research reference group

Reference Group in Sociology

Charlotte Nickerson

Research Assistant at Harvard University

Undergraduate at Harvard University

Charlotte Nickerson is a student at Harvard University obsessed with the intersection of mental health, productivity, and design.

Learn about our Editorial Process

Saul Mcleod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul Mcleod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc

Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education

Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

On This Page:

In sociology, a reference group refers to a group to which an individual compares themselves, providing a standard of evaluation. It influences an individual’s behavior and attitudes, regardless of whether they are a member of that group. Reference groups can be aspirational (ones individuals wish to join) or non-aspirational (ones individuals wish to avoid).

illustration of a group of people talking in a meeting, giant lightbulb and puzzle pieces

Key Takeaways

A reference group is a collectivity to which individuals or groups refer when making comparisons about their lives. They may be positive or negative, encompassing respective behavior that is aspired to and behavior that is rejected as inappropriate.
The reference groups that someone has can also change over time, as attitudes and beliefs evolve. Anthropologists and sociologists have identified several different types of reference groups.
The first of these differentiations is between normative and comparative reference groups. Normative reference groups are the source of an individual’s norms and values, while comparative reference groups are those to which an individual compares themselves.
Other sociologists have differentiated between negative and positive reference groups. Positive reference groups — ones that individuals wish to emulate — can be classified as either contractual or aspirational, depending on whether or not an individual has contact with that group. Meanwhile, negative reference groups can be categorized as disclamant or avoidant in the same way.
Reference groups exist to provide a point of comparison that assists an individual in integrating with their social environment. Marketers can evoke reference groups as a way of predicting and guiding consumer behavior. These evoked reference groups can be either familiar or aspirational.

Definitions, Functions, and Examples

The term reference group, first coined by the sociologist Hebert Hyman (1942), refers to any group that someone uses as a point of comparison in the process of their self-appraisal.

Reference groups could be set up as models of behavior or as representing goals or attainment. People can have many different reference groups in different spheres of their lives, friends, peers, and family.

Someone could look at the norms, attitudes, or values of the reference group members. For example, someone who joins a new workplace may look at more senior employees at the company for cues as to how to dress, speak, and behave in a way that is accepted by the social reference group of their office.

To do so, an individual may choose from several existing social groups (Barkan, 2011).

People can look up to several reference groups at once for behavioral cues, and these reference groups have neither a set size nor require an individual to identify with that group explicitly.

Typically, reference groups are informal, meaning that they are unstructured and do not work toward achieving specific goals. Instead, group membership is based on shared interests and values .

Conversely, there are formal reference groups where the members of a collective have certain goals and a rigid structure and hierarchy. These can include, for example, labor unions and religious groups.

Reference groups have several functions:

They can provide people with a basis for reference so that they can evaluate their attitudes and beliefs;
Settle a benchmark of measure that allows people to determine their self-identity and conduct in a social environment;
Act as a source of inspiration or aspirations for people to live up to or work towards; shape values in terms of what someone thinks is right or wrong by allowing someone to decide which values they want to emulate and which ones to reject;
Allow people to immerse themselves in a new environment by providing them with a standard to follow so that they can integrate better (Barkan, 2011).

Muzafer Sherif (1953) suggested that humans are unique in how they display reference group behavior by modifying their conduct based on what they learn from their social environment.

This can be done by assimilating the values of other individuals or groups’ values or acting in opposition to the social standards of other individuals or groups.

For instance, a teenager may actively reject becoming like his parents by partaking in behaviors his parents do not display, such as heavy drinking and staying out late.

This process of behavioral adaptation means that reference groups become sources of an individual”s understanding of self-identity, cognition, and perception. They also allow people to evaluate their conduct and performance in a social or professional situation.

Finally, studying reference group behavior can provide a key to understanding social relationships and attitudes.

Types of Reference Groups

Harold Kelley (1952) determined that there are two distinct types of reference groups based on the functions that they perform. These are Normative and Comparative reference groups.

Normative reference groups serve as a source of an individual”s norms, values, and attitudes. People look up to these groups to understand how to conduct themself in an environment. For example, a child at a new school may look up to their older peers to understand acceptable ways to dress and behave within cliques.

Comparative reference groups, meanwhile, are those that people can use as a standard against which they compare themselves during self-appraisal. For example, in the same school scenario, a student may compare themselves to those who achieve high grades and test scores to judge their skill and performance.

The American social psychologist Theadore Newcomb (1953) created two further categories of reference groups based on the nature of comparison between them. These are positive and negative reference groups.

Types of Positive Reference Groups: Contractual and Aspirational

Positive reference groups are ones in which people aspire to become members. Typically, individuals admire the socialization and behavioral patterns and attitudes of a group and wish to emulate them.

For example, a tech worker may adopt otherwise unusual habits such as waking up extraordinarily early or drinking Soylent as a way of emulating tech billionaires.

There are two types of positive reference groups: Contractual and aspirational. A contractional group is a positive reference group with whom someone has face to face contacts and whose ideology they approve of.

For example, someone may consider certain mentor figures at their office to have positive values and behavior, and seek to emulate them as a result (Merton, 1968).

Meanwhile, aspirational reference groups are those that one does not have contact with, but nonetheless inspires someone to take up their norms. For example, a young athlete may look up to the habits of professional basketball players, even if they have never met them.

Types of Negative Reference Groups: Disclamant and Avoidant

Negative reference groups are ones that individuals disapprove of and use their patterns of behavior and opinions and attitudes as a standard to avoid.

For example, someone may avoid dressing or speaking in a way similar to a group associated with a low criminal status (Merton, 1968).

A disclaimant group is a negative reference group that someone has face-to-face contact with, but disapproves of their group ideology. This stands in contrast to avoidance groups, which people do not have in-person contact with (Barkan, 2011).

For example, consider a political canvasser. The canvasser may consider members of the local chapter of the opposing political party to have values and behaviors that they disdain and do not wish to emulate.

They may also come in contact with members of this reference group on a regular basis within the community. These political party members can be considered to be part of a disclaimant group.

Meanwhile, this canvasser may resent the group of people who lead a political party. Although they may disdain the higher-ups of a party for similar reasons to why they dislike members of the disclaimant group, they likely have no contact with them. In that case, the political higher-ups are an avoidance group (Barkan, 2011).

Characteristics of Reference Groups

Reference groups have several important characteristics (Barkan, 2011):

They set ideals of behavior and attitudes, values, and ideologies for those who reference them;

They are not groups or people who consciously or deliberately organized to represent specific social values. They are conceptual groups that one often cannot join formally;

Becoming a member of a reference group involves adopting the lifestyle and values of a group. For example, an immigrant to France may need to learn to incorporate French culture into their own lifestyle as a way of cultivating a sense of acceptance and belonging. They may be tested on this integration formally or informally;

Finally, someone”s reference group is in a near-constant state of flux. As people enter new social environments and phases of life, they look up to reference groups as ways to carry out self-appraisal. Someone who aspired to join the “cool kids,” as a teenager may aspire to lead lifestyles like those they see on their friends” social media as an adult.

Application in Marketing

The concept of reference groups is important for understanding socialization, conformity, and how people perceive and evaluate themselves (Newcomb, 1953).

Reference groups can be used to promote goods or services. One category of reference groups used by marketers is that of consumer-relevant groups. Some groups, such as family and friends, can exert a great influence on consumer behavior by exercising pressure on an individual to comply with group norms.

This idea of consumer-relevant groups has been used in advertising by appealing to groups with whom an audience can relate. The individual can be inspired to behave like the individuals in the group, taking on their consumer behavior.

Often, this form of marketing can take on the shape of testimonials and endorsements. Alternatively, marketers can evoke an aspirational figure — such as a celebrity — to appeal to the values that a consumer wants to emulate (Newcomb, 1953).

Barkan, S. E. (2011). Sociology: Understanding and changing the social world. Flat World Knowledge, Incorporated.

Hyman, H. H. (1942). The psychology of status. Archives of Psychology (Columbia University).

Kelley, H. H., & Volkart, E. H. (1952). The resistance to change of group-anchored attitudes. American Sociological Review, 17(4), 453-465.

Kuhn, M. H. (1964). The reference group reconsidered . The Sociological Quarterly, 5(1), 5-21.

Merton, R. (1968). Social Theory and Social Structure. The Free Press.

Newcomb, T. M. (1953). An approach to the study of communicative acts. Psychological review, 60(6), 393.

Sherif, M. (1953). The Concept of reference Groups in Human relations.

Reference Group: Types, Functions, Characteristics, Importance

The term reference group, originally coined by Hebert Hyman in his book The Psychology of Status (1942), is used to describe any group that an individual uses as a point of comparison in the process of self-appraisal. The points of comparison (or reference) that an individual looks at could be the norms, attitudes, and values of the reference group members. For example, when a child joins a new school, they will look at the other older students of the school for reference so that they know how to dress, speak and behave in a manner accepted by the social group that is their new school. In this case, the older students of the school become the reference group. Thus, individuals get to choose from several existing social groups, which one they look at as a reference group. Therefore, reference groups provide individuals with a framework for social comparison.

It is not necessary that an individual only subscribes to a single reference group at any given point in time. Individuals may look up to several reference groups simultaneously, which can sometimes cause anomalies in their behaviour. Furthermore, reference groups do not have a set size and do not require individuals to identify with that group explicitly.

Most reference groups tend to be informal, i.e., they are unstructured and do not work towards achieving specific goals. Instead, group membership is primarily based on shared interests and values. Families and peer groups are examples of reference groups that are typically informal. Conversely, there are also formal reference groups wherein, unlike informal reference groups, the members of the collective are working towards certain goals and also have a rigid structure and hierarchy in place in order to achieve those goals. For example, labour unions and religious groups.

Functions of Reference Groups

Reference groups provide individuals with a basis for reference and evaluation of their attitudes and beliefs.
Setting a benchmark of measure allows people to determine their self-identity and their conduct in a social environment.
Additionally, they act as a source of inspiration or aspirations for people to live up to and work towards.
Reference groups also help shape our values in terms of what we think is right or wrong. This distinction is made when we decide which values we want to emulate and which ones we want to reject.
Finally, they allow us to immerse ourselves in a new environment by providing us with a standard to follow so that we may fit in better.

Types of Reference Groups

Harold Kelley (1952) recognised two distinct types of reference groups based on the functions that they perform –

Normative Reference Groups –

Normative reference groups serve as a source of an individual’s norms, values and attitudes. These are groups that people look up to so that they may understand how to conduct themselves in any given environment. For example, a new employee in an organisation will look to older employees to understand what the acceptable code of conduct is in that organisation.

Comparative Reference Groups –

Comparative reference groups are those which individuals use as a standard against which they compare themselves during the process of self-appraisal. For example, in a football team, junior players may compare themselves to their more experienced counterparts in terms of skill, technique and performance.

American social psychologist Theodore Newcomb further distinguished between two primary types of reference groups based on the nature of comparison –

Positive Reference Groups –

A positive reference group is one of which individuals aspire to become members. Individuals typically admire the socialisation and behaviour patterns and attitudes of this group and wish to emulate them.

Negative Reference Groups –

A negative reference group is one that individuals disapprove of and use their patterns of behaviour and opinions, and attitudes as a standard to avoid.

Characteristics of Reference Groups

Reference groups set ideals of behaviour and attitudes, values and ideologies for those who refer to them.
They are not organised groups of people who consciously or deliberately stand to represent specific social values. Instead, they may be understood as conceptual groups because they are non-membership groups.
In order to become a member of a reference group, individuals must adopt the lifestyle and values of the group. For example, immigrants in Western countries learn to incorporate Western culture into their own lifestyle so that they can cultivate a sense of acceptance and belonging.
An individual’s reference group is in a constant state of flux. As we enter into novel social environments or new phases of life, we change the reference groups that we look up to for self-appraisal.

Pragati Kalive

Pragati is an undergraduate student currently pursuing her BA/BSc in Psychology at Symbiosis School for Liberal Arts, Pune. She displays a keen interest in the social sciences and is passionate about writing. She wishes to apply her education in the domain of social work in the future. Reading, swimming and travelling are some activities that keep her going.

school Campus Bookshelves
menu_book Bookshelves
perm_media Learning Objects
login Login
how_to_reg Request Instructor Account
hub Instructor Commons
Download Page (PDF)
Download Full Book (PDF)
Periodic Table
Physics Constants
Scientific Calculator
Reference & Cite
Tools expand_more
Readability

selected template will load here

This action is not available.

6.1E: Reference Groups

Last updated
Save as PDF
Page ID 8049

Learning Objectives

Explain the purpose of a reference group

Social comparison theory is centered on the belief that there is a drive within individuals to gain accurate self-evaluations. Individuals evaluate their own opinions and define the self by comparing themselves to others. One important concept in this theory is the reference group. A reference group refers to a group to which an individual or another group is compared. Sociologists call any group that individuals use as a standard for evaluating themselves and their own behavior a reference group.

Reference groups are used in order to evaluate and determine the nature of a given individual or other group’s characteristics and sociological attributes. It is the group to which the individual relates or aspires to relate himself or herself psychologically. Reference groups become the individual’s frame of reference and source for ordering his or her experiences, perceptions, cognition, and ideas of self. It is important for determining a person’s self-identity, attitudes, and social ties. These groups become the basis of reference in making comparisons or contrasts and in evaluating one’s appearance and performance.

Robert K. Merton hypothesized that individuals compare themselves with reference groups of people who occupy the social role to which the individual aspires. Reference groups act as a frame of reference to which people always refer to evaluate their achievements, their role performance, aspirations and ambitions. A reference group can either be from a membership group or non-membership group.

An example of a reference group is a group of people who have a certain level of affluence. For example, an individual in the U.S. with an annual income of $80,000, may consider himself affluent if he compares himself to those in the middle of the income strata, who earn roughly $32,000 a year. If, however, the same person considers the relevant reference group to be those in the top 0.1% of households in the U.S., those making $1.6 million or more, then the individual’s income of $80,000 would make him or her seem rather poor.

Social comparison theory argues that individuals use comparisons with others to gain accurate self-evaluations and learn how to define the self. A reference group is a concept referring to a group to which an individual or another group is compared.
Reference groups provide the benchmarks and contrast needed for comparison and evaluation of group and personal characteristics.
Robert K. Merton hypothesized that individuals compare themselves with reference groups of people who occupy the social role to which the individual aspires.
self-identity : a multi-dimensional construct that refers to an individual’s perception of “self” in relation to any number of characteristics, such as academics and non academics, gender roles and sexuality, racial identity,and many others.
social role : it is a set of connected behaviors, rights, and obligations as conceptualized by actors in a social situation.
reference group : it is a concept referring to a group to which an individual or another group is compared.

What Is a Reference Group?

Understanding One of Sociology's Basic Concepts

Key Concepts
Major Sociologists
News & Issues
Research, Samples, and Statistics
Recommended Reading
Archaeology

A reference group is a collection of people that we use as a standard of comparison for ourselves regardless of whether we are part of that group. We rely on reference groups to understand social norms , which then shape our values, ideas, behavior, and appearance. This means that we also use them to evaluate the relative worth, desirability, or appropriateness of these things.

How We Relate to and Embrace Norms

The concept of a reference group is one of the most basic of sociology. Sociologists believe that our relationship to groups and to society at large shapes our individual thoughts and behaviors. How we relate to reference groups is central to how social groups and society exert social force on us as individuals. By looking to reference groups — be they those of race, class, gender, sexuality, religion, region, ethnicity, age, or localized groups defined by neighborhood or school, among others-- we see norms and dominant values , and we choose to either embrace and reproduce them in our own thoughts, behavior, and interactions with others; or, we reject and refute them by thinking and acting in ways that break from them.

Embracing the norms of a reference group and expressing them ourselves is how we achieve important connections with others that lead to social acceptance —doing so is how we "fit in" and achieve a sense of belonging. Conversely, those of us who either can't or choose not to embrace and express the norms of reference groups that are expected of us might be seen as outcasts, criminals, or in other cases, revolutionaries or trendsetters.

Specific Types of Reference Group Norms

Expressing reference group norms and behavior through consumption is one of the most easily visible examples of this phenomenon. In choosing what clothing to buy and wear, for example, we typically refer to those around us, like friends or peer groups, colleagues, or to stylistic reference groups, like "preppy", "hipster", or "ratchet", among others. We gauge what is normal and expected by paying attention to our reference group, and then we reproduce those norms in our own consumer choices and appearance. In this way, the collective influences our values (of what is cool, nice, or appropriate) and our behavior (what we purchase and how we dress).

Gender norms are another clear example of how reference groups shape our thoughts and behavior. From a young age, boys and girls receive both explicit and implicit messages from those around them and from media that dictate norms of behavior and appearance. As we grow up, reference groups shape our grooming habits on the basis of gender (shaving and other hair-removal practices, hairstyle, etc.), how we interact with others based on their gender, how we physically carry ourselves and comport our bodies, and what roles we inhabit in our personal relationships with others (how to be a "good" wife or husband, or son or daughter, for example).

Whether we are conscious of it or not, we are looking to multiple reference groups which shape our thoughts and behavior on a daily basis.

What is a Norm? Why Does it Matter?
The Sociology of Gender
How Gender Differs From Sex
Introduction to Discourse in Sociology
How Do Sociologists Define Consumption?
Folkways, Mores, Taboos, and Laws
How Emile Durkheim Made His Mark on Sociology
How Our Aligning Behavior Shapes Everyday Life
Units of Analysis as Related to Sociology
Understanding Socialization in Sociology
Why We Selfie
Understanding the Sociological Perspective
Four Things That Set Americans Apart and Why They Matter
Definition of Ritualism in Sociology
Using Ethnomethodology to Understand Social Order
Goffman's Front Stage and Back Stage Behavior

Reference Groups (Sociology): Definition and Types

reference group in sociology definition and examples, explained below

A reference group is a group of people whose norms influence a person’s behaviors. We use the group as a ‘frame of reference’ to make behavioral decisions.

