essay on spanish armada

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Spanish Armada

By: History.com Editors

Updated: September 6, 2019 | Original: May 2, 2018

The Spanish Armada was an enormous 130-ship naval fleet dispatched by Spain in 1588 as part of a planned invasion of England. Following years of hostilities between Spain and England, King Philip II of Spain assembled the flotilla in the hope of removing Protestant Queen Elizabeth I from the throne and restoring the Roman Catholic faith in England. Spain’s “Invincible Armada” set sail that May, but it was outfoxed by the English, then battered by storms while limping back to Spain with at least a third of its ships sunk or damaged. The defeat of the Spanish Armada led to a surge of national pride in England and was one of the most significant chapters of the Anglo-Spanish War.

Philip and Elizabeth

King Philip II ’s decision to attempt an overthrow of Queen Elizabeth I was several years in the making.

Despite their family connections—Philip had once been married to Elizabeth’s half-sister, Mary —the two royals had severe political and religious differences and had engaged in a “cold war” for much of the 1560s and 1570s.

Philip was particularly incensed by the spread of Protestantism in England, and he had long toyed with the idea of conquering the British Isle to bring it back into the Catholic fold.

Tensions between Spain and England flared in the 1580s, after Elizabeth began allowing privateers such as Sir Francis Drake to conduct pirate raids on Spanish fleets carrying treasure from their rich New World colonies.

By 1585, when England signed a treaty of support with Dutch rebels in the Spanish-controlled Netherlands, a state of undeclared war existed between the two powers. That same year, Philip began formulating an “Enterprise of England” to remove Elizabeth from the throne.

What Was the Spanish Armada?

The Spanish Armada was a naval force of about 130 ships, plus some 8,000 seamen and an estimated 18,000 soldiers manning thousands of guns. Roughly 40 of the ships were warships. 

The Spanish plan called for this “Great and Most Fortunate Navy” to sail from Lisbon, Portugal, to Flanders, where it would rendezvous with 30,000 crack troops led by the Duke of Parma, the governor of the Spanish Netherlands.

The fleet would then guard the army as it was ferried across the English Channel to the Kent coast to begin an overland offensive against London.

England Prepares for Invasion

It was impossible for Spain to hide the preparations for a fleet as large as the Armada, and by 1587, Elizabeth’s spies and military advisors knew an invasion was in the works. That April, the Queen authorized Francis Drake to make a preemptive strike against the Spanish.

After sailing from Plymouth with a small fleet, Drake launched a surprise raid on the Spanish port of Cadiz and destroyed several dozen of the Armada’s ships and over 10,000 tons of supplies. The “singeing of the king of Spain’s beard,” as Drake’s attack was known in England, was later credited with delaying the launch of the Armada by several months.

The English used the time bought by the raid on Cadiz to shore up their defenses and prepare for invasion.

Elizabeth’s forces built trenches and earthworks on the most likely invasion beaches, strung a giant metal chain across the Thames estuary and raised an army of militiamen. They also readied an early warning system consisting of dozens of coastal beacons that would light fires to signal the approach of the Spanish fleet.

Led by Drake and Lord Charles Howard, the Royal Navy assembled a fleet of some 40 warships and several dozen armed merchant vessels. Unlike the Spanish Armada, which planned to rely primarily on boarding and close-quarters fighting to win battles at sea, the English flotilla was heavily armed with long-range naval guns.

Spanish Armada Sets Sail

In May 1588, after several years of preparation, the Spanish Armada set sail from Lisbon under the command of the Duke of Medina-Sidonia. When the 130-ship fleet was sighted off the English coast later that July, Howard and Drake raced to confront it with a force of 100 English vessels.

The English fleet and the Spanish Armada met for the first time on July 31, 1588, off the coast of Plymouth. Relying on the skill of their gunners, Howard and Drake kept their distance and tried to bombard the Spanish flotilla with their heavy naval cannons. While they succeeded in damaging some of the Spanish ships, they were unable to penetrate the Armada’s half-moon defensive formation.

Over the next several days, the English continued to harass the Spanish Armada as it charged toward the English Channel. The two sides squared off in a pair of naval duels near the coasts of Portland Bill and the Isle of Wight, but both battles ended in stalemates. 

By August 6, the Armada had successfully dropped anchor at Calais Roads on the coast of France, where Medina-Sidonia hoped to rendezvous with the Duke of Parma’s invasion army.

Fireships Scatter the Armada

Desperate to prevent the Spanish from uniting their forces, Howard and Drake devised a last-ditch plan to scatter the Armada. At midnight on August 8, the English set eight empty vessels ablaze and allowed the wind and tide to carry them toward the Spanish fleet hunkered at Calais Roads.

The sudden arrival of the fireships caused a wave of panic to descend over the Armada. Several vessels cut their anchors to avoid catching fire, and the entire fleet was forced to flee to the open sea.

Battle of Gravelines

With the Armada out of formation, the English initiated a naval offensive at dawn on August 8. In what became known as the Battle of Gravelines, the Royal Navy inched perilously close to the Spanish fleet and unleashed repeated salvos of cannon fire.

Several of the Armada’s ships were damaged and at least four were destroyed during the nine-hour engagement, but despite having the upper hand, Howard and Drake were forced to prematurely call off the attack due to dwindling supplies of shot and powder.

Speech to the Troops at Tilbury

With the Spanish Armada threatening invasion at any moment, English troops gathered near the coast at Tilbury in Essex to ward off a land attack. 

Queen Elizabeth herself was in attendance and - dressed in military regalia and a white velvet gown - she gave a rousing speech to her troops, one that is often cited as among the most inspiring speeches ever written and delivered by a sovereign leader:

"I know I have the body of a weak, feeble woman; but I have the heart and stomach of a king, and of a king of England too, and think foul scorn that Parma or Spain, or any prince of Europe, should dare to invade the borders of my realm; to which rather than any dishonour shall grow by me, I myself will take up arms, I myself will be your general, judge and rewarder of every one of your virtues in the field."

