultaneously.

Donald Broadbent proposed the bottleneck model to explain how we can attend to just one message when several are presented, for example, in dichotic listening experiments, where different auditory stimuli are presented to each ear. Broadbent’s model suggests multiple processing stages, each one progressively restricting the information flow (Goldstein, 2011).

As with all other areas of cognition, perception is far more complicated than we might first imagine. Take, for example, vision. While a great deal of research has “involved presenting a visual stimulus and assessing aspects of its processing,” there is also the time aspect to consider (Eysenck & Keane, 2015, p. 121).

We need to not only perceive objects, but also make sense of their movement and detect changes in the visual environment over time (Eysenck & Keane, 2015).

Research suggests perception, like attention, combines bottom-up and top-down processing. Bottom-up processing involves neurons that fire in response to specific elements of an image – perhaps aspects of a face, nose, eyebrows, jawline, etc. Top-down processing considers how the knowledge someone brings with them affects their perception.

Bottom-down processing helps explain why two people, presented with the same stimuli, experience different perceptions as a result of their expectations and prior knowledge (Goldstein, 2011).

Combining bottom-up and top-down processing also enables the individual to make sense of both static and moving images when limited information is available; we can track a person walking through a crowd or a plane disappearing in and out of clouds (Eysenck & Keane, 2015).

The mirror neuron system is incredibly fascinating and is proving valuable in our attempts to understand biological motion. Observing actions activates similar areas of the brain as performing them. The model appears to explain how we can imitate the actions of another person – crucial to learning (Eysenck & Keane, 2015).

Language comprehension

Whether written or spoken, understanding language involves a high degree of multi-level processing (Eysenck & Keane, 2015).

Comprehension begins with an initial analysis of sentence structure (larger language units require additional processing). Beyond processing syntax (the rules for building and analyzing sentences), analysis of sentence meaning ( semantics ) is necessary to understand if the interpretation should be literal or involve irony, metaphor, or sarcasm (Eysenck & Keane, 2015).

Pragmatics examines intended meaning. For example, shouting, “That’s the doorbell!” is not likely to be a simple observation, but rather a request to answer the door (Eysenck & Keane, 2015).

Several models have been proposed to understand the analysis and comprehension of sentences, known as parsing , including (Eysenck & Keane, 2015):

• Garden-path model This model attempts to explain why some sentences are ambiguous (such as, “The horse raced past the barn fell.”). It suggests they are challenging to comprehend because the analysis is performed on each individual unit of the sentence with little feedback, and correction is inhibited.
• Constraint-based model The interpretations of a sentence may be limited by several constraints, including syntactic, semantic, and general world knowledge.
• Unrestricted race model This model combines the garden-path and constraint-based model, and suggests all sources of information inform syntactic structure. One such interpretation is selected until it is discarded, with good reason, for another.
• Good-enough representation This model proposes that parsing provides a ‘good-enough’ interpretation rather than something detailed, accurate, and complete.

The research and theories above hint at the vast complexity of human cognition and explain why so many models and concepts attempt to answer what happens when it works and, equally important, when it doesn’t.

A level of psychology: the cognitive approach – Atomi

There are many research experiments in cognitive psychology that highlight the successes and failings of human cognition. Each of the following three offers insight into the mental processes behind our thinking and behavior.

Cocktail party phenomenon

Selective attention – or in this case, selective listening – is often exemplified by what has become known as the cocktail party phenomenon  (Eysenck & Keane, 2015).

Even in a busy room and possibly mid-conversation, we can often hear if someone else mentions our name. It seems we can filter out surrounding noise by combining bottom-up and top-down processing to create a “winner takes it all” situation where the processing of one high-value auditory input suppresses the brain activity of all others (Goldstein, 2011).

While people may believe that the speed of hand movement allows magicians to trick us, research suggests the main factor is misdirection (Eysenck & Keane, 2015).

A 2010 study of a trick involving the disappearance of a lighter identified that when the lighter was dropped (to hide it from a later hand-opening finale), it was masked by directing attention from the fixation point – known as covert attention – with surprising effectiveness.

However, subjects were able to identify the drop when their attention was directed to the fixation point – known as overt attention (Kuhn & Findlay, 2010).

In a thought-provoking study exploring freewill, participants were asked to consciously decide whether to move their finger left or right while a functional MRI scanner monitored their prefrontal cortex and parietal cortex (Soon, Brass, Heinze, & Haynes, 2008).

Brain activity predicted the direction of movement a full seven seconds before they consciously became aware of their decision. While follow-up research has challenged some of the findings, it appears that brain activity may come before conscious thinking (Eysenck & Keane, 2015).

Associations have been found between positive emotions, creative thinking, and overall wellbeing, suggesting environmental changes that may benefit staff productivity and innovation in the workplace (Yuan, 2015).

Factors explored include creating climates geared toward creativity, boosting challenge, trust, freedom, risk taking, low conflict, and even the beneficial effects of humor.

Undoubtedly, further innovation will be seen from marrying the two powerful and compelling new fields of positive psychology and cognitive psychology.

17 Top-Rated Positive Psychology Exercises for Practitioners

Expand your arsenal and impact with these 17 Positive Psychology Exercises [PDF] , scientifically designed to promote human flourishing, meaning, and wellbeing.

Created by Experts. 100% Science-based.

We have many tools, worksheets, and exercises to explore and improve attention, problem-solving, and the ability to regulate emotions.

Why not download our free emotional intelligence pack and try out the powerful tools contained within?

• Building Emotional Awareness In this exercise, we foster emotional intelligence by mindfully attending to existing emotional states.
• Identifying False Beliefs About Emotions Our beliefs often operate outside of conscious awareness. This exercise addresses clients’ basic and often unconscious assumptions about their emotions.

Other free resources include:

• Skills for Regulating Emotion We can learn to manage our emotions by focusing on more positive experiences than negative ones.
• Emotional Repetition and Attention Remodeling Identifying phrases used to describe ourselves can help desensitize negative feelings .

More extensive versions of the following tools are available with a subscription to the Positive Psychology Toolkit© , but here is a brief overview:

• Creating Savoring Rituals It’s possible to increase positive emotions by sharpening our sensory perceptions via savoring.

Learning to focus can help.

Step one – Identify everyday activities that bring you pleasure. Step two – Focus on experiencing pleasure as it happens when doing these activities.

At the end of the week, take some time to record your reflections on creating savoring rituals.

• Extracting Strengths From Problems Surprisingly, using our strengths too much can harm our problem-solving ability.

In this exercise, we examine an existing issue in a client’s life:

Step one – Describe a current problem. Step two – Identify the problematic context or life domain. Step three – Identify the problematic behavior in yourself. Step four – Recognize your underlying strength. Step five – Identify what you can do to remedy the problem.

If you’re looking for more science-based ways to help others enhance their wellbeing, check out this signature collection of 17 validated positive psychology tools for practitioners. Use them to help others flourish and thrive.

Cognitive psychology is crucial in our search for understanding how we interact with and make sense of a constantly changing and potentially harmful environment.

Not only that, it offers insight into what happens when things go wrong and the likely impact on our wellbeing and ability to cope with life events.

Cognitive psychology’s strength is its willingness to embrace research findings from many other disciplines, combining them with existing psychological theory to create new models of cognition.

The tasks we appear to carry out unconsciously are a great deal more complex than they might first appear. Perception, attention, problem-solving, language comprehension and production, and decision-making often happen without intentional thought and yet have enormous consequences on our lives.

Use this article as a starting point to explore the many and diverse aspects of cognitive psychology. Consider their relationships with associated research fields and reflect on the importance of understanding cognition in helping clients overcome complex events or circumstances.

We hope you enjoyed reading this article. Don’t forget to download our three Positive Psychology Exercises for free .

• Eysenck, M. W., & Keane, M. T. (2015). Cognitive psychology: A student’s handbook . Psychology Press.
• Goldstein, E. B. (2011). Cognitive psychology . Wadsworth, Cengage Learning.
• Gross, R. D. (2020). Psychology: The science of mind and behaviour . Hodder and Stoughton.
• Kuhn, G., & Findlay, J. M. (2010). Misdirection, attention and awareness: Inattentional blindness reveals temporal relationship between eye movements and visual awareness. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology , 63 (1), 136–146.
• Moore, J. (1996). On the relation between behaviorism and cognitive psychology. Journal of Mind and Behavior , 17 (4), 345–367
• Soon, C. S., Brass, M., Heinze, H., & Haynes, J. (2008). Unconscious determinants of free decisions in the human brain. Nature Neuroscience , 11 (5), 543–545.
• Yuan, L. (2015). The happier one is, the more creative one becomes: An investigation on inspirational positive emotions from both subjective well-being and satisfaction at work. Psychology , 6 , 201–209.

Share this article:

Article feedback

What our readers think.

As a widowed Mother and Grandmother, whom was recently told by an adult child that maybe I should have “cognitive” testing done, I found this article to be very informative and refreshing. Having the ability to read and and learn about cognitive psychology is interesting as their are so many ways our brains are affected from the time we are born until the time we reach each and every stage in life. I have spent time with my grandchildren who are from age 19 months, through 15 years old , and spend time with children who are 35, 34, and 32, and my parents who are 88 and 84. I appreciate your article and your time in writing it. Sincerely,

Cognitive Psychology creates & build human capacity to push physical and mental limits. My concept of cognition in human behavior was judged by the most time I met my lawyer or the doctor. Most of the time while listening a pause, oh I see and it is perpetual transition to see. Cognition emergence is very vital support as we see & perceive. My practices in engineering solution are base on my cognitive sensibilities.You article provokes the same perceptions. Thank you

Let us know your thoughts Cancel reply

Your email address will not be published.

Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment.

Related articles

Hierarchy of Needs: A 2024 Take on Maslow’s Findings

One of the most influential theories in human psychology that addresses our quest for wellbeing is Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs. While Maslow’s theory of [...]

Emotional Development in Childhood: 3 Theories Explained

We have all witnessed a sweet smile from a baby. That cute little gummy grin that makes us smile in return. Are babies born with [...]

Using Classical Conditioning for Treating Phobias & Disorders

Does the name Pavlov ring a bell? Classical conditioning, a psychological phenomenon first discovered by Ivan Pavlov in the late 19th century, has proven to [...]

Read other articles by their category

• Body & Brain (49)
• Coaching & Application (58)
• Compassion (25)
• Counseling (51)
• Emotional Intelligence (23)
• Gratitude (18)
• Grief & Bereavement (21)
• Happiness & SWB (40)
• Meaning & Values (26)
• Meditation (20)
• Mindfulness (44)
• Motivation & Goals (45)
• Optimism & Mindset (34)
• Positive CBT (30)
• Positive Communication (20)
• Positive Education (47)
• Positive Emotions (32)
• Positive Leadership (19)
• Positive Parenting (15)
• Positive Psychology (34)
• Positive Workplace (37)
• Productivity (17)
• Relationships (43)
• Resilience & Coping (38)
• Self Awareness (21)
• Self Esteem (38)
• Strengths & Virtues (32)
• Stress & Burnout Prevention (34)
• Theory & Books (46)
• Therapy Exercises (37)
• Types of Therapy (64)

3 Positive Psychology Tools (PDF)

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

• Publications
• Account settings

Preview improvements coming to the PMC website in October 2024. Learn More or Try it out now .

• Advanced Search
• Journal List
• Clin Case Rep
• v.2(5); 2014 Oct

Cognitive evolutionary therapy for depression: a case study

Cezar giosan.

1 Liberal Arts, Berkeley College, 12 East 41st Street, New York City, New York, 10017

2 Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, Babeş-Bolyai University, Republicii 37, Cluj-Napoca, Cluj, Romania

Vlad Muresan

Ramona moldovan, key clinical message.

We present an evolutionary-driven cognitive–behavioral intervention for a moderately depressed patient. Standard cognitive and behavioral therapy techniques focused on the patient's perfectionistic and self-downing beliefs, while novel, evolutionary-informed techniques were used to guide behavioral activation and conceptualize secondary emotional problems related to anger. The treatment reduced depressive symptomatology and increased evolutionary fitness.

Theoretical and Research Basis for Treatment

Depression is one of the most prevalent mental disorders and the third largest contributor to global disease burden, outranking heart disease 1 ; it is the number one contributor to disease burden in developed countries, costing an estimated $81 billion in the U.S. alone 2 and €118 billion in Europe, where it is the most costly mental disorder 3 .

The etiology of depression is far from being completely understood. Factors such as dysfunctional cognitions 4 , 5 demographics 6 , prior major depression 6 , early traumatic experiences 7 , 8 , or negative life experiences (e.g., job loss, loss of a close one) 9 have been shown to be involved.

Current psychological standard of care in depression

Evidence-based treatments for depression are available and extensively used 10 – 14 .

There is evidence that cognitive–behavioral approaches (e.g., see the American Psychological Association's list of empirically validated treatments at http://www.apa.org ) are among the best empirically supported, both in terms of theory and intervention.

Cognitive and behavioral therapy (CBT) is an umbrella term including a variety of therapeutic approaches (i.e., cognitive therapy, rational emotive and behavioral therapy, multimodal therapy, schema-focused therapy, etc.), sharing a common rationale: the mediational role of dysfunctional cognitions in maintaining, predisposing or causing depression 15 – 17 . This has resulted in a proliferation of publications and the development of treatment approaches designed to alter the cognitive contents or processes hypothesized to be depressogenic 18 , 19 .

Beck's theory of depression is arguably the most influential model developed around the causes, course, and treatment of depression 5 . Literature has been consistently showing that people have relatively stable cognitive patterns that develop as a consequence of early learning, and that leads them to make negative and distorted interpretations of specific life events 20 . CBT does not provide an elaborate view of the origin of emotional disturbance, though it acknowledges that it is very likely that different people disturb themselves about highly aversive events differently 21 . More specifically, CBT is based on the premise that psychological problems stem from dysfunctional/irrational cognitions 20 , 22 and, as such, the therapist works with the client to identify and focus on those cognitions in order to modify them and remedy associated emotional and/or behavioral consequences.

Depression from an evolutionary perspective

Because of the universality and prevalence of mental illness, attempts have been made in Evolutionary Psychology to explain the possible functions of utility of some symptoms 23 – 25 . From this perspective, some mental disorders are seen as having present or past fitness advantages 26 and therefore might have been naturally selected (e.g., mild and moderate depression) 27 or are viewed as exaggerated responses to certain stimuli that constituted dangers in our evolutionary history (e.g., phobias) 28 , 29 .

Depression has been tackled in the evolutionary psychology research because of its high prevalence (5–10% in the US) 30 , universality 31 , and upward course 32 , as well as because it sometimes leads to devastating fitness consequences, such as suicide 33 . Unlike the prevalent medical view, which views depression as a brain disorder 34 – 36 , current evolutionary insights explain this condition by hypothesizing the functions it may serve 37 – 39 . From this perspective, depression is seen as a mechanism signaling fitness (i.e., reproductive) problems or risks (e.g., low mood is associated with lesser likelihood of engaging in risk-taking behaviors) 40 .

Cognitive evolutionary therapy for depression

CBT focuses on changing dysfunctional cognitions, thus leading to improvements in the depressive symptoms 4 , 20 . From this perspective, dysfunctional beliefs are seen as proximate, or immediate causes of depression. But some have argued, for example, that Beck's cognitive distortions are a consequence of depression, not a cause of it 41 . In other words, the underlying evolutionary, or ultimate causes that might contribute to depression and to dysfunctional thinking are not addressed directly in the current therapeutic approaches and a unifying evolutionary-driven paradigm providing explanations about the ultimate causes of depression is lacking.

A Cognitive Evolutionary Therapy for depression (CET) would focus, besides proximal causes, on distal (ultimate, or evolutionary) mechanisms as well, such as inclusive fitness or reproductive success, which are thought to lead to depression when prevented from functioning optimally 42 . Such an approach enhances the CBT paradigm by including information about the hypothesized adaptive functions of depressive symptoms, along with direct interventions on fitness-enhancing factors. In addition, attention is paid to unhealthy behaviors that generally lower fitness, targeting them specifically in the therapeutic process 42 , 43 .

Human behavior generally revolves around a finite set of biological and social adaptive problems (e.g., shelter/security, nutrition, sexuality, mating, parenting, and in-group and between-group interaction 44 . Research has shown that when people are successful at meeting these goals, they generally experience well-being and happiness 43 . Not meeting these goals has been associated with dissatisfaction, depression, tension, or frustration 43 .