Traditionally, we would refer to a reference group as the social group (and its norms) that we wish to belong to, and therefore, we use its norms as a reference for idealized behaviors.

However, Robert K Metron also notes that we also look at groups that we don’t want to belong to and use them as a frame of reference as well, aspiring to avoid the behaviors of the reference groups we want to avoid association with (Singer, 2017).

This theory was traditionally used in sociology to explain social behavior, but is now also used extensively in marketing and communications fields to explore how advertisements and branding can compel people to purchase certain products that can help them to fit into a reference group. For example, when all your favorite basketball stars wear Nike sheos, you’ll want to wear them as well to feel like you fit into the ‘cool’ basketballer reference group (Fernandes & Panda, 2019).

Definition of Reference Groups

A reference group is a social group that an individual uses as a standard of comparison or point of reference in making evaluations and decisions.

The concept of reference groups gives us a lens through which we can understand how norms and values are transmitted within in-groups and out-groups , and how they influence our behaviors.

In simple terms, we tend to want to aspire toward the behaviors of the reference groups we identify with (our ‘in groups’), and avoid behaviors of the reference groups with which we do not identify (our ‘out groups’).

For some scholarly definitions, consult below:

“A reference group is a group that influences an individual’s thoughts or behaviors” (Berkowitz, 2021)

“…a group that an individual uses as a point of reference in determining their judgments, preferences, and behaviors.” (Borkowski & Meese, 2021)

Concept’s Origins

Reference groups was a term first introduced by American sociologist Herbert Hyman in 1941.

His research focused on reference groups as anchoring points where people can source their norms and values.

For example, a child’s family is their first point of reference for learning normative behaviors that will be rewarded, and which behaviors are not ‘for us’ (Lawler, 2015).

Later, Robert K. Merton extended the concept of reference groups by distinguishing between “in-groups” (groups an individual belongs to, or aspires toward) and “out-groups” (groups an individual does not belong to, or identifies as undesirable).

For Merton, a reference group may be a group an individual already belongs to (membership reference group), aspires to join (aspirational reference group), or even a group that an individual wishes to avoid (dissociative reference group).

The concept of reference groups helps us to better understand motivations behind human behavior (Fernandes & Panda, 2019). The notion reminds us that individuals are socialized into thinking and behaving in ways that are consistent with the reference groups with which they identify.

Types of Reference Groups

1. membership reference groups.

Membership reference groups are groups that an individual is currently a part of or identifies with. (Berkowitz, 2021)

The individual has a direct interaction and shared experiences with these groups. The connection can be either formal (like a registered club or society) or informal (like a group of friends or colleagues).

Because individuals are part of these groups, they often conform to the norms, behaviors, and attitudes of the group.

This influence can be quite strong, especially if the group’s social cohesion is high. The impact of these groups extends across various facets of life, from lifestyle choices to professional conduct.

Examples of Membership Reference Groups

Sports Teams: An individual who is a part of a local soccer team, for example, may adopt certain behaviors, such as regular exercise, diet habits, and team-oriented mindsets.
Religious Communities: If a person is a part of a church, mosque, temple, or other religious community, they may adopt specific values, behaviors, and attitudes consistent with that community.
Professional Associations: Being a member of professional associations or labor unions can influence an individual’s work ethic , professional standards, and attitudes toward workplace issues.

For 50 more examples, see my full article: Examples of Reference Groups

2. Aspirational Reference Groups

Aspirational reference groups consist of individuals or groups that a person aspires to join or be associated with (Berkowitz, 2021).

These groups represent the ideals and attributes that the person admires and hopes to emulate. They serve as a model or benchmark for personal goals and ambitions .

While the individual may not have direct interaction or a personal relationship with these groups, they can still exert considerable influence.

The individual may modify their behavior, attitudes, and preferences in a manner that aligns with the perceived norms of the aspirational reference group in order to try to gain closer proximity to the group and its values. This change in behavior prior to admittance to the group was defined by Merton as anticipatory socialization .

Examples of Aspirational Reference Groups

Celebrities and Public Figures: Many people aspire to have the lifestyle, success, or qualities of certain celebrities, athletes, or public figures. This admiration can influence their fashion, lifestyle choices, and even career aspirations .
Successful Professionals or Academics: Students or young professionals may look up to successful people in their field, seeing them as role models and aspiring to reach similar levels of success.
High-status Social Groups: Some people aspire to join high-status social groups, such as exclusive clubs or societies. The desire to join these groups can influence an individual’s behavior, tastes, and lifestyle choices.

3. Dissociative Reference Groups

Dissociative reference groups are social groups that an individual does not want to associate with, due to various reasons such as differing values, social status, or behavioral patterns (Berkowitz, 2021).

They represent what the individual does not want to be. The person deliberately distances themselves from these groups and often acts in ways to intentionally fit outside of the group’s norms and behaviors.

Just as individuals are influenced by who they aspire to be like, they are also impacted by who they do not want to be like.

As a result, dissociative reference groups play a crucial role in self-identity and behavior, helping to define what an individual is not or does not wish to be, and this can be a powerful motivator for behavior change.

While having a negative connotation, dissociative reference groups can contribute positively to an individual’s self-concept and behavior by providing clear examples of what they wish to avoid.

Examples of Dissociative Reference Groups

Criminal Groups: For most law-abiding individuals, groups involved in illegal activities such as organized crime syndicates or gangs serve as dissociative reference groups. People often make conscious efforts to distinguish themselves from such groups and avoid behaviors associated with them.
Political or Ideological Groups: If an individual strongly disagrees with the beliefs or actions of a particular political party or ideological group, they may consider that group as a dissociative reference group. They may actively oppose or reject the norms and values of that group.
Stereotypical Groups: Stereotypes often create dissociative reference groups. For example, someone might work hard to avoid being associated with negative stereotypes about their age, profession, nationality, or any other social category.

Primary vs Secondary Reference Groups

We can also divide reference groups into two types: primary and secondary. This distinction demonstrates two spheres of influence – one close, intimate, and highly influential, and the other more distant but nonetheless secondarily influential. Each is explained below.

1. Primary Reference Groups

Primary reference groups consist of small, intimate, and enduring social groups that individuals are directly a part of.

This group significantly impacts an individual’s behavior, identity, and core values because of the strong emotional ties, face-to-face interaction, and high degree of influence that characterize it (Lawler, 2015).

The relationships within primary reference groups are typically long-lasting and intrinsically valuable.

They are not just a means to an end, but valuable for their own sake. These groups play an essential role in the socialization process, influencing the development of self-concepts, attitudes, and behaviors.

Examples of Primary Reference Groups

Family: The family unit is one of the most influential primary reference groups. The norms, values, and behaviors learned in the family setting strongly shape an individual’s character and perspectives.
Close Friends: Close friendship groups are a primary reference group because of the strong emotional bonds that exist within them. They often influence an individual’s behaviors, attitudes, and choices, especially among younger people.
Work Teams or Colleagues: People spend a significant part of their day at work, and colleagues often serve as a primary reference group. They shape how an individual behaves in a professional setting and can influence attitudes towards work ethic, corporate culture, and more.

2. Secondary Reference Groups

Secondary reference groups are larger, more formal, and impersonal groups that individuals may or may not be directly a part of.

The relationships in these groups are usually more temporary, limited, and instrumental compared to primary reference groups (Lawler, 2015).

Despite being less intimate, these groups still exert influence on individuals’ attitudes and behavior.

Interaction within secondary reference groups often revolves around a specific goal or activity, and the relationships may dissolve once the shared objective is achieved.

They are typically less emotionally engaging but provide a broader social network for individuals, serving as a crucial source of social comparison and competition.

Examples of Secondary Reference Groups

Professional Associations: Organizations like the American Medical Association or the National Education Association, for example, serve as secondary reference groups for doctors and teachers, respectively. The norms and standards of these groups influence professional behavior and attitudes.
Schools and Universities: These institutions serve as a secondary reference group for students. They influence students’ behaviors and attitudes towards learning, peer interaction, and a wide array of other aspects.
Social Media Communities: In the digital age, virtual communities on platforms like Facebook, Instagram, and LinkedIn have emerged as powerful secondary reference groups. They influence individuals’ perceptions, attitudes, and behaviors, despite the lack of face-to-face interaction.

Two ways Reference Groups Influence Behavior

Reference groups exert a significant influence over an individual’s behavior, beliefs, and attitudes.

According to social influence theory , this influence can primarily be categorized into two types: normative influence and informational influence.

1. Normative Influence

Normative social influence is the pressure exerted by a reference group to conform to the group’s accepted norms and behaviors.

It is typically driven by an individual’s desire to fit in with the group and gain acceptance and approval, or avoid disapproval (McDonald & Crandall, 2015).

This is the sort of social influence that compels people to follow trends, dress in socially desirable ways, and follow cultural norms that may not have clear logic underpinning them, except that they give people social status as a member of an in-group.

Examples of Normative Influence

Fashion and Trends: Reference groups heavily influence our choices in fashion and lifestyle trends. For instance, teenagers may adopt specific clothing styles or slang to fit in with their peers.
Professional Conduct: In a workplace, new employees often adapt their behaviors to match the existing norms and standards of the organization or their team, even when these behaviors are not explicitly stated.
Social Norms : In society, individuals often conform to unwritten social rules or norms, such as queuing in a line, to gain social acceptance and avoid conflict. These social norms are often influenced by reference groups.

2. Informational Influence

Informational social influence occurs when individuals look to the knowledge and wisdom of a reference group for information and guidance.

This influence is typically driven by the belief that the group possesses accurate knowledge or expertise (McDonald & Crandall, 2015).

Its essential difference from normative social influence is that a person makes their decision based on a rational assessment that the group holds the most accurate and valuable information for making decisions, rather than simply to cohere to norms to ‘fit in’.

It is nevertheless still highly influential, because if a person has come to a rational decision that their reference group (e.g. a religion, pseudoscience , pseudo-psychology , or political ideology) holds the bests answers to an issue, then you’ll follow its guidance.

Examples of Informational Influence

Product Reviews: In the realm of consumer behavior, people often rely on reviews and ratings from others (a form of reference group) before deciding to purchase a product or service.
Expert Opinions: In healthcare, for instance, patients often rely on the informational influence of doctors and other medical professionals when making health decisions.
Career Choices: People may look to successful professionals in their field (an aspirational reference group) for information and guidance when making career-related decisions, such as which skills to develop or what job opportunities to pursue.

The role of reference groups in sociology and social psychology is integral to our understanding of human behavior and social dynamics.

By influencing our aspirations, shaping our identities, and defining societal norms, these groups guide the trajectory of our lives. Understanding the impact of primary, secondary, aspirational, and dissociative reference groups can enhance our understanding of ourselves and the society we live in.

Recognizing the sway of these groups is not just academically fascinating – it’s a tool for introspection , societal analysis, and better decision-making .

Borkowski, N., & Meese, K. A. (2021). Organizational behavior, theory, and design in health care . New York: Jones & Bartlett Learning.

Berkowitz, E. N. (2021). Essentials of health care marketing . New York: Jones & Bartlett Learning.

Fernandes, S., & Panda, R. (2019). Influence of social reference groups on consumer buying behavior: A review. Journal of management research , 19 (2), 131-142.

Lawler, S. (2015). Identity: sociological perspectives . New York: John Wiley & Sons.

McDonald, R. I., & Crandall, C. S. (2015). Social norms and social influence. Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences, 3 , 147-151. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cobeha.2015.04.006

Singer, E. (2017). Reference groups and social evaluations. Social psychology , 66-93.

Chris Drew (PhD)

Dr. Chris Drew is the founder of the Helpful Professor. He holds a PhD in education and has published over 20 articles in scholarly journals. He is the former editor of the Journal of Learning Development in Higher Education. [Image Descriptor: Photo of Chris]

Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd/ 5 Top Tips for Succeeding at University
Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd/ 50 Durable Goods Examples
Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd/ 100 Consumer Goods Examples
Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd/ 30 Globalization Pros and Cons

Reference group theory with implications for information studies: a theoretical essay

E. murell dawson and elfreda a. chatman florida state university tallahassee, florida, usa.

This article explores the role and implications of reference group theory in relation to the field of library and information science. Reference group theory is based upon the principle that people take the standards of significant others as a basis for making self-appraisals, comparisons, and choices regarding need and use of information. Research that applies concepts of reference group theory to various sectors of library and information studies can provide data useful in enhancing areas such as information-seeking research, special populations, and uses of information. Implications are promising that knowledge gained from like research can be beneficial in helping information professionals better understand the role theory plays in examining ways in which people manage their information and social worlds.

Introduction

This article addresses a theoretical framework, reference group theory, in order to explore ways in which we can discuss the notion of "normative" when referring to information behaviour. Although reference group theory has a long history, its application to the field of information studies has been an overlooked area. Taking this into account, the authors suggest that reference group theory allows for different scales of values, and different dimensions of knowledge in regard to different social groups as these groups are shaped by members of their world who serve as reference points. The role of reference group theory then is to provide a way in which to define and interpret practices that appear to be both cognitive and normative within a social context.

In using reference group theory to study information behaviours, there are several arguments which can be made. For instance, the theory allows for common expectations regarding the socialization process into desired groups. It also explains why members of these groups are willing to adjust individualistic interest(s) in order to work on behalf of larger concerns. In this sense, we imply that this common thread of socialized norms leads to the formation of a cognitive view where, as a member of a reference group, one has confidence that the appropriate strategies employed to manage one's life are befitting and valid.

We view the cognitive as fundamental to the socialization in which members of specific populations believe that it is the commonness of their experiences which sets them apart from other members of society. This we call the sectorization of interests. What this means is that those who are members of a reference group have internalized an established point of view, articulated this view, and approached with a common understanding, social issues and problems. As we indicated earlier, this process can be seen as normative in its approach to social issues, and strategies employed to deal with such issues. For students of information behaviour, this permits inquiries that, at least initially, address routine expectations as to how members of a group will handle certain issues. The value of this is that we have a means whereby we can examine patterned responses. It is these patterned occurrences that increase our understanding of how information assists the daily living of members of that small world. Having said that, the major premise of our article is to examine a theory which has enormous potential for the field of information and library science. Reference group theory is based upon the principle that people take the standards of significant others as a basis for making self-appraisals, comparisons, and moving into various social realms ( Hyman & Singer : 3). Substantial to the theory is the fact that individuals usually have the freedom to choose the reference groups they wish to join. Equally important is the influence and status of groups, and the power groups possess, because they have the ability to admit or deny membership to their group.

The term reference group can refer to any and all groups that influence the attitudes and behaviour of individuals. The theory is often used to describe two major types of relationships between individuals and groups. These two major dimensions are known as "normative" reference group behaviour and "comparative" reference group behaviour. Because some reference groups teach individuals how they should behave, "normative" reference group theory is sometimes referred to as a guide for individuals' behaviour. Additionally, some social groups, or "comparative" reference groups, give individuals a basis for comparing themselves or their group to other individuals or groups. Comparative reference groups also influence individuals' feelings and behaviour. Again though by the normative principle.

For the purpose of this article, the concepts of reference group theory will be used to explore the unique characteristics which compose a reference group, and to illustrate what factors are involved that make these groups meaningful and appealing.

Brief history of reference group theory

In 1902, in Human Nature and the Social Order , Cooley offered discussions relating closely to the concepts of reference group theory. Cooley discussed how individuals took on various mental or psychological interpretations of themselves based on how individuals thought others perceived them. He stated:

In a large and interesting class of cases the social reference takes the form of a somewhat definite imagination of how one's self - that is any idea he appropriates - appears in a particular mind, and the kind of self-feeling one has is determined by the attitude towards this attributed to that other mind. A social self of this sort might be called the reflected or looking-glass self... as we see our face, figure, and dress in the glass, and are interested in them because they are ours, and pleased or otherwise with them according as they do or do not answer to what we should like them to be; so in imagination we perceive in another's mind some thought of our appearance, manners, aims, deeds, character, friends, and so on, are variously affected by it. ( Cooley, 1902 : 183-184)

Hence came Cooley's famous quote: 'Each to each a looking-glass reflects the other that doth pass' (p. 184). He argued that a self-idea of this sort seem to have three principle elements: the imagination of our appearance to the other person; the imagination of his judgment of that appearance; and some sort of self-feeling, such as pride or mortification. The comparison with a looking glass hardly suggests the second element, the imagined judgment, which is quite essential. Cooley believed that,

the thing that moves us to pride or shame is not the mere mechanical reflection of ourselves, but an imputed sentiment, the imagined effect of this reflection upon another's mind. This is evident from the fact that the character and weight of that other, in whose mind we see ourselves, makes all the difference with our feeling. ( Cooley, 1902 : 183-186)

In short, Cooley is saying that an individual's perception of what he or she thinks other people think about them affects in some manner the way that individual perceives or feels about him or herself. In this example, another person, or group of people, influence the individual's perception, and consequently his or her attitudes, behaviours, and norms.

In other words, how norms enter into a conceptualization of reference group theory is because the domain in which members play out their identities are driven by this collective sense that "they are on to something." Members believe that the solutions they have worked out to define and shape their world are appropriate for them, and that the decisions made by their collective view of reality provide the most certain solution to issues facing them.