Bad Weather Besets the Armada

Shortly after the Battle of Gravelines, a strong wind carried the Armada into the North Sea, dashing the Spaniards’ hopes of linking up with the Duke of Parma’s army. With supplies running low and disease beginning to spread through his fleet, the Duke of Medina-Sidonia resolved to abandon the invasion mission and return to Spain by rounding Scotland and Ireland.

The Spanish Armada had lost over 2,000 men during its naval engagements with the English, but its journey home proved to be far more deadly. The once-mighty flotilla was ravaged by sea storms as it rounded Scotland and the western coast of Ireland. Several ships sank in the squalls, while others ran aground or broke apart after being thrown against the shore.

Defeat of the Spanish Armada

By the time the “Great and Most Fortunate Navy” finally reached Spain in the autumn of 1588, it had lost as many as 60 of its 130 ships and suffered some 15,000 deaths.

The vast majority of the Spanish Armada’s losses were caused by disease and foul weather, but its defeat was nevertheless a triumphant military victory for England.

By fending off the Spanish fleet, the island nation saved itself from invasion and won recognition as one of Europe’s most fearsome sea powers. The clash also established the superiority of heavy cannons in naval combat, signaling the dawn of a new era in warfare at sea.

While the Spanish Armada is now remembered as one of history’s great military blunders, it didn’t mark the end of the conflict between England and Spain. In 1589, Queen Elizabeth launched a failed “English Armada” against Spain.

King Philip II, meanwhile, later rebuilt his fleet and dispatched two more Spanish Armadas in the 1590s, both of which were scattered by storms. It wasn’t until 1604—over 16 years after the original Spanish Armada set sail—that a peace treaty was finally signed ending the Anglo-Spanish War as a stalemate.

The Spanish Armada. By Robert Hutchinson . The Spanish Armada. BBC . Sir Francis Drake. By John Sugden . The Spanish Armada: England’s Lucky Escape. History Extra . Elizabeth's Tilbury speech: July 1588. British Library .

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The history of the Spanish Armada

Learn more about the defining moment of Elizabeth I's reign

The Spanish Armada was the defining moment of Elizabeth I's reign. Spain's defeat secured Protestant rule in England, and launched Elizabeth onto the global stage. 

History of the Spanish Armada

The Spanish Armada was one part of a planned invasion of England by King Philip II of Spain.

Launched in 1588, ‘la felicissima armada’, or ‘the most fortunate fleet’, was made up of roughly 150 ships and 18,000 men. At the time, it was the largest fleet ever seen in Europe and Philip II of Spain considered it invincible. 

What happened?

Why did the Spanish Armada happen?

Years of religious and political differences led up to the conflict between Catholic Spain and Protestant England.

The Spanish saw England as a competitor in trade and expansion in the ‘New World’ of the Americas.

Spain's empire was coveted by the English, leading to numerous skirmishes between English pirates and privateers and Spanish vessels. English sailors deliberately targeted Spanish shipping around Europe and the Atlantic. This included Sir Francis Drake's burning of over 20 Spanish ships in the port of Cadiz in April 1587.

Meanwhile, Walter Raleigh had twice tried - unsuccessfully - to establish an English colony in North America.

Plans for invasion accelerated however in 1587.

The turning point came following the execution of Mary Queen of Scots – Spain’s Catholic ally. The killing of Mary Queen of Scots, ordered by Elizabeth, was the final straw for Philip II in the religious tensions between the two countries.

Royal history in Greenwich

How did the campaign begin?

In 1588, Philip II intended to sail with his navy and army, a total of around 30,000 men, up the English Channel to link up with the forces led by the Duke of Parma in the Spanish Netherlands. From there they would invade England, bring the country under Catholic rule, and secure Spain's position as the superpower of Western Europe.

Beacons were lit as soon as the Armada was sighted off the English coast, informing London and Elizabeth of the imminent invasion.

According to legend, Francis Drake was first told of the sighting of the Armada while playing bowls on Plymouth Hoe. He is said to have answered that ‘there is plenty of time to finish the game and beat the Spaniards’ - but there is no reliable evidence for this.

The English ships were longer, lower and faster than their Spanish rivals. The decks fore and aft had been lowered to give greater stability, and this meant more guns could be carried to fire lethal broadsides. The ships were also more manoueverable than the heavy Spanish vessels.

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What happened when the armada attacked.

The commander of the Armada was the Duke of Medina Sidonia. The Duke had set out on the enterprise with some reluctance, as he was wary of the abilities of the English ships. However, he hoped he would be able to join with the forces of the Duke of Parma in the Netherlands, and find safe, deep anchorage for his fleet before the invasion of England. To his dismay this did not happen.

The Spaniards maintained a strict crescent formation up the Channel, which the English realised would be very difficult to break.

Despite this, two great Spanish ships were accidentally put out of action during the initial battles. The Rosario collided with another ship, was disabled and captured by Drake, while the San Salvador blew up with tremendous loss of life.

The two fleets skirted round each other up the Channel with neither gaining advantage.

How did English fireships help break the Spanish Armada?

On 27 July 1588, after the Armada had anchored off Calais, the English decided to send in eight 'fireships'.

These were vessels packed with flammable material, deliberately set alight and left to drift towards enemy ships.

At midnight, the fireships approached the Spanish Armada. The Spanish cut their anchor cables ready for flight, but in the darkness many ships collided with each other. While none of the Spanish ships were set on fire, the Armada was left scattered and disorganised.

Next morning, there was the fiercest fighting of the whole Armada campaign during the Battle of Gravelines. By evening, the wind was strong and the Spanish expected a further attack at dawn, but as both sides were out of ammunition none came.