CET enhances the classical CBT approach by focusing on guiding the patients in solving fitness-related problems and by using an evolutionary-aware conceptualization in some of the problems they may encounter 42 . Like in the classical CBT, at the beginning of the therapy the psychotherapist and the patient select and define the list of problems that will be addressed during treatment. However, unlike the classical CBT, where the patients typically volunteer these problems, in CET they are identified at intake by an evaluation of the patients' fitness 42 . During the therapy, discussions about human nature from an evolutionary standpoint can encourage the patients to experience acceptance, a key ingredient in CBT 45 , 46 , by acknowledging basic human limitations. These evolutionary arguments can become powerful tools in the disputing process, commonly used in the standard CBT. Thus, evolutionary psychology concepts (e.g., cognitive modularity 47 , 48 , parental investment theory 49 , 50 , conspicuous consumption 51 , 52 and costly signaling theory 53 , 54 ) can offer useful explanations for depressive symptomatology and the mechanisms underpinning it.

While some authors have hypothesized the potential therapeutic benefits of evolutionary approaches in clinical practice 55 , there is virtually no empirical research testing the clinical implications (and applications) of these theories. To our knowledge no study has so far addressed the practical implications of this recent progress. The present case study is a first attempt aimed at examining the efficacy of CET for depression.

Case Formulation

For the present case study we selected the treatment of one of the patients enrolled in a randomized clinical trial, which tests the efficacy of CET for Depression 42 . This study was approved by the Ethics Commission of Babe–Bolyai University.

Judy (not the real name) is a 22-year-old student who was referred for therapy by friends after a difficult break-up that affected her school performance and personal life. She is the only child of a typical middle-class family, living by herself during the school year and going back home (to a different city) during the holidays.

The patient enrolled in treatment after signing an informed consent. The initial psychiatric evaluation revealed that she had no prior history of depression or other psychiatric conditions.

The patient underwent CET following the protocol described by Giosan et al. 42 . The initial problem list presented by the patient included depressed mood, feelings of guilt, and anger because of the dissolution of a 6-month-old dysfunctional relationship. Judy felt personally responsible for the break-up, and believed that she would never be able to experience a similar level of emotional involvement again. Judy's goals for therapy were to get over the relationship and better cope with her situation. (At the time, in an attempt to distract herself, the patient was involved in binge drinking and reckless partying).

We selected this specific case because it illustrates the specific techniques used in CET and the rationale behind using it as an add-on to the classical CBT intervention. As further detailed below, the clinical conceptualization and the actual treatment both benefited from the evolutionary theory 2 by explaining the difficulties in overcoming depression using evolutionary insights and 3 by guiding and explaining the relevance of secondary goals (diet, exercise) in treating the patient's primary goals (depressive symptoms).

Self-report measures and the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV 56 were administered to the patient throughout the treatment. Table ​ Table1 1 presents them, along with the scores (Table ​ (Table1 1 ).

Scores for the self-report measures administered at the beginning, during, at the end of treatment, and at follow-up

BDI-II, beck depression inventory-II 58 ; ABS, attitudes and beliefs scale 2 60 ; ATQ, automatic thoughts questionnaire 62 ; PANAS-P, positive and negative affect schedule – positive score; PANAS-N, positive and negative affect schedule – negative score 65 ; FES, fitness evaluation scale; ETO, expectation of therapeutic outcome; WAI, working alliance inventory 67 ; CSQ, client satisfaction questionnaire 68 .

The Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV (SCID) 56 is the most widely used diagnostic exam used to determine DSM-IV Axis one disorders, designed to be administered by a mental health professional. It consists in the Overview, Mood Episodes, and Anxiety Disorders modules. The Overview module collects information about socio-demographic variables (i.e., date of birth, marital status, number of children, level of education, and employment status), drugs use, drinking, medication, physical and psychological treatment history (including any treatments, past or current, for depression), and current social functioning. The Mood Episodes and Anxiety Disorders Modules follow the diagnostic criteria of the DSM-IV-TR 57 for mood episodes and anxiety disorders.

The Beck Depression Inventory-II (BDI-II) 58 is one of the most widely used self-report measures of depression symptoms, and it includes 21 items referring to various psychological and physical symptoms (e.g., feeling sad, guilty, hopeless, being agitated). It has high test–retest reliability (1 week) (Pearson r = 0.93) and high internal consistency (Chronbach's α = 0.91) 58 , 59 .

The Attitude and Belief Scale II ( ABS-II ) 60 is a self-report scale, with good psychometric properties, designed to measure irrational beliefs. The ABS-II has been shown to be a reliable and valid measure of rational and irrational beliefs 60 , 61 .

The Automatic Thoughts Questionnaire (ATQ) 62 is a 30-item self-report measure used to asses depression-related cognitions, with good convergent validity, internal consistency, and test–retest reliability 63 . The ATQ has also been shown to be sensitive to changes in the depression levels 64 .

The Positive and Negative Affect Scale (PANAS) 65 is a 20-item self-report questionnaire, designed to assess positive and negative affect. The PANAS can be used to assess mood on various time scales by altering the instructions. Possible time scales include moment, today, past few days, week, past few weeks, year, and general. The validity and internal consistency of the PANAS is good, with test–retest reliability being the highest for the “general” temporal instruction 65 .

The Expectancies of the Therapeutic Outcome are measured using four items on a 9-point Likert Scale. The items measure the patient's perceived usefulness of the treatment (e.g., “How logical does this treatment seem to you?”; “How efficient do you think this treatment will in reducing the symptoms that you experience?”). The scores range from 0 to 32.

The Working Alliance Inventory (WAI) is a 12-item self-report global measure of the working, or therapeutic alliance, presenting good psychometric properties 66 , 67 .

The Client Satisfaction Questionnaire 68 – 70 is an 8-item instrument used to evaluate the patients' satisfaction with the treatment.

The Fitness Evaluation Scale (FES) is a 45-item (58 if the patient has children) scale, adapted and expanded by the authors from the High-K Strategy Scale (HKSS) 71 , tapping into various dimensions and biosocial goals theorized to make up the indicators of fitness, as detailed in the Background section. The HKSS has been shown to be negatively associated with depressive symptomatology 72 and psychopathology in general 73 . The FES was preliminarily validated on a sample of 146 subjects and presents good internal consistency (Cronbach's Alpha = 0.93). The FES is the therapist's starting point in prescribing the evolutionary-driven interventions, as further detailed below.

Judy was assessed for eligibility for treatment with the SCID 56 . Following the initial assessment the patient was assigned to treatment and evaluated psychologically regularly as detailed in Table ​ Table1 1 .

Case conceptualization

Judy is a 22-year-old female student, belonging to a middle-class family, who was referred to psychotherapy after a difficult break-up that affected school performance and general quality of life. At intake, the level of depressive symptomatology measured with the BDI-II was 23, signifying moderate depressive symptomatology 58 , confirming the initial SCID clinical diagnosis. The level of expectancy for therapeutic outcome was 32 out of 32, showing that the patient was highly motivated and believed in the efficacy of the intervention offered. She reported intense depressed mood and bereavement, guilt, anger, trouble concentrating, and diminished interest in pleasurable activities. The completion of the FES revealed fitness deficiencies on the following dimensions: (1) low perceived attractiveness (the patient believed that she was not attractive, despite evidence to the contrary such as her friends' opinions and the therapist's own judgment); (2) poor eating habits (the patient predominantly consumed junk food), and (3) lack of physical exercise. Thus, the therapy goals list set at the beginning of the treatment included working on the dysfunctional coping behaviors (e.g., weekend drinking) and improving on the fitness deficiencies identified by the FES. The patient was offered a clinical conceptualization that centered on the evolutionary causes of depressive symptomatology (i.e., fitness problems) and proximal causes consisting of dysfunctional cognitions. Specifically, Judy's depression was explained as being caused by a set of fitness-related issues, namely, unbalanced diet, lack of exercise, and poor self-image expressed through dysfunctional cognitions. The latter led to rigid irrational thoughts such as “I must be appreciated by my ex-boyfriend or else I am worthless”, “I will never find someone that will make me feel the same, and that is horrible”, or and “I am a stupid, weak person for not getting over it already.”

The main focus of treatment was to engage the patient in behaviors targeted at increasing fitness, while challenging the dysfunctional thoughts and increasing confidence in more rational and functional alternatives.

Course of Treatment

Following the protocol described elsewhere 42 , the first treatment session focused on educating the patient about depression and psychotherapy in general, emphasizing the importance of homework, taking responsibility for change and adjusting her expectations about what can be gained through therapy. Judy had a clear understanding about what psychological treatment entailed and what her responsibilities as a patient were.

Also, in the first session we focused on specific CET insights that helped her to gain a clearer understanding of the problems she was confronting, thus leading to a more accepting attitude about her symptoms. Thus, the patient was explained that cognitive structures that were adaptive in a Pleistocene environment are now “mismatched” with the current environment, sometimes leading to dysfunctional emotions and behaviors 74 , 75 . The patient was also explained that some scholars see Depression as an adaptation that might have conferred fitness benefits in the Environment of Evolutionary Adaptedness (EEA) 31 , by encouraging cooperation and eliciting support from group members, things that are much harder to achieve in the modern society. Finally, the patient was informed about the research linking depression and fitness-enhancing behaviors, namely the relationship between diet and depression 76 , 77 and exercising and depression 78 . While the patient had a general idea about the positive associations between diet, exercise and health, the realization that these associations hold true in the case of depression, too, helped in motivating her to begin exercising more and thinking about adjusting her diet in the sense of incorporating foods that our ancestors typically consumed 76 , 77 . This was the point in Session 1 where we established a realistic behavioral activation plan that would tap into the above-mentioned fitness-related dimensions (diet and exercise). The homework focused on detailing the behavioral activation plan with specific behaviors that the patient was instructed to work on in the following weeks.

The next few sessions 3 – 7 focused on standard CBT tasks and techniques, aimed at enhancing the therapeutic relationship and negotiating behaviors that addressed fitness problems revealed at intake by FES. A specific problem that benefited in an important way from the evolutionary conceptualization was the difficulty Judy had to accept her reaction to the break-up. After realizing that being rejected affected her more than what she expected, she began to experience anger with herself. This kind of secondary emotions (i.e., emotions about emotions) are often an obstacle to the therapeutic change 45 , 79 , 80 . In Judy's case, her anger about her depression was caused by rigid beliefs such as: “I shouldn't be so upset about him; I'm a weak person because I'm depressed over the end of the relationship”. In clinical practice, the therapist cannot address the problem of depression until the secondary emotion (anger in this case) is resolved 45 , 81 . Indeed, one of the main reasons why Judy didn't get over the break-up by herself was her inability to accept her fallibility (i.e., the fact that as a fallible human being, she is allowed to make mistakes, and feel depressed). Furthermore, every attempt from her friends or from the therapist to help with the depression resulted in the activation of her perfectionistic belief (“I shouldn't be depressed about him, and I am a weak, worthless person because I am”) and the resulting anger, which prevented her from gaining insight on why she was depressed in the first place.

The evolutionary conceptualization of Judy's depression greatly helped in teaching the patient to accept herself, an effect visible in a 7-point drop on the BDI-II after the fourth session (see Table ​ Table1). 1 ). Judy was explained that in the tribal living of the EEA, being rejected by a desirable mate in the group had severe fitness, status and reputation costs. In this context, a strong motivation for not being rejected and for hanging on to what we now call a dysfunctional relationship, would have been adaptive. However, she was further explained, the environment we are adapted to was very different from the present one: Firstly, there were few potential partners to choose from, as we lived in groups of 150–200 tribe members 82 . Secondly, being rejected often had higher reputational costs than today, and finding another high-quality mate was less likely. This evolutionary mismatch proved to be an important argument toward explaining to Judy why she was so fixated on her ex-boyfriend, further helping her to accept herself as a fallible human being. This important milestone in the treatment was followed by cognitive restructuring homework focused on changing the irrational belief “I should get over it faster, and if I can't I'm a weak, worthless person” to its more rational and useful counterpart “I'd like to get over it faster, but I can accept if it takes some more time, and if it does, it doesn't mean I'm a weak person, but a normal, fallible human being”. After challenging this perfectionistic demand, cognitive work focused on the global evaluation that underlined her depressive mood (e.g., “If he rejects me that means I'm unattractive and worthless” and “If I'm not going to feel the same thing again nothing is worth living for”). We will not go into great detail about the CBT techniques as we followed existing CBT guidelines for depression 4 , 83 , 84 . Instead we will focus on specific evolutionary-informed techniques used in this patient's treatment.

Sessions 7–11 focused on maintaining the behavioral habits of healthier dieting and exercise, by finding alternative behaviors, so as not to reach saturation. Indeed, our ancestors would have likely travelled in different places every day, and we tried to build such variation in Judy's exercising routine, to avoid reaching boredom. Dieting was also addressed with behavioral techniques, by guiding the patient to replace fast-foods with healthier alternatives such as vegetables and foods low in saturated fats and high in Omega-3's 76 , while continuously reinforcing the connection between a healthy diet and positive health and psychological outcomes. By session 8 Judy's depressive symptomatology was down substantially (from 22 at intake to 7 on the BDI-II at the eight session, a decrease of 68%), and at this point we began to address expectations about relationships, namely that a relationship based on a rollercoaster of physical and verbal aggression followed by intense physical attraction isn't sustainable or desirable on the long run. Assertive communication was also practiced with her, and we explored the patient's expectations and preferences about future romantic partners. By the end of therapy Judy was beginning a new relationship, based on the mutual respect and communication, which was satisfying and enjoyable for both partners. The patient successfully rejected her ex's advances when he tried to get her back, something that she previously never thought she would be able to do.

As a consequence of working on self-acceptance 45 , 79 , 80 and developing her rational thinking skills, her low opinion about her own attractiveness – one of the problems identified at intake by the FES – improved substantially by the end of therapy.

In the last session we used standard CBT techniques to work with Judy toward developing the skills to become her own future therapist and to prevent relapse 20 , 45 . The low BDI-II score that Judy achieved by the eight session was maintained until the end of the therapy (BDI-II = 7), which falls into the minimal or no depression range (0–13) 59 . Measures for both cognitions (ATQ & ABS-II) and negative emotions (PANAS-N) showed significant improvement, while there was also a substantial increase in evolutionary fitness (FES total score = 103 at intake FES total score at the end of therapy = 146).

A 3-month follow-up revealed that these therapeutic gains were maintained, with the BDI-II score continuing to show minimal to no depression. The other clinical outcomes measured also showed lasting positive effects (see Table ​ Table1 1 ).

Concluding Remarks on Therapy Process and Outcome

This case study suggests that evolutionary techniques embedded in cognitive–behavioral therapies are beneficial in increasing an individual's perceived fitness, which, in turn, can lead to positive clinical outcomes. Identifying and addressing fitness problems in therapy, alongside patient-identified problem areas, can constitute, at least in some cases, an important adjuvant to the cognitive–behavioral therapy for depression. As seen in the case of this patient, the evolutionary-driven conceptualization can provide the patient with an extra level of prediction and control, thus increasing compliance and enhancing positive expectations about the treatment outcome.

The enhanced approach presented in this article should be relevant to most patients, and thus should be considered as a tool for enhancing the clinical conceptualization and intervention techniques of standard CBT. However, with patients that are very high on religiosity, or who explicitly reject Darwin's theory of evolution, a more traditional approach should be used in the conceptualization phase. Behavioral activation and fitness-enhancing techniques, however, can be used regardless of the patient's religious beliefs.

These findings add support to recent studies that document links between depression and reproductive success 72 . Further studies should examine the effects of targeting fitness factors on depression in a controlled manner.

Conflict of Interest

None declared.

• Bipolar Disorder
• Therapy Center
• When To See a Therapist
• Types of Therapy
• Best Online Therapy
• Best Couples Therapy
• Best Family Therapy
• Managing Stress
• Sleep and Dreaming
• Understanding Emotions
• Self-Improvement
• Healthy Relationships
• Student Resources
• Personality Types
• Guided Meditations
• Verywell Mind Insights
• 2024 Verywell Mind 25
• Mental Health in the Classroom
• Editorial Process
• Meet Our Review Board
• Crisis Support

What Is Cognitive Psychology?

The Science of How We Think

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Steven Gans, MD is board-certified in psychiatry and is an active supervisor, teacher, and mentor at Massachusetts General Hospital.

Topics in Cognitive Psychology

• Current Research
• Cognitive Approach in Practice

Careers in Cognitive Psychology

How cognitive psychology differs from other branches of psychology, frequently asked questions.

Cognitive psychology involves the study of internal mental processes—all of the workings inside your brain, including perception, thinking, memory, attention, language, problem-solving, and learning.

Cognitive psychology--the study of how people think and process information--helps researchers understand the human brain. It also allows psychologists to help people deal with psychological difficulties.

This article discusses what cognitive psychology is, the history of this field, and current directions for research. It also covers some of the practical applications for cognitive psychology research and related career options you might consider.