In 1903, DuBois, in his famous The Souls of Black Folk , illustrated to some degree the concept of multiple reference group theory (a concept developed later in this paper). It would appear that DuBois used Cooley's 'looking-glass self' theory as a parallel to describe his experience of the dual, and sometimes conflicting, consciousness of being both a person of color and an American. By offering insight into numerous aspects of black life he states,

...it is a peculiar sensation, this double consciousness - this sense of always looking at one's self through the eyes of others - of measuring one's soul by the tape of a world that looks on in amused contempt and pity. One ever feels two-ness - An American, a Negro: two souls, two thoughts, two unreconciled strivings; two warring ideals in one dark body. ( DuBois, 1903 : 3)

DuBois seems to indicate that the attitudes, behaviour, norms of 'others', or certain groups, do play a major role in how an individual defines or feels about him or herself. Thus, in this example, the notion of reference group theory is implied. Another way to look at this theory is to address the role that significant others play in defining the life-world of group members. Defining a situation as critical, for example, is to shape whatever solutions are possible to members of that world. For instance, in using reference group theory, members of certain groups will be sensitive to issues they believe are important to them. In this case, their information behaviours will be expressed in an active manner that requires some seeking strategies. On the other hand, if members are convinced that the information is not relevant to their cause, their behaviours will reflect an indifference to that information.

Hyman (1942) advanced the conceptualization of reference group theory. He defined 'subjective status' as 'a person's conception of his own position relative to other individuals' ( Hyman & Singer, 1968 : 147). He was the first researcher to formally use the term 'reference group'. A year later, in 1943, Newcomb conducted a study of social attitudes among students at Bennington College in Vermont entitled Personality and Social Change - Attitude Formation in a Student Community . In 'Personality Pattern and Community Role', a chapter on personality, Newcomb reported that participants in the study,

...distributed themselves among limited roles... in accordance with already existing and currently developing personality characteristics, and that these characteristics determine which of the roles individuals will assume. ( Newcomb, 1957 : 169)

He maintained that 'It is the community role which mediates between social attitudes and other personality characteristics'. Again, in this example, the attitudes, behaviour, and norms of others (in this case a community group) has some impact on the public and private attitudes, behaviour, and norms of individuals.

Stouffer et al. (1949) conducted an important post World War II study which advanced interest in the area of reference group theory. The study explored the concept of relative deprivation, a close cousin to the concept of comparative reference group, by examining various contradictions and feelings of satisfaction or deprivation of soldiers serving at different duty levels: veteran combat soldiers, non-combat soldiers, and replacement soldiers for combat veterans. The researchers reported that the soldiers' sense of deprivation was not dependent on any absolute service level, but was relative to the perceived level in the groups with which the soldiers compared themselves ( Stouffer, et al . , 1949, vol. 2: 125-128).

Although the American Soldier was a classic study in reference group research, the concepts of the theory did not come into prominence until Merton & Kitt (1950) published the results of synthesized studies involving reference groups and offered detailed discussions on research related to the field of reference group theory, introducing a new concept, anticipatory socialization. They argued that anticipatory socialization occurred when individuals chose as a reference group, a non-membership group, and began to socialize themselves to what they perceived to be the group's norms. This type of mental socialization occurred before individuals are ever exposed to the group's real influence ( Hyman & Singer, 1968 : 11). Their article also touched on concepts relating to multiple reference groups.

Since the Merton & Kitt study, concepts of reference group theory have appeared and been used in studies involving such groups as farmers, scientists, drunkards, and newspapermen. The theory was also used in such areas as mental illness, formal organization, marketing, public relations, mass communication, acculturation, political behaviour, consumer behaviour, juvenile delinquency and opinion studies ( Hyman, 1968 : 355; Schmitt, 1972 : 1). Shibutani (1955) addressed some of the problems relating to multiple reference group theory in an article entitled 'Reference Groups as Perspectives'.

In describing the five bases of group power, French & Raven (1959) touched on an unique concept related to reference group theory, referent power 1 . They maintained that the referent power of a group has its basis in the identification of an individual with a group. Identification here means a feeling of oneness of the individual with the group, or the desire for such an identity. If a reference group is an attractive group for individuals, then the individuals will have a feeling of membership or a desire to join ( French & Raven, 1959 : 161). French & Raven maintained that individuals' identification with the group can only be established or maintained if individuals behave, believe, and perceive as the group does. As a result, the group has the ability to influence individuals, even though individuals may not be aware of it (the group's referent power) (Ibid.: 161-162). The study also addressed concepts of membership and non-membership reference group status, and emphasized that both groups induce a certain amount of power over individuals. Influenced by French & Raven's work, Hyman & Singer maintain that 'membership groups often have power, even when the individual does not take them as reference groups, to extract conformity in behaviour through brutish means of deception, demotion, and isolation' ( Hyman & Singer, 1968 : 10). 2

In more recent investigations involving reference group theory Hurado et al. (1994) conducted a study that explored how history and macro-social structures impact individual types of behaviour in Mexican and Chicano immigrants. They reported that differences between immigrants and ethnic groups are due largely to changes in the immigrants' reference groups as they compare themselves to a wider population of people, who either do or do not promote acceptance of traditional American culture. Wade & Gelso (1998) conducted a study that explored the question of why men vary in their masculinity ideology, and in their conformity to certain standards of masculinity. Pendleton & Chatman (1998) alluded to abstractions of reference group theory in introducing four new theoretical concepts: social norms, world view, social types, and information behaviour. 3 In describing 'world view', a concept they reported had tremendous effects on the 'value people attached to information', Pendleton & Chatman stated:

... world view is a comprehensive philosophy... a system of shared experiences that provides an outlook or point of view. It serves as a measure to gauge one's role, position, status, etc., within a network of similar others and to assess the relevance of events, people, happenings, and so on, in the larger social world. ( Pendleton & Chatman, 1968 : 736)

In this definition of worldview, reference group theory is implied because common experiences are shared by a group of people, and it if from these experiences that individuals evaluate what for them is appropriate behaviour, norms, and values. As with most situations in life, we articulate those things that are important to us in light of how others will accept our explanation of what constitutes important. In the case of reference group theory, it is that which has a particular life that signifies both historical and cultural meaning. As we have attempted to convey throughout this article, information is the means in which this process happens. Even when information is ignored, there is some meaning that is shared among the small world of reference group life; namely, that this information does not add to one's social class, ethnic, or cultural knowledge. Therefore, the information does not have a part to play in their real or symbolic world. Following this brief examination of the contextual use of information within an understanding of reference group theory, we recapitulate the following central attributes which are essential to reference group theory:

Socially, individuals are influenced by groups they believe are important;
Individuals use certain groups as a guide as to how they should behave (normative reference groups);
Individuals use groups as a basis for comparing themselves to other individuals or other groups (comparative reference groups);
Individuals can and do use more than one group as a reference guide (multiple reference groups); and
Certain groups that individuals use as a point of reference possess the power to influence the attitudes and behaviour of individuals who may or may not be members of the group.

The literature also indicates that the roots of reference group theory can be found in the field of social psychology, and that the concepts involved in this philosophical framework are from some perspectives simple, and from other viewpoints quite complex. Nonetheless, through the systematic use of reference group theory, information and predictions regarding the attitudes, behaviours, norms, and values of certain individuals and groups can be enhanced. The next section will discuss the theory further by examining the constructs of influence, power, and solidarity, and describing how they relate to concepts of reference group theory.

Constructs and basic concepts

There are several possible constructs that could be used in investigations based upon reference group theory. For the purpose of this article, the constructs influence, power, and solidarity will be utilized. Brief definitions of these constructs are offered below:

Influence is a term used to denote changes in behaviour of a person or group due to anticipation of the responses of others ( Gould & Kolb, 1964 , p. 332). For example, libraries and other information providing organizations are adjusting, re-designing, and creating new theories that relate to system designs, collection development, and other user services, based on and influenced by the information worlds and needs of the different social groups. As the population of Hispanics, African Americans, physically and mentally challenged people, women, etc. continue to increase, and special populations like native American and senior citizens solicit specific resources and services, such concerns have influenced information centers to the point of adjusting their traditional (European-centered) networks, and incorporating new systems that seek to address and meet the information needs of more ethnic and social groups.
Power is the ability to influence and control others while resisting their influence and control. Control here means to dominate valuable resources ( Johnson & Johnson, 1996 , p. 403). For example, information providers have the power to help change and even save lives because they have access to and can help relay to different groups important information about real-world concerns such as housing, health care, education, and employment.
Solidarity refers to a belief in the collective sharing of aims, interests, and norms ( Marshall, 1994 , p. 503). An example of solidarity is the collective effort of libraries and other information centers to incorporate the information worlds, and more specifically the information-seeking behaviour, of different groups into traditional information science theory and practice, in efforts to provide service to broader user populations. One of information centers' major collective challenges for the new millennium will be finding methods of helping minorities and underprivileged groups obtain more equitable access to information technology.

From these three constructs, several basic concepts will be developed for use in this study. These concepts include:

Reference Groups
Normative Reference Groups
Comparative Reference Groups
Referent Power
Social Mobility
Anticipatory Socialization

Clarification

The following are brief clarifications of concepts basic to reference group theory and its application in this article.

A group is described as a social unit which consists of a number of individuals who stand in (more or less) definite status and role relationships to one another and which possesses a set of values or norms of its own. This set of values regulates the behaviour of individual members, at least in matters of consequence to the group ( Sherif, 1948 ).

Reference group theory distinguishes two types of phenomena-normative reference groups and comparative reference groups ( Hyman, 1942 , Sherif, 1948 ). As indicated earlier, researchers like Sherif, Newcomb and Merton have used like definitions to develop a basic theory relating to the influences of reference groups.

A normative reference group is described as a group in which individuals are motivated to gain or maintain acceptance. To promote this acceptance, individuals hold their attitudes in conformity with what they perceive to be the consensus of opinion (norms) among the group members ( Kelley, 1952 ). In normative reference group theory, the group sets and enforces standards for individuals. Such standards are often referred to as group norms; thus we have the "normative function" of reference groups.

A comparative reference group is used to describe a group which individuals use as a standard or point of reference in making evaluations or comparisons of themselves and of other individuals or groups. In comparative reference group theory, evaluations of the individual by members of the reference group is largely irrelevant ( Kelley, 1952 ). In regard to comparative reference groups, the group is merely a standard or checkpoint which individuals or others use to make judgments ( Kelley, 1952 ).

In relation to the field of information science, Olson , (1998) used concepts of comparative reference group theory in her discussion of bias in the internationally-used Dewey Decimal Classification (DDC) system when the system is viewed as a social construct. In comparing the knowledge domains, information culture, and information-seeking habits of the group(s) that created the DDC system (presumably the authoritative, powerful and privileged) with other groups, the author maintained that many traditional social classification networks are "bounded systems that marginalize some groups" (p. 233). She suggested that information providers utilize alternative theoretical frameworks based on the geographical knowledge domain, information culture, and information-seeking habits of different groups to develop more meaningful classification systems for all groups using the system. 4

The distinction between normative and comparative reference groups is important in that both groups have their own unique sets of theoretical and research problems ( Kelley, 1952 ). Kelley maintained that the distinction helps emphasize that, in order to develop a more complete and comprehensive theory of reference groups, researchers must integrate a variety of perceptual and motivational phenomena. Additionally, the distinction between normative and comparative reference groups help emphasize the fact that reference groups can serve many different functions for individuals and groups. Although the two are often times regarded as separate, they are both equally important, in regard to scientific investigations ( Kelley, 1952 ).

Multiple reference groups are described as the numerous reference groups individuals use in appraising the many facets of the self. Each of the various reference groups is specialized as a point of comparison for one particular dimension ( Hyman, 1942 ; Stouffer et al. , 1949 ; Turner, 1955 ). In forming the total disposition of an individual's attitudes, several reference groups may be employed; each may be accorded a limited jurisdiction over some specialized attitude sphere. Hyman (1942) maintained that influences from multiple reference groups can also result in internal or social discord for individuals when the values and or behaviours of one of the individual's reference groups contrast or conflict with the values and behaviours of another group that the same individual uses as a reference point. For example, teenagers may experience inner and social strife because the attitudes, behaviour, and norms of their peer group contrasts or conflicts with the attitudes, behaviours, and norms of their family group. Graduate students may experience internal and societal discord because the attitudes, behaviour, and values of the academic world may contrast or conflict with the attitudes, behaviour, and values of their private-life world. Library users from various cultures may experience social and informational perplexities because the attitudes, norms, and information world of their unique groups may contrast or conflict with the attitudes, norms, and information world of traditional European-centered American culture.

In the area of library and information studies, in order to promote the use of information technology among different communities of library users, many researchers are calling for computerized information networks that are designed with some consideration of the users' information-seeking habits and cultural orientations. Researchers like Dervin (1989, 1995), Dervin, et al. , (1996), Kuhlthau (1993), Nisenbaum (1994) and Liu (1995) posit that libraries and information providers must recognize that they provide service to many diverse groups of people; because of this, modern information exchange systems should be designed while keeping "multiple" user groups or reference groups in mind. "It is important that libraries respond to this fact by reflecting diversity in both their collections and services ... librarians must understand other cultures, be aware of the information needs and information seeking behaviour of patrons with multicultural backgrounds" ( Liu, 1995 : 123).

Referent power is described as the perceived status, standards, position, value or prestige of groups which influence individuals to seek membership into its ranks. In distinguishing between referent power and other kinds of power, what makes referent power unique is the authority or freedom of the group to mediate punishments and rewards to the extent that the individual avoids discomfort or gains satisfaction by conforming based on identification with the group.

Social mobility is described as occurring when individuals transfer their membership from one reference group to another. This concept refers to the relations of multiple reference groups within a sequence or prescribed order in a social hierarchy ( Merton & Kitt, 1950 ). The relationship(s) between multiple reference groups within a sequence can expose many new, thought-provoking problems. Discussions of social mobility sometimes assume that the past and future reference groups conflict, since individuals presumably wish to break their ties to the old, inferior group.

However, Litwak (1960), presented an interesting perspective, using the concept of the "stepping stone" reference orientation. Litwak argued that in a situation characterized by ordered change, "where integration into one group is considered to be a prerequisite for integration into a second group... it is possible for the individual to view both his current membership group and his future membership group as reference groups, without endangering his integration into his current group and without preventing his joining a different future group" ( Litwak, 1960 : 72-73). Each group is valued by the individual as a steppingstone to help the individual advance-until he or she finally reaches the true reference group of his or her choice.

To offer an operational illustration of "stepping stone" social mobility, let us again use an example in the field of information science and technology. Many information science studies indicate that information-poor groups pay a high personal and societal price in the guises of lower incomes, higher unemployment, higher school drop-out rates, higher prison rates, higher juvenile delinquency rates, and in the long run, higher death rates ( Faces of Poverty , 1996 ; Jones, 1996 ; Statistical Abstract , 1997). Information-poor groups, by becoming members of the group(s) that utilize technology, can use the (informational) benefits to help them secure more appropriate and timely data, which hopefully will lead to, or become, a "stepping stone" towards better, safer, and more satisfying lives. In stepping stone reference group orientation, the two concepts of multiple reference groups and social mobility are often at work simultaneously ( Litwak, 1960 ).

Additionally, many studies report that for numerous reasons there is a widening information gap between America's majority and minority populations ( Angwin, 1998 ; Chatman & Pendleton, 1995 ; Greenberg, Bradley, & Dervin, 1970 ; Hoffman, 1996 ; and Lohr, 1996 ). Studies that examine minority groups and technology, like the one conducted by Hoffman & Novak (1998), often indicate that education and economics are major factors causing the information gap between majority and minority populations. 5 Logically, the more a group uses technology, the more information that group is aware of and has available to help meet various information needs. Thus, information-poor groups can change the aforementioned societal indicators for the better, and become more socially empowered and economically competitive, by seeking membership into groups (becoming part of groups) that utilize and benefit from the advancements of modern information technology. 6

Anticipatory socialization is described as occurring when individuals assume the attitudes, behaviours, and values of a group to which they aspire to belong, but in reality are not members. The individuals begin to socialize themselves to what they perceive to be the group's norms before they are ever exposed to them ( Merton & Kitt, 1950 ; Eulau, 1962 ). Individuals may also take as a reference group a non-membership group and try to imitate its norms. To a large extent, anticipatory socialization renders evidence of the referent power of some groups in that, although they are not full members, individuals aspire so greatly to identify or belong to the group that they take on the group's attitude, behaviour, and values before being accepted as full members.

Perception is described as the faculty of acquiring sensory experience. It is the process by which individuals gather and interpret information ( Marshall, 1994 ). This concept is important because for individuals to guide themselves by a reference group requires that they have some perception or cognition of the group's norms. However, there are fundamental problems relating to perceptions of accurate reference group norms and behaviours that must be considered. For example, some reference groups may be distant, non-membership groups, and perceptions of these groups' true norms may be vague and erroneous. Even when membership groups function as comparable reference groups, it still may be difficult to determine the group's norms ( Merton, 1957 : 336-353).

Merton (1957) also argued that the degree to which group norms are revealed to individuals may, to some degree, depend on the individuals' position or status in that group. Individuals' deviation from the model behaviour of a group may be due to inaccurate norms and behaviour that they have assumed are accurate for the group. Individuals may conform to behaviours of a group because they think they are in accordance with the normal group pattern. In reality, they may be deviating from the pattern because, for some reason, they have misinterpreted the true norms of the group. The conditions of the environment and the psychological process can help or obstruct perception. Some organized groups announce their views or norms to members and outsiders. Information regarding the groups' norms are diffused or passed on via word-of-mouth and mass communication vehicles. Factors like self-appointed communicators may distort information being routed to individuals. Sometimes, the diffusion process itself, which ideally should be perceived as neutral, may also misconstrue information by the time the data finally reaches individuals. Such distorted data could lead to inaccurate perceptions and interpretations of a group's true and accurate norms.