That afternoon the wind changed and the Spanish ships were blown off the sandbanks towards the North Sea. With no support from the Duke of Parma and their anchorage lost, Medina Sidonia's main aim was to bring the remains of the Armada back to Spain.

Why did the Spanish Armada fail?

Many ships were wrecked off the rocky coasts of Scotland and Ireland. Of the 150 ships that set out, only 65 returned to Lisbon. The following year, Philip sent another smaller fleet of about 100 ships. This too ran into stormy weather off Cornwall and was blown back to Spain.

It was not until the reign of James I (ruler of Scotland and England 1603–1625) that peace was finally made between the two countries.

Spanish Armada timeline: 1588 

12 July : The Spanish Armada sets sail

18 July : The English fleet leaves Plymouth but the south-west wind prevents them from reaching Spain

19 July : The Spanish Armada is sighted off the Lizard in Cornwall, where they stop to get supplies

21 July : The outnumbered English navy begins bombarding the seven-mile-long line of Spanish ships from a safe distance, using the advantage of their superior long-range guns

22 July : The English fleet is forced back to port due to the wind

22 - 23 July : The Armada is pursued up the Channel by Lord Howard of Effingham’s fleet. Howard was the commander of the English forces, with Francis Drake second in command. The Spaniards reach Portland Bill, where they gain the weather advantage, meaning they are able to turn and attack the pursuing English ships

27 July : The Armada anchors off Calais to wait for their troops to arrive. The English send in fireships that night

28 July : The English attack the Spanish fleet near Gravelines

29 July : The Armada is re-joined by the rest of the missing ships

30 July : The Armada is put into battle order

31 July : The Spanish fleet tries to turn around to join up with the Spanish land forces again. However, the prevailing south-west winds prevent them from doing so

1 August : The Armada finds itself off Berry Head with the English fleet far behind. Howard is forced to wait for his ships to re-join him

2 August : The Armada is located to the north of the English, near Portland Bill. Both fleets turn east

6 August : Both fleets are once again close but avoid any conflict

9 August : After the main danger is over, Elizabeth travels to speak to the English troops at Tilbury

12 August : The fleets come close again, with the Armada in good shape. However, still no fighting takes place, and the Spanish ships are ordered to sail north. Stormy weather plagues them for the rest of the voyage

1 September : the ship Barca de Amburgo sinks in a storm near Fair Isle, Scotland

3 September : the Duke Of Medina Sidonia, commander of the Armada, sends a message Philip II that there have been four nights of storms, and 17 ships have disappeared

12 September : The ship  Trinidad Valencera is caught in a bad storm, and is eventually forced to land near Kinnagoe Bay in Ireland

October : The remaining Armada ships manage to return home.  safety in the north and many lives were spared.

Main image: English ships and the Spanish Armada, August 1588 (BHC0262, © NMM)

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• Early Modern

Why Did the Spanish Armada Fail?

Tristan Hughes

28 jul 2018, @ancientstristan.

In 1586, Philip II of Spain had had enough of England and its queen,  Elizabeth I . Not only had English privateers been raiding Spanish possessions in the New World, but Elizabeth had also been sending troops to aid Dutch rebels in the Spanish-controlled Netherlands. Philip could no longer tolerate English meddling in Spanish interests and he began making preparations to do something about it.

Two years later, Philip ordered a huge fleet – some 130 ships carrying 24,000 men – to set sail for the English Channel and support a Spanish land invasion of England from Flanders.

The ensuing English victory against this Spanish Armada became a pivotal moment in the rise of Protestant England as a global power. It is also widely regarded as one of England’s greatest naval victories. But why exactly did the Spanish Armada fail?

A lack of secrecy

As far back as 1583, news that Philip was planning to build a great fleet was common knowledge throughout Europe. Various rumours surrounded the intended destination of this new navy – Portugal, Ireland and the West Indies were all touted.

But Elizabeth and her chief adviser, Francis Walsingham, soon learnt from their spies in Spain that this armada (the Spanish and Portuguese word for “naval fleet”) was intended for an invasion of England.

And so, in 1587, Elizabeth ordered Sir Francis Drake, one of her most experienced sea captains, to lead a daring raid on the Spanish port at Cadiz. The April raid proved extremely successful, severely damaging preparations for the Armada – so much so that it forced Philip to postpone the invasion campaign.

Sir Francis Drake. In 1587, Drake had recently returned from a great pillaging expedition against Spanish colonies in the New World.

This gave the English precious time to prepare for the impending attack. Drake’s daring actions at Cadiz became known as  “singeing the beard of the King of Spain” because of how successfully it hindered Philip’s preparations.

For Philip, his inability to keep the planned invasion campaign a secret cost him dearly both in time and in money.

Santa Cruz’s death

Thanks to Drake’s raid at Cadiz, the Armada’s launch was delayed until 1588. And this delay led to further catastrophe for the Spanish preparations; before the Armada had set sail, one of Philip’s most capable naval commanders died.

The 1st Marquis of Santa Cruz.

The Marquis of Santa Cruz had been the designated leader of the Armada. He had also been a leading advocate of attacking England for years – although by 1588 he had grown increasingly sceptical of Philip’s plan. His death in February 1588, just prior to the invasion campaign being launched, added further turmoil to the planning.

Santa Cruz was replaced by the Duke of Medina Sidonia, a nobleman who lacked the naval experience of his predecessor.

Philip’s impatience

Following multiple postponements of the invasion, Philip grew increasingly impatient. In May 1588 , he ordered Medina Sidonia to launch the fleet, despite preparations still not being complete.

Many galleons therefore lacked necessary provisions such as experienced gunners and high-quality cannon shot. Although a magnificent sight to behold, the Armada had severe faults in its weaponry when it set sail.

These faults soon revealed themselves in the Battle of Gravelines where the Spanish cannons proved ineffective because of the inexperience of the crews using them.