Findings from cognitive psychology help us understand how people think, including how they acquire and store memories. By knowing more about how these processes work, psychologists can develop new ways of helping people with cognitive problems.

Cognitive psychologists explore a wide variety of topics related to thinking processes. Some of these include: 

• Attention --our ability to process information in the environment while tuning out irrelevant details
• Choice-based behavior --actions driven by a choice among other possibilities
• Decision-making
• Information processing
• Language acquisition --how we learn to read, write, and express ourselves
• Problem-solving
• Speech perception -how we process what others are saying
• Visual perception --how we see the physical world around us

History of Cognitive Psychology

Although it is a relatively young branch of psychology , it has quickly grown to become one of the most popular subfields. Cognitive psychology grew into prominence between the 1950s and 1970s.

Prior to this time, behaviorism was the dominant perspective in psychology. This theory holds that we learn all our behaviors from interacting with our environment. It focuses strictly on observable behavior, not thought and emotion. Then, researchers became more interested in the internal processes that affect behavior instead of just the behavior itself. 

This shift is often referred to as the cognitive revolution in psychology. During this time, a great deal of research on topics including memory, attention, and language acquisition began to emerge. 

In 1967, the psychologist Ulric Neisser introduced the term cognitive psychology, which he defined as the study of the processes behind the perception, transformation, storage, and recovery of information.

Cognitive psychology became more prominent after the 1950s as a result of the cognitive revolution.

Current Research in Cognitive Psychology

The field of cognitive psychology is both broad and diverse. It touches on many aspects of daily life. There are numerous practical applications for this research, such as providing help coping with memory disorders, making better decisions , recovering from brain injury, treating learning disorders, and structuring educational curricula to enhance learning.

Current research on cognitive psychology helps play a role in how professionals approach the treatment of mental illness, traumatic brain injury, and degenerative brain diseases.

Thanks to the work of cognitive psychologists, we can better pinpoint ways to measure human intellectual abilities, develop new strategies to combat memory problems, and decode the workings of the human brain—all of which ultimately have a powerful impact on how we treat cognitive disorders.

The field of cognitive psychology is a rapidly growing area that continues to add to our understanding of the many influences that mental processes have on our health and daily lives.

From understanding how cognitive processes change as a child develops to looking at how the brain transforms sensory inputs into perceptions, cognitive psychology has helped us gain a deeper and richer understanding of the many mental events that contribute to our daily existence and overall well-being.

The Cognitive Approach in Practice

In addition to adding to our understanding of how the human mind works, the field of cognitive psychology has also had an impact on approaches to mental health. Before the 1970s, many mental health treatments were focused more on psychoanalytic , behavioral , and humanistic approaches.

The so-called "cognitive revolution" put a greater emphasis on understanding the way people process information and how thinking patterns might contribute to psychological distress. Thanks to research in this area, new approaches to treatment were developed to help treat depression, anxiety, phobias, and other psychological disorders .

Cognitive behavioral therapy and rational emotive behavior therapy are two methods in which clients and therapists focus on the underlying cognitions, or thoughts, that contribute to psychological distress.

What Is Cognitive Behavioral Therapy?

Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) is an approach that helps clients identify irrational beliefs and other cognitive distortions that are in conflict with reality and then aid them in replacing such thoughts with more realistic, healthy beliefs.

If you are experiencing symptoms of a psychological disorder that would benefit from the use of cognitive approaches, you might see a psychologist who has specific training in these cognitive treatment methods.

These professionals frequently go by titles other than cognitive psychologists, such as psychiatrists, clinical psychologists , or counseling psychologists , but many of the strategies they use are rooted in the cognitive tradition.

Many cognitive psychologists specialize in research with universities or government agencies. Others take a clinical focus and work directly with people who are experiencing challenges related to mental processes. They work in hospitals, mental health clinics, and private practices.

Research psychologists in this area often concentrate on a particular topic, such as memory. Others work directly on health concerns related to cognition, such as degenerative brain disorders and brain injuries.

Treatments rooted in cognitive research focus on helping people replace negative thought patterns with more positive, realistic ones. With the help of cognitive psychologists, people are often able to find ways to cope and even overcome such difficulties.

Reasons to Consult a Cognitive Psychologist

• Alzheimer's disease, dementia, or memory loss
• Brain trauma treatment
• Cognitive therapy for a mental health condition
• Interventions for learning disabilities
• Perceptual or sensory issues
• Therapy for a speech or language disorder

Whereas behavioral and some other realms of psychology focus on actions--which are external and observable--cognitive psychology is instead concerned with the thought processes behind the behavior. Cognitive psychologists see the mind as if it were a computer, taking in and processing information, and seek to understand the various factors involved.

A Word From Verywell

Cognitive psychology plays an important role in understanding the processes of memory, attention, and learning. It can also provide insights into cognitive conditions that may affect how people function.

Being diagnosed with a brain or cognitive health problem can be daunting, but it is important to remember that you are not alone. Together with a healthcare provider, you can come up with an effective treatment plan to help address brain health and cognitive problems.

Your treatment may involve consulting with a cognitive psychologist who has a background in the specific area of concern that you are facing, or you may be referred to another mental health professional that has training and experience with your particular condition.

Ulric Neisser is considered the founder of cognitive psychology. He was the first to introduce the term and to define the field of cognitive psychology. His primary interests were in the areas of perception and memory, but he suggested that all aspects of human thought and behavior were relevant to the study of cognition.

A cognitive map refers to a mental representation of an environment. Such maps can be formed through observation as well as through trial and error. These cognitive maps allow people to orient themselves in their environment.

While they share some similarities, there are some important differences between cognitive neuroscience and cognitive psychology. While cognitive psychology focuses on thinking processes, cognitive neuroscience is focused on finding connections between thinking and specific brain activity. Cognitive neuroscience also looks at the underlying biology that influences how information is processed.

Cognitive psychology is a form of experimental psychology. Cognitive psychologists use experimental methods to study the internal mental processes that play a role in behavior.

Sternberg RJ, Sternberg K. Cognitive Psychology . Wadsworth/Cengage Learning. 

Krapfl JE. Behaviorism and society . Behav Anal. 2016;39(1):123-9. doi:10.1007/s40614-016-0063-8

Cutting JE. Ulric Neisser (1928-2012) . Am Psychol . 2012;67(6):492. doi:10.1037/a0029351

Ruggiero GM, Spada MM, Caselli G, Sassaroli S. A historical and theoretical review of cognitive behavioral therapies: from structural self-knowledge to functional processes .  J Ration Emot Cogn Behav Ther . 2018;36(4):378-403. doi:10.1007/s10942-018-0292-8

Parvin P. Ulric Neisser, cognitive psychology pioneer, dies . Emory News Center.

APA Dictionary of Psychology. Cognitive map . American Psychological Association.

Forstmann BU, Wagenmakers EJ, Eichele T, Brown S, Serences JT. Reciprocal relations between cognitive neuroscience and formal cognitive models: opposites attract? . Trends Cogn Sci . 2011;15(6):272-279. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2011.04.002

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

The Cognitive Approach (To Human Behaviour)

March 10, 2021 - paper 2 psychology in context | approaches to human behaviour.

• Back to Paper 2 - Approaches to Human Behaviour

Main Assumptions of the Cognitive Approach:

• People actively respond to environmental stimuli, depending on schemas and thoughts
• People are information processors
• Human mind operates in the same way as a computer
• Cognitive processes can be modelled in order to make them observable and should be tested scientifically.

The Cognitive Approach: Internal Mental Process

Cognitive psychologists attempt to work out what the thought processes are that occur from a behaviour observed, (i.e. they observe behaviour and then try to understand what were the thoughts/motivators of this behaviour). These processes are ‘private’ and cannot be seen, so cognitive psychologists study them  indirectly  by making inferences (going beyond immediate evidence to make assumptions) about what’s going on inside people’s minds on the basis of their behaviour.

Behavioural Vs. Cognitive   Behavioural approach neglects areas of human behaviour, such as memory, perception and thinking. The cognitive approach argues that these factors should and can be tested scientifically.

The Role Of Schema:

• Schema are  ‘mental templates’  of ideas and information that are developed through  experience  and help to ‘frame’ our interpretation of incoming information (our experiences help to build our schemas).
• Schemas are building all the time (for example, when we first visit the theatre, we have no understanding of what this experience will be like (the people who work there, the social norms/protocols that we follow etc ) once we visit the theatre, we develop an understanding of ‘what it’s like to go to the theatre,’ we store this information in a schema and use it when we are faced with the same/a similar situation again.
• They help to determine how we’ll respond to each stimuli
• e.g. a rollercoaster may be stressful for one person may be quite enjoyable for another, depending on each individual schema
• Sometimes we  assimilate our schemas,  changing them to include new information that we have learned.
• Sometimes we  accommodate  new information, changing our memories to keep our schemas intact. Bartlett (see below) explains how we do this by  levelling  and  sharpening.  Levelling involves removing or downplaying details from the memory and sharpening involves adding or exaggerating details this can happen as a result of our understanding of the content/experience that we have been exposed to.
• Schemas are  unique  to each individual; as the way they experience the world is unique to them. This means the way we see the world is dependent on experience (or lack of).
• Schemas are influenced by  culture .

Bartlett War Of The Ghosts,

Memory uses schemas to organise things. When we recall an event, our schemas tell us what is  supposed  to happen, however, the schemas might fill in the gaps in our memory ( confabulation ) and even put pressure on our mind to remember things in a way that fits in with the schema, altering details along the way.

Bartlett came up with the idea of “reconstructive memory” during a game of ‘Chinese Whispers’. Bartlett developed a study to illustrate the idea of ‘reconstructive memory’ and ‘schemas.’ He showed 20 students a Native American ghost story titled; War of the Ghosts, which had unusual features (features that would have been ‘uncommon’ in most cultures). He asked them to read it then recall it on a number of occasions after a few hours, days, weeks, years. Bartlett compared the recalled and original story.

War of the Ghosts   Story from Bartlett’s Research: One night two young men from Egulac went down to the river to hunt seals and while they were there it became foggy and calm. Then they heard war-cries, and they thought: “Maybe this is a war-party”. They escaped to the shore, and hid behind a log. Now canoes came up, and they heard the noise of paddles, and saw one canoe coming up to them. There were five men in the canoe, and they said: “What do you think? We wish to take you along. We are going up the river to make war on the people.” One of the young men said,”I have no arrows.” “Arrows are in the canoe,” they said. “I will not go along. I might be killed. My relatives do not know where I have gone. But you,” he said, turning to the other, “may go with them.” So one of the young men went, but the other returned home. And the warriors went on up the river to a town on the other side of Kalama. The people came down to the water and they began to fight, and many were killed. But presently the young man heard one of the warriors say, “Quick, let us go home: that Indian has been hit.” Now he thought: “Oh, they are ghosts.” He did not feel sick, but they said he had been shot. So the canoes went back to Egulac and the young man went ashore to his house and made a fire. And he told everybody and said: “Behold I accompanied the ghosts, and we went to fight. Many of our fellows were killed, and many of those who attacked us were killed. They said I was hit, and I did not feel sick.” He told it all, and then he became quiet. When the sun rose he fell down. Something black came out of his mouth. His face became contorted. The people jumped up and cried. He was dead .

The findings from Bartlett’s study indicated that:

(1) Participants reduced when they reproduced it from approx 330 to 180 words

(2) Participants also  confabulated  details, changing unfamiliar parts of the story in line with their schemas: canoes became boats, paddles became oars, hunting seals became fishing.

(3) Participants  rationalised  the story, coming up with explanations for baffling parts of the story. For example, in later reproductions, participants missed out the “ghosts” and just described a battle between Native American tribes.

Theoretical And Computer Models:

Theoretical   The most important is the  Information Processing Model , which suggests that information flows through the cognitive system in a series of stages that include input, storage and retrieval. The use of these models means that they components can be tested individually. If the data from these experiments does not ‘fit’ with the model, it can be adjusted.  For example,  someone driving on a road may see that there is a traffic jam in the direction that they are travelling, this will ultimately cause the driver to arrive at their destination late. This information is manipulated, considering if there is an alternate route which will allow the driver to arrive at their destination on time, the identification of this new alternate route is part of the decision making process the decision to follow the new route and avoid the traffic jam. The output is driving the car along the new route.

Computer   the core assumption of the cognitive approach is that the human mind functions like a computer, that there are similarities regarding the way information is processed. These models use the concepts of a central processing unit (the brain), the concept of  coding  (making information usable) and the use of  stores.

Emergence Of Neuroscience:

Cognitive neuroscience the scientific (and objective) study of the influence of brain structures on mental processes. There is a long history of brain-mapping in psychology, advances in brain imaging techniques (fMRI and PET scans) have meant scientists can observe and describe the neurological basis of mental processes.

For example;  memory research has benefited significantly from the development of fMRI and PET scans, such pieces of research as part of neuroscience has allowed psychologists and neuroscientists to identify specific parts of long term memory (e.g. procedural, declarative, episodic) and identify memory tasks being completed as part of the short term memory and long term memory (e.g. think back to case studies such as Clive Waring and KF from the  memory topic).

The focus of cognitive neuroscience has expanded recently to include the use of computer-generated models that are designed to ‘read’ the brain. This has led to the development of mind mapping techniques known as ‘brain fingerprinting’

The Cognitive Approach Evaluation (AO3):

(1)  POINT:   A strength of the Cognitive Approach  is that it uses lots of scientific methods to measure the main assumptions of the approach.  EXAMPLE/EVIDENCE:  For example,  research investigating the Cognitive Approach uses fMRI, PET scans etc to measure the processes and functions taking part in the human brain.  ELABORATION:  This is a strength because it can be seen that the key concepts of the Cognitive Approach are objectively and scientifically measured adding a degree of validity to the approach.

(2)  POINT:   A strength of the Cognitive Approach  is that it uses a laboratory setting to conduct research in order to ‘rest’ the approach.  EXAMPLE/EVIDENCE:  For example,  research investigating the Cognitive Approach often uses  laboratory  based tests that are highly controlled, EVs are accounted for and the IV can be manipulated and the DV can be accurately measured. Data is usually collected using fMRI and PET scans leading to the collection of objective data.  ELABORATION:  This is a strength because the controlled setting in which the Cognitive Approach is investigated provides a high degree of control in which the IV is the only variable to affect the DV leading to high internal validity allowing for a cause and effect relationship to be established.

Weaknesses:

(1)  POINT:  The Cognitive Approach can be criticised as being deterministic.  EXAMPLE/EXPLAIN:  For example, the approach assumes that we are pre-programmed in a way where we follow cognitive processes/cognitive processes are responsible for our behaviour.  ELABORATION:  This is a weakness because, the Cognitive Approach doesn’t consider the role of genetics/biology in the explanation of human behaviour.

(2)  POINT:  The Cognitive Approach can be criticised as being reductionist.  EXAMPLE/EXPLAIN:  For example, the approach assumes that all our actions and behaviours are as a result of internal-mental processes, thoughts etc .  ELABORATION:  This is a weakness because, the Cognitive Approach can be criticised as being too simplistic, failing to recognise that surely there are an array of factors that impact human behaviour (surely such complex behaviours as those displayed by humans cannot be reduced down to one explanation?)

• Psychopathology
• Social Psychology
• Approaches To Human Behaviour
• Biopsychology
• Research Methods
• Issues & Debates
• Teacher Hub
• Terms and Conditions
• Privacy Policy
• Cookie Policy
• [email protected]
• www.psychologyhub.co.uk

We're not around right now. But you can send us an email and we'll get back to you, asap.

Start typing and press Enter to search

Cookie Policy - Terms and Conditions - Privacy Policy

Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript.

• View all journals
• Explore content
• About the journal
• Publish with us
• Sign up for alerts
• Perspective
• Published: 22 November 2022

Single case studies are a powerful tool for developing, testing and extending theories

• Lyndsey Nickels   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-0311-3524 1 , 2 ,
• Simon Fischer-Baum   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-6067-0538 3 &
• Wendy Best   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-8375-5916 4  

Nature Reviews Psychology volume  1 ,  pages 733–747 ( 2022 ) Cite this article

672 Accesses

5 Citations

26 Altmetric

Metrics details

• Neurological disorders

Psychology embraces a diverse range of methodologies. However, most rely on averaging group data to draw conclusions. In this Perspective, we argue that single case methodology is a valuable tool for developing and extending psychological theories. We stress the importance of single case and case series research, drawing on classic and contemporary cases in which cognitive and perceptual deficits provide insights into typical cognitive processes in domains such as memory, delusions, reading and face perception. We unpack the key features of single case methodology, describe its strengths, its value in adjudicating between theories, and outline its benefits for a better understanding of deficits and hence more appropriate interventions. The unique insights that single case studies have provided illustrate the value of in-depth investigation within an individual. Single case methodology has an important place in the psychologist’s toolkit and it should be valued as a primary research tool.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution

Access options

Subscribe to this journal

Receive 12 digital issues and online access to articles

55,14 € per year

only 4,60 € per issue

Buy this article

• Purchase on Springer Link
• Instant access to full article PDF

Prices may be subject to local taxes which are calculated during checkout

Similar content being viewed by others

Comparing meta-analyses and preregistered multiple-laboratory replication projects

The fundamental importance of method to theory

A critical evaluation of the p-factor literature

Corkin, S. Permanent Present Tense: The Unforgettable Life Of The Amnesic Patient, H. M . Vol. XIX, 364 (Basic Books, 2013).