Some organized groups do not announce many of their views all of the time. A group's norms may be confusing on particular issues which are not shared throughout the organization, are exceedingly complex in nature, or are not distinctive from those of other groups. One benefit to individuals seeking to identify the accurate norms and behaviours of certain groups is the notion of time.

Basic propositions

For individuals, reference groups are paramount or central focusing groups used as a standard for measuring the relevance of other groups. Individuals seek membership into certain groups because of the groups' perceived status and the benefits gained from belonging to such groups. Groups possess power through their ability to influence individuals who desire to become members. Groups also have power in that they have the authority to admit or deny admission to individuals. Individuals desiring to become members of a certain group will assume the normative attitudes and behaviours of that group even before they have been granted full membership. With this thesis statement in mind, the following propositions have been developed: 7

Individuals seek affiliation with groups they perceive as having desirable social status.
Individuals choose reference groups so that in their imagination, or ultimately in reality, they can feel themselves part of a more favored group.
Individuals choose certain groups to advance themselves in society.
Individuals, in order to guide themselves by a reference group, must have some perception or cognition of the group's norms.
Some groups, because of their unique characteristics, are perceived to have greater social status and power than other groups.
Some groups are selective in regard to which individuals they admit as members.

Application of reference group theory to information behaviour research

According to federal census records, America's diverse population continues to increase. For information providers, new and old issues concerning services to community groups are being discussed and studied. Because information-seeking patterns reveal how people go about finding answers to help solve problems, it is important for information providers to understand that "information-seeking behavior must be viewed within the context of end-users' cultural experience" ( Liu, 1995 ).

Modern-day research indicates that barriers, in the form of communication, more specifically language, different conceptual awareness, different learning patterns, and even gender, all contribute to some degree in varying cultural information-seeking patterns ( Metoyer-Duran, 1993 ). Information professionals, like libraries, are calling for and developing new information systems based on the information-seeking habits and knowledge domains of the numerous and different user populations they serve ( Olson, 1998 ). Studies also concur that it is important for libraries and information centers / providers, whose main job is to meet the information needs of the communities and constituents they serve, to acknowledge diversity in both their collections and services in efforts to more adequately and equitably meet the information needs of all their users. In order to do this, information professionals must understand and be aware of the information needs and information-seeking behavior of different groups.

Pendleton & Chatman (1998) agree that new methods of identifying different groups of people that libraries serve, and the groups' respective information behavior, should be developed. They offered a simple and logical synopsis in their argument that the cultural worlds of individuals play a major role in forming "standards" for the individuals' information-seeking behavior. In their encouragement of more research based on the social worlds of "ordinary people", the theorists maintain, "It is also difficult, if not impossible, to respond to information needs if we do not have a clear understanding of the situations that generated those needs" (p. 733). Thus, the use of reference group theory can be important to information professionals in their efforts to extend their services to more and different populations.

The concepts of reference group theory are useful to the field of library and information studies in that data derived from such research can offer information about the social worlds of different groups, and consequently help to predict and identify the information behavior and needs of these groups. As a result, the theory can be used to assist information professionals in developing products and programs that more appropriately meet the information needs and fit the information patterns of a wider and more diverse library service population.

In this paper, we have revealed the merit that reference group theory can bring to studies of human interactions within a world of information need and use. In addressing the historical development of the theory, we allow for more narrow boundaries to be placed on how people perceive the value of the information that modifies and shapes their social values. In looking at how reference group theory adds to a group's sense of reality, we indicated that part of the answer lies within the complexity of the interaction between group norms and the formation of those norms into a reference group.

Among the factors that we found significant was the enormous power that the theory has in explaining how ordinary people come to view themselves as empowered as a result of belonging to a reference group. We see this finding as providing a fruitful way to explore what roles information behaviors play within this context. Moreover, we suggest that this process is the fabric that makes for a social life, and that members have devised a way to manifest this life through true dependency on one another in order to sustain the most treasured and valued norms that define them as a group. It is our understanding that information, as a product of that world, allows members to deal with the essential definitions of daily living.

In sum then, considering the above factors and the overall content of this article, it seems reasonable to assume that research that applies concepts of reference group theory to various aspects of library and information studies can provide valuable data useful in enhancing areas such as collection development, special library studies, systems design, and other user services. The most promising contribution in relations to knowledge gained from this essay is the direction it provides for further theoretical development. Moreover, the implications for studies of information needs and use are numerous. For instance, research with a strong theoretical base can address ways in which the information needs of growing and diverse populations make use of information in response to the uniqueness of the groups' social worlds.

1. In this study the authors examined various types of social power. They identified and defined five major social powers or influences: (1) reward power, an individual's perception that a group (in this case) has the ability to mediate rewards for him or her; (2) coercive power, an individual's perception that a group has the ability to mediate punishment for him or her; (3) legitimate power, an individual's perception that a group has a legitimate right to prescribe behaviour for him or her; (4) expert power, an individual's perception that a group has some special knowledge or expertness; (5) referent power, an individual's identification with a group, ( French & Raven, 1959 : 155-165)

2. For other studies on the concept of referent power see Festinger , (1950), and "Informal Social Communication", Psychological Review , 57 (1950): 271-282, and Lippitt, Polansky, & Rosen (1952).

3. In this article, the authors weave through a maze of different cultures in introducing four new conceptual schemes: social norms, world view, social types, and information behaviour, which were used to explain the social and information worlds or "ordinary people". Citing ethnographic studies on Indians in California, customers at a liquor store and bar in a poor urban community, women at a maximum security prison, daughters of Jewish immigrants, drug addicts in a Chicago housing project, customers in a pornographic bookstore, and New York flim-flammers called jackals, the researchers demonstrate how each of these groups conceptualize various phenomena, and why such phenomena is important and valuable to members of these "small worlds." The authors argue that public libraries are the "common man's university", and are obligated to meet the information needs of common people. But they must first must obtain an understanding as to what those needs are. Pendleton & Chatman posit that the four conceptual schemes can help information professionals develop this understanding. In the article, the authors also emphasize the use of qualitative research as a valid method of gathering and analyzing information, ( Pendleton & Chatman, 1998 : 743-744).

4. Other researchers in the area of library and information science calling for information professionals to create more diverse, user-orientated information network systems include researchers such as Kuhlthau, Dervin, & Nilan, Pendleton & Chatman. Also see a 1997 study by Robbin & Frost-Kumpf , and a 1991 study Yee . The latter study was conducted in Australia and sought to create a national center for cross cultural studies in information science and library-related teacher training. Additionally, the project sought to develop a collection of instructional resources for community languages and cultures, and to promote multicultural perspectives within school - instructor library courses. Chapter 5 offers seven cross-cultural training modules, one of which is entitled "Information Needs and Uses".

5. Hoffman & Novak , (1998) explored differences in regard to computer access and use between European Americans and African Americans. One of the authors' main research questions was rather race, income, or education impacted computer access and use. Study results indicated that European Americans are more likely to have computers in their homes, and use the World Wide Web than African Americans. The researchers also reported that regardless of race, the higher the household income, the more likelihood of that household owning a computer. The authors maintained that if access to technology is more readily available to African Americans, the number of African Americans using computers and the WWW will increase.

6. Other studies that examine information technology, equity of use, and racial factors include: "Falling Through the Net II: New Data on the Digital Divide," conducted in 1998 by the National Telecommunications and Information Administration ; and a 1991 study, "Technology and Equity", by Delia Neuman .

7. Admittance into one group does not necessarily mean that individuals have to relinquish membership in previous or other groups. Additionally, applications of reference group theory can be valuable in exploring questions such as what special characteristics make up a reference group, and what factors are involved that make certain groups meaningful and attractive to individuals?

Angwin, Julia. (1998) Majority of internet surfers are white. The San Francisco Chronicle , April 17, 133, A-1.
Chatman, Elfreda A., & Victoria Pendleton. (1995) "Knowledge gap; Information-seeking and the poor." The Reference Librarian , 49/50, 135-145.
Cooley, Charles Horton. (1902) Human nature and the social order . Charles Scribner’s Sons; reprint, New York, New York: Schocken Books, 1964. (page citations are to the reprint edition).
Dervin, Brenda. (1989) "Users as research inventions: How research categories perpetuate inequities." Journal of Communication , 39, (3), 216-232.
Dervin, Brenda. (Oct. 31, 1995) "The relationship of user-centered evaluation to design: Addressing issues of productivity and power." Comments delivered at 37th Allerton Institute on how we do user-centered design and evaluation of digital libraries: A methodological forum, Allerton Park and Conference Center, University of Illinois, Monticello, IL.
Dervin, B., Bates, M., Case, D., Fidel, R., Kuhlthau, C., & Marchionini, G. (Feb. 16-17, 1996) "Report of the break-out group on information needs and information seeking." Presented at the UCLA-NSF workshop on social aspects of digital libraries, Los Angeles, CA. (Report dated April 9, 1996)
Dervin, Brenda, & Michael S. Nilan. (1986) "Information needs and users." Annual Review of Information Science and Technology , 21, 3-33.
DuBois, W.E.B. (1903). The souls of black folk . Millwood, New York: Kraus-Thomson; reprint, New York: Dodd, Mead & Company, 1973. (page citations are to the reprint edition).
Eulau, Heinz. (1962) Class and party in the Eisenhower years; Class roles and perspectives in the 1952 and 1956 elections . New York: Free Press of Glencoe.
Faces of poverty . (1996) New York: United Nations Department of Public Information.
Festinger, Leon. (1950) "Informal social communication." Psychological Review , 57, 271-282.
French, John R., & Bertram Raven. (1959) "The bases of social power." In: Studies in social power , edited by Dorwin Cartwright. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press. pp. 150-167.
Greenberg, Bradley & Brenda Dervin. (1970) Use of the mass media by the urban poor . New York: Praeger Publishers.
Gould, Julius, & William L. Kolb, Eds. (1964) A dictionary of the social sciences . New York: Free Press of Glencoe.
Hoffman, Donna. (December, 1996) "Internet and web use in the U.S." Communications of the ACM , 39, (12), 36-47.
Hoffman, Donna L., & Thomas P. Novak. (April 17, 1998) "Bridging the digital divide: The impact of race on computer access and internet use." Science , 280, 390.
Hurtado, Aida, Patricia Gurin, & Timothy Peng. (1994) "Social identities - A framework for studying the adaptations of immigrants and ethnics: The adaptations of Mexicans in the United States." Social Problems , 41, 1, 129.
Hyman, Herbert H. (1942) "The psychology of status." Archives of Psychology , 269, 5-91. Reprint in H. Hyman & E.Singer (Eds.), Readings in reference group theory and research (pp. 147-165). New York: Free Press, London: Collier-Macmillan Limited. (Page citations are to the reprint edition).
Hyman, Herbert H. (1968) "Reference Groups." In: David Sills (Ed.), International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences , vol. 13, edited by Davis Sills. New York: Macmillan Company & Free Press. pp. 353-359.
Hyman, Herbert H., & Eleanor Singer, Eds. (1968) Readings in reference group theory and research . New York: Free Press, London: Collier-Macmillan Limited.
Johnson, David W., & Frank P. Johnson. (1996) Joining together: Group theory and group skills . Boston, Mass: Allyn & Bacon.
Jones, Joseph. (1996) Non-violent models in violent communities: A crime prevention model for African American urban neighborhoods . San Francisco, London, Bethesda: Austin & Winfield.
Kelley, Harold H. (1952) "Two functions of reference groups." In: Society for the psychological study of social issues, readings in social psychology . Edited by Guy Swanson, Theodore Newcomb, & Eugene Hartley. New York: Holt. pp. 410-414. Reprint in: Readings in reference group theory and research , Edited by H. Hyman & E.Singer. New York: Free Press, London: Collier-Macmillan Limited. pp. 77-83. (Page citations are to the reprint edition).
Kuhlthau, Carol C. (1993) Seeking meaning: A process approach to library and information services . Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
Lippitt, Ronald, Norman Polansky, & Sidney Rosen (1952) "The Dynamics of Power." Human Relations , 5, 37-54.
Litwak, Eugene. (1960) "Reference group theory, bureaucratic career, and neighborhood primary group cohesion." Sociometry , 23, 72-73.
Liu, Mengxiong. (1995) "Ethnicity and information seeking." The Reference Librarian 49/50, 123-134.
Lohr, Steve. (Oct. 21, 1996) "A nation ponders its growing digital divide;Weighing costs of information access for every school and library." The New York Times , 145, C-5.
Marshall, Gordon, (Ed.) (1994) Concise Oxford dictionary of sociology . Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
Merton, Robert King. (1957) "Continuities in the theory of reference groups and social structure." In: Robert K. Merton, Social theory and social structure , . Glencoe, IL: Free Press.
Merton, Robert K., & Alice Kitt. (1950) "Contributions to the theory of reference group behavior." Glencoe, Illinois: Free Press. (Reprinted in part from Studies in the scope and method of "The American soldier." Edited by R.K. Merton & Paul Lazarfeld. Glencoe, IL: Free Press.
Metoyer-Duran, Cheryl. (1993) "The information and referral process in culturally diverse communities." Research Quarterly , spring, 359-371.
National Telecommunications and Information Administration. (1998) Falling through the Net II: new data on the digital divide. . Washington, DC: National Telecommunications and Information Administration. [Available at: http://www.ntia.doc.gov/ntiahome/net2/falling.html - site visited 17th April 2001]
Neuman, Delia (1991) Technology and equity. Syracuse, NY: ERIC Clearinghouse. [ERIC Report ED339400] ERIC Digest available at http://www.ed.gov/databases/ERIC_Digests/ed339400.html - site visited 17th April 2001
Newcomb, Theodore M. (1947, 1952, 1958) "Attitude development as a function of reference groups: The Bennington study." In: Readings in social psychology . Edited by E. Maccoby, T. Newcomb, & E. Hartley. Holt, Rinehart & Winston. pp 265-275.
Newcomb, Theodore M. (1943, 1957) Personality and social change: Attitude formation in a student community . New York: Dryden Press. Reprint, New York: Dryden Press, 1957. (Page citations are to the reprint edition).
Nisenbaum, Paul. (Winter,1994) "Building flexible user interfaces: Design must conform to user goals." Information Systems Management , 62-67.
Olson, Hope. (1998) " Mapping beyond Dewey’s boundaries: Constructing classificatory space for marginalized knowledge domains." Library Trends , 47, (2), 233-254.
Pendleton, Victoria E., & Elfreda Chatman. (1998) "Small worlds: Implications for the public library." Library Trends , 46, (4), 732-752.
Robbin, Alice & Lee Frost-Kumpf (1997) "Extending Theory for user-centered information services: Diagnosing and learning from error in complex statistical data." Journal of the American Society for Information Science , 48 (2), 96-121.
Schmitt, Raymond L. (1972) The reference other orientation: An extension of the reference group concept . Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press.
Sherif, Muzafer. (1948) An outline of social psychology . New York: Harper & Brothers Publishers.
Shibutani, Tamotsu. (1955) "Reference groups as perspectives." In: Readings in reference group theory and research . Edited by H. Hyman and E. Singer New York: Free Press. pp. 103-114.
Statistical abstract of the United States . (1997) Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census.
Stouffer, Samuel A., et al. (1949) The American soldier: Adjustment during army life, vol. 1; Combat and Its Aftermath , vol. 2. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Turner, Ralph. (1955) "Reference groups of future oriented men." Social Forces , 34, 130-136.
Wade, Jay C., & Charles J. Gelso. (1998) "Reference group identity dependence scales: A measure of male identity, male reference group identity dependence." The Counseling Psychologist , 26, (3), 384-411.
Yee, Hua Min (1991) Cross cultural studies for teacher-librarians : a project funded under the Multicultural and Cross-Cultural Supplementation Program (MACSP): final report by Hua Min Yee; with the assistance of Len Cairns and Rhonda Renwick. Churchill, Vic.: School of Education, Monash University College Gippsland.

How to cite this paper:

Dawson, E. Murell and Chatman, Elfreda A. (2001) "Reference group theory with implications for information studies: a theoretical essay." Information Research , 6 (3) Available at: http://InformationR.net/6-3/paper105.html

Research article
Open access
Published: 04 August 2022

Laying the foundations of community engagement in Aboriginal health research: establishing a community reference group and terms of reference in a novel research field

Penny O’Brien ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-0334-5288 1 ,
Ryan Prehn 1 ,
Naz Rind 1 ,
Ivan Lin 2 ,
Peter F. M. Choong 1 ,
Dawn Bessarab 3 ,
Juli Coffin 4 ,
Toni Mason 5 ,
Michelle M. Dowsey 1 &
Samantha Bunzli 1

Research Involvement and Engagement volume 8 , Article number: 40 ( 2022 ) Cite this article

7066 Accesses

1 Citations

2 Altmetric

Metrics details

Community engagement or community involvement in Aboriginal health research is a process that involves partnering, collaborating and involving Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people or potential research participants to empower them to have a say in how research with Aboriginal communities is conducted. In the context of Aboriginal health, this is particularly important so that researchers can respond to the priorities of the community under study and conduct research in a way that is respectful of Aboriginal cultural values and beliefs. One approach to incorporating the principals of community engagement and to ensure cultural oversight and guidance to projects is to engage a community reference group. The aim of this study was to describe the process of establishing an Aboriginal community reference group and terms of reference. The community reference group was established to guide the research activities of a newly formed research collaboration aiming to to develop osteoarthritis care that meets the needs of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people in Australia.

Adopting a Participatory Action Research approach, this two-phase study was conducted in Victoria, Australia. In phase one, semi-structured research yarns (a cultural form of conversation used as a data gathering tool) were conducted collaboratively by Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal co-investigators to explore Aboriginal health stakeholder perspectives on establishing a community reference group and terms of reference. In phase two, recommendations in phase one were identified to invite members to participate in the community reference group and to ratify the terms of reference through a focus group. Data were analyzed using a framework analysis approach.