England’s superior ships

Unlike the Spanish galleons, the smaller, more versatile English ships were well-provisioned to fight. By 1588 the English navy consisted of many swift-moving ships filled with cannon and gunner specialists that were deadly against enemy vessels.

Their speed and mobility also proved highly important. It allowed them to sail close to the more cumbersome Spanish vessels, fire deadly cannon volleys point-blank and then sail away before the Spanish could board them.

A lack of ingenuity

Medina Sidonia had a golden opportunity to defeat the English navy very early on in the invasion campaign. As the Armada sailed along the Cornwall coast, the English navy was re-supplying in Plymouth harbour, leaving them trapped and extremely vulnerable to attack.

Many Spanish officers advised launching an attack on the English vessels, but Medina Sidonia was under strict orders from Philip to avoid engaging the English fleet unless absolutely necessary. Desiring to follow Philip’s orders to the letter, the duke avoided engaging the fleet. Many historians argue that this was a critical mistake.

The weather

The English were able to both outsail and outgun the Spanish at the Battle of Gravelines.

Following the Battle of Gravelines – during which the English ships used their better cannon and agility to both outsail and outgun their Spanish counterparts – a strong south-westerly wind forced the Spanish fleet to head into the North Sea. Although massive, the Spanish galleons lacked flexibility and could only sail with the wind at their back.

This proved to be their ultimate undoing as the wind drove what remained of Medina Sidonia’s fleet away from the Spanish army at Flanders. Unable to turn around because of the wind and the English pursuit, Medina Sidonia continued north and the invasion plan was abandoned.

The English later dubbed this south-westerly wind the “Protestant wind” – sent by God to save their country.

The weather continued to work against the Armada. After the English fleet gave up its pursuit off the east coast of Scotland, it looked as though the majority of the Spanish ships would be able to make it home safely. But after rounding the top of Scotland, the Armada ran into severe storms and nearly a third of its ships were driven ashore on the coasts of Scotland and Ireland.

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The History of Advent

How Elizabethan England repelled the 'invincible' Spanish Armada

In the turbulent waters of the late 16th century, a colossal fleet set sail from Spain, its sails billowing with the winds of ambition and its decks brimming with the fervor of conquest.

The Spanish Armada, a formidable assembly of 130 ships commanded by the Duke of Medina Sidonia, embarked on a mission to invade England and overthrow the Protestant Queen Elizabeth I.

The Armada’s journey would be marked by daring naval skirmishes, strategic maneuvering, and the unpredictable wrath of the elements.

But what were the driving forces behind this audacious expedition?

How did the English, underdogs in naval warfare, manage to thwart the seemingly invincible Armada?

And, in the wake of cannon smoke and tempestuous seas, what was the lasting impact of the Spanish Armada on Europe’s delicate balance of power?

Why did Spain want to invade England in 1588?

The animosity between Catholic Spain and Protestant England had been escalating, particularly under the reigns of Queen Elizabeth I of England and King Philip II of Spain.

Elizabeth ascended to the throne in 1558, and her Protestant policies, including the support of the Dutch Revolt against Spanish rule, fueled the discord between the two nations.

King Philip II, a staunch Catholic, viewed Elizabeth as a heretic and an illegitimate ruler, as she was the daughter of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn , whose marriage was never recognized by the Catholic Church.

The execution of Mary, Queen of Scots, in 1587, a Catholic claimant to the English throne, further inflamed tensions.

Philip II saw this as an opportunity to champion the Catholic cause, depose Elizabeth, and restore Catholicism in England.

The geopolitical landscape was also marked by economic and colonial rivalries, with both nations vying for dominance in trade and overseas territories.

The English privateering expeditions, led by the likes of Sir Francis Drake, targeted Spanish treasure fleets, exacerbating the hostilities.

Assembling the mighty Spanish Armada

The fleet comprised around 130 ships, a mix of warships, transports, and supply vessels, assembled to execute King Philip II’s ambitious plan to invade England.

The Armada was not only vast but also heavily armed, equipped with over 2,400 guns and cannons, designed to deliver a formidable artillery barrage against enemy ships and fortifications.

The Armada’s ships were laden with supplies, ammunition, and provisions, prepared for a prolonged naval campaign.

The vessels varied in size and design, ranging from the larger and more heavily armed galleons to the smaller and more agile pinnaces and zabras.

Each ship was meticulously prepared, with attention to armaments, navigational equipment, and the capacity to carry troops and horses.

The manpower aboard the Armada was equally impressive, with approximately 8,000 seamen and around 18,000 soldiers, a diverse force consisting of seasoned veterans, arquebusiers, pikemen, and swordsmen.

The soldiers were intended to serve as the invasion force once the Armada reached English shores, tasked with engaging English defenses and establishing a foothold for further Spanish operations.

Commanding this colossal fleet was the Duke of Medina Sidonia, Alonso Pérez de Guzmán, a nobleman with limited naval experience but a reputation for loyalty and leadership.

Under his command were experienced admirals and captains, including Juan Martínez de Recalde and Diego Flores de Valdés, responsible for coordinating naval maneuvers and overseeing the combat readiness of the fleet.

Philip's plan of attack

At the heart of the mission was King Philip II’s ambition to overthrow Queen Elizabeth I and restore Catholicism in England.

The Armada was to serve as the spearhead of this endeavor, aiming to secure control of the English Channel, thereby enabling the safe passage of additional troops from the Spanish Netherlands to England for the invasion.

The initial plan called for the Armada to sail northwards to the English Channel and rendezvous with the Duke of Parma’s army stationed in the Spanish Netherlands.

The combined Spanish forces would then launch a coordinated amphibious assault on England’s southern coast.

The Armada’s role was crucial in this strategy, as it was tasked with providing naval support, protecting the troop transports, and engaging the English navy to establish control over the channel.