Lilienfeld, S. O. Psychology: From Inquiry To Understanding (Pearson, 2019).

Schacter, D. L., Gilbert, D. T., Nock, M. K. & Wegner, D. M. Psychology (Worth Publishers, 2019).

Eysenck, M. W. & Brysbaert, M. Fundamentals Of Cognition (Routledge, 2018).

Squire, L. R. Memory and brain systems: 1969–2009. J. Neurosci. 29 , 12711–12716 (2009).

Article   PubMed   PubMed Central   Google Scholar  

Corkin, S. What’s new with the amnesic patient H.M.? Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 3 , 153–160 (2002).

Article   PubMed   Google Scholar  

Schubert, T. M. et al. Lack of awareness despite complex visual processing: evidence from event-related potentials in a case of selective metamorphopsia. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 117 , 16055–16064 (2020).

Behrmann, M. & Plaut, D. C. Bilateral hemispheric processing of words and faces: evidence from word impairments in prosopagnosia and face impairments in pure alexia. Cereb. Cortex 24 , 1102–1118 (2014).

Plaut, D. C. & Behrmann, M. Complementary neural representations for faces and words: a computational exploration. Cogn. Neuropsychol. 28 , 251–275 (2011).

Haxby, J. V. et al. Distributed and overlapping representations of faces and objects in ventral temporal cortex. Science 293 , 2425–2430 (2001).

Hirshorn, E. A. et al. Decoding and disrupting left midfusiform gyrus activity during word reading. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 113 , 8162–8167 (2016).

Kosakowski, H. L. et al. Selective responses to faces, scenes, and bodies in the ventral visual pathway of infants. Curr. Biol. 32 , 265–274.e5 (2022).

Harlow, J. Passage of an iron rod through the head. Boston Med. Surgical J . https://doi.org/10.1176/jnp.11.2.281 (1848).

Broca, P. Remarks on the seat of the faculty of articulated language, following an observation of aphemia (loss of speech). Bull. Soc. Anat. 6 , 330–357 (1861).

Google Scholar  

Dejerine, J. Contribution A L’étude Anatomo-pathologique Et Clinique Des Différentes Variétés De Cécité Verbale: I. Cécité Verbale Avec Agraphie Ou Troubles Très Marqués De L’écriture; II. Cécité Verbale Pure Avec Intégrité De L’écriture Spontanée Et Sous Dictée (Société de Biologie, 1892).

Liepmann, H. Das Krankheitsbild der Apraxie (“motorischen Asymbolie”) auf Grund eines Falles von einseitiger Apraxie (Fortsetzung). Eur. Neurol. 8 , 102–116 (1900).

Article   Google Scholar  

Basso, A., Spinnler, H., Vallar, G. & Zanobio, M. E. Left hemisphere damage and selective impairment of auditory verbal short-term memory. A case study. Neuropsychologia 20 , 263–274 (1982).

Humphreys, G. W. & Riddoch, M. J. The fractionation of visual agnosia. In Visual Object Processing: A Cognitive Neuropsychological Approach 281–306 (Lawrence Erlbaum, 1987).

Whitworth, A., Webster, J. & Howard, D. A Cognitive Neuropsychological Approach To Assessment And Intervention In Aphasia (Psychology Press, 2014).

Caramazza, A. On drawing inferences about the structure of normal cognitive systems from the analysis of patterns of impaired performance: the case for single-patient studies. Brain Cogn. 5 , 41–66 (1986).

Caramazza, A. & McCloskey, M. The case for single-patient studies. Cogn. Neuropsychol. 5 , 517–527 (1988).

Shallice, T. Cognitive neuropsychology and its vicissitudes: the fate of Caramazza’s axioms. Cogn. Neuropsychol. 32 , 385–411 (2015).

Shallice, T. From Neuropsychology To Mental Structure (Cambridge Univ. Press, 1988).

Coltheart, M. Assumptions and methods in cognitive neuropscyhology. In The Handbook Of Cognitive Neuropsychology: What Deficits Reveal About The Human Mind (ed. Rapp, B.) 3–22 (Psychology Press, 2001).

McCloskey, M. & Chaisilprungraung, T. The value of cognitive neuropsychology: the case of vision research. Cogn. Neuropsychol. 34 , 412–419 (2017).

McCloskey, M. The future of cognitive neuropsychology. In The Handbook Of Cognitive Neuropsychology: What Deficits Reveal About The Human Mind (ed. Rapp, B.) 593–610 (Psychology Press, 2001).

Lashley, K. S. In search of the engram. In Physiological Mechanisms in Animal Behavior 454–482 (Academic Press, 1950).

Squire, L. R. & Wixted, J. T. The cognitive neuroscience of human memory since H.M. Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 34 , 259–288 (2011).

Stone, G. O., Vanhoy, M. & Orden, G. C. V. Perception is a two-way street: feedforward and feedback phonology in visual word recognition. J. Mem. Lang. 36 , 337–359 (1997).

Perfetti, C. A. The psycholinguistics of spelling and reading. In Learning To Spell: Research, Theory, And Practice Across Languages 21–38 (Lawrence Erlbaum, 1997).

Nickels, L. The autocue? self-generated phonemic cues in the treatment of a disorder of reading and naming. Cogn. Neuropsychol. 9 , 155–182 (1992).

Rapp, B., Benzing, L. & Caramazza, A. The autonomy of lexical orthography. Cogn. Neuropsychol. 14 , 71–104 (1997).

Bonin, P., Roux, S. & Barry, C. Translating nonverbal pictures into verbal word names. Understanding lexical access and retrieval. In Past, Present, And Future Contributions Of Cognitive Writing Research To Cognitive Psychology 315–522 (Psychology Press, 2011).

Bonin, P., Fayol, M. & Gombert, J.-E. Role of phonological and orthographic codes in picture naming and writing: an interference paradigm study. Cah. Psychol. Cogn./Current Psychol. Cogn. 16 , 299–324 (1997).

Bonin, P., Fayol, M. & Peereman, R. Masked form priming in writing words from pictures: evidence for direct retrieval of orthographic codes. Acta Psychol. 99 , 311–328 (1998).

Bentin, S., Allison, T., Puce, A., Perez, E. & McCarthy, G. Electrophysiological studies of face perception in humans. J. Cogn. Neurosci. 8 , 551–565 (1996).

Jeffreys, D. A. Evoked potential studies of face and object processing. Vis. Cogn. 3 , 1–38 (1996).

Laganaro, M., Morand, S., Michel, C. M., Spinelli, L. & Schnider, A. ERP correlates of word production before and after stroke in an aphasic patient. J. Cogn. Neurosci. 23 , 374–381 (2011).

Indefrey, P. & Levelt, W. J. M. The spatial and temporal signatures of word production components. Cognition 92 , 101–144 (2004).

Valente, A., Burki, A. & Laganaro, M. ERP correlates of word production predictors in picture naming: a trial by trial multiple regression analysis from stimulus onset to response. Front. Neurosci. 8 , 390 (2014).

Kittredge, A. K., Dell, G. S., Verkuilen, J. & Schwartz, M. F. Where is the effect of frequency in word production? Insights from aphasic picture-naming errors. Cogn. Neuropsychol. 25 , 463–492 (2008).

Domdei, N. et al. Ultra-high contrast retinal display system for single photoreceptor psychophysics. Biomed. Opt. Express 9 , 157 (2018).

Poldrack, R. A. et al. Long-term neural and physiological phenotyping of a single human. Nat. Commun. 6 , 8885 (2015).

Coltheart, M. The assumptions of cognitive neuropsychology: reflections on Caramazza (1984, 1986). Cogn. Neuropsychol. 34 , 397–402 (2017).

Badecker, W. & Caramazza, A. A final brief in the case against agrammatism: the role of theory in the selection of data. Cognition 24 , 277–282 (1986).

Fischer-Baum, S. Making sense of deviance: Identifying dissociating cases within the case series approach. Cogn. Neuropsychol. 30 , 597–617 (2013).

Nickels, L., Howard, D. & Best, W. On the use of different methodologies in cognitive neuropsychology: drink deep and from several sources. Cogn. Neuropsychol. 28 , 475–485 (2011).

Dell, G. S. & Schwartz, M. F. Who’s in and who’s out? Inclusion criteria, model evaluation, and the treatment of exceptions in case series. Cogn. Neuropsychol. 28 , 515–520 (2011).

Schwartz, M. F. & Dell, G. S. Case series investigations in cognitive neuropsychology. Cogn. Neuropsychol. 27 , 477–494 (2010).

Cohen, J. A power primer. Psychol. Bull. 112 , 155–159 (1992).

Martin, R. C. & Allen, C. Case studies in neuropsychology. In APA Handbook Of Research Methods In Psychology Vol. 2 Research Designs: Quantitative, Qualitative, Neuropsychological, And Biological (eds Cooper, H. et al.) 633–646 (American Psychological Association, 2012).

Leivada, E., Westergaard, M., Duñabeitia, J. A. & Rothman, J. On the phantom-like appearance of bilingualism effects on neurocognition: (how) should we proceed? Bilingualism 24 , 197–210 (2021).

Arnett, J. J. The neglected 95%: why American psychology needs to become less American. Am. Psychol. 63 , 602–614 (2008).

Stolz, J. A., Besner, D. & Carr, T. H. Implications of measures of reliability for theories of priming: activity in semantic memory is inherently noisy and uncoordinated. Vis. Cogn. 12 , 284–336 (2005).

Cipora, K. et al. A minority pulls the sample mean: on the individual prevalence of robust group-level cognitive phenomena — the instance of the SNARC effect. Preprint at psyArXiv https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/bwyr3 (2019).

Andrews, S., Lo, S. & Xia, V. Individual differences in automatic semantic priming. J. Exp. Psychol. Hum. Percept. Perform. 43 , 1025–1039 (2017).

Tan, L. C. & Yap, M. J. Are individual differences in masked repetition and semantic priming reliable? Vis. Cogn. 24 , 182–200 (2016).

Olsson-Collentine, A., Wicherts, J. M. & van Assen, M. A. L. M. Heterogeneity in direct replications in psychology and its association with effect size. Psychol. Bull. 146 , 922–940 (2020).

Gratton, C. & Braga, R. M. Editorial overview: deep imaging of the individual brain: past, practice, and promise. Curr. Opin. Behav. Sci. 40 , iii–vi (2021).

Fedorenko, E. The early origins and the growing popularity of the individual-subject analytic approach in human neuroscience. Curr. Opin. Behav. Sci. 40 , 105–112 (2021).

Xue, A. et al. The detailed organization of the human cerebellum estimated by intrinsic functional connectivity within the individual. J. Neurophysiol. 125 , 358–384 (2021).

Petit, S. et al. Toward an individualized neural assessment of receptive language in children. J. Speech Lang. Hear. Res. 63 , 2361–2385 (2020).

Jung, K.-H. et al. Heterogeneity of cerebral white matter lesions and clinical correlates in older adults. Stroke 52 , 620–630 (2021).

Falcon, M. I., Jirsa, V. & Solodkin, A. A new neuroinformatics approach to personalized medicine in neurology: the virtual brain. Curr. Opin. Neurol. 29 , 429–436 (2016).

Duncan, G. J., Engel, M., Claessens, A. & Dowsett, C. J. Replication and robustness in developmental research. Dev. Psychol. 50 , 2417–2425 (2014).

Open Science Collaboration. Estimating the reproducibility of psychological science. Science 349 , aac4716 (2015).

Tackett, J. L., Brandes, C. M., King, K. M. & Markon, K. E. Psychology’s replication crisis and clinical psychological science. Annu. Rev. Clin. Psychol. 15 , 579–604 (2019).

Munafò, M. R. et al. A manifesto for reproducible science. Nat. Hum. Behav. 1 , 0021 (2017).

Oldfield, R. C. & Wingfield, A. The time it takes to name an object. Nature 202 , 1031–1032 (1964).

Oldfield, R. C. & Wingfield, A. Response latencies in naming objects. Q. J. Exp. Psychol. 17 , 273–281 (1965).

Brysbaert, M. How many participants do we have to include in properly powered experiments? A tutorial of power analysis with reference tables. J. Cogn. 2 , 16 (2019).

Brysbaert, M. Power considerations in bilingualism research: time to step up our game. Bilingualism https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728920000437 (2020).

Machery, E. What is a replication? Phil. Sci. 87 , 545–567 (2020).

Nosek, B. A. & Errington, T. M. What is replication? PLoS Biol. 18 , e3000691 (2020).

Li, X., Huang, L., Yao, P. & Hyönä, J. Universal and specific reading mechanisms across different writing systems. Nat. Rev. Psychol. 1 , 133–144 (2022).

Rapp, B. (Ed.) The Handbook Of Cognitive Neuropsychology: What Deficits Reveal About The Human Mind (Psychology Press, 2001).

Code, C. et al. Classic Cases In Neuropsychology (Psychology Press, 1996).

Patterson, K., Marshall, J. C. & Coltheart, M. Surface Dyslexia: Neuropsychological And Cognitive Studies Of Phonological Reading (Routledge, 2017).

Marshall, J. C. & Newcombe, F. Patterns of paralexia: a psycholinguistic approach. J. Psycholinguist. Res. 2 , 175–199 (1973).

Castles, A. & Coltheart, M. Varieties of developmental dyslexia. Cognition 47 , 149–180 (1993).

Khentov-Kraus, L. & Friedmann, N. Vowel letter dyslexia. Cogn. Neuropsychol. 35 , 223–270 (2018).

Winskel, H. Orthographic and phonological parafoveal processing of consonants, vowels, and tones when reading Thai. Appl. Psycholinguist. 32 , 739–759 (2011).

Hepner, C., McCloskey, M. & Rapp, B. Do reading and spelling share orthographic representations? Evidence from developmental dysgraphia. Cogn. Neuropsychol. 34 , 119–143 (2017).

Hanley, J. R. & Sotiropoulos, A. Developmental surface dysgraphia without surface dyslexia. Cogn. Neuropsychol. 35 , 333–341 (2018).

Zihl, J. & Heywood, C. A. The contribution of single case studies to the neuroscience of vision: single case studies in vision neuroscience. Psych. J. 5 , 5–17 (2016).

Bouvier, S. E. & Engel, S. A. Behavioral deficits and cortical damage loci in cerebral achromatopsia. Cereb. Cortex 16 , 183–191 (2006).

Zihl, J. & Heywood, C. A. The contribution of LM to the neuroscience of movement vision. Front. Integr. Neurosci. 9 , 6 (2015).

Dotan, D. & Friedmann, N. Separate mechanisms for number reading and word reading: evidence from selective impairments. Cortex 114 , 176–192 (2019).

McCloskey, M. & Schubert, T. Shared versus separate processes for letter and digit identification. Cogn. Neuropsychol. 31 , 437–460 (2014).

Fayol, M. & Seron, X. On numerical representations. Insights from experimental, neuropsychological, and developmental research. In Handbook of Mathematical Cognition (ed. Campbell, J.) 3–23 (Psychological Press, 2005).

Bornstein, B. & Kidron, D. P. Prosopagnosia. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiat. 22 , 124–131 (1959).

Kühn, C. D., Gerlach, C., Andersen, K. B., Poulsen, M. & Starrfelt, R. Face recognition in developmental dyslexia: evidence for dissociation between faces and words. Cogn. Neuropsychol. 38 , 107–115 (2021).

Barton, J. J. S., Albonico, A., Susilo, T., Duchaine, B. & Corrow, S. L. Object recognition in acquired and developmental prosopagnosia. Cogn. Neuropsychol. 36 , 54–84 (2019).

Renault, B., Signoret, J.-L., Debruille, B., Breton, F. & Bolgert, F. Brain potentials reveal covert facial recognition in prosopagnosia. Neuropsychologia 27 , 905–912 (1989).

Bauer, R. M. Autonomic recognition of names and faces in prosopagnosia: a neuropsychological application of the guilty knowledge test. Neuropsychologia 22 , 457–469 (1984).