Thirteen people (eight female, four male) participated in phase one. Participants represented diverse professional backgrounds including physiotherapy, nursing, general practice, health services management, hospital liaison, cultural safety education, health research and the arts. Three themes were identified in phase one; Recruitment and Representation (trust and relationships, in-house call-outs, broad-spectrum expertise and Aboriginal majority); Purpose (community engagement, research steering, knowledge dissemination and advocacy) and; Function and Logistics (frequency and format of meetings, size of group, roles and responsibilities, authority, communication and dissemination). In phase two, six Aboriginal people were invited to become members of the community reference group who recommended changes which were incorporated into the seven domains of the terms of reference.

The findings of this study are captured in a 10-step framework which describes practical strategies for establishing a community reference group and terms of reference in Aboriginal health research.

Plain English Summary

Community engagement or community involvement in Aboriginal health research is a process that involves partnering with Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people or potential research participants to empower them to have a say in how research with Aboriginal communities is carried out. In the context of Aboriginal health, this is particularly important so that researchers can respond to the priorities of the community and conduct research in a way that respectful of Aboriginal cultural values and beliefs. One approach to community engagement in research is to form a community reference group to provide input to the research project. Although using a community reference group is considered to be an effective way to involve community members in research, often there are practical challenges in setting up and sustaining such a group. In this paper, we set out to describe an approach used to set up a community reference group for a new Aboriginal health research project exploring joint pain in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people. This involved interviewing 13 health professionals and researchers (12 who identified as Aboriginal and one who identified as Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander) about how to best go about setting up a community reference group. We used recommendations from these participants to inform who we approached to be members of the group and how the group would function. In describing the process we used to establish a community reference group, we were able to design a 10-step practical guide which may help other research groups who are looking to conduct new, ethical Aboriginal health research projects.

Peer Review reports

Community engagement or community involvement in Aboriginal health research is a process that involves partnering, collaborating and involving Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people (respectfully Aboriginal people herewith, see Box 1 ) to empower them to have a say in how research with Aboriginal communities is conducted. It aims to protect and empower participating Aboriginal people and communities and is an ethical requirement in Aboriginal health research [ 1 ]. As with Indigenous peoples of other colonized countries such as Canada, the United States of America (USA) and New Zealand, Aboriginal people in Australia have endured significant health disparities as a result of the impact of colonization and associated race-based government policies [ 2 , 3 ]. Although research provides an opportunity to address persistent health disparities, there remains concern that Indigenous peoples globally have been ‘researched to death’ without corresponding improvements in health [ 4 ]. One way to move forward is by embedding community engagement practices which involve Aboriginal people in all stages of health research from design to implementation and dissemination [ 5 , 6 , 7 ]. This has been described as an entry point to ‘decolonizing methodologies’ and in turn may ensure the ethical integrity and value of the research by shifting the focus away from researchers and to maximising community benefit [ 2 , 6 , 8 ].

Based on the work of the Council for International Organizations of Medical Sciences, community engagement can be defined as ‘a process of engaging potential participants and communities in a meaningful participatory process that involves them in an early and sustained manner in the design, development, implementation and monitoring of research and in the dissemination of its results’ [ 5 , 9 ]. Depending on the context, community engagement can include concepts such as community consultation, communication, education, participation, empowerment, collaboration and partnerships [ 10 , 11 ]. Building partnerships with Aboriginal community representatives enables research which responds to community identified priorities, is guided by Aboriginal people and can facilitate decision making made in accordance with cultural values and beliefs. In addition to gaining insight to community identified priorities, researchers can gain a better understanding of the community under study which in turn informs and transforms the way in which we plan, develop and deliver health care. In a practical sense, engaging Aboriginal health stakeholders (i.e. anyone who has a ‘stake’ in the research, see Box 2 ) [ 12 ] such as Aboriginal health professionals, Aboriginal researchers and Aboriginal community members with lived experience of health conditions can together provide cultural brokerage and practical advice for non-Aboriginal researchers who can take on the role of facilitator [ 12 , 13 ]. Involving stakeholders in research leads to research outcomes of greater quality and clinical relevance due to their being able to contribute unique perspectives and experiential expertise to the expertise of researchers [ 14 , 15 , 16 , 17 ]. This collaborative approach between non-Aboriginal researchers and Aboriginal researchers, services and communities is fundamental to informing, guiding and influencing how Aboriginal health care is designed and delivered and has the potential to help address persistent health disparities between Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal people [ 10 , 18 , 19 , 20 ].

One approach used to incorporate the key elements of community engagement and involve Aboriginal people in Aboriginal health research is to engage a community reference group to provide oversight, input and cultural guidance to research projects [ 5 , 20 ]. Community reference groups formalize the academic-community partnership by providing a mechanism which emphasizes information and power-sharing, mutual respect and reciprocity between community members and researchers [ 5 , 21 ]. The roles and responsibilities of community reference groups vary from project to project, yet activities conducted by the group may include reviewing project documents and study materials, participating in community liaison and communicating community concerns, advocating for the rights of research participants, identifying community priorities and providing advice on study design, implementation and dissemination [ 5 , 6 , 7 ].

While the purpose of a community reference group in Aboriginal health research is to strengthen partnerships, previous research highlights both operational and conceptual challenges in maintaining ongoing community engagement through this strategy [ 5 ]. Challenges include unclear power dynamics or a lack of decision-making influence of the group, financial constraints, mistrust of non-Aboriginal researchers, time commitment, limited capacity of members and issues facilitating group discussions in a way that enables Aboriginal community members a strong voice [ 5 , 6 ]. Failing to address such challenges can lead to weakened partnerships, skepticism about the role of the community reference group or concerns from members that their involvement is ‘tokenistic’ [ 6 , 22 ]. As a guiding body intended to represent the views of the community, there are also inherent challenges surrounding the notion of representation, particularly when working in diverse populations. The question of whom and how communities should be represented is complex.

Despite being endorsed in policies articulated by national research organizations in Australia and internationally, there remains a lack of Aboriginal community engagement in research. A recent systematic review investigating patterns of community engagement in arthritis studies in Canada, USA, Australia and New Zealand found that the majority of arthritis research projects published do not involve Indigenous peoples at meaningful levels, leading to minimal benefit to the participants and communities involved [ 3 ]. Meaningful levels of engagement were defined in this review based on a spectrum of community engagement which includes: informing, consulting, involving, collaborating with; and empowering communities of interest [ 2 , 23 ]. Furthermore, it has been observed by Indigenous health researchers in Canada that although there is interest from Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal researchers to enact the principles of community engagement whilst conducting Aboriginal health research, there is a general uncertainty on how to do so [ 2 ]. This is supported by increasing contributions to literature which describe ideas for improved ethical research and engagement and practices [ 2 , 24 , 25 ]. However, there is a lack of primary research which describes recommendations or practical guidance for health researchers and practitioners on how to engage Aboriginal people and communities in community engagement practices. Therefore, the aim of this study was to provide a practical example of how to establish a community reference group and terms of reference within a Participatory Action Research (PAR) framework [ 26 ]. By demonstrating this process within a novel area of Aboriginal health research, we also aimed to present practical recommendations within this context to inform future research groups.

Project context and setting

The ecco collaboration, addressing a novel aboriginal health area.

The Enhancing Equity, Collaboration and Culturally secure Osteoarthritis care for Aboriginal Australians (ECCO) collaboration is a national inter-professional team of Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal health practitioners, health service staff, and research leaders that was established in response to an unaddressed health care gap; the mismatch between the burden of osteoarthritis and access to appropriate care. Cultural security in health care occurs when services are offered by the health system in a way that will not compromise the cultural rights, values, beliefs, knowledge systems and expectations of Aboriginal people [ 27 ]. The objective of the ECCO collaboration is to build an evidence-based model of osteoarthritis care that addresses the needs of Aboriginal people. Establishing a community reference group was a foundational step to building partnerships within the ECCO collaboration as well as between ECCO and external health services and Aboriginal community members.

Research methods

Ethical considerations.

This project follows the National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) guidelines for ethical conduct for research involving Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander People and Communities [ 1 ]. Aboriginal community engagement and consultation was at the core of this project. Each of the six values of spirit and integrity, cultural continuity, equity, reciprocity, respect, and responsibility have been addressed in ethics applications approved by St Vincent’s Hospital Melbourne Human Research Ethics Committee [HREC185/19].

Study design

This qualitative study was guided by the principle of cultural security (Box 2 ), which in the context of research refers to processes that ensure that research is conducted in a manner respectful of Aboriginal cultural values and beliefs [ 27 ]. This consideration is essential for ethical purposes [ 1 ], improves data quality and ensures that the interpretation incorporates an Aboriginal cultural lens [ 13 , 27 ]. For example, culturally secure research methods such as yarning, an Aboriginal cultural form of conversation, were used as a data gathering tool [ 28 ]. Research yarning is acknowledged as being able to prioritize the lived experience and cultural context of Aboriginal participants [ 28 ]. Research yarning aligns with Aboriginal ways of knowing and doing, such as the use of storytelling. It ensures interviews and focus groups are informal, relaxed and requires the researcher to build a relationship that is accountable to Aboriginal people participating in the research [ 28 ].

The overarching theoretical framework was PAR [ 26 ]. Participatory Action Research is a framework for conducting research and generating knowledge which seeks to situate power within the research processes with those who are most affected by the research [ 29 ]. Participatory Action Research frameworks are considered particularly relevant for Indigenous peoples as the approach can help minimize the impact of ‘colonizing effects’ by shifting the power away from the dominant cultural perspective [ 26 ]. At the core of PAR is that power be deliberately shared between researchers and the researched by ensuring that those being researched are actively involved in the research process [ 26 ]. In this study, we were guided by the principals of PAR to establish a community reference group, who would then be engaged in an ongoing PAR research framework throughout all future Aboriginal health research activities conducted by the ECCO collaboration.

Aboriginal capacity building

Central to this project and the ECCO collaboration more broadly, is building clinical and Aboriginal research capacity in musculoskeletal health. At the outset of this project, we appointed an Aboriginal co-investigator (NR) with a background in nursing and an interest in health and medical research. With no prior research experience, NR worked alongside a female qualitative researcher (PO) with extensive experience conducting interviews with diverse populations and a background in social science. PO supported NR to develop research skills, whilst NR was able to provide cultural guidance on the research activities and a connection to members of the local Aboriginal community. By the conclusion of this study, the ECCO collaboration had appointed a second, male Aboriginal co-investigator (RP) to ensure gender balance within the research team. With a background in sociology and Indigenous studies, RP also participated in training and professional development including qualitative data collection and analysis for the purpose of this project. RP also provided extensive cultural guidance and support with intercultural communication throughout the project. By working collaboratively with Aboriginal co-investigators, the research team ensured mutual benefit and reciprocity between Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal researchers.

Participants and recruitment

To recruit members to our community reference group and to inform the development of the terms of reference, we started by interviewing participants from our target population. Our participants were key informants who represented different stakeholders. Stakeholders were defined as anyone who has a ‘stake’ in the research, in particular those with important knowledge, experiences, expertise or views that should be taken into account [ 12 ]. Eligible participants were Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander adults residing in Victoria, Australia who spoke English and represented stakeholder perspectives in Aboriginal health and Aboriginal health research or perspectives of Aboriginal people who experience osteoarthritis. Initially, participants were purposively sampled by drawing on existing networks of project staff. This was augmented by snowball sampling, where enrolled participants recommended additional key informants from within their social, professional and family networks [ 30 ]. NR made initial contact with potential participants to gauge their interest in participating in a one-hour research yarn. Interested individuals were sent the study information and had the opportunity to ask questions before providing verbal informed consent to participate.

Data collection

Data were collected in two phases. Phase one involved semi-structured research yarns which aimed to explore stakeholder perspectives of establishing a representative Aboriginal community reference group and to inform the development of a draft terms of reference. Phase two involved a culturally secure consensus focus group with the established community reference group to ratify the terms of reference [ 31 ] (see Fig. 1 ). In phase one, data were collected by PO or PO and NR collaboratively, through semi-structured yarning interviews with participants between March 2020 and November 2020. Participants who expressed an interest in participating were offered the option of face-to-face, phone or teleconferencing yarns at a time convenient to them, however due to COVID-19 restrictions at the time of data collection, only two face-to-face research yarns were able to be conducted. While all participants were offered the option of having an Aboriginal co-investigator present at their interview, three participants declined this offer due to having an existing professional relationship with the first author, signaling that they felt comfortable to proceed one-to-one. The yarning schedule was designed in collaboration between Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal members of the research team and was guided by the NHMRC Model Framework on Community and Consumer Involvement in Research [ 14 ] as well as domains commonly covered in terms of reference documents (purpose, authority, decision making, roles and responsibilities, governance and function). These domains were also informed by examples of terms of reference for Aboriginal reference groups previously established by senior Aboriginal researchers within the ECCO collaboration (see example semi-structured yarning schedule in Additional file 1 ). Each research yarn commenced with a social yarn, enabling trust to be fostered with each participant before moving into the research yarn [ 28 ]. Research yarns lasted between 35 and 90 min, with an average length of 53 min. All participants were given the opportunity to review their transcript upon their request to check that it accurately reflected their experiences. One participant reviewed their transcript before approving it to be included in the final sample.

Overarching methods

In phase two, we used recommendations identified from participant research yarns about the composition of a representative community reference group to invite six Aboriginal people to become members of the ECCO community reference group (ECRG). Four out of six invited members participated in phase one of this study. All invited members consented to join the group and to participate in a culturally secure focus group during the first ECRG meeting. The purpose of the focus group was to come to agreement on, and formalize, the draft terms of reference document developed in phase one of this study. RP and PO both facilitated the focus group. The focus group was adapted from the consensus group technique outlined by List et al. [ 31 ], however we embedded strategies to enhance the cultural security of this process. Examples of these strategies included; allowing time for social yarning prior to and at the conclusion of the meeting, including an extended Acknowledgement of Country (see Box 2 ) and ensuring male and female Aboriginal co-investigator (NR and RP) were present and assisting or leading the group. We also emphasized the self-determination of the group. For example, being transparent about the process of the focus group whilst being flexible and reflexive to the input of group members and implementing ongoing changes to meet the needs of the group as they arose. Members were encouraged to attend face-to-face in a private and safe meeting room to allow the members to meet, socialize and build connections with one another. Light refreshments were provided from a local Aboriginal business and each member was reimbursed with a Visa gift card for their time. Following a brief social yarn and introductions, each domain or section heading of the draft terms of reference was read aloud for members to comment and provide feedback on. A process of tacit consent (i.e. implied agreement without being vocally stated) and vocal dissent was used to streamline this process. Any issues, feedback or suggestions raised by members were discussed as a group. Disagreement and dissent were managed by group negotiation, whereby any changes to be made to the terms of reference or function of the ECRG were adjusted until all members were happy to proceed. Pen and paper were also provided to allow members to convey issues in confidence if preferred. The formal section of the focus group ran for 1 h and 15 min, with social yarning continuing after the voice recorder was turned off. In the week after convening the focus group, members were followed up via phone by NR and encouraged to provide additional feedback on the process of the meeting. Research yarns and the focus group were recorded, transcribed verbatim by either PO or an external transcription service.

Data analysis

Data in phase one were analyzed in parallel with data collection using a modified framework approach [ 32 , 33 ]. Framework analysis is a flexible qualitative analysis method used to sift, chart and organize data in accordance with key issues or themes [ 32 , 33 , 34 , 35 ]. In step one, one author (PO) became familiar with the transcripts through the transcription and editing process and by re-reading the transcripts. Transcripts were then uploaded into NVivo (QSR International Pty Ltd. Version 12). In step two, two researchers (PO and RP) coded the transcripts line by line using open coding to identify broad concepts relating to meaningful community engagement in the context of the ECCO research program as well as concepts related to establishing a community reference group. In step three an analytical framework was developed using pre-determined domains relating to developing a terms of reference document as well as concepts identified in step two. The pre-determined domains included; purpose, authority, decision making, roles and responsibilities, governance and function. Concepts identified in step two and included in the analytical framework were; recruitment, size of group, representation, reimbursement and engagement. In step four, one author (PO) applied the analytical framework to all transcripts charting the data into a framework matrix using Microsoft Excel. The framework matrix consisted of one row per participant and one column for each of the analytical framework domains. Using deductive coding [ 36 ], important concepts from within each transcript were extracted and mapped to the corresponding participant/domain in the matrix. Three authors (NR, RP and a third Aboriginal PhD student with a background in physiotherapy) applied the analytical framework to a subsection of the transcripts. The charting process allowed the research team to gain a better understanding of important concepts between and within each participant whilst noting similarities and differences. In step five, the data were further summarized and collapsed by describing the main categories within three overarching themes. In step six, the draft terms of reference were developed. The overarching themes, categories and analytical framework informed the section headings of the draft terms of reference. The draft terms of reference were presented to the authorship team comprised of both senior Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal researchers to allow components of the document to be refined and challenged.

In phase two, RP reviewed the focus group transcript to identify consensus outcomes in the focus group data. First, RP read through the focus group transcript to identify any feedback or recommendations that ECRG members raised about the draft terms of reference. For each suggestion identified in the focus group transcript, the main points of discussion and consensus outcomes were recorded. A consensus outcome was defined as the point at which all members agreed upon a change to be made to the draft terms of reference or function of the ECRG. These changes were then incorporated into an updated version of the terms of reference by RP and PO and distributed to the ECRG members to confirm that the changes made accurately represented their input.