The Spanish strategy also involved leveraging the Catholic sympathies within England and inciting rebellion against Elizabeth’s Protestant rule.

The Armada carried priests and religious materials, intending to rekindle the Catholic faith among the English populace and garner support for the Spanish cause.

How England rushed to prepare for the invasion

Under the leadership of Queen Elizabeth I, England mobilized its resources to counter the formidable Spanish fleet.

The English navy, although outnumbered, was well-prepared and technologically advanced, featuring ships that were faster, more maneuverable, and equipped with longer-range cannons than their Spanish counterparts.

Lord Howard of Effingham, the Lord Admiral of England, led the English fleet, with experienced seafarers such as Sir Francis Drake and Sir John Hawkins serving as his vice-admirals.

The English commanders adopted a strategy of harassment and attrition, avoiding close combat with the Spanish, while utilizing their superior firepower and maneuverability to inflict damage on the Armada.

On land, England prepared for the possibility of a Spanish invasion. Militias were raised, fortifications were strengthened, and supplies were stockpiled.

Queen Elizabeth I’s famous speech at Tilbury galvanized the English troops and bolstered the morale of the nation, as she declared, “I know I have the body of a weak, feeble woman; but I have the heart and stomach of a king, and of a king of England too.”

This rallying cry exemplified the determination and unity of the English people in the face of adversity.

The key moments of the Spanish Armada's journey

The confrontation between the Spanish Armada and the English navy was characterized by a series of battles and engagements that unfolded in the turbulent waters of the English Channel in the summer of 1588.

The first encounter occurred on July 20, near the Eddystone Rocks off Plymouth, where the English, led by Sir Francis Drake, launched an attack on the Spanish fleet, testing the Armada’s strength and resolve.

The skirmish set the tone for the subsequent engagements, showcasing the English strategy of maintaining a safe distance and utilizing their superior artillery.

The English utilizing fire ships and exploited their ships’ superior maneuverability. The Spanish, who maintained a tight crescent formation, focusing on protecting the transports and preserving the fleet’s integrity.

When the English set some ships alight and sen t into the anchored Spanish fleet at Calais, it caused disarray among the Spanish ships and disrupted their formation, providing the English with a tactical advantage.

One of the most significant engagements was the Battle of Gravelines, which took place on July 29, 1588.

The English navy, seizing the opportunity created by the disarray among the Spanish ships following the fire ship attack at Calais, launched a decisive assault.

The English ships, exploiting their maneuverability and the longer range of their cannons, inflicted considerable damage on the Spanish fleet.

The Spanish ships, constrained by their crescent formation and the limitations of their artillery, struggled to respond effectively.

The battle raged for hours, with the English firing thousands of rounds and the Spanish suffering significant losses in ships and men.

The aftermath of the Battle of Gravelines left the Spanish Armada vulnerable and scattered, with many ships damaged and the fleet’s formation disrupted.

The English navy continued to pursue the Armada as it retreated northwards, harrying the Spanish ships and preventing them from regrouping.

The adverse weather conditions, particularly the strong winds and rough seas, further compounded the challenges faced by the Armada, forcing many ships off course and leading to shipwrecks along the coasts of Scotland and Ireland.

Spain's humiliation

Battered by the relentless English attacks and beleaguered by adverse weather conditions, the once-mighty Armada found itself scattered and severely damaged.

The decision to abandon the invasion and return to Spain was fraught with challenges, as the fleet faced the perilous journey around the coasts of Scotland and Ireland, with many ships succumbing to storms and treacherous waters.

The loss of life and material was staggering. Of the initial fleet of around 130 ships, fewer than half returned to Spanish ports, many in a state of disrepair.

The human cost was equally devastating, with thousands of sailors and soldiers perishing due to battle, shipwreck, disease, and exposure.

The survivors who made it back to Spain brought with them tales of hardship and defeat, marking a somber end to a campaign that had begun with such ambition and fervor.

For Spain, the aftermath of the Armada’s defeat was a period of reflection and recalibration.

The failure of the expedition tarnished the reputation of King Philip II and signaled a decline in Spanish naval dominance.

The financial burden of the campaign strained the Spanish treasury, impacting the country’s ability to project power and influence in the years to come.

The defeat also had diplomatic repercussions, altering the dynamics of Spanish relations with other European powers and contributing to the shifting balance of power on the continent.

How the English reacted to the victory

Conversely, England emerged from the conflict with enhanced prestige and confidence.

The victory against the Armada was not just a military triumph, but also a symbolic one.

It reinforced the legitimacy of Elizabethan rule and Protestantism in the face of Catholic opposition, fostering a sense of national identity and unity.

The successful defense of the realm bolstered England’s naval reputation, paving the way for increased exploration, trade, and colonization.

The subsequent establishment of the East India Company in 1600 and the colonization of Virginia in 1607 were indicative of England’s expanding global ambitions and influence.

The defeat of the Armada also had broader ramifications for the religious divide in Europe.

It was interpreted by many as a divine intervention, a sign of God’s favor towards Protestantism over Catholicism.

This perception strengthened the Protestant Reformation and influenced the religious conflicts and alliances that would characterize European politics for decades to come.

The Thirty Years' War (1618–1648), a protracted and devastating conflict fueled by religious tensions, can be seen as a manifestation of the enduring impact of the Armada’s defeat on the continent’s religious and political landscape.

Furthermore, the shift in naval power dynamics contributed to the evolution of naval warfare and maritime technology.

The lessons learned from the engagements in the English Channel influenced ship design, artillery, and naval tactics, shaping the development of navies and maritime trade in the subsequent centuries.

What were the real reasons for the Armada's defeat?

The Spanish Armada’s historical narrative has been the subject of extensive historiographical debates, with historians offering varying interpretations and perspectives on the events, motivations, and outcomes of the 1588 campaign.