Haan, E. H. F., de, Young, A. & Newcombe, F. Face recognition without awareness. Cogn. Neuropsychol. 4 , 385–415 (1987).

Ellis, H. D. & Lewis, M. B. Capgras delusion: a window on face recognition. Trends Cogn. Sci. 5 , 149–156 (2001).

Ellis, H. D., Young, A. W., Quayle, A. H. & De Pauw, K. W. Reduced autonomic responses to faces in Capgras delusion. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B 264 , 1085–1092 (1997).

Collins, M. N., Hawthorne, M. E., Gribbin, N. & Jacobson, R. Capgras’ syndrome with organic disorders. Postgrad. Med. J. 66 , 1064–1067 (1990).

Enoch, D., Puri, B. K. & Ball, H. Uncommon Psychiatric Syndromes 5th edn (Routledge, 2020).

Tranel, D., Damasio, H. & Damasio, A. R. Double dissociation between overt and covert face recognition. J. Cogn. Neurosci. 7 , 425–432 (1995).

Brighetti, G., Bonifacci, P., Borlimi, R. & Ottaviani, C. “Far from the heart far from the eye”: evidence from the Capgras delusion. Cogn. Neuropsychiat. 12 , 189–197 (2007).

Coltheart, M., Langdon, R. & McKay, R. Delusional belief. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 62 , 271–298 (2011).

Coltheart, M. Cognitive neuropsychiatry and delusional belief. Q. J. Exp. Psychol. 60 , 1041–1062 (2007).

Coltheart, M. & Davies, M. How unexpected observations lead to new beliefs: a Peircean pathway. Conscious. Cogn. 87 , 103037 (2021).

Coltheart, M. & Davies, M. Failure of hypothesis evaluation as a factor in delusional belief. Cogn. Neuropsychiat. 26 , 213–230 (2021).

McCloskey, M. et al. A developmental deficit in localizing objects from vision. Psychol. Sci. 6 , 112–117 (1995).

McCloskey, M., Valtonen, J. & Cohen Sherman, J. Representing orientation: a coordinate-system hypothesis and evidence from developmental deficits. Cogn. Neuropsychol. 23 , 680–713 (2006).

McCloskey, M. Spatial representations and multiple-visual-systems hypotheses: evidence from a developmental deficit in visual location and orientation processing. Cortex 40 , 677–694 (2004).

Gregory, E. & McCloskey, M. Mirror-image confusions: implications for representation and processing of object orientation. Cognition 116 , 110–129 (2010).

Gregory, E., Landau, B. & McCloskey, M. Representation of object orientation in children: evidence from mirror-image confusions. Vis. Cogn. 19 , 1035–1062 (2011).

Laine, M. & Martin, N. Cognitive neuropsychology has been, is, and will be significant to aphasiology. Aphasiology 26 , 1362–1376 (2012).

Howard, D. & Patterson, K. The Pyramids And Palm Trees Test: A Test Of Semantic Access From Words And Pictures (Thames Valley Test Co., 1992).

Kay, J., Lesser, R. & Coltheart, M. PALPA: Psycholinguistic Assessments Of Language Processing In Aphasia. 2: Picture & Word Semantics, Sentence Comprehension (Erlbaum, 2001).

Franklin, S. Dissociations in auditory word comprehension; evidence from nine fluent aphasic patients. Aphasiology 3 , 189–207 (1989).

Howard, D., Swinburn, K. & Porter, G. Putting the CAT out: what the comprehensive aphasia test has to offer. Aphasiology 24 , 56–74 (2010).

Conti-Ramsden, G., Crutchley, A. & Botting, N. The extent to which psychometric tests differentiate subgroups of children with SLI. J. Speech Lang. Hear. Res. 40 , 765–777 (1997).

Bishop, D. V. M. & McArthur, G. M. Individual differences in auditory processing in specific language impairment: a follow-up study using event-related potentials and behavioural thresholds. Cortex 41 , 327–341 (2005).

Bishop, D. V. M., Snowling, M. J., Thompson, P. A. & Greenhalgh, T., and the CATALISE-2 consortium. Phase 2 of CATALISE: a multinational and multidisciplinary Delphi consensus study of problems with language development: terminology. J. Child. Psychol. Psychiat. 58 , 1068–1080 (2017).

Wilson, A. J. et al. Principles underlying the design of ‘the number race’, an adaptive computer game for remediation of dyscalculia. Behav. Brain Funct. 2 , 19 (2006).

Basso, A. & Marangolo, P. Cognitive neuropsychological rehabilitation: the emperor’s new clothes? Neuropsychol. Rehabil. 10 , 219–229 (2000).

Murad, M. H., Asi, N., Alsawas, M. & Alahdab, F. New evidence pyramid. Evidence-based Med. 21 , 125–127 (2016).

Greenhalgh, T., Howick, J. & Maskrey, N., for the Evidence Based Medicine Renaissance Group. Evidence based medicine: a movement in crisis? Br. Med. J. 348 , g3725–g3725 (2014).

Best, W., Ping Sze, W., Edmundson, A. & Nickels, L. What counts as evidence? Swimming against the tide: valuing both clinically informed experimentally controlled case series and randomized controlled trials in intervention research. Evidence-based Commun. Assess. Interv. 13 , 107–135 (2019).

Best, W. et al. Understanding differing outcomes from semantic and phonological interventions with children with word-finding difficulties: a group and case series study. Cortex 134 , 145–161 (2021).

OCEBM Levels of Evidence Working Group. The Oxford Levels of Evidence 2. CEBM https://www.cebm.ox.ac.uk/resources/levels-of-evidence/ocebm-levels-of-evidence (2011).

Holler, D. E., Behrmann, M. & Snow, J. C. Real-world size coding of solid objects, but not 2-D or 3-D images, in visual agnosia patients with bilateral ventral lesions. Cortex 119 , 555–568 (2019).

Duchaine, B. C., Yovel, G., Butterworth, E. J. & Nakayama, K. Prosopagnosia as an impairment to face-specific mechanisms: elimination of the alternative hypotheses in a developmental case. Cogn. Neuropsychol. 23 , 714–747 (2006).

Hartley, T. et al. The hippocampus is required for short-term topographical memory in humans. Hippocampus 17 , 34–48 (2007).

Pishnamazi, M. et al. Attentional bias towards and away from fearful faces is modulated by developmental amygdala damage. Cortex 81 , 24–34 (2016).

Rapp, B., Fischer-Baum, S. & Miozzo, M. Modality and morphology: what we write may not be what we say. Psychol. Sci. 26 , 892–902 (2015).

Yong, K. X. X., Warren, J. D., Warrington, E. K. & Crutch, S. J. Intact reading in patients with profound early visual dysfunction. Cortex 49 , 2294–2306 (2013).

Rockland, K. S. & Van Hoesen, G. W. Direct temporal–occipital feedback connections to striate cortex (V1) in the macaque monkey. Cereb. Cortex 4 , 300–313 (1994).

Haynes, J.-D., Driver, J. & Rees, G. Visibility reflects dynamic changes of effective connectivity between V1 and fusiform cortex. Neuron 46 , 811–821 (2005).

Tanaka, K. Mechanisms of visual object recognition: monkey and human studies. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 7 , 523–529 (1997).

Fischer-Baum, S., McCloskey, M. & Rapp, B. Representation of letter position in spelling: evidence from acquired dysgraphia. Cognition 115 , 466–490 (2010).

Houghton, G. The problem of serial order: a neural network model of sequence learning and recall. In Current Research In Natural Language Generation (eds Dale, R., Mellish, C. & Zock, M.) 287–319 (Academic Press, 1990).

Fieder, N., Nickels, L., Biedermann, B. & Best, W. From “some butter” to “a butter”: an investigation of mass and count representation and processing. Cogn. Neuropsychol. 31 , 313–349 (2014).

Fieder, N., Nickels, L., Biedermann, B. & Best, W. How ‘some garlic’ becomes ‘a garlic’ or ‘some onion’: mass and count processing in aphasia. Neuropsychologia 75 , 626–645 (2015).

Schröder, A., Burchert, F. & Stadie, N. Training-induced improvement of noncanonical sentence production does not generalize to comprehension: evidence for modality-specific processes. Cogn. Neuropsychol. 32 , 195–220 (2015).

Stadie, N. et al. Unambiguous generalization effects after treatment of non-canonical sentence production in German agrammatism. Brain Lang. 104 , 211–229 (2008).

Schapiro, A. C., Gregory, E., Landau, B., McCloskey, M. & Turk-Browne, N. B. The necessity of the medial temporal lobe for statistical learning. J. Cogn. Neurosci. 26 , 1736–1747 (2014).

Schapiro, A. C., Kustner, L. V. & Turk-Browne, N. B. Shaping of object representations in the human medial temporal lobe based on temporal regularities. Curr. Biol. 22 , 1622–1627 (2012).

Baddeley, A., Vargha-Khadem, F. & Mishkin, M. Preserved recognition in a case of developmental amnesia: implications for the acaquisition of semantic memory? J. Cogn. Neurosci. 13 , 357–369 (2001).

Snyder, J. J. & Chatterjee, A. Spatial-temporal anisometries following right parietal damage. Neuropsychologia 42 , 1703–1708 (2004).

Ashkenazi, S., Henik, A., Ifergane, G. & Shelef, I. Basic numerical processing in left intraparietal sulcus (IPS) acalculia. Cortex 44 , 439–448 (2008).

Lebrun, M.-A., Moreau, P., McNally-Gagnon, A., Mignault Goulet, G. & Peretz, I. Congenital amusia in childhood: a case study. Cortex 48 , 683–688 (2012).

Vannuscorps, G., Andres, M. & Pillon, A. When does action comprehension need motor involvement? Evidence from upper limb aplasia. Cogn. Neuropsychol. 30 , 253–283 (2013).

Jeannerod, M. Neural simulation of action: a unifying mechanism for motor cognition. NeuroImage 14 , S103–S109 (2001).

Blakemore, S.-J. & Decety, J. From the perception of action to the understanding of intention. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 2 , 561–567 (2001).

Rizzolatti, G. & Craighero, L. The mirror-neuron system. Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 27 , 169–192 (2004).

Forde, E. M. E., Humphreys, G. W. & Remoundou, M. Disordered knowledge of action order in action disorganisation syndrome. Neurocase 10 , 19–28 (2004).

Mazzi, C. & Savazzi, S. The glamor of old-style single-case studies in the neuroimaging era: insights from a patient with hemianopia. Front. Psychol. 10 , 965 (2019).

Coltheart, M. What has functional neuroimaging told us about the mind (so far)? (Position Paper Presented to the European Cognitive Neuropsychology Workshop, Bressanone, 2005). Cortex 42 , 323–331 (2006).

Page, M. P. A. What can’t functional neuroimaging tell the cognitive psychologist? Cortex 42 , 428–443 (2006).

Blank, I. A., Kiran, S. & Fedorenko, E. Can neuroimaging help aphasia researchers? Addressing generalizability, variability, and interpretability. Cogn. Neuropsychol. 34 , 377–393 (2017).

Niv, Y. The primacy of behavioral research for understanding the brain. Behav. Neurosci. 135 , 601–609 (2021).

Crawford, J. R. & Howell, D. C. Comparing an individual’s test score against norms derived from small samples. Clin. Neuropsychol. 12 , 482–486 (1998).

Crawford, J. R., Garthwaite, P. H. & Ryan, K. Comparing a single case to a control sample: testing for neuropsychological deficits and dissociations in the presence of covariates. Cortex 47 , 1166–1178 (2011).

McIntosh, R. D. & Rittmo, J. Ö. Power calculations in single-case neuropsychology: a practical primer. Cortex 135 , 146–158 (2021).

Patterson, K. & Plaut, D. C. “Shallow draughts intoxicate the brain”: lessons from cognitive science for cognitive neuropsychology. Top. Cogn. Sci. 1 , 39–58 (2009).

Lambon Ralph, M. A., Patterson, K. & Plaut, D. C. Finite case series or infinite single-case studies? Comments on “Case series investigations in cognitive neuropsychology” by Schwartz and Dell (2010). Cogn. Neuropsychol. 28 , 466–474 (2011).

Horien, C., Shen, X., Scheinost, D. & Constable, R. T. The individual functional connectome is unique and stable over months to years. NeuroImage 189 , 676–687 (2019).

Epelbaum, S. et al. Pure alexia as a disconnection syndrome: new diffusion imaging evidence for an old concept. Cortex 44 , 962–974 (2008).

Fischer-Baum, S. & Campana, G. Neuroplasticity and the logic of cognitive neuropsychology. Cogn. Neuropsychol. 34 , 403–411 (2017).

Paul, S., Baca, E. & Fischer-Baum, S. Cerebellar contributions to orthographic working memory: a single case cognitive neuropsychological investigation. Neuropsychologia 171 , 108242 (2022).

Feinstein, J. S., Adolphs, R., Damasio, A. & Tranel, D. The human amygdala and the induction and experience of fear. Curr. Biol. 21 , 34–38 (2011).

Crawford, J., Garthwaite, P. & Gray, C. Wanted: fully operational definitions of dissociations in single-case studies. Cortex 39 , 357–370 (2003).

McIntosh, R. D. Simple dissociations for a higher-powered neuropsychology. Cortex 103 , 256–265 (2018).

McIntosh, R. D. & Brooks, J. L. Current tests and trends in single-case neuropsychology. Cortex 47 , 1151–1159 (2011).

Best, W., Schröder, A. & Herbert, R. An investigation of a relative impairment in naming non-living items: theoretical and methodological implications. J. Neurolinguistics 19 , 96–123 (2006).

Franklin, S., Howard, D. & Patterson, K. Abstract word anomia. Cogn. Neuropsychol. 12 , 549–566 (1995).

Coltheart, M., Patterson, K. E. & Marshall, J. C. Deep Dyslexia (Routledge, 1980).

Nickels, L., Kohnen, S. & Biedermann, B. An untapped resource: treatment as a tool for revealing the nature of cognitive processes. Cogn. Neuropsychol. 27 , 539–562 (2010).

Download references

Acknowledgements

The authors thank all of those pioneers of and advocates for single case study research who have mentored, inspired and encouraged us over the years, and the many other colleagues with whom we have discussed these issues.

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

School of Psychological Sciences & Macquarie University Centre for Reading, Macquarie University, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia

Lyndsey Nickels

NHMRC Centre of Research Excellence in Aphasia Recovery and Rehabilitation, Australia

Psychological Sciences, Rice University, Houston, TX, USA

Simon Fischer-Baum

Psychology and Language Sciences, University College London, London, UK

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Contributions

L.N. led and was primarily responsible for the structuring and writing of the manuscript. All authors contributed to all aspects of the article.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Lyndsey Nickels .

Ethics declarations

Competing interests.

The authors declare no competing interests.

Peer review

Peer review information.

Nature Reviews Psychology thanks Yanchao Bi, Rob McIntosh, and the other, anonymous, reviewer for their contribution to the peer review of this work.

Additional information

Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article.

Nickels, L., Fischer-Baum, S. & Best, W. Single case studies are a powerful tool for developing, testing and extending theories. Nat Rev Psychol 1 , 733–747 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1038/s44159-022-00127-y

Download citation

Accepted : 13 October 2022

Published : 22 November 2022

Issue Date : December 2022

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1038/s44159-022-00127-y

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

Quick links

• Explore articles by subject
• Guide to authors
• Editorial policies

Sign up for the Nature Briefing newsletter — what matters in science, free to your inbox daily.

Examples of Cognitive Psychology: Exploring Real-World Applications

Cognitive psychology, a fascinating field of study that delves into the mind’s intricate workings, is my topic today. It’s an area of psychology focusing on mental processes like memory, perception, attention, and problem-solving. Essentially, it examines how humans understand and interact with the world around them using their cognitive abilities.

Throughout this article, I’ll unpack some intriguing examples of cognitive psychology in action to illustrate just how influential these unseen processes can be. From common everyday experiences to complex decision-making scenarios – cognitive psychology plays a pivotal role in shaping our responses.

So let’s dive right in! I’m excited to share these insights and help you gain a deeper understanding of the incredible power of your own cognition.

Understanding Cognitive Psychology

Let’s take a deep dive into the world of cognitive psychology. We’ll start by breaking down what it is exactly. At its core, cognitive psychology revolves around the study of mental processes like problem-solving, memory, attention, and language use. It’s all about understanding how people perceive, think about, remember and interact with the world.

Here are some common examples where we apply cognitive psychology in our daily lives:

• When you’re trying to remember a grocery list or a phone number
• While learning new skills like playing an instrument or mastering a new language
• When making decisions based on past experiences and future predictions

The key pillar of cognitive psychology is the belief that our behaviors are controlled by how we process information. That’s why researchers in this field spend their time studying various aspects such as perception, cognition, memory recall and more.