The final sample in phase one included 13 participants (eight female and four male), 12 who identified as Aboriginal and one whom identified as Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander. One invited participant formally declined due to a lack of time. Participants represented a range of ages. While all were residing in Victoria, Aboriginal participants also identified as Wurundjeri, Nimanburru, Wiradjuri, Yamatji, Narrunga-Kaurna, Gooreng Gooreng, Kamillaroi, Wuthathi, Gunditjmara, Wotjobaluk, Ngarrindjeri and Taungurung and one Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander participant identified as Mabuiag. Three out of 13 participants were considered Elders in their community. Participants came from diverse professional backgrounds including physiotherapy, nursing, general practice, health services management, hospital liaison, cultural safety education, health and medical research and the arts, and represented organizations such as Universities, Aboriginal health research organizations, Aboriginal Community Controlled Health Organizations (ACCHOs) and hospitals. Seven participants also identified as identified as having either lived experienced of osteoarthritis. These individuals experienced osteoarthritis or total joint replacement surgery, or were currently living with a family member who experienced osteoarthritis. Ten participants had previous experience as members of advisory committees or reference groups.

Results from phase one are presented in four tables which represent the three overarching themes identified (Fig. 2 ): Recruitment and Representation, Purpose, and Function and Logistics . Within each table we highlight supporting quotes for each category mapped to these themes as well as citing where we incorporated these recommendations in the draft terms of reference (Additional file 2 ). Supporting quotes are indexed by the participant identification number and their gender (e.g. Participant 1, F) with further participant characteristics being omitted due to the specific nature of our participant group and the risk of these features allowing participants to be identified.

Overarching themes and categories identified in phase one interviews

We used the findings of phase one to invite six Aboriginal people to become members of the ECRG. Four out of six invited members were participants who we had interviewed in phase one of this study. An additional Aboriginal female with lived experience osteoarthritis and a manager of an Aboriginal health service were identified through networks of the research team. The final six ECRG members (four female, two male) had lived experience of osteoarthritis and joint replacement surgery, a family member of someone who experiences osteoarthritis, a male Elder, a senior Aboriginal health researcher, a physiotherapist and representatives from both regional and metropolitan health services.

Phase 1: Key informant yarning interviews—developing a draft terms of reference

Three themes were identified in the phase one interviews. These were Recruitment and Representation (Tables 1 , 2 ); Purpose (Table 3 ); Function and Logistics (Table 4 ). These themes and the categories identified within them are represented in Fig. 2 and each of the three tables below.

Phase 2: Consensus focus group—formalizing the terms of reference

Based on the key informant recommendations in phase one, six people from within established community networks were invited to become members of the ECRG and ratify the draft terms of reference were (Additional file 2 ). A summary of the changes made to the draft terms of reference through the focus group are outlined in Table 5 . Following the focus group, participants were invited to review the final terms of reference to check that their recommendations had been accurately incorporated into document. This process revealed that individual follow-ups with ECRG members also provided us with valuable, constructive feedback on this process (as stated in Fig. 3 ) which was also used to further develop the terms of reference. The final version of the terms of reference is provided in Additional file 3 .

Framework for establishing a community reference group in Aboriginal health research

This paper describes the ECCO research groups’ practical experiences in the process of selecting, engaging and developing an Aboriginal community reference group and terms of reference by adopting a PAR approach. Our process and recommendations are described in a 10 step-framework for establishing a community reference group in Aboriginal health research (Fig. 3 ). We demonstrate how calls for adopting community engagement practices by national research organizations [ 1 , 6 , 9 , 11 , 37 ] may be appropriately operationalized through establishing a community reference group to provide guidance on Aboriginal health research projects. Findings from this study concur with the literature which highlights that successfully building partnerships or community engagement strategies requires health researchers to work in ways which are collaborative, relationships focused and flexible in responding to the needs and priorities of Aboriginal people [ 2 , 10 ]. Although we describe key practical recommendations that may assist in this process of establishing a community reference group, our framework (see Fig. 3 ) does not set out to replace the right of Aboriginal people to choose how Aboriginal health care is designed and delivered. Participants in our study often emphasized the importance of self-determination, ownership and decision-making power in establishing a community reference group. Therefore, our framework should instead be used as a blueprint, starting point or guide for research groups to engage Aboriginal health and research stakeholders and community members to shape as they see fit. For example, research groups seeking to establish a community reference group to guide Indigenous health research globally may input project and context-specific information for each of the 10-steps in this framework. This in turn will allow the community reference group to be informed by the values of the group under study and to be shaped to be health problem or be disease specific. This may be particularly relevant for research groups who wish to implement community engagement practices with Indigenous peoples of countries who share a common history of colonization [ 2 ]. Moreover, it should be noted that the process outlined in this study is just the beginning or the entry point of what should be an ongoing commitment to community engagement in Aboriginal health or Indigenous health research. Moving forward from the development and establishment phase, community reference groups should be engaged in an ongoing PAR framework [ 26 , 38 ]. By establishing a community reference group, Aboriginal community members are able to participate in and provide guidance within the PAR cycle at all levels of the research. The PAR cycle revolves around four main steps: plan, act, observe, and reflect [ 26 ]. The ECCO research group aims to adopt this approach by planning each ECRG meeting around the PAR cycle which will ensure ongoing engagement of the ECRG into the future.

Undertaking the task of establishing a community reference group can be complex. Failing to plan for or address potential challenges may lead to weakened partnerships or skepticism about the role of the community reference group [ 6 , 22 ]. Strategies cited in the literature for overcoming challenges to maintain an effective community reference group include recognising the importance of local Aboriginal knowledge and cultural values and beliefs, becoming familiar with local Aboriginal communities and ensuring that the benefits outweigh the time–cost of participating in such a group [ 10 ]. The PAR process we have outlined is both time and resource intensive, a challenge that appears to be common amongst community engagement approaches in Indigenous health research globally [ 2 ]. Researchers should not underestimate the time it can take to build meaningful relationships in this context. Having the financial means to employ Aboriginal co-investigators to broker relationships was paramount to the success and a strength of our study as it enabled us to build trust, build on existing relationships and receive cultural guidance throughout the project. In return, we were able to begin to build Aboriginal health research capacity in the field of musculoskeletal health, which was a further strength of the study. Research groups who plan to use this 10-step framework of community engagement should consider assigning research staff to a relationship building role, prioritize building the capabilities of Aboriginal health researchers and plan for these underlying costs when applying for funding. This should in turn demonstrate to funding bodies (and to Aboriginal communities and services) the researchers’ commitment to ongoing community engagement. We also support setting realistic and flexible project timelines. A true commitment to Aboriginal health will require research groups to stretch the boundaries of their usual systems and Western research paradigms to allow for flexible, organic approaches to relationship building and community engagement [ 2 , 6 ].

Despite these potential challenges, the findings of this study suggest that our PAR approach to establishing a community reference group and terms of reference was effective in building the necessary connections required in the context of the ECCO project. In utilizing culturally secure research methods, for example by harnessing the power of ‘word of mouth’ or snowball sampling, we were able to build trust and relationships throughout our recruitment and data collection journey [ 27 , 30 ]. These relationships enabled us to formally invite members to join the ECRG, many of whom we had interviewed in the process of conducting phase one of this study. We acknowledge that a limitation of this study was having the pre-conceived idea of establishing a community reference group and that barriers may exist for some Aboriginal community members participating in group-based activities, particularly as they require members to be available at a certain ‘place and time’ [ 39 ]. Additional modes of community engagement, for example, by engaging multiple community representatives in one-on-one discussions may enable a broader range of community members to participate in community engagement and involvement activities [ 39 ]. Additional methodological considerations were the small sample size in phase one and the use of tacit consent in the focus group in phase two. Although our sample size may be considered small, we believe that data collected through the 13 interviews was rich enough to answer our very practical research aims. We acknowledge that the use of tacit consent in the focus group may have influenced group members willingness to voice their opinions at the time. In the future, each participant could be called upon to speak to each of the focus group items in a round robin process. Despite this limitation, the research team were transparent about the process of the focus group while also being flexible and reflexive to the input of group members and implementing ongoing changes to meet the needs of the group as they arose. We also received valuable, constructive feedback from ECRG members in this process and recommend casual ad-hoc, one-on-one ‘check ins’ (as stated in Fig. 3 ) to give members an opportunity to privately raise any feedback or concerns and to ensure that members are satisfied with the conditions of their ongoing participation. Being flexible and adapting to the input of the ECRG members’ suggestions was an important modification aimed at enhancing the cultural security of our focus group technique.

Current literature suggests that Aboriginal community engagement is integral to any health policy, intervention or Aboriginal health research aimed at improving health care. We have described practical strategies that prioritize PAR, including Aboriginal input and voices in every step of establishing a community reference group and terms of reference. The 10-step framework presented may be especially relevant in guiding research groups who seek to explore novel Aboriginal health research areas by building a program of research from the ground up.

Availability of data and materials

Qualitative data generated during this study and reported in this manuscript are stored in audio and electronic written format at The University of Melbourne. Data supporting the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author (PO) upon reasonable request.

Abbreviations

Aboriginal Community Controlled Health Organisations

The Enhancing Equity, Collaboration and Culturally secure Osteoarthritis care for Aboriginal Australians (ECCO) collaboration.

ECCO Community Reference Group

The National Health and Medical Research Council.

Participatory Action Research

National Health and Medical Research Council. Ethical conduct in research with Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples and communities: guidelines for researchers and stakeholders. Canberra: Commonwealth of Australia; 2018.

Google Scholar

Lin CY, Loyola-Sanchez A, Boyling E, Barnabe C. Community engagement approaches for Indigenous health research: recommendations based on an integrative review. BMJ Open. 2020;10(11):e039736.

Article Google Scholar

Lin CY, Loyola-Sanchez A, Hurd K, Ferucci ED, Crane L, Healy B, et al. Characterization of indigenous community engagement in arthritis studies conducted in Canada, United States of America, Australia and New Zealand. Semin Arthritis Rheum. 2019;49(1):145–55.

Bainbridge R, Tsey K, McCalman J, Kinchin I, Saunders V, Watkin Lui F, et al. No one’s discussing the elephant in the room: contemplating questions of research impact and benefit in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Australian health research. BMC Public Health. 2015;15(1):1–10.

Nyirenda D, Sariola S, Gooding K, Phiri M, Sambakunsi R, Moyo E, et al. ‘We are the eyes and ears of researchers and community’: understanding the role of community advisory groups in representing researchers and communities in Malawi. Dev World Bioeth. 2018;18(4):420–8.

Laycock A, Walker D, Harrison N, Brands J. Researching indigenous health: a practical guide for researchers. Lowitja Institute; 2011.

Newman SD, Andrews JO, Magwood GS, Jenkins C, Cox MJ, Williamson DC. Community advisory boards in community-based participatory research: a synthesis of best processes. Prev Chronic Dis. 2011;8(3):A70.

PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar

Smith LT. Decolonising methodologies. Research and Indigenous Peoples. 1999.

Council for International Organization of Medical Sciences. International ethical guidelines for health-related research involving humans. Geneva; 2016.

Durey A, McEvoy S, Swift-Otero V, Taylor K, Katzenellenbogen J, Bessarab D. Improving health care for Aboriginal Australians through effective engagement between community and health services. BMC Health Serv Res. 2016;16(1):1–13.

Victorian Government Department of Sustainability and Environement. Effective engagement: building relationships with community and other stakeholders. In: Book 3 The Engagement Toolkit. 2005.

Deverka PA, Lavallee DC, Desai PJ, Esmail LC, Ramsey SD, Veenstra DL, Tunis SR. Stakeholder participation in comparative effectiveness research: defining a framework for effective engagement. J Comp Eff Res. 2012;1(2):181–94. https://doi.org/10.2217/cer.12.7 .

Article PubMed Google Scholar

Lin I. An exploration of chronic low back pain in Australian Aboriginal populations. Curtin University; 2012.

National Health and Medical Research Council. Statement on consumer and community involvement in health and medical research. National Health and Medical Research Council; 2016.

Johnson A. What strategies for consumer engagement in health and medical research have been effective for consumers and researchers? A review of the literature. Health Consumers Alliance of South Australia; 2013.

Payne JM, D’Antoine HA, France KE, McKenzie AE, Henley N, Bartu AE, et al. Collaborating with consumer and community representatives in health and medical research in Australia: results from an evaluation. Health Res Policy Syst. 2011;9(1):18.

Boote J, Telford R, Cooper C. Consumer involvement in health research: a review and research agenda. Health Policy. 2002;61(2):213–36.

Secretariat of National Aboriginal and Islander Child Care. Partnership Training Manual SNAICC; 2014.

Ewen SC, Ryan T, Platania-Phung C. Capacity building of the Australian Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander health researcher workforce: a narrative review. Hum Resour Health. 2019;17(1):10.

Hedges J, Garvey G, Dodd Z, Miller W, Dunbar T, Leane C, et al. Engaging with Indigenous Australian communities for a human papilloma virus and oropharyngeal cancer project; use of the CONSIDER statement. BMC Med Res Methodol. 2020;20(1):1–10.

Cheema G. Aboriginal participation in health planning: representation, reconciliation, and relationship building with an Aboriginal Advisory Committee. Aboriginal Policy Research Volume IV Setting the Agenda for Change. 2007;4:17.

Quinn SC. Ethics in public health research: protecting human subjects: the role of community advisory boards. Am J Public Health. 2004;94(6):918–22.

Faulkner W. Dialogue in public engagement: A handbook. Edinburgh Beltane; 2011.

Hyett S, Marjerrison S, Gabel C. Improving health research among Indigenous Peoples in Canada. Can Med Assoc J. 2018;190(20):E616–21.

Claw KG, Anderson MZ, Begay RL, Tsosie KS, Fox K, Garrison NA. A framework for enhancing ethical genomic research with Indigenous communities. Nat Commun. 2018;9(1):1–7.

Article CAS Google Scholar

Baum F, MacDougall C, Smith D. Participatory action research. J Epidemiol Community Health. 2006;60(10):854–7.

Coffin J. Rising to the challenge in Aboriginal health by creating cultural security. Aborig Isl Health Work. 2007;31(3):22.

Bessarab D, Ng’andu B. Yarning about yarning as a legitimate method in indigenous research. Int J Crit Indig. 2010;3(1):37–50.

Boyle M. Research in action: a guide to best practice in participatory action research. Department of Families, Housing, Community Services and Indigenous Affairs; 2012.

Valerio MA, Rodriguez N, Winkler P, Lopez J, Dennison M, Liang Y, et al. Comparing two sampling methods to engage hard-to-reach communities in research priority setting. BMC Med Res Methodol. 2016;16(1):1–11.

List D. The consensus group technique in social research. Field Methods. 2001;13(3):277–90.

Ritchie J, Spencer L. Qualitative data analysis for applied policy research. Analyzing qualitative data. London: Routledge; 2002. p. 187–208.

Gale NK, Heath G, Cameron E, Rashid S, Redwood S. Using the framework method for the analysis of qualitative data in multi-disciplinary health research. BMC Med Res Methodol. 2013;13(1):117.

Ritchie J, Lewis J, Nicholls CM, Ormston R. Qualitative research practice: a guide for social science students and researchers. Beverly Hills: Sage; 2013.

Bryman A, Burgess RG. Analyzing qualitative data. London: Routledge; 1994.

Skjott Linneberg M, Korsgaard S. Coding qualitative data: a synthesis guiding the novice. Qual Res J. 2019;19(3):259–70.

Gunatillake T, Shadbolt C, Gould D, Lam M, Hearst MG, Vleeskens C, et al. Embedding consumer and community involvement within an established research centre: moving from general recommendations to an actionable framework. Res Involv Engagem. 2020;6(1):1–8.

Australian Institute of Family Services. Participatory Action Research Canberra: Australian Government; 2015. https://aifs.gov.au/cfca/publications/participatory-action-research

Walker M, Beadman K, Griffin S, Beadman M, Treloar C. Involving peers in research: the UNSW community reference panel. J Harm Reduc. 2019;16(1):52.

Download references

Acknowledgements

This manuscript was written on the lands of the Wurundjeri Woi Wurrung peoples. The authors would like to acknowledge and thank all those who participated in this study. Special thanks to the members of the ECCO community reference group for their invaluable and ongoing contributions to the ECCO collaboration. We would also like to acknowledge the assistance of Brooke Conley who was involved in the data analysis of this project. The authors would also like to acknowledge and thank Mick Harding for his artwork ‘Ngarradjarranun Gorong Darrang’ (Healing Scar Tree in Taungurung language), which has been adapted for digital use in our framework.

This publication was supported by a PhD scholarship offered through the Australian National Health and Medical Research Council Centre for Research Excellence in Total Joint Replacement (APP1116235) and a St Vincent’s Health Australia Inclusive Health Program grant. MMD is supported by an Australian National Health and Medical Research Council Career Development Fellowship (APP1122526) and PFMC is supported by an Australian National Health and Medical Research Council Practitioner Fellowship (APP1154203).

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Department of Surgery, St Vincent’s Hospital Melbourne, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, 3000, Australia

Penny O’Brien, Ryan Prehn, Naz Rind, Peter F. M. Choong, Michelle M. Dowsey & Samantha Bunzli

Centre for Aboriginal Medical and Dental Health, The University of Western Australia, Perth, WA, 6000, Australia

Western Australian Centre for Rural Health, The University of Western Australia, Geraldton, WA, 6530, Australia

Dawn Bessarab

Ngangk Yira Institute for Change, Murdoch University, Murdoch, WA, 6150, Australia

Juli Coffin

ECCO Community Reference Group, Department of Surgery, St Vincent’s Hospital Melbourne, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, 3000, Australia

You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Contributions

PO led and drafted the first version of the manuscript. RP, NR, TM, IL, PFMC, DB, JC, MMD and SB all provided significant input and feedback on drafts. NR, RP, TM, JC and DB all provided additional cultural guidance in the drafting of this paper. All authors read and approved final manuscript.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Penny O’Brien .