One central debate revolves around the reasons for the Armada’s defeat. While some historians attribute the Spanish failure primarily to logistical issues, poor planning, and the limitations of Spanish naval technology and tactics, others emphasize the role of environmental factors, particularly the adverse weather conditions, coining the term “Protestant Wind” to describe the favorable winds for the English.

The role of leadership on both sides has also been scrutinized. The appointment of the Duke of Medina Sidonia, a nobleman with limited naval experience, as the commander of the Armada, has been questioned, with some historians arguing that his leadership deficiencies contributed to the Spanish defeat.

Conversely, the effectiveness of English commanders, such as Sir Francis Drake and Lord Howard of Effingham, and their innovative tactics have been highlighted as pivotal to England’s success.

Another area of historiographical debate concerns the long-term consequences of the Armada’s defeat.

The extent to which the event marked the decline of Spanish power and the rise of English naval dominance is contested.

Some historians argue that while the defeat was a setback for Spain, it did not immediately alter the balance of power, as Spain remained a formidable European power for decades.

Others contend that the victory had a profound impact on England’s national identity, maritime capabilities, and imperial ambitions, laying the groundwork for its future global influence.

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Armada, The Spanish Enterprise and England's Deliverance in 1588

By Colin Martin and Geoffrey Parker

ISBN: 9780300259865 Published: 6th Dec 2022 Imprint: Yale University Press Dimensions: 768 pages - 234 x 152 mm Illustrations: 150 illus.

Purchasing Information

The definitive history of the Spanish Armada, lavishly illustrated and fully revised. In July 1588 the Spanish Armada sailed from Corunna to conquer England. Three weeks later an English fireship attack in the Channel—and then a fierce naval battle—foiled the planned invasion. Many myths still surround these events. The genius of Sir Francis Drake is exalted, while Spain’s efforts are belittled. But what really happened during that fateful encounter?   Drawing on archives from around the world, Colin Martin and Geoffrey Parker also deploy vital new evidence from Armada shipwrecks off the coasts of Ireland and Scotland. Their gripping, beautifully illustrated account provides a fresh understanding of how the rival fleets came into being; how they looked, sounded, and smelled; and what happened when they finally clashed.   Looking beyond the events of 1588 to the complex politics which made war between England and Spain inevitable, and at the political and dynastic aftermath, Armada deconstructs the many legends to reveal why, ultimately, the bold Spanish mission failed.

“Martin and Parker have been working together on the Armada since its quatercentenary in 1988. This is their most comprehensive work, the profit of decades of tricky deep-sea archaeology and archive-trawling. It is this archaeological focus that makes their writing stand out among many competent histories. The remains of musical instruments and medical tools tell a human tale, balancing out detailed analysis of the innovations that provided the English with a military edge.”—Daniel Brooks,  The Sunday Telegraph

“This work of scholarship, percipient judgement and lively style, illustrated beautifully and in astounding forensic and archaeological detail, is a pearl of great price.”—Allan Mallinson,  Country Life "Those who claim you cannot improve on perfection need to explain this book. Parker and Martin’s original account of the Armada campaign was the work from which all subsequent scholars took their lead, this one, with 30 years worth of extra research and thought, sets a new benchmark. Magisterial."—Dan Snow, author of  On This Day in History

"An elegant marriage between archival research and marine archaeology yields new light on the Armada and its benighted crews in a compelling account of the 1588 campaign. After reading this absorbing book, who can now still believe that history is static, carved in stone?"—Robert Hutchinson, author of  The Spanish Armada

"A gripping, scholarly and masterful appraisal of the events of 1588. Piecing together a wealth of original sources, from letters and papers in the archives of England, Spain and the USA to evidence from the shipwrecks, Parker and Martin have constructed a narrative that is as vivid as it is dramatic. This brilliant book will rapidly take its place as the definitive work on the Armada."—Tracy Borman, author of  The Private Lives of the Tudors

"This is a magisterial study of some 50 years in the making. Bringing together for the first time the latest insights from archaeological research with important new manuscript discoveries, Martin and Parker have written  the  authoritative book on the Spanish Armada of 1588, which is as comprehensive as it is compelling."—Professor James Daybell, University of Plymouth

"Martin and Parker’s  Armada  is the best explanation of the defeat of the attempted Spanish Invasion of England in 1588.   Skilfully combining archaeological and historical research, these great scholars provide here the authoritative edition of their lifetimes’ work on the subject."—Dr Hiram Morgan, University College Cork  

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Essays on Spanish Armada

Background and factors contributed to the defeat of spanish armada in the 16th century, the english defeat of the spanish armada in the anglo-spanish war, made-to-order essay as fast as you need it.

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The Defeat of Spanish Armada and The Factors and Events that Lead to It

Historical context and background of spanish armada defeat, queen elizabeth's speech to the troops at tilbury: a rhetorical analysis, let us write you an essay from scratch.

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Anglo-Dutch victory

July–August 1588

English Channel and the British Isles

The Spanish Armada was a naval force of about 130 ships, that sailed from Lisbon in late May 1588, with the purpose of escorting an army from Flanders to invade England and to overthrow Queen Elizabeth I and her establishment of Protestantism in England.

In May 1588, the Spanish Armada set sail from Lisbon under the command of the Duke of Medina-Sidonia. The English fleet and the Spanish Armada met on July 31, 1588. By August 6, the Armada had successfully dropped anchor at Calais Roads on the coast of France. With the Armada out of formation, the English initiated a naval offensive at dawn on August 8, that became known as the Battle of Gravelines. After the Battle of Gravelines, a strong wind carried the Armada into the North Sea, and its journey home became far more deadly than the battle.

The Spanish Armada didn’t mark the end of the conflict between England and Spain, and Queen Elizabeth launched a failed “English Armada” against Spain, in 1589. The defeat of the Armada saved England from invasion and the Dutch Republic from extinction.

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Essays on Spanish Armada

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Imagination is endless, essay: the spanish armada.