Now let’s talk about some prominent theories in cognitive psychology:

• Information Processing Theory: This theory equates the human mind to a computer processing data.
• Multistore Memory Model: Also known as Atkinson-Shiffrin model which suggests three types of memories: sensory memory, short-term memory and long-term memory.
• Schemas Theory: This concept hypothesizes that we have mental frameworks (schemas) through which we interpret and understand information.

Understanding these theories will give us clearer insights into why people behave the way they do – helping us make sense of complex human behaviors!

So there you have it – a brief rundown on cognitive psychology! As we delve deeper into this fascinating subject throughout this article series, I hope it’ll spark your curiosity just as much as it has mine!

Real-Life Applications of Cognitive Psychology

I’ve always been fascinated by the power of our minds. It’s intriguing to see how cognitive psychology, the study of mental processes such as “attention, language use, memory, perception, problem solving, creativity and thinking,” plays a crucial part in our day-to-day lives. Let’s delve into some practical applications that might just surprise you.

One area where cognitive psychology comes into play is in improving memory. We’ve all had those moments when we walk into a room and can’t remember why we’re there. Memory techniques like mnemonic devices or imagery can be real game changers. They work by associating new information with something already stored in our brain, making it easier to recall later on.

Moreover, cognitive psychology is instrumental in the field of education. Educators rely on research about cognitive development to create curriculums and teaching methods that match students’ stage of mental growth. For instance, understanding that kids have different learning styles – some are visual learners while others are auditory or kinesthetic learners – helps teachers tailor their lessons for maximum effectiveness.

Cognitive therapy is another tangible application stemming from this branch of psychology. This kind of therapy targets negative thought patterns which often lead to emotional distress or behavioral issues. By recognizing these detrimental thoughts and reframing them positively, individuals can better manage stressors and improve their mental health.

Lastly but certainly not leastly (if I may coin a phrase), let’s talk about artificial intelligence (AI). Cognitive models are used extensively in designing AI systems to simulate human thought processes. This allows machines to ‘learn’ from experiences much like humans do – think self-driving cars or personalized music recommendations based on your past listening habits.

And there you have it! A peek into how cognitive psychology seeps into realms ranging from personal growth to tech advancements; shaping interactions with ourselves, others and even machines!

Cognitive Dissonance: A Key Concept in Cognitive Psychology

Diving headfirst into the realm of cognitive psychology, let’s unravel a fascinating concept known as cognitive dissonance. It’s this internal conflict that bubbles up when our actions don’t align with our beliefs or attitudes. And let me tell you, it can lead to some intriguing mental gymnastics.

Let’s consider an example. Imagine you’re a die-hard advocate for healthy eating; fruit bowls and kale smoothies are your go-to treats. However, one day, you give in to temptation and devour an entire pizza by yourself. That discomfort you feel afterward? That’s cognitive dissonance.

Here’s another way to look at it: smokers who are well aware of the health risks associated with their habit but continue to light up anyway. They might justify their behavior by suggesting that “everyone dies someday,” hence minimizing the perceived harm of smoking.

Now, why is this concept so central in cognitive psychology? Because it plays a significant role in how we make decisions and deal with life’s contradictions.

• Decision Making : When faced with two equally attractive options, choosing one over the other may induce feelings of loss or regret over the unchosen option – classic cognitive dissonance.
• Contradictions : If someone holds two contradictory beliefs (“I want to be healthy” vs “I love junk food”), they’ll likely experience discomfort until they can reconcile these conflicting views.

By understanding cognitive dissonance, psychologists gain insights into human behavior and decision-making processes – crucial knowledge for everything from marketing strategies to therapeutic approaches!

Memory Models in Cognitive Psychology

Diving right into the world of cognitive psychology, it’s impossible to ignore the critical role that memory models play. These models help us understand how our brains process, store, and retrieve information. But what exactly are these models? Let’s explore.

First up on our list is the Multi-Store Model. This model suggests that we have three separate memory stores: sensory, short-term (STM), and long-term memory (LTM). Here’s a quick breakdown:

• Sensory memory: It’s where incoming sensory information is stored just long enough for us to select details of interest.
• Short-term memory: Selected information from sensory memory lands here, where it can be held temporarily and processed.
• Long-term memory: Information that we’ve really drilled down on moves from STM to LTM, where it can remain indefinitely.

Next up is the Working Memory Model proposed by Baddeley and Hitch. They argued that short-term memory isn’t just one store but a system with multiple components. The central executive controls two subsystems – the phonological loop which handles auditory data; and the visuospatial sketchpad managing visual and spatial info.

Finally, we have Tulving’s Model of Memory. He proposed that long term-memory can further be divided into episodic (personal experiences), semantic (facts), and procedural memories (skills).

To put these concepts in perspective:

Remember – each model offers unique insights but none captures the full complexity of human memory. And while there may not be one definitive answer yet about how our mind crafts memories, every theory brings us a step closer to understanding this fascinating aspect of cognitive psychology .

Perception and Thinking: An Insight into Cognitive Processes

Diving right into the world of cognitive psychology, it’s impossible to ignore the profound impact that perception and thinking have on our daily lives. These two processes are intricately linked, forming a fundamental part of our cognition – how we understand and interact with the world around us.

Let’s consider perception first. It’s more than merely seeing or hearing; it’s about interpreting and making sense of sensory information. Take optical illusions as an example. We’ve all marveled at images that seem to shift before our eyes, tricking us into seeing something that isn’t there. This is a clear-cut case where perception plays tricks on us, highlighting its role in shaping our reality.

Next up is thinking – another crucial cog in the wheel of cognitive psychology. It influences everything from problem-solving to decision-making. Consider chess players for instance – their thinking process involves strategizing, predicting opponents’ moves, and reacting accordingly.

The interaction between these two processes can be fascinating too! Have you ever noticed how your thoughts can sometimes alter your perceptions? For instance, if you’re anxious about a job interview, you might perceive every slight frown from the interviewer as a negative sign whereas they might simply be concentrating!

Cognitive psychology also delves into perceptual organization – how we group together different elements to form a coherent whole picture or scene in our minds. Our brains instinctively follow “Gestalt Principles” like Proximity (grouping objects close together) and Similarity (grouping similar-looking objects) when processing visual information.

In summing up this brief exploration:

• Perception is about interpreting sensory information.
• Thinking involves mental activities such as problem-solving or decision-making.
• Both processes interact dynamically within cognitive psychology.
• Cognitive psychologists study these phenomena to better understand human thought processes.

So there you have it! A quick dive into the captivating world of perception and thinking within cognitive psychology. In the upcoming sections, we’ll delve deeper into other fascinating aspects of this diverse field, so stay tuned!

Role of Language in Cognitive Psychology

Language is an integral part of cognitive psychology. It’s the primary tool we use to communicate our thoughts, feelings, and ideas with others. But it’s not just about communication – language also plays a crucial role in how we process information and understand the world around us.

Let’s take memory as an example. Ever notice how easier it is to remember something when you put it into your own words? That’s because when we rephrase information, we’re engaging in what cognitive psychologists call “elaborative rehearsal”. We’re not merely repeating the information – we’re processing it, understanding it, attaching meaning to it. And all these steps make that piece of information more memorable.

Then there’s problem-solving, another key aspect of cognitive psychology. How do you go about solving a complex problem? Chances are you talk yourself through it. Maybe you don’t speak out loud (or maybe you do!), but there’s definitely some internal dialogue going on. You’re using language to organize your thoughts, weigh different options and ultimately arrive at a solution.

What about perception? Here too, language has an important role to play. Our words influence how we perceive colors or spatial relations for instance – think of Eskimos who have multiple words for snow and thus see variations where others might only see white.

And let’s not forget learning – especially learning new concepts or skills. Language helps us form associations between old and new knowledge making the unfamiliar become familiar faster.

So yes, from memory and problem-solving to perception and learning – language permeates virtually every aspect of cognitive psychology.

Impact of Emotion on Cognition: A Psychological Perspective

I’ve always been intrigued by the intricate relationship between our emotions and cognitive processes. It’s a fascinating area that’s gaining momentum in cognitive psychology . Today, we’ll delve into how our feelings can shape our thoughts, decisions, and overall mental performance.

We’re all familiar with those moments when a surge of emotion throws off our thinking. Be it anger messing up your judgment or anxiety clouding your decision-making abilities, it’s clear that feelings play a pivotal role in cognition. In fact, research has shown that positive emotions like happiness can enhance creative problem-solving skills and broaden the scope of attention.

To illustrate this point further, consider these stats:

Emotions aren’t just disruptive; they also offer adaptive advantages for cognition. For example, fear often heightens our senses and sharpens focus during threatening situations – an evolutionary trick to increase survival chances.

In the world of education too, emotions have made their presence known. Emotional engagement is considered critical to learning and memory retention. That’s why teachers strive to make lessons engaging rather than purely informational.

Finally, let’s not forget about emotional disorders such as depression which are characterized by cognitive impairments like difficulty concentrating or making decisions. These examples highlight the profound influence emotions exert on various aspects of cognition.

In essence, understanding the impact of emotion on cognition isn’t simply academic—it’s essential for mental health practitioners aiming to develop effective therapeutic interventions. This knowledge also benefits educators seeking ways to optimize student learning experiences.

Conclusion: The Power and Potential of Cognitive Psychology

Through this exploration into the realm of cognitive psychology , I’ve come to appreciate its vast power and potential. It’s a field that offers valuable insights into our thought processes, behaviors, and interactions.

Cognitive psychology is significant because it helps us to understand how we make decisions. This understanding can lead to better decision-making strategies in various fields from business to education. Moreover, it’s crucial for helping those with mental disorders or cognitive impairments.

The impact of cognitive psychology on learning strategies has been remarkable. By understanding how memory works, educational institutions have been able to develop more effective teaching methods.

Cognitive therapies have also emerged from this discipline. They’re a testament to the practical application of theories in real-world settings, assisting people in overcoming challenges such as anxiety or depression.

To summarize:

• Cognitive psychology aids in improving decision-making
• It contributes significantly to enhancing learning techniques
• Its principles are applied effectively in creating therapeutic approaches

Despite these immense contributions, the field is still evolving with much more yet to be discovered. Every day brings new research findings that contribute towards the enrichment of this discipline.

In conclusion, I’d like it known that cognitive psychology holds great promise for future development. As we continue digging deeper into human cognition and behavior mysteries, we’ll find answers that could revolutionize our approach towards mental health and learning strategies.

This journey through examples of cognitive psychology has undoubtedly demonstrated its power and potential – showing why it remains an invaluable tool in understanding ourselves better.

Related Posts

Cracking the Anxious-Avoidant Code

Deflection: Unraveling the Science Behind Material Bending

Case Study Research Method in Psychology

Saul Mcleod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul Mcleod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

Learn about our Editorial Process

Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc

Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education

Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

On This Page:

Case studies are in-depth investigations of a person, group, event, or community. Typically, data is gathered from various sources using several methods (e.g., observations & interviews).

The case study research method originated in clinical medicine (the case history, i.e., the patient’s personal history). In psychology, case studies are often confined to the study of a particular individual.

The information is mainly biographical and relates to events in the individual’s past (i.e., retrospective), as well as to significant events that are currently occurring in his or her everyday life.

The case study is not a research method, but researchers select methods of data collection and analysis that will generate material suitable for case studies.

Freud (1909a, 1909b) conducted very detailed investigations into the private lives of his patients in an attempt to both understand and help them overcome their illnesses.

This makes it clear that the case study is a method that should only be used by a psychologist, therapist, or psychiatrist, i.e., someone with a professional qualification.

There is an ethical issue of competence. Only someone qualified to diagnose and treat a person can conduct a formal case study relating to atypical (i.e., abnormal) behavior or atypical development.

 Famous Case Studies

• Anna O – One of the most famous case studies, documenting psychoanalyst Josef Breuer’s treatment of “Anna O” (real name Bertha Pappenheim) for hysteria in the late 1800s using early psychoanalytic theory.
• Little Hans – A child psychoanalysis case study published by Sigmund Freud in 1909 analyzing his five-year-old patient Herbert Graf’s house phobia as related to the Oedipus complex.
• Bruce/Brenda – Gender identity case of the boy (Bruce) whose botched circumcision led psychologist John Money to advise gender reassignment and raise him as a girl (Brenda) in the 1960s.
• Genie Wiley – Linguistics/psychological development case of the victim of extreme isolation abuse who was studied in 1970s California for effects of early language deprivation on acquiring speech later in life.
• Phineas Gage – One of the most famous neuropsychology case studies analyzes personality changes in railroad worker Phineas Gage after an 1848 brain injury involving a tamping iron piercing his skull.

Clinical Case Studies

• Studying the effectiveness of psychotherapy approaches with an individual patient
• Assessing and treating mental illnesses like depression, anxiety disorders, PTSD
• Neuropsychological cases investigating brain injuries or disorders

Child Psychology Case Studies

• Studying psychological development from birth through adolescence
• Cases of learning disabilities, autism spectrum disorders, ADHD
• Effects of trauma, abuse, deprivation on development

Types of Case Studies

• Explanatory case studies : Used to explore causation in order to find underlying principles. Helpful for doing qualitative analysis to explain presumed causal links.
• Exploratory case studies : Used to explore situations where an intervention being evaluated has no clear set of outcomes. It helps define questions and hypotheses for future research.
• Descriptive case studies : Describe an intervention or phenomenon and the real-life context in which it occurred. It is helpful for illustrating certain topics within an evaluation.
• Multiple-case studies : Used to explore differences between cases and replicate findings across cases. Helpful for comparing and contrasting specific cases.
• Intrinsic : Used to gain a better understanding of a particular case. Helpful for capturing the complexity of a single case.
• Collective : Used to explore a general phenomenon using multiple case studies. Helpful for jointly studying a group of cases in order to inquire into the phenomenon.

Where Do You Find Data for a Case Study?

There are several places to find data for a case study. The key is to gather data from multiple sources to get a complete picture of the case and corroborate facts or findings through triangulation of evidence. Most of this information is likely qualitative (i.e., verbal description rather than measurement), but the psychologist might also collect numerical data.

1. Primary sources

• Interviews – Interviewing key people related to the case to get their perspectives and insights. The interview is an extremely effective procedure for obtaining information about an individual, and it may be used to collect comments from the person’s friends, parents, employer, workmates, and others who have a good knowledge of the person, as well as to obtain facts from the person him or herself.
• Observations – Observing behaviors, interactions, processes, etc., related to the case as they unfold in real-time.
• Documents & Records – Reviewing private documents, diaries, public records, correspondence, meeting minutes, etc., relevant to the case.

2. Secondary sources

• News/Media – News coverage of events related to the case study.
• Academic articles – Journal articles, dissertations etc. that discuss the case.
• Government reports – Official data and records related to the case context.
• Books/films – Books, documentaries or films discussing the case.

3. Archival records

Searching historical archives, museum collections and databases to find relevant documents, visual/audio records related to the case history and context.

Public archives like newspapers, organizational records, photographic collections could all include potentially relevant pieces of information to shed light on attitudes, cultural perspectives, common practices and historical contexts related to psychology.

4. Organizational records

Organizational records offer the advantage of often having large datasets collected over time that can reveal or confirm psychological insights.

Of course, privacy and ethical concerns regarding confidential data must be navigated carefully.

However, with proper protocols, organizational records can provide invaluable context and empirical depth to qualitative case studies exploring the intersection of psychology and organizations.

• Organizational/industrial psychology research : Organizational records like employee surveys, turnover/retention data, policies, incident reports etc. may provide insight into topics like job satisfaction, workplace culture and dynamics, leadership issues, employee behaviors etc.
• Clinical psychology : Therapists/hospitals may grant access to anonymized medical records to study aspects like assessments, diagnoses, treatment plans etc. This could shed light on clinical practices.
• School psychology : Studies could utilize anonymized student records like test scores, grades, disciplinary issues, and counseling referrals to study child development, learning barriers, effectiveness of support programs, and more.

How do I Write a Case Study in Psychology?

Follow specified case study guidelines provided by a journal or your psychology tutor. General components of clinical case studies include: background, symptoms, assessments, diagnosis, treatment, and outcomes. Interpreting the information means the researcher decides what to include or leave out. A good case study should always clarify which information is the factual description and which is an inference or the researcher’s opinion.

1. Introduction

• Provide background on the case context and why it is of interest, presenting background information like demographics, relevant history, and presenting problem.
• Compare briefly to similar published cases if applicable. Clearly state the focus/importance of the case.