Ethics declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate.

This study was approved by St Vincent’s Hospital Melbourne (SVHM) Human Research Ethics Committee (HREC) [HREC185/19].

Consent for publication

Not applicable.

Competing interests

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Additional information

Publisher's note.

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Supplementary Information

Additional file 1.

. Example semi-structured research yarning schedule.

Additional file 2

. Draft terms of reference.

Additional file 3

. Final terms of reference.

Rights and permissions

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ . The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver ( http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/ ) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated in a credit line to the data.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article.

O’Brien, P., Prehn, R., Rind, N. et al. Laying the foundations of community engagement in Aboriginal health research: establishing a community reference group and terms of reference in a novel research field. Res Involv Engagem 8 , 40 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40900-022-00365-7

Download citation

Received : 18 October 2021

Accepted : 29 June 2022

Published : 04 August 2022

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s40900-022-00365-7

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

Aboriginal health
Community engagement
Community reference group
Osteoarthritis
Research steering

Research Involvement and Engagement

ISSN: 2056-7529

General enquiries: [email protected]

For students

Current Students website
Email web access
Make a payment
iExeter (students)
Programme and module information
Current staff website
Room Bookings
iExeter (staff)
Finance Helpdesk
IT Service Desk

Qualitative Research Reference Group

The Qualitative Research Reference Group is a group of experienced qualitative researchers belonging to different topic-based research groups within the Medical School. This includes using a broad range of qualitative research approaches to explore health services delivery, perspectives on social care, and the environment and human health.

Our aim is to develop qualitative research, support rigorous methods and promote the use of innovative approaches in this field.

To support qualitative research within the Medical School we currently run introductory workshops for postgraduate students, undergraduate and MSc teaching, and a Qualitative Research Forum which has hosted internal and external speakers. We have previously run a seminar series, Qualitative Research Advice Clinics, and workshops about writing papers for the Research Excellence Framework.

Past events

Event 11 Frontiers, Peripheries and Boundaries : Qualitative Research, PPIE, and Peer Research. 21st September 2023

Event 10 Making Collage-art with Women affected by Gender Based Violence : The effects of emotional research and understanding the challenges and possibilities for supporting researcher-health. 15th June 2023

Event 9 Postgraduate and Postdoctoral Research In Progress 6th March 2023

Event 8 Mobile Methods: What are they, why use them and how? Monday, 10th October 2022

Event 7 Panel discussion on involving patient representatives . 3rd March 2022

Event 6 Rigour in Qualitative Research 26th November 2021‌‌

Event 5 Qualitative Research With Children 15th June 2021‌

Event 4 Qualitative Research in Times of Covid 19 19 30th March 2021

Event 3 Visual Data Collection and Dissemination for Qualitative Research 26th January 2021

Event 2 Collaboration in Analysing Qualitative Data 24th November 2021

Event 1 Digital Health and the Coronavirus Crisis 15th September 2021

Address: South Cloisters, St Luke’s Campus, Heavitree Road, Exeter, EX1 2LU Email: [email protected] Tel: +44 1392 722970

Meet the team

Connect with us

Information for:

Current students
New students
Alumni and supporters

Quick links

Streatham Campus

St Luke's Campus

Penryn Campus

Truro Campus

Using our site
Accessibility
Freedom of Information
Modern Slavery Act Statement
Data Protection
Copyright & disclaimer
Privacy & cookies

intelligentmarketing.io

How to Succeed in Marketing: Advice from the Pros

Reference Groups: Everything You Need to Know

In marketing, it is essential to understand how social factors influence consumer behavior. Reference groups are one of the key social factors that affects consumer responses. In this blog post, we will discuss everything you need to know about reference groups.

What are Reference Groups?

A reference group is a group that serves as a point of comparison or reference in forming a person’s attitudes or behavior. Reference groups can be either direct (face-to-face) or indirect. Direct reference groups are those with which an individual has personal interaction, while indirect reference groups are those with which an individual does not have personal interaction but whose attitudes or behaviors serve as a point of comparison.

Types of Reference Groups

There are four types of reference groups: Aspirational, Comparative, Dissociative, and Collective.

Aspirational Reference Group

An aspirational reference group is one to which an individual desires to belong but does not yet belong.

Comparative Reference Group

A comparative reference group is one that an individual uses for purposes of comparison (i.e., to evaluate his/her own attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors).

Dissociative Reference Group

A dissociative reference group is one from which an individual seeks to dissociate him/herself.

Collective Reference Group

A collective reference group is one in which individuals interact with each other directly and share common characteristics, interests, or experiences.

How Do Reference Groups Influence Consumer Behavior?

Reference groups have a strong influence on consumer behavior . This is because individuals use reference groups as a way to form their own identity and as a guide for their own behavior. Marketers try to identify the reference groups of their target markets.

There are at least three ways that reference groups influence a person.

They expose the person to new behaviors and living.

Because people want to ‘fit in’, groups can influence an individual’s attitudes and self-concept.

The pressure to conform can often dictate the types of products and brands a person chooses.

For example, if an individual’s peer group regularly buys name-brand clothes, the individual is likely to do the same in order to fit in and feel like he/she belongs. Additionally, people often seek out products and services that will signal their membership in a particular group. For example, someone who wants to signal his/her membership in the business world might buy a particular type of business suit or laptop computer.

The importance of group influence varies across products and brands, but it tends to be strongest for conspicuous purchases. A product or brand can be conspicuous for one of two reasons: because the buyer is one of the few people who own it, or because the buyer consumes it in public where others can see it.

Group influences do not much affect decisions about private necessities because other people will notice neither the product nor the brand.

The indirect influence of reference groups

Reference groups can also have an indirect influence on consumer behavior if they serve as role models. A role model is someone who is looked up to and respected by others. For example, celebrities often serve as role models for many people. Celebrities’ endorsements are effective because people often aspire to be like their favorite celebrities and want to purchase the same products that they use. However, it is important to note that not all celebrities make good role models because some have been known to engage in activities that are illegal or frowned upon by society (e.g., illegal drug use). Therefore, marketers must carefully select celebrities who will be good role models for their target market.

Tips for creating Reference Groups

When creating a reference group, it is important to consider the following factors:

1. Purpose of the reference group

A reference group is a collection of people who share some common attribute or experience. Reference groups can be used for a variety of purposes, including:

1. Determining the best course of action

A reference group can be used to help determine the best course of action by providing feedback and advice.

2. Evaluating products and services

A reference group can be used to evaluate products and services before making a purchase.

3. Obtaining information and opinions

A reference group can be used to obtain information and opinions about a product or service.

4. Establishing social norms

A reference group can be used to establish social norms.

2. Size of the reference group

The size of a reference group can vary, but it is typically best to keep the group small. A small reference group is more likely to be cohesive and provide feedback that is relevant to the individual. Additionally, a small reference group is less likely to be influenced by outside factors.

3. Geography of the reference group

The geography of a reference group can be important to consider when selecting members. For example, if you are looking for feedback about a product or service that will be sold in a specific geographic area, it is important to select reference group members from that area. Additionally, the geography of a reference group can influence the type of feedback you receive. For example, if you are looking for feedback about a product that will be sold in Europe, it is important to select reference group members from European countries.

4. Diversity of the reference group

When selecting a reference group, it is important to consider the diversity of the group. A diverse reference group is more likely to provide feedback that is relevant to a wider audience. Additionally, a diverse reference group is more likely to represent the demographic characteristics of your target market.

5. Common interests of the reference group members

When selecting a reference group, it is important to consider the common interests of the group members. Common interests can help to build cohesion among the group members and result in more relevant feedback. Some common interests that may be useful to consider include:

2. Interests

3. Professional affiliations

4. Social activities

6. Availability of group members

While picking a reference group, you must think about how easy it is to contact potential members, who are available to provide feedback are more likely to be responsive and provide relevant feedback. Additionally, it is important to consider the timeframe in which group members are available.

For example, if you are looking for feedback about a product that will be sold in six months, it is important to select reference group members who are available in six months.

7. Cost to participate in the reference group

The cost of participating in a reference group should be taken into account when choosing one. Potential members may be unwilling to participate if the cost is too high.

Additionally, the cost to participate in a reference group can influence the type of feedback you receive. For example, if you are looking for feedback about a product that will be sold in Europe, it is important to select reference group members from European countries who are willing and able to participate at no cost.

Other social groups

When selecting a reference group, it is important to consider other social groups that may be useful for obtaining feedback. Some other social groups that may be useful to consider include:

1. Professional associations, like American Marketing Association

2. Trade associations

3. Social networking groups

4. Online forums

6. Consumer organizations

7. Government agencies

8. Academic institutions

9. Media outlets

10. Industry analysts

reference groups play an important role in consumer behavior. Marketers should keep this in mind when developing marketing strategies. Thanks for reading!

References in Research – Types, Examples and Writing Guide

Table of Contents

References in Research

Definition:

References in research are a list of sources that a researcher has consulted or cited while conducting their study. They are an essential component of any academic work, including research papers, theses, dissertations, and other scholarly publications.

Types of References

There are several types of references used in research, and the type of reference depends on the source of information being cited. The most common types of references include:

References to books typically include the author’s name, title of the book, publisher, publication date, and place of publication.

Example: Smith, J. (2018). The Art of Writing. Penguin Books.

Journal Articles

References to journal articles usually include the author’s name, title of the article, name of the journal, volume and issue number, page numbers, and publication date.

Example: Johnson, T. (2021). The Impact of Social Media on Mental Health. Journal of Psychology, 32(4), 87-94.

Web sources

References to web sources should include the author or organization responsible for the content, the title of the page, the URL, and the date accessed.

Example: World Health Organization. (2020). Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) advice for the public. Retrieved from https://www.who.int/emergencies/disease/novel-coronavirus-2019/advice-for-public

Conference Proceedings

References to conference proceedings should include the author’s name, title of the paper, name of the conference, location of the conference, date of the conference, and page numbers.

Example: Chen, S., & Li, J. (2019). The Future of AI in Education. Proceedings of the International Conference on Educational Technology, Beijing, China, July 15-17, pp. 67-78.

References to reports typically include the author or organization responsible for the report, title of the report, publication date, and publisher.

Example: United Nations. (2020). The Sustainable Development Goals Report. United Nations.

Formats of References

Some common Formates of References with their examples are as follows:

APA (American Psychological Association) Style

The APA (American Psychological Association) Style has specific guidelines for formatting references used in academic papers, articles, and books. Here are the different reference formats in APA style with examples:

Author, A. A. (Year of publication). Title of book. Publisher.

Example : Smith, J. K. (2005). The psychology of social interaction. Wiley-Blackwell.

Journal Article

Author, A. A., Author, B. B., & Author, C. C. (Year of publication). Title of article. Title of Journal, volume number(issue number), page numbers.

Example : Brown, L. M., Keating, J. G., & Jones, S. M. (2012). The role of social support in coping with stress among African American adolescents. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 22(1), 218-233.

Author, A. A. (Year of publication or last update). Title of page. Website name. URL.

Example : Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2020, December 11). COVID-19: How to protect yourself and others. https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/prevent-getting-sick/prevention.html

Magazine article

Author, A. A. (Year, Month Day of publication). Title of article. Title of Magazine, volume number(issue number), page numbers.

Example : Smith, M. (2019, March 11). The power of positive thinking. Psychology Today, 52(3), 60-65.

Newspaper article:

Author, A. A. (Year, Month Day of publication). Title of article. Title of Newspaper, page numbers.

Example: Johnson, B. (2021, February 15). New study shows benefits of exercise on mental health. The New York Times, A8.

Edited book

Editor, E. E. (Ed.). (Year of publication). Title of book. Publisher.

Example : Thompson, J. P. (Ed.). (2014). Social work in the 21st century. Sage Publications.

Chapter in an edited book:

Author, A. A. (Year of publication). Title of chapter. In E. E. Editor (Ed.), Title of book (pp. page numbers). Publisher.

Example : Johnson, K. S. (2018). The future of social work: Challenges and opportunities. In J. P. Thompson (Ed.), Social work in the 21st century (pp. 105-118). Sage Publications.

MLA (Modern Language Association) Style

The MLA (Modern Language Association) Style is a widely used style for writing academic papers and essays in the humanities. Here are the different reference formats in MLA style:

Author’s Last name, First name. Title of Book. Publisher, Publication year.

Example : Smith, John. The Psychology of Social Interaction. Wiley-Blackwell, 2005.

Journal article

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Article.” Title of Journal, volume number, issue number, Publication year, page numbers.

Example : Brown, Laura M., et al. “The Role of Social Support in Coping with Stress among African American Adolescents.” Journal of Research on Adolescence, vol. 22, no. 1, 2012, pp. 218-233.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Webpage.” Website Name, Publication date, URL.

Example : Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. “COVID-19: How to Protect Yourself and Others.” CDC, 11 Dec. 2020, https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/prevent-getting-sick/prevention.html.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Article.” Title of Magazine, Publication date, page numbers.

Example : Smith, Mary. “The Power of Positive Thinking.” Psychology Today, Mar. 2019, pp. 60-65.

Newspaper article

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Article.” Title of Newspaper, Publication date, page numbers.

Example : Johnson, Bob. “New Study Shows Benefits of Exercise on Mental Health.” The New York Times, 15 Feb. 2021, p. A8.

Editor’s Last name, First name, editor. Title of Book. Publisher, Publication year.

Example : Thompson, John P., editor. Social Work in the 21st Century. Sage Publications, 2014.

Chapter in an edited book

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Chapter.” Title of Book, edited by Editor’s First Name Last name, Publisher, Publication year, page numbers.

Example : Johnson, Karen S. “The Future of Social Work: Challenges and Opportunities.” Social Work in the 21st Century, edited by John P. Thompson, Sage Publications, 2014, pp. 105-118.

Chicago Manual of Style

The Chicago Manual of Style is a widely used style for writing academic papers, dissertations, and books in the humanities and social sciences. Here are the different reference formats in Chicago style:

Example : Smith, John K. The Psychology of Social Interaction. Wiley-Blackwell, 2005.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Article.” Title of Journal volume number, no. issue number (Publication year): page numbers.

Example : Brown, Laura M., John G. Keating, and Sarah M. Jones. “The Role of Social Support in Coping with Stress among African American Adolescents.” Journal of Research on Adolescence 22, no. 1 (2012): 218-233.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Webpage.” Website Name. Publication date. URL.

Example : Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. “COVID-19: How to Protect Yourself and Others.” CDC. December 11, 2020. https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/prevent-getting-sick/prevention.html.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Article.” Title of Magazine, Publication date.

Example : Smith, Mary. “The Power of Positive Thinking.” Psychology Today, March 2019.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Article.” Title of Newspaper, Publication date.

Example : Johnson, Bob. “New Study Shows Benefits of Exercise on Mental Health.” The New York Times, February 15, 2021.

Example : Thompson, John P., ed. Social Work in the 21st Century. Sage Publications, 2014.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Chapter.” In Title of Book, edited by Editor’s First Name Last Name, page numbers. Publisher, Publication year.

Example : Johnson, Karen S. “The Future of Social Work: Challenges and Opportunities.” In Social Work in the 21st Century, edited by John P. Thompson, 105-118. Sage Publications, 2014.

Harvard Style

The Harvard Style, also known as the Author-Date System, is a widely used style for writing academic papers and essays in the social sciences. Here are the different reference formats in Harvard Style:

Author’s Last name, First name. Year of publication. Title of Book. Place of publication: Publisher.

Example : Smith, John. 2005. The Psychology of Social Interaction. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell.

Author’s Last name, First name. Year of publication. “Title of Article.” Title of Journal volume number (issue number): page numbers.

Example: Brown, Laura M., John G. Keating, and Sarah M. Jones. 2012. “The Role of Social Support in Coping with Stress among African American Adolescents.” Journal of Research on Adolescence 22 (1): 218-233.

Author’s Last name, First name. Year of publication. “Title of Webpage.” Website Name. URL. Accessed date.

Example : Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2020. “COVID-19: How to Protect Yourself and Others.” CDC. https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/prevent-getting-sick/prevention.html. Accessed April 1, 2023.

Author’s Last name, First name. Year of publication. “Title of Article.” Title of Magazine, month and date of publication.

Example : Smith, Mary. 2019. “The Power of Positive Thinking.” Psychology Today, March 2019.

Author’s Last name, First name. Year of publication. “Title of Article.” Title of Newspaper, month and date of publication.

Example : Johnson, Bob. 2021. “New Study Shows Benefits of Exercise on Mental Health.” The New York Times, February 15, 2021.

Editor’s Last name, First name, ed. Year of publication. Title of Book. Place of publication: Publisher.

Example : Thompson, John P., ed. 2014. Social Work in the 21st Century. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Author’s Last name, First name. Year of publication. “Title of Chapter.” In Title of Book, edited by Editor’s First Name Last Name, page numbers. Place of publication: Publisher.

Example : Johnson, Karen S. 2014. “The Future of Social Work: Challenges and Opportunities.” In Social Work in the 21st Century, edited by John P. Thompson, 105-118. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Vancouver Style

The Vancouver Style, also known as the Uniform Requirements for Manuscripts Submitted to Biomedical Journals, is a widely used style for writing academic papers in the biomedical sciences. Here are the different reference formats in Vancouver Style:

Author’s Last name, First name. Title of Book. Edition number. Place of publication: Publisher; Year of publication.

Example : Smith, John K. The Psychology of Social Interaction. 2nd ed. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell; 2005.

Author’s Last name, First name. Title of Article. Abbreviated Journal Title. Year of publication; volume number(issue number):page numbers.