9th Grade Global History Year 1

This essay was written for our 9th grade history department’s project. It was to create a diorama, a three dimensional model, on a topic that was either given to us or we chose. I partnered up with one of my classmates and we both chose the topic The Spanish Armada. My classmate created the diorama and I wrote the essay. I am proud to say our project recieved a 94.

The Spanish Armada, a fleet of 130 ships, sailed from Spain in July 1588 towards England for an invasion. Spain was in control of the Spanish Netherlands, modern day Holland and Belgium. The citizens of Holland wanted their independence from the Spanish. They have grown tired of being forced to convert to Catholicism. Soon many of Holland’s residents became secret Protestants. They rebelled against the Roman Catholic Church in secrecy. At this time Queen Elizabeth I from England had been helping the Protestants. Word of her actions reached the ears of the King of Spain Philip II. His anger flared and he ordered for the Spanish Armada to go to the Spanish Netherlands and collect the Spanish soldiers stationed there for an invasion on England and the Queen’s crown.

The Armada was a failure for the Spanish but its failure was a celebration for the English. Upon hearing of the Spanish Armada’s intentions of invasion, Queen Elizabeth I confronted her army and urged them to fight for their land. She convinced her army that they are not the ones who should fear the Spanish. It is the Spanish who should fear them: “Let tyrants fear; I have always so behaved myself that, under God, I have placed my chiefest strength and safeguard in the loyal hearts and good will of my subjects.” ( Queen Elizabeth I – 1588 )

Though not many people knew of the Spanish Armada, we believe it is an important event in history that should be taught and understood. The Spanish went through great lengths to attempt to seize England and the Queen’s crown. Though they were on the receiving end of the threat, Queen Elizabeth I didn’t appeared shaken. Instead she encouraged her troops to fight back and make them fear England instead. In the presences of the mass amount of ships the English troops fought back using tactics such as “Hell Burners”, ships packed with flammable materials that were alit and sent towards the Armada. Though the English hadn’t destroyed much of the Armada they had stopped a large amount of humongous ships from invading their country using much smaller ships that were hazardous towards the harsh weather they were fighting in.

We have recreated a three dimensional replica of the Spanish Armada to show its significance in history. The ships were made out of cardboard and covered with construction paper in an attempt to recreate its color. The ships are placed upon another cardboard that was colored blue with markers representing the waters. Afterwards we had used blue construction paper to make waves and attach it to the makeshift water for a better effect. The first ship took six hours to make. The second ship we made went smoother and only took four hours. The third ship was our last replica. It took four hours and went just as smooth as the second ship went. If we had to recreate this project in the future we might choose to replace the cardboard with foam instead. It is easier to cut and safer to handle. We felt nostalgic after we finished making the ships. It gave us a sense of completion and a job well done.

After placing the pieces together, we took a good look and felt we have recreated a scene that shows the importance and captured the main features of the Spanish Armada.

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13 comments on “ essay: the spanish armada ”.

Great essay, but you missed out the crescent formation that they sailed in. Also, most people know about the Spanish Armada, but then are you in England? Congrats, you deserved the 94 (out of 100 was it?)

Thank you. Actually, I’m American. Most of classmates didn’t and still don’t know about the Spanish Armada… > . >

wow that’s very detailed 🙂

thank you 🙂

I used some for my essay :[

It is a-ok! ;D

Wat emmah sed….:/

I’m sorry but what?

could be better

I agree. This project had me limited by the amount of pages I could write.

I think it was great!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

Thanks for bringing up this topic. I was searching for up to date information on this subject for a couple of days, I found just this page https://rougesquad.org/ . Now I’m satisfied because I have finally reached your article. I like how you present and argue all the facts as well as your general writing style. Sometimes, there is too little time to read long pieces, but yours is short and succinct, I spent just a few minutes to read the entire article. It is essential, since nobody has enough time to read.

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Home Essay Samples History

Essay Samples on Spanish Armada

The attempt of spain to secure power in aztec civilization.

The Siege of Tenochtitlan was one of Spain’s plots to secure power and property in the new world. It took place in 1521 under command of Spanish conquistador Hernan Cortes, who gained alliances with many local tribes, and involved storming the capital city belonging to...

• Civilization
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Queen'S Speech'S Role In The Armada Conflict'S Outcome

This is a political text; concretely is a speech from a Queen to her troops before a fighting. It refers to a defined historical moment: the defense of the British coasts against the invasion planned by Philip II, King of Spain, in the sixteenth century....

• World History

The Impacts of the Queen Elizabeth's Famous Speech Against the Spanish Armada

The text is a famous speech delivered by Queen Elizabeth I to the British troops before the big battle against the Spanish Armada, on 1588. The relationship between Spain and England was not good. Queen Elizabeth was Protestant, whereas Phillip was Catholic, so it was...

• Elizabethan Times

Elizabeth’s Sea Dogs and Their Effects on Spanish Armada

In the book of The Influence of Sea Power upon History, Alfred Thayer Mahan emphasizes sea power not only military but also politic (Mahan, 1890). The most important factor of trade is sea and if a country’s international economy is strong, it will be got...