2. Case Presentation

• Describe the presenting problem in detail, including symptoms, duration,and impact on daily life.
• Include client demographics like age and gender, information about social relationships, and mental health history.
• Describe all physical, emotional, and/or sensory symptoms reported by the client.
• Use patient quotes to describe the initial complaint verbatim. Follow with full-sentence summaries of relevant history details gathered, including key components that led to a working diagnosis.
• Summarize clinical exam results, namely orthopedic/neurological tests, imaging, lab tests, etc. Note actual results rather than subjective conclusions. Provide images if clearly reproducible/anonymized.
• Clearly state the working diagnosis or clinical impression before transitioning to management.

3. Management and Outcome

• Indicate the total duration of care and number of treatments given over what timeframe. Use specific names/descriptions for any therapies/interventions applied.
• Present the results of the intervention,including any quantitative or qualitative data collected.
• For outcomes, utilize visual analog scales for pain, medication usage logs, etc., if possible. Include patient self-reports of improvement/worsening of symptoms. Note the reason for discharge/end of care.

4. Discussion

• Analyze the case, exploring contributing factors, limitations of the study, and connections to existing research.
• Analyze the effectiveness of the intervention,considering factors like participant adherence, limitations of the study, and potential alternative explanations for the results.
• Identify any questions raised in the case analysis and relate insights to established theories and current research if applicable. Avoid definitive claims about physiological explanations.
• Offer clinical implications, and suggest future research directions.

5. Additional Items

• Thank specific assistants for writing support only. No patient acknowledgments.
• References should directly support any key claims or quotes included.
• Use tables/figures/images only if substantially informative. Include permissions and legends/explanatory notes.
• Provides detailed (rich qualitative) information.
• Provides insight for further research.
• Permitting investigation of otherwise impractical (or unethical) situations.

Case studies allow a researcher to investigate a topic in far more detail than might be possible if they were trying to deal with a large number of research participants (nomothetic approach) with the aim of ‘averaging’.

Because of their in-depth, multi-sided approach, case studies often shed light on aspects of human thinking and behavior that would be unethical or impractical to study in other ways.

Research that only looks into the measurable aspects of human behavior is not likely to give us insights into the subjective dimension of experience, which is important to psychoanalytic and humanistic psychologists.

Case studies are often used in exploratory research. They can help us generate new ideas (that might be tested by other methods). They are an important way of illustrating theories and can help show how different aspects of a person’s life are related to each other.

The method is, therefore, important for psychologists who adopt a holistic point of view (i.e., humanistic psychologists ).

Limitations

• Lacking scientific rigor and providing little basis for generalization of results to the wider population.
• Researchers’ own subjective feelings may influence the case study (researcher bias).
• Difficult to replicate.
• Time-consuming and expensive.
• The volume of data, together with the time restrictions in place, impacted the depth of analysis that was possible within the available resources.

Because a case study deals with only one person/event/group, we can never be sure if the case study investigated is representative of the wider body of “similar” instances. This means the conclusions drawn from a particular case may not be transferable to other settings.

Because case studies are based on the analysis of qualitative (i.e., descriptive) data , a lot depends on the psychologist’s interpretation of the information she has acquired.

This means that there is a lot of scope for Anna O , and it could be that the subjective opinions of the psychologist intrude in the assessment of what the data means.

For example, Freud has been criticized for producing case studies in which the information was sometimes distorted to fit particular behavioral theories (e.g., Little Hans ).

This is also true of Money’s interpretation of the Bruce/Brenda case study (Diamond, 1997) when he ignored evidence that went against his theory.

Breuer, J., & Freud, S. (1895).  Studies on hysteria . Standard Edition 2: London.

Curtiss, S. (1981). Genie: The case of a modern wild child .

Diamond, M., & Sigmundson, K. (1997). Sex Reassignment at Birth: Long-term Review and Clinical Implications. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine , 151(3), 298-304

Freud, S. (1909a). Analysis of a phobia of a five year old boy. In The Pelican Freud Library (1977), Vol 8, Case Histories 1, pages 169-306

Freud, S. (1909b). Bemerkungen über einen Fall von Zwangsneurose (Der “Rattenmann”). Jb. psychoanal. psychopathol. Forsch ., I, p. 357-421; GW, VII, p. 379-463; Notes upon a case of obsessional neurosis, SE , 10: 151-318.

Harlow J. M. (1848). Passage of an iron rod through the head.  Boston Medical and Surgical Journal, 39 , 389–393.

Harlow, J. M. (1868).  Recovery from the Passage of an Iron Bar through the Head .  Publications of the Massachusetts Medical Society. 2  (3), 327-347.

Money, J., & Ehrhardt, A. A. (1972).  Man & Woman, Boy & Girl : The Differentiation and Dimorphism of Gender Identity from Conception to Maturity. Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press.

Money, J., & Tucker, P. (1975). Sexual signatures: On being a man or a woman.

Further Information

• Case Study Approach
• Case Study Method
• Enhancing the Quality of Case Studies in Health Services Research
• “We do things together” A case study of “couplehood” in dementia
• Using mixed methods for evaluating an integrative approach to cancer care: a case study

Related Articles

Research Methodology

Qualitative Data Coding

What Is a Focus Group?

Cross-Cultural Research Methodology In Psychology

What Is Internal Validity In Research?

Research Methodology , Statistics

What Is Face Validity In Research? Importance & How To Measure

Criterion Validity: Definition & Examples

Live revision! Join us for our free exam revision livestreams Watch now →

Reference Library

Collections

• See what's new
• All Resources
• Student Resources
• Assessment Resources
• Teaching Resources
• CPD Courses
• Livestreams

Study notes, videos, interactive activities and more!

Psychology news, insights and enrichment

Currated collections of free resources

Browse resources by topic

• All Psychology Resources

Resource Selections

Currated lists of resources

Study Notes

The Cognitive Approach

Last updated 5 Sept 2022

• Share on Facebook
• Share on Twitter
• Share by Email

The idea that humans conduct mental processes on incoming information – i.e. human cognition – came to the fore of psychological thought during the mid twentieth century, overlooking the stimulus-response focus of the behaviourist approach. A dominant cognitive approach evolved, advocating that sensory information is manipulated internally prior to responses made – influenced by, for instance, our motivations and beliefs.

Introspection – a subjective method predominantly used by philosophical and psychodynamic approaches – was rejected in favour of experimental methodology to study internal processes scientifically.

The cognitive approach assumes

• The mind actively processes information from our senses (touch, taste etc.).
• Between stimulus and response are complex mental processes, which can be studied scientifically.
• Humans can be seen as data processing systems.
• The workings of a computer and the human mind are alike – they encode and store information, and they have outputs.

The Study of Internal Mental Processes

Using experimental research methods, the cognitive approach studies internal mental processes such as attention, memory and decision-making. For example, an investigation might compare the abilities of groups to memorize a list of words, presenting them either verbally or visually to infer which type of sensory information is easiest to process, and could further investigate whether or not this changes with different word types or individuals.

Theoretical and computer models are proposed to attempt to explain and infer information about mental processes. For example, the Information-Processing Model (Figure 1) describes the mind as if a computer, in terms of the relationship between incoming information to be encoded (from the senses), manipulating this mentally (e.g. storage, a decision), and consequently directing an output (e.g. a behaviour, emotion). An example might be an artist looking at a picturesque landscape, deciding which paint colour suits a given area, before brushing the selected colour onto a canvas.

In recent decades, newer models including Computational and Connectionist models have taken some attention away from the previously dominant information-processing analogy:

• The Computational model similarly compares with a computer, but focuses more on how we structure the process of reaching the behavioural output (i.e. the aim, strategy and action taken), without specifying when/how much information is dealt with.
• The Connectionist model takes a neural line of thought; it looks at the mind as a complex network of neurons, which activate in regular configurations that characterize known associations between stimuli.

The role of Schema

A key concept to the approach is the schema, an internal ‘script’ for how to act or what to expect from a given situation. For example, gender schemas assume how males/females behave and how is best to respond accordingly, e.g. a child may assume that all boys enjoy playing football. Schemas are like stereotypes, and alter mental processing of incoming information; their role in eyewitness testimony can be negative, as what somebody expects to see may distort their memory of was actually witnessed.

Cognitive Neuroscience emergence

This related field became prevalent over the latter half of the twentieth century, incorporating neuroscience techniques such as brain scanning to study the impact of brain structures on cognitive processes.

Evaluation of the cognitive approach

• Models have presented a useful means to help explain internal mental processes
• The approach provides a strong focus on internal mental processes, which behaviourists before did not.
• The experimental methods used by the approach are considered scientific.
• It could be argued that cognitive models over-simplify explanations for complex mental processes.
• The data supporting cognitive theories often come from unrealistic tasks used in laboratory experiments, which puts the ecological validity of theories into question (i.e. whether or not they are truly representative of our normal cognitive patterns).
• Comparing a human mind to a machine or computer is arguably an unsophisticated analogy.
• Cognitive Approach
• Cognitive neuroscience
• Mediating cognitive factors
• Negative self-schemas

You might also like

Explaining depression - beck’s cognitive triad, introspection & the cognitive approach, a level psychology topic quiz - approaches.

Quizzes & Activities

Model Answer for Question 5 Paper 2: AS Psychology, June 2016 (AQA)

Exam Support

Example Answer for Question 1 Paper 2: AS Psychology, June 2017 (AQA)

Example answers for approaches: a level psychology, paper 2, june 2019 (aqa), approaches teaching activity: it's a knockout.

Teaching Activities

Research Studies Poster & Handout Set for BTEC Applied Psychology

Poster / Student Handout

Our subjects

• › Criminology
• › Economics
• › Geography
• › Health & Social Care
• › Psychology
• › Sociology
• › Teaching & learning resources
• › Student revision workshops
• › Online student courses
• › CPD for teachers
• › Livestreams
• › Teaching jobs

Boston House, 214 High Street, Boston Spa, West Yorkshire, LS23 6AD Tel: 01937 848885

• › Contact us
• › Terms of use
• › Privacy & cookies

© 2002-2024 Tutor2u Limited. Company Reg no: 04489574. VAT reg no 816865400.

Find Study Materials for

• Explanations
• Business Studies
• Combined Science
• Computer Science
• Engineering
• English Literature
• Environmental Science
• Human Geography
• Macroeconomics
• Microeconomics
• Social Studies
• Browse all subjects
• Read our Magazine

Create Study Materials

• Flashcards Create and find the best flashcards.
• Notes Create notes faster than ever before.
• Study Sets Everything you need for your studies in one place.
• Study Plans Stop procrastinating with our smart planner features.
• Case Studies Psychology

Are you intrigued by the ways psychologists investigate the multifaceted human mind? One of their crucial tools is case studies, particularly when studying rare or unusual phenomena, or processes unfolding over time. In this exploration, we'll guide you through what case studies are in psychology , illustrate them with distinct examples, and outline the detailed methodology behind them. Finally, we'll evaluate their effectiveness.

Create learning materials about Case Studies Psychology with our free learning app!

• Instand access to millions of learning materials
• Flashcards, notes, mock-exams and more
• Everything you need to ace your exams
• Approaches in Psychology
• Basic Psychology
• Biological Bases of Behavior
• Biopsychology
• Careers in Psychology
• Clinical Psychology
• Bartlett War of the Ghosts
• Brain Development
• Bruner and Minturn Study of Perceptual Set
• Computation
• Conservation of Number Piaget
• Constructive Processes in Memory
• Correlation
• Data handling
• Depth Cues Psychology
• Designing Research
• Developmental Research
• Dweck's Theory of Mindset
• Ethical considerations in research
• Experimental Method
• Factors Affecting Perception
• Factors Affecting the Accuracy of Memory
• Formulation of Hypothesis
• Gibson's Theory of Direct Perception
• Gregory's Constructivist Theory of Perception
• Gunderson et al 2013 study
• Hughes Policeman Doll Study
• Issues and Debates in Developmental Psychology
• Language and Perception
• McGarrigle and Donaldson Naughty Teddy
• Memory Processes
• Memory recall
• Nature and Nurture in Development
• Normal Distribution Psychology
• Perception Research
• Perceptual Set
• Piagets Theory in Education
• Planning and Conducting Research
• Population Samples
• Primary and Secondary Data
• Quantitative Data
• Quantitative and Qualitative Data
• Quantitative and Qualitative Methods
• Research Procedures
• Serial Position Effect
• Short-term Retention
• Structures of Memory
• Tables, Charts and Graphs
• The Effects of Learning on Development
• The Gilchrist And Nesberg Study Of Motivation
• Three Mountains Task
• Types of Variable
• Types of bias and how to control
• Visual Cues and Constancies
• Visual illusions
• Willingham's Learning Theory
• Cognition and Development
• Cognitive Psychology
• Data Handling and Analysis
• Developmental Psychology
• Eating Behaviour
• Emotion and Motivation
• Famous Psychologists
• Forensic Psychology
• Health Psychology
• Individual Differences Psychology
• Issues and Debates in Psychology
• Personality in Psychology
• Psychological Treatment
• Relationships
• Research Methods in Psychology
• Schizophrenia
• Scientific Foundations of Psychology
• Scientific Investigation
• Sensation and Perception
• Social Context of Behaviour
• Social Psychology

What are Case Studies Psychology?

Some of the most famous studies in psychology are case studies, which we will cover in this explanation. First, let's fully define what we mean by case studies. According to the American Psychological Association¹, case studies are:

A case study in psychology is an in-depth investigation of a single individual, family, event, or other entity. Multiple types of data (psychological, physiological, biographical, environmental) are assembled, for example, to understand an individual’s background, relationships , and behaviour

Case studies are a common research method used when exploring new research areas, as researchers want a detailed understanding of a new phenomenon. Case studies are occasionally used to form new theories, hypotheses or research questions.

Case Studies Examples in Psychology Research

Phineas Gage is a famous example of a case study. Researchers wanted to understand the effects of the accident on his cognitive functions and behaviours. Not many people survive such an injury, so this was an opportunity to examine how the brain deals with significant damage.

Phineas had an accident at work where a metal rod went through his skull and pierced through his frontal lobe (front part of the brain ).

After the accident, Gage was observed and completed several cognitive and psychometric tests over a long time. The case study aimed to see if and how damage to the frontal lobe may cause behavioural changes.

The case study results showed that Gage initially had a decline in cognitive abilities. However, over time these started to increase. The researchers noted that Gage's intelligence returned to a 'normal level'. Gage's friends stated that his personality had changed and that he was no longer the same person; he became vulgar and aggressive.

This is an important finding in psychology. It shows that other brain areas may take over and compensate for deficiencies caused by brain damage. But, there may be a limit to how much or what skills and attributes can be compensated for.

As Phineas Gage's case was unique and his conditions could not be replicated using the experimental method (against ethical standards of research), a case study was the only appropriate method to use. The research was also explorative as little was known about the frontal lobe's function. Therefore, it may have been difficult to form hypotheses.

Hypotheses are formed based on existing knowledge; researchers cannot randomly make a hypothesis based on what they think will happen. Researchers do not believe that this is a scientific way to theorise research.

Case Study Methodology

When conducting a case study, the first step is forming a hypothesis. These hypotheses aim to identify research areas and concepts that the researcher is interested in.

This is different to experimental research as experimental research tends to define and state expected results. In contrast, the case study's hypotheses may be broader.

Next, the researcher will identify the best method that should be used to measure the variables that the researcher is interested in. When doing case studies, sometimes multiple research methods can be used.

This concept is known as triangulation.

A case study may use questionnaires and interviews when researching mental health in indigenous people.

As with all forms of research, the next stage is data analysis once the research has been conducted. As case studies may use various research methods , the type of analysis used depends on which method is used. The case studies aim to provide in-depth knowledge. Therefore, case studies favour qualitative research, such as unstructured interviews and observations. Open-ended questions allow for further exploration, as is used in qualitative research.

Case studies also sometimes use quantitative research methods. Therefore statistical analyses may also be used in case studies.

The final stage of the case study methodology is to report the data. Case studies usually produce qualitative data.

Qualitative data is non-numerical, detailed findings.

Case studies are usually written in the form of detailed reports. The report should include all the findings found throughout the study and how these were measured.

Evaluation of Using Case Studies

Let's now discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using case studies in research.

Advantages of using case studies

The advantages of case studies are:

• It provides detailed qualitative data that allows researchers to understand phenomena. This can help researchers uncover new concepts that can be later investigated in controlled environments (the experimental method ).
• It is typically considered explorative research. For example, when researchers do not know much about a phenomenon, a case study is used to help derive hypotheses that will be used in later research.
• it can be used to research unique situations which are usually gatekept by ethical issues.

Researchers cannot physically harm participants to observe what happens to them. Case studies are useful to investigate this.

Phineas Gage suffered brain damage due to an accident, presenting an opportunity to researchers to investigate the effects of such damage on the brain. This would otherwise be impossible, as researchers cannot damage a person's brain intentionally to find out what happens as a result (fortunately for us!)

Disadvantages of using case studies

The disadvantages of using case studies are:

• They are extremely difficult to replicate. So, it is difficult to compare the results from a case study to another study; therefore, this research design has low reliability.
• It uses a small, selective sample the results are usually not generally representative of the population. Therefore, the results tend to be non-generalisable.
• It can be quite time-consuming to carry out and analyse case studies.

Case Studies Psychology - Key Takeaways

• Case studies are a type of research design that is used when a researcher is investigating a single person, group or event/phenomenon.
• A case study in psychology is Phineas Gage; a case study was used because his conditions were unique and could not be replicated due to ethical issues. In addition, little was still known about the research area.
• Case studies can be used to collect both qualitative and quantitative data, however, they are quite useful for qualitative research.
• researchers can get an in-depth understanding, it can be used to help direct future research and it can be used to research unique situations or characteristics of people that cannot be replicated.
• they lack reliability and generalisability and are time-consuming and expensive.

1. VandenBos, G. R. (2007). APA dictionary of psychology . American Psychological Association.

Flashcards inCase Studies Psychology 15

What is a case study? 

Case studies are a type of research design that is used when a researcher is investigating a single person, group or event/phenomenon. This research method collects in-depth data on either of these. 

Which of the following are reasons that case studies are used in research?

They are always better than laboratory settings 

Why was a case study used to investigate Phineas Gage? 

As Phineas Gage's case was unique and his conditions could not be replicated using the experimental method (against ethical standards of research) a case study was the only appropriate method to use. As little was known about the function of the frontal lobe the research was also explorative. Therefore, it may have been difficult to form hypotheses.

Typically case studies use various methods to collect data, true or false?

What is triangulation? 

Triangulation is when researchers use multiple methods to collect data. 

What type of data do case studies favour? 

Qualitative 

Learn with 15 Case Studies Psychology flashcards in the free StudySmarter app

We have 14,000 flashcards about Dynamic Landscapes.

Already have an account? Log in

Frequently Asked Questions about Case Studies Psychology

What is a case study?

Case studies are a type of research design that is used when a researcher is investigating a single person, group or event/phenomenon. 

What are some examples of case studies?

Some examples of case studies that are famous in psychology are:

• Patient H.M (brain damage and memory)
• Phineas Gage (brain damage and personality and cognitive skills) 
• Genie (deprivation and development) 

What are case studies used for?

Case studies are used to get in-depth information about a phenomenon. It is usually used as a design when doing explorative research such as trying to form theories, hypotheses or, research questions.

What is the most famous case study in psychology?

An infamous case study is Phineas Gage. He had an accident in which a rod went through his frontal lobe (front part of the brain). He survived the accident but he showed a decline in cognitive abilities and his personality changed. 

Why are case studies important in research?

Case studies are important in research because: 

• can gather data from multiple people and get differing perspectives 
• allows in-depth understanding that may be difficult to find in quantitative research 
• researchers can investigate unique situations that may not be able to be replicated because of ethical issues 

Test your knowledge with multiple choice flashcards

Join the StudySmarter App and learn efficiently with millions of flashcards and more!

Keep learning, you are doing great.

About StudySmarter

StudySmarter is a globally recognized educational technology company, offering a holistic learning platform designed for students of all ages and educational levels. Our platform provides learning support for a wide range of subjects, including STEM, Social Sciences, and Languages and also helps students to successfully master various tests and exams worldwide, such as GCSE, A Level, SAT, ACT, Abitur, and more. We offer an extensive library of learning materials, including interactive flashcards, comprehensive textbook solutions, and detailed explanations. The cutting-edge technology and tools we provide help students create their own learning materials. StudySmarter’s content is not only expert-verified but also regularly updated to ensure accuracy and relevance.

StudySmarter Editorial Team

Team Case Studies Psychology Teachers

• 7 minutes reading time
• Checked by StudySmarter Editorial Team

Study anywhere. Anytime.Across all devices.

Create a free account to save this explanation..

Save explanations to your personalised space and access them anytime, anywhere!

By signing up, you agree to the Terms and Conditions and the Privacy Policy of StudySmarter.

Sign up to highlight and take notes. It’s 100% free.

Join over 22 million students in learning with our StudySmarter App

The first learning app that truly has everything you need to ace your exams in one place

• Flashcards & Quizzes
• AI Study Assistant
• Study Planner
• Smart Note-Taking

Psychology Case Study Examples

• For those experiencing suicidal thoughts, please contact the  988 Suicide & Crisis Lifeline at 988
• For those experiencing abuse, please contact the Domestic Violence Hotline at 1-800-799-SAFE (7233)
• For those experiencing substance use, please contact SAMHSA National Helpline at 1-800-662-4357

Experiments are often used to help researchers understand how the human mind works. There have been many famous examples in psychology over the years. Some have shown how phenomena like memory and personality work. Others have been disproven over time. Understanding the study design, data, content, and analytical approach of case studies is important to verifying the validity of each study.

In considering case studies, researchers continuously test and reevaluate the conclusions made by past psychologists to continue offering the most up-to-date and effective care to modern clients. Prospective case studies are continually being developed based on previous findings and multiple case studies done in one area can lend credence to the findings. Learning about the famous psychology case studies can help you understand how research continues to shape what psychologists know about the human experience and mind. 

Examples of the most famous case study in psychology

Hundreds of thousands of case studies have been done in psychology, and narrowing a list of the most ground-breaking studies can be challenging. However, the following seven case studies present findings that have defied expectations, achieved positive outcomes for humanity, and launched further research into existing knowledge gaps within the niche.

Phineas Gage

The case of Phineas Gage is perhaps the  most cited study  in psychology. This famous case study showed how different areas of the brain affect personality and cognitive ability. While working as a construction foreman on a railroad, Phineas Gage was involved in an accident in which a rod was pushed through his cheek and brain. He survived, but because of the accident, both his personality and his ability to learn new skills were affected.

Although the case is frequently cited and referenced in psychology, relatively little information about Gage's life before and after the accident is known. Researchers have discovered that the last two decades of his life were spent in his original job, which may have been unlikely to have been possible if the extent of his injuries were as severe as initially believed. Still, his case was a starting point for psychology research on how memory and personality work in the brain, and it is a seminal study for that reason.

Genie the "feral child"

Although an outdated term, "feral children" referred to children raised without human interaction, often due to abuse or neglect. One famous case study of a neglected child was done with a child known as Genie. She was raised in a single bedroom with little human interaction. She never gained the cognitive ability of an average adult, even though she was found at age 13. Later in life, she regressed and stopped speaking altogether. Her case has been studied extensively by psychologists who want to understand how enculturation affects cognitive development. It's one of many cognitive psychology examples that have had an impact on this field.

Henry Molaison

The case study  of Henry Molaison has helped psychologists understand memory. It is one of the most famous case studies in neuroscience. Henry Molaison was in a childhood accident that left him with debilitating seizures. Doctors could stop the seizures by removing slivers of his brain's hippocampus, though they did not fully understand what they were doing at the time. As a result, scientists learned how important the hippocampus is to forming long-term memories. After the surgery, Molaison could no longer form long-term memories, and his short-term memory was brief. The case study started further research into memory and the brain.

Jill Price had one of a few documented cases of hyperthymesia, a term for an overactive memory that allowed her to remember such mundane things as what she had for dinner on an average day in August 20th years previously. Her  case study  was used as a jumping-off point to research how memory works and why some people have exceptional memories. 

However, through more research, it was discovered that her overall memory was not exceptional. Rather, she only remembered details of her own life. She was diagnosed with obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), with memories being part of her obsession. This case study is still relevant because it has helped modern psychologists understand how mental illness affects memory.

In the John/Joan  case study , a reputable sexologist tested his theory that nurture, not nature, determined gender. The case study has been cited extensively and laid the groundwork for other research into gender identity. However, the case study was not legitimate. In this study, Dr. John Money performed surgery on an infant whose genitals were damaged during circumcision. 

The boy was raised as a girl; however, he never identified as female and eventually underwent gender-affirming surgery as an adult. Because Dr. Money didn't follow up with the patient appropriately and did not report adverse findings, the case study is still often cited as successful.

Anna O. was the pseudonym given to a German woman who was one of the first to undergo psychoanalysis. Her case inspired many of the theories of Freud and other prominent psychologists of the time. It was determined at the time that Anna's symptoms of depression were eliminated through talk therapy. More recently, it has been suggested that Anna O. had another illness, such as epilepsy, from which she may have recovered during the therapy. This  case study is still cited as a reason psychologists believe that psychotherapy, or talk therapy, can be helpful to many patients. 

Victor the "wild boy" of Aveyron

Another study done on a child that had grown up without parents was done with a boy named "Victor" who had been found wandering in the wilderness and was thought to have been living alone for years. The boy could not speak, use the bathroom, or connect with others. However, through the study of his condition, he was able to learn bathroom habits, how to dress, writing, and primary language. Psychologists today speculate that he may have been autistic. 

Ethical concerns for doing a case study

When case studies are flawed through not having enough information or having the wrong information, they can be harmful. Valuable research hours and other resources can be wasted while theories are used for inappropriate treatment. Case studies can therefore cause as much harm as benefit, and psychologists are often careful about how and when they are used.

Those who are not psychologists and are interacting with studies can also practice caution. Psychologists and doctors often disagree on how case studies should be applied. In addition, people without education in psychology may struggle to know whether a case study is built on a faulty premise or misinformation. It can also be possible to generalize case studies to situations they do not apply. If you think a case study might apply to your case or that of a loved one, consider asking a therapist for guidance. 

Case studies are descriptions of real people. The individuals in the studies are studied intensively and often written about in medical journals and textbooks. While some clients may be comfortable being studied for science, others may not have consented due to the inability or lack of consent laws at the time. In addition, some subjects may not have been treated with dignity and respect. 

When considering case study content and findings from psychology, it can be helpful to think of the cases as stories of real individuals. When you strip away the science and look at the case as a whole person in a unique situation, you may get more out of the study than if you look at it as research that proves a theory. 

Therapeutic implications of a case study

Case examples are sometimes used in therapy to determine the best course of treatment. If a typical case study from psychology aligns with your situation, your therapist may use the treatment methods outlined in the study. Psychiatrists and other mental health professionals also use case examples to understand mental illness and its treatment.

Researchers have reviewed the role of case studies in counseling and psychotherapy. In one study, the authors discussed how reading case studies benefits therapists, providing a conceptual guide for clinical work and an understanding of the theory behind the practice. They also stressed the importance of teaching psychotherapy trainees to do better case study research. They encouraged practitioners to publish more case studies documenting the methods they use in their practice.

How a case study is used in counseling

If you want to meet with a psychologist, counseling may benefit you. Therapists often use theories behind popular case studies and can discuss their implications with you. In addition, you may be able to participate in case studies in your area, as psychologists and psychiatrists often perform clinical trials to understand treatments on a deeper level.

Online therapy can also be beneficial if you cannot find a therapist in your area. Through a platform like BetterHelp, you can get matched with a provider meeting your needs and choose between phone, video, or live chat sessions. When experiencing symptoms of a mental health condition, it can sometimes be hard to leave home for therapy. You can use many online therapy platforms from the comfort and safe space of your own home. 

Therapy is a personal experience; not everyone will go into it seeking the same outcomes. Keeping this in mind may ensure you get the most out of online therapy, regardless of your specific goals. If you're interested in learning more about the effectiveness of online therapy, you can look into various clinical studies that have shown it can be as effective, if not more effective, than in-person options. 

BetterHelp therapist reviews

“Amanda provides an excellent balance of warmth, accountability, and reliability. She keeps you on-topic while actively listening and providing guidance as needed. Her credentials and expertise are well applied to our sessions and I am so grateful for her.”

“She’s been amazing, helped me process my feelings and work on the things I needed to heal to grow stronger and be content with my life. She was available every day, I managed to connect with her deeply, she was supportive. I never expected to meet someone who’d have such a big positive effect on my life. I want to continue my journey with her and I trust the lessons I’ve learned from her will continue to be useful for my present and future.”

Therapy Is Personal

For more information about BetterHelp as a company, find us on:

• RAINN  (Rape, Abuse, and Incest National Network) -  1-800-656-4673
• The National Suicide Prevention Lifeline -  1-800-273-8255
• National Domestic Violence Hotline  -  1-800-799-7233
• NAMI Helpline (National Alliance on Mental Illness) -  1-800-950-6264
• SAMHSA (Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration)  SAMHSA Facebook ,  SAMHSA Twitter ,  SAMHSA LinkedIn
• Mental Health America,  MHA Twitter ,  MHA Facebook ,  MHA Instagram ,  MHA Pinterest ,  MHA LinkedIn
• WebMD,  WebMD Facebook ,  WebMD Twitter ,  WebMD Pinterest ,  WebMD LinkedIn
• NIMH (National Institute of Mental Health),  NIMH Facebook ,  NIMH Twitter, NIMH YouTube ,  NIMH LinkedIn
• APA  (American Psychiatric Association),  APA Twitter ,  APA Facebook ,  APA LinkedIn ,  APA Instagram

Get help now:

• Emergency: 911
• National Domestic Violence Hotline: 1-  800-799-7233
• National Suicide Prevention Lifeline: 1-800-273-TALK (8255)
• National Hopeline Network: 1-800-SUICIDE (784-2433)
• Crisis Text Line: Text “DESERVE” TO 741-741
• Lifeline Crisis Chat (Online live messaging): https://suicidepreventionlifeline.org/chat/
• Self-Harm Hotline: 1-800-DONT CUT (366-8288)
• Family Violence Helpline: 1-800-996-6228
• Planned Parenthood Hotline: 1-800-230-PLAN (7526)
• American Association of Poison Control Centers: 1-800-222-1222
• National Council on Alcoholism & Drug Dependency Hope Line: 1-800-622-2255
• National Crisis Line - Anorexia and Bulimia: 1-800-233-4357
• LGBTQ+ Hotline: 1-888-843-4564
• TREVOR Crisis Hotline: 1-866-488-7386
• AIDS Crisis Line: 1-800-221-7044
• Veterans Crisis Line:  https://www.veteranscrisisline.net
• TransLifeline: https://www.translifeline.org -  877-565-8860  APA Youtube
• Suicide Prevention Wiki: http://suicideprevention.wikia.com
• Color Psychology: What Does Your Favorite Color Say About You?
• Meaningful Facts About Love
• The Four Goals Of Therapy: What Are They?
• Can Therapy Answer The Question: Why Do We Dream?
• What Is The "Learned Helplessness" Definition?
• What Is Rationalization Therapy And How Can I Benefit from It?
• The Complete Guide To Positive Therapy And How It Can Help You
• Mary Calkins And Her Career In Therapy - A Case Study
• The Psychology Behind What Causes Deja Vu
• Defining Closure Therapy - A Case Study
• Sense Of Entitlement - A Case Study
• Careers In Therapy - A Case Study
• Edward Thorndike And His Influence - A Case Study
• Is Autonomy Therapy A Thing And How Can I Benefit?
• The Use Of The Rorschach Inkblot Test
• The Case For Aaron Beck Theory And His Contribution
• Amazing Podcasts You Need In Your Library
• The Case For Reliability Therapy
• Understanding Imprinting Therapy
• How Can Career Counseling Help Me?
• The Benefits Of Family Counseling
• How To Know When You Or Your Family Need Counseling Services
• Counseling For Couples - How Does Couples Therapy Work?
• Finding The Best Premarital Counseling 2020: What Is Premarital Counseling And Why You Should Do It?
• Counseling For Couples As Part Of A Healthy Relationship
• Starting Off On The Right Foot: Pre Marriage Counseling
• The Benefits Of Online Mental Health Counseling
• A Guide To Affordable Counseling
• Parent Counseling: Parent-Child Conflict: Win-Win
• Facing Life Squarely With The Help Of Personal Counseling
• Is Phone Counseling/Therapy Appropriate?
• Can Text Counseling Help Someone?
• Couples Therapy: How Much Does Couple Counseling Cost?
• When Counseling For Depression Is Necessary
• Couple Counseling Online Techniques
• Reasons To Use E-Counseling
• Get Telephone Counseling When And Where You Need It
• Most Recommended Premarital Counseling Books
• What Are The Most Common And Effective Couple Counseling Techniques?
• What Is Divorce Counseling And Is It Right For You?
• What Is Affect? Psychology And The Expression Of Emotions Medically reviewed by Julie Dodson , MA
• What Is Developmental Psychology? Definition And Importance Medically reviewed by Laura Angers Maddox , NCC, LPC
• Psychologists
• Relationships and Relations