Example : Brown LM, Keating JG, Jones SM. The Role of Social Support in Coping with Stress among African American Adolescents. J Res Adolesc. 2012;22(1):218-233.

Author’s Last name, First name. Title of Webpage. Website Name [Internet]. Publication date. [cited date]. Available from: URL.

Example : Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. COVID-19: How to Protect Yourself and Others [Internet]. 2020 Dec 11. [cited 2023 Apr 1]. Available from: https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/prevent-getting-sick/prevention.html.

Author’s Last name, First name. Title of Article. Title of Magazine. Year of publication; month and day of publication:page numbers.

Example : Smith M. The Power of Positive Thinking. Psychology Today. 2019 Mar 1:32-35.

Author’s Last name, First name. Title of Article. Title of Newspaper. Year of publication; month and day of publication:page numbers.

Example : Johnson B. New Study Shows Benefits of Exercise on Mental Health. The New York Times. 2021 Feb 15:A4.

Editor’s Last name, First name, editor. Title of Book. Edition number. Place of publication: Publisher; Year of publication.

Example: Thompson JP, editor. Social Work in the 21st Century. 1st ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications; 2014.

Author’s Last name, First name. Title of Chapter. In: Editor’s Last name, First name, editor. Title of Book. Edition number. Place of publication: Publisher; Year of publication. page numbers.

Example : Johnson KS. The Future of Social Work: Challenges and Opportunities. In: Thompson JP, editor. Social Work in the 21st Century. 1st ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications; 2014. p. 105-118.

Turabian Style

Turabian style is a variation of the Chicago style used in academic writing, particularly in the fields of history and humanities. Here are the different reference formats in Turabian style:

Author’s Last name, First name. Title of Book. Place of publication: Publisher, Year of publication.

Example : Smith, John K. The Psychology of Social Interaction. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, 2005.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Article.” Title of Journal volume number, no. issue number (Year of publication): page numbers.

Example : Brown, LM, Keating, JG, Jones, SM. “The Role of Social Support in Coping with Stress among African American Adolescents.” J Res Adolesc 22, no. 1 (2012): 218-233.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Webpage.” Name of Website. Publication date. Accessed date. URL.

Example : Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. “COVID-19: How to Protect Yourself and Others.” CDC. December 11, 2020. Accessed April 1, 2023. https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/prevent-getting-sick/prevention.html.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Article.” Title of Magazine, Month Day, Year of publication, page numbers.

Example : Smith, M. “The Power of Positive Thinking.” Psychology Today, March 1, 2019, 32-35.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Article.” Title of Newspaper, Month Day, Year of publication.

Example : Johnson, B. “New Study Shows Benefits of Exercise on Mental Health.” The New York Times, February 15, 2021.

Editor’s Last name, First name, ed. Title of Book. Place of publication: Publisher, Year of publication.

Example : Thompson, JP, ed. Social Work in the 21st Century. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 2014.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Chapter.” In Title of Book, edited by Editor’s Last name, First name, page numbers. Place of publication: Publisher, Year of publication.

Example : Johnson, KS. “The Future of Social Work: Challenges and Opportunities.” In Social Work in the 21st Century, edited by Thompson, JP, 105-118. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 2014.

IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) Style

IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) style is commonly used in engineering, computer science, and other technical fields. Here are the different reference formats in IEEE style:

Author’s Last name, First name. Book Title. Place of Publication: Publisher, Year of publication.

Example : Oppenheim, A. V., & Schafer, R. W. Discrete-Time Signal Processing. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2010.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Article.” Abbreviated Journal Title, vol. number, no. issue number, pp. page numbers, Month year of publication.

Example: Shannon, C. E. “A Mathematical Theory of Communication.” Bell System Technical Journal, vol. 27, no. 3, pp. 379-423, July 1948.

Conference paper

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Paper.” In Title of Conference Proceedings, Place of Conference, Date of Conference, pp. page numbers, Year of publication.

Example: Gupta, S., & Kumar, P. “An Improved System of Linear Discriminant Analysis for Face Recognition.” In Proceedings of the 2011 International Conference on Computer Science and Network Technology, Harbin, China, Dec. 2011, pp. 144-147.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Webpage.” Name of Website. Date of publication or last update. Accessed date. URL.

Example : National Aeronautics and Space Administration. “Apollo 11.” NASA. July 20, 1969. Accessed April 1, 2023. https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/apollo/apollo11.html.

Technical report

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Report.” Name of Institution or Organization, Report number, Year of publication.

Example : Smith, J. R. “Development of a New Solar Panel Technology.” National Renewable Energy Laboratory, NREL/TP-6A20-51645, 2011.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Patent.” Patent number, Issue date.

Example : Suzuki, H. “Method of Producing Carbon Nanotubes.” US Patent 7,151,019, December 19, 2006.

Standard Title. Standard number, Publication date.

Example : IEEE Standard for Floating-Point Arithmetic. IEEE Std 754-2008, August 29, 2008

ACS (American Chemical Society) Style

ACS (American Chemical Society) style is commonly used in chemistry and related fields. Here are the different reference formats in ACS style:

Author’s Last name, First name; Author’s Last name, First name. Title of Article. Abbreviated Journal Title Year, Volume, Page Numbers.

Example : Wang, Y.; Zhao, X.; Cui, Y.; Ma, Y. Facile Preparation of Fe3O4/graphene Composites Using a Hydrothermal Method for High-Performance Lithium Ion Batteries. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2012, 4, 2715-2721.

Author’s Last name, First name. Book Title; Publisher: Place of Publication, Year of Publication.

Example : Carey, F. A. Organic Chemistry; McGraw-Hill: New York, 2008.

Author’s Last name, First name. Chapter Title. In Book Title; Editor’s Last name, First name, Ed.; Publisher: Place of Publication, Year of Publication; Volume number, Chapter number, Page Numbers.

Example : Grossman, R. B. Analytical Chemistry of Aerosols. In Aerosol Measurement: Principles, Techniques, and Applications; Baron, P. A.; Willeke, K., Eds.; Wiley-Interscience: New York, 2001; Chapter 10, pp 395-424.

Author’s Last name, First name. Title of Webpage. Website Name, URL (accessed date).

Example : National Institute of Standards and Technology. Atomic Spectra Database. https://www.nist.gov/pml/atomic-spectra-database (accessed April 1, 2023).

Author’s Last name, First name. Patent Number. Patent Date.

Example : Liu, Y.; Huang, H.; Chen, H.; Zhang, W. US Patent 9,999,999, December 31, 2022.

Author’s Last name, First name; Author’s Last name, First name. Title of Article. In Title of Conference Proceedings, Publisher: Place of Publication, Year of Publication; Volume Number, Page Numbers.

Example : Jia, H.; Xu, S.; Wu, Y.; Wu, Z.; Tang, Y.; Huang, X. Fast Adsorption of Organic Pollutants by Graphene Oxide. In Proceedings of the 15th International Conference on Environmental Science and Technology, American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2017; Volume 1, pp 223-228.

AMA (American Medical Association) Style

AMA (American Medical Association) style is commonly used in medical and scientific fields. Here are the different reference formats in AMA style:

Author’s Last name, First name. Article Title. Journal Abbreviation. Year; Volume(Issue):Page Numbers.

Example : Jones, R. A.; Smith, B. C. The Role of Vitamin D in Maintaining Bone Health. JAMA. 2019;321(17):1765-1773.

Author’s Last name, First name. Book Title. Edition number. Place of Publication: Publisher; Year.

Example : Guyton, A. C.; Hall, J. E. Textbook of Medical Physiology. 13th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Saunders; 2015.

Author’s Last name, First name. Chapter Title. In: Editor’s Last name, First name, ed. Book Title. Edition number. Place of Publication: Publisher; Year: Page Numbers.

Example: Rajakumar, K. Vitamin D and Bone Health. In: Holick, M. F., ed. Vitamin D: Physiology, Molecular Biology, and Clinical Applications. 2nd ed. New York, NY: Springer; 2010:211-222.

Author’s Last name, First name. Webpage Title. Website Name. URL. Published date. Updated date. Accessed date.

Example : National Cancer Institute. Breast Cancer Prevention (PDQ®)–Patient Version. National Cancer Institute. https://www.cancer.gov/types/breast/patient/breast-prevention-pdq. Published October 11, 2022. Accessed April 1, 2023.

Author’s Last name, First name. Conference presentation title. In: Conference Title; Conference Date; Place of Conference.

Example : Smith, J. R. Vitamin D and Bone Health: A Meta-Analysis. In: Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the American Society for Bone and Mineral Research; September 20-23, 2022; San Diego, CA.

Thesis or dissertation

Author’s Last name, First name. Title of Thesis or Dissertation. Degree level [Doctoral dissertation or Master’s thesis]. University Name; Year.

Example : Wilson, S. A. The Effects of Vitamin D Supplementation on Bone Health in Postmenopausal Women [Doctoral dissertation]. University of California, Los Angeles; 2018.

ASCE (American Society of Civil Engineers) Style

The ASCE (American Society of Civil Engineers) style is commonly used in civil engineering fields. Here are the different reference formats in ASCE style:

Author’s Last name, First name. “Article Title.” Journal Title, volume number, issue number (year): page numbers. DOI or URL (if available).

Example : Smith, J. R. “Evaluation of the Effectiveness of Sustainable Drainage Systems in Urban Areas.” Journal of Environmental Engineering, vol. 146, no. 3 (2020): 04020010. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)EE.1943-7870.0001668.

Example : McCuen, R. H. Hydrologic Analysis and Design. 4th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education; 2013.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Chapter Title.” In: Editor’s Last name, First name, ed. Book Title. Edition number. Place of Publication: Publisher; Year: page numbers.

Example : Maidment, D. R. “Floodplain Management in the United States.” In: Shroder, J. F., ed. Treatise on Geomorphology. San Diego, CA: Academic Press; 2013: 447-460.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Paper Title.” In: Conference Title; Conference Date; Location. Place of Publication: Publisher; Year: page numbers.

Example: Smith, J. R. “Sustainable Drainage Systems for Urban Areas.” In: Proceedings of the ASCE International Conference on Sustainable Infrastructure; November 6-9, 2019; Los Angeles, CA. Reston, VA: American Society of Civil Engineers; 2019: 156-163.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Report Title.” Report number. Place of Publication: Publisher; Year.

Example : U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. “Hurricane Sandy Coastal Risk Reduction Program, New York and New Jersey.” Report No. P-15-001. Washington, DC: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers; 2015.

CSE (Council of Science Editors) Style

The CSE (Council of Science Editors) style is commonly used in the scientific and medical fields. Here are the different reference formats in CSE style:

Author’s Last name, First Initial. Middle Initial. “Article Title.” Journal Title. Year;Volume(Issue):Page numbers.

Example : Smith, J.R. “Evaluation of the Effectiveness of Sustainable Drainage Systems in Urban Areas.” Journal of Environmental Engineering. 2020;146(3):04020010.

Author’s Last name, First Initial. Middle Initial. Book Title. Edition number. Place of Publication: Publisher; Year.

Author’s Last name, First Initial. Middle Initial. “Chapter Title.” In: Editor’s Last name, First Initial. Middle Initial., ed. Book Title. Edition number. Place of Publication: Publisher; Year:Page numbers.

Author’s Last name, First Initial. Middle Initial. “Paper Title.” In: Conference Title; Conference Date; Location. Place of Publication: Publisher; Year.

Example : Smith, J.R. “Sustainable Drainage Systems for Urban Areas.” In: Proceedings of the ASCE International Conference on Sustainable Infrastructure; November 6-9, 2019; Los Angeles, CA. Reston, VA: American Society of Civil Engineers; 2019.

Author’s Last name, First Initial. Middle Initial. “Report Title.” Report number. Place of Publication: Publisher; Year.

Bluebook Style

The Bluebook style is commonly used in the legal field for citing legal documents and sources. Here are the different reference formats in Bluebook style:

Case citation

Case name, volume source page (Court year).

Example : Brown v. Board of Education, 347 U.S. 483 (1954).

Statute citation

Name of Act, volume source § section number (year).

Example : Clean Air Act, 42 U.S.C. § 7401 (1963).

Regulation citation

Name of regulation, volume source § section number (year).

Example: Clean Air Act, 40 C.F.R. § 52.01 (2019).

Book citation

Author’s Last name, First Initial. Middle Initial. Book Title. Edition number (if applicable). Place of Publication: Publisher; Year.

Example: Smith, J.R. Legal Writing and Analysis. 3rd ed. New York, NY: Aspen Publishers; 2015.

Journal article citation

Author’s Last name, First Initial. Middle Initial. “Article Title.” Journal Title. Volume number (year): first page-last page.

Example: Garcia, C. “The Right to Counsel: An International Comparison.” International Journal of Legal Information. 43 (2015): 63-94.

Website citation

Author’s Last name, First Initial. Middle Initial. “Page Title.” Website Title. URL (accessed month day, year).

Example : United Nations. “Universal Declaration of Human Rights.” United Nations. https://www.un.org/en/universal-declaration-human-rights/ (accessed January 3, 2023).

Oxford Style

The Oxford style, also known as the Oxford referencing system or the documentary-note citation system, is commonly used in the humanities, including literature, history, and philosophy. Here are the different reference formats in Oxford style:

Author’s Last name, First name. Book Title. Place of Publication: Publisher, Year of Publication.

Example : Smith, John. The Art of Writing. New York: Penguin, 2020.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Article Title.” Journal Title volume, no. issue (year): page range.

Example: Garcia, Carlos. “The Role of Ethics in Philosophy.” Philosophy Today 67, no. 3 (2019): 53-68.

Chapter in an edited book citation

Author’s Last name, First name. “Chapter Title.” In Book Title, edited by Editor’s Name, page range. Place of Publication: Publisher, Year of Publication.

Example : Lee, Mary. “Feminism in the 21st Century.” In The Oxford Handbook of Feminism, edited by Jane Smith, 51-69. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2018.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Page Title.” Website Title. URL (accessed day month year).

Example : Jones, David. “The Importance of Learning Languages.” Oxford Language Center. https://www.oxfordlanguagecenter.com/importance-of-learning-languages/ (accessed 3 January 2023).

Dissertation or thesis citation

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Dissertation/Thesis.” PhD diss., University Name, Year of Publication.

Example : Brown, Susan. “The Art of Storytelling in American Literature.” PhD diss., University of Oxford, 2020.

Newspaper article citation

Author’s Last name, First name. “Article Title.” Newspaper Title, Month Day, Year.

Example : Robinson, Andrew. “New Developments in Climate Change Research.” The Guardian, September 15, 2022.

AAA (American Anthropological Association) Style

The American Anthropological Association (AAA) style is commonly used in anthropology research papers and journals. Here are the different reference formats in AAA style:

Author’s Last name, First name. Year of Publication. Book Title. Place of Publication: Publisher.

Example : Smith, John. 2019. The Anthropology of Food. New York: Routledge.

Author’s Last name, First name. Year of Publication. “Article Title.” Journal Title volume, no. issue: page range.

Example : Garcia, Carlos. 2021. “The Role of Ethics in Anthropology.” American Anthropologist 123, no. 2: 237-251.

Author’s Last name, First name. Year of Publication. “Chapter Title.” In Book Title, edited by Editor’s Name, page range. Place of Publication: Publisher.

Example: Lee, Mary. 2018. “Feminism in Anthropology.” In The Oxford Handbook of Feminism, edited by Jane Smith, 51-69. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Author’s Last name, First name. Year of Publication. “Page Title.” Website Title. URL (accessed day month year).

Example : Jones, David. 2020. “The Importance of Learning Languages.” Oxford Language Center. https://www.oxfordlanguagecenter.com/importance-of-learning-languages/ (accessed January 3, 2023).

Author’s Last name, First name. Year of Publication. “Title of Dissertation/Thesis.” PhD diss., University Name.

Example : Brown, Susan. 2022. “The Art of Storytelling in Anthropology.” PhD diss., University of California, Berkeley.

Author’s Last name, First name. Year of Publication. “Article Title.” Newspaper Title, Month Day.

Example : Robinson, Andrew. 2021. “New Developments in Anthropology Research.” The Guardian, September 15.

AIP (American Institute of Physics) Style

The American Institute of Physics (AIP) style is commonly used in physics research papers and journals. Here are the different reference formats in AIP style:

Example : Johnson, S. D. 2021. “Quantum Computing and Information.” Journal of Applied Physics 129, no. 4: 043102.

Example : Feynman, Richard. 2018. The Feynman Lectures on Physics. New York: Basic Books.

Example : Jones, David. 2020. “The Future of Quantum Computing.” In The Handbook of Physics, edited by John Smith, 125-136. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Conference proceedings citation

Author’s Last name, First name. Year of Publication. “Title of Paper.” Proceedings of Conference Name, date and location: page range. Place of Publication: Publisher.

Example : Chen, Wei. 2019. “The Applications of Nanotechnology in Solar Cells.” Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on Nanotechnology, July 15-17, Tokyo, Japan: 224-229. New York: AIP Publishing.

Example : American Institute of Physics. 2022. “About AIP Publishing.” AIP Publishing. https://publishing.aip.org/about-aip-publishing/ (accessed January 3, 2023).

Patent citation

Author’s Last name, First name. Year of Publication. Patent Number.

Example : Smith, John. 2018. US Patent 9,873,644.

References Writing Guide

Here are some general guidelines for writing references:

Follow the citation style guidelines: Different disciplines and journals may require different citation styles (e.g., APA, MLA, Chicago). It is important to follow the specific guidelines for the citation style required.
Include all necessary information : Each citation should include enough information for readers to locate the source. For example, a journal article citation should include the author(s), title of the article, journal title, volume number, issue number, page numbers, and publication year