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Best topics on Spanish Armada

1. The Attempt of Spain to Secure Power in Aztec Civilization

2. Queen’S Speech’S Role In The Armada Conflict’S Outcome

3. The Impacts of the Queen Elizabeth’s Famous Speech Against the Spanish Armada

4. Elizabeth’s Sea Dogs and Their Effects on Spanish Armada

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Celebran el 75º aniversario de la fundación de la Armada del EPL de China en Qingdao

QINGDAO, 20 abril, 2024 (Xinhua) -- Una banda militar se presenta en el Museo de la Armada del Ejército Popular de Liberación (EPL) de China para celebrar el 75º aniversario de la fundación de la Armada del EPL de China, en Qingdao, en la provincia de Shandong, en el este de China, el 20 de abril de 2024. (Xinhua/Li Ziheng)

QINGDAO, 20 abril, 2024 (Xinhua) -- Una banda militar se presenta en el Museo de la Armada del Ejército Popular de Liberación (EPL) de China para celebrar el 75º aniversario de la fundación de la Armada del EPL de China, en Qingdao, en la provincia de Shandong, en el este de China, el 20 de abril de 2024. (Xinhua/Li Ziheng) 

 QINGDAO, 20 abril, 2024 (Xinhua) -- Una banda militar se presenta en el Museo de la Armada del Ejército Popular de Liberación (EPL) de China para celebrar el 75º aniversario de la fundación de la Armada del EPL de China, en Qingdao, en la provincia de Shandong, en el este de China, el 20 de abril de 2024. (Xinhua/Li Ziheng) 

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Guest Essay

Some Words Feel Truer in Spanish

By Natalia Sylvester

Ms. Sylvester is the author of the forthcoming children’s book “A Maleta Full of Treasures” (“La Maleta de Tesoros”).

My earliest relationship with language was defined by rules. As an immigrant who came to this country from Peru at age 4, I spent half of my days in kindergarten occupied with learning the rules of the English language. There was the tricky inconsistency of pronunciation to navigate and, once I learned to speak it, the challenge of translating what I’d learned into reading skills.

At home, my mom would often create games to help my sister and me preserve our Spanish and improve our grammar. Driving around our neighborhood in Miami, she’d point at a traffic light, hold up four fingers and say, “Se-ma-fo-ro — on which syllable do you put the accent?”

Each language had its defined space: English in school, Spanish at home. But as my parents became more fluent (and my sister and I more dominant) in English, the boundaries became blurred. Being bilingual empowered us to break barriers beyond the rules and definitions attached to words. Some things were simply untranslatable, because they spoke to this new space we were living in — within, between and around language. We were making a new home here, same as so many immigrants who end up shaping language as much as it shapes us.

It became evident as the phrase “Cómo se dice?” or “How do you say?” became a constant in my home. Sometimes, it’d be my parents who asked, “How do you say” followed by a word like “sobremesa” or “ganas.” It seemed simple enough in theory, but proved nearly impossible for us to translate without elaborating using full sentences or phrases. After all, to have a word to describe a long conversation that keeps you at the table and extends a meal, you’d have to value the concept enough to name it. Some ideas are so embedded in Latin American and Spanish cultures that they exist implicitly. Of course “ganas” can be something you feel but also give, and be at once more tame yet more powerful than “desire.” (If you know, you know.)

Other times, it’d be my sister and I who were curious about a word’s Spanish counterpart. Was there really no differentiating in Spanish between the fingers (dedos) on our hands, and those on our feet we call toes? When we wanted to say we were excited about something, the word “emocionada” seemed to fall short of capturing our specific, well, emotion. Sometimes we would blank on a word. But sometimes, we would find that the perfect word isn’t necessarily in the language we’re speaking.

What I’m describing, of course, has its own word: code switching. The act of shifting from one language or dialect to another, particularly based on social context, is often framed as something that so-called minorities do to fit into more mainstream spaces. It’s true that code switching can be a form of assimilation, a way of shielding ourselves from the prejudices rooted in racism, classism and xenophobia that can arise when we freely express our culture and language in spaces not designed to embrace them. But what I seldom see discussed is how code switching isn’t solely a reactionary response to feeling unwelcome. Within our own communities, it can signal comfort and belonging.

Take the Spanish word “maleta,” or “suitcase” in English. This year, I was at a writing conference and met up with two Mexican American authors, one of whom brought her suitcase to the venue because she had already checked out of the hotel. We walked the halls and offered to help with her maleta, making several jokes and references to it, but never once using the word “suitcase,” despite speaking mainly in English.

This was an entirely natural and unspoken decision. There are some words that simply feel truer in Spanish than they do in English. I call these home words and heart words because I associate them with the place I most grew up using them: at home, among family. Though the words might share a literal definition with their translation, one version carries emotional depth that enriches its meaning. To code switch this way among friends implies we share not only a language, but an intimate understanding of where we come from.

A suitcase is for clothes and possessions when someone travels, but to me, a maleta meant family had arrived from Peru, carrying flavors, textures and memories of my birthplace. Language is rooted in context, which is another way of saying that language is driven by memory. In this way, what we do or don’t choose to translate is another way of telling stories about our past.

Last year, a study on the specific way that Miamians use direct Spanish translations to form English phrases called the practice an emerging dialect. It’s a form of borrowing between languages that results in what is known as calques. For decades, expressions like “get down from the car” and “super hungry,” which are translated from Spanish, have made their way into regional speech, even in the case of non-Spanish speakers.

When I shared the article on social media, my DMs were flooded by friends and family — not only in Miami but also in the Rio Grande Valley in Texas and in Southern California — who joked that they’ve been using these phrases since they were children, and their parents had, too. The novelty was not in their usage but in their validation (whether or not we sought that validation). My friends and I grew up being told to speak a certain way and respect the rules of both languages. We, in turn, didn’t so much break the rules as we simply played with them, swirling bits of English and Spanish together until it resembled something new yet familiar, our fingerprints proudly planted in its mess.

This is one of my greatest joys as a writer. I love language not only for all it can do but also for all it can’t and all the space it leaves in the gaps for creation. It is empowering that something as supposedly fixed as the meaning of a word or phrase is actually alive and evolving. It means we don’t have to lose parts of ourselves to assimilation; we can expand language to include the full breadth of our experiences.

Words are just sounds and letters until we collectively give them meaning through story. When we use language to connect, it’s one of the most beautiful things that make us human.

Natalia Sylvester is the author of the forthcoming children’s book “A Maleta Full of Treasures” (“La Maleta de Tesoros”).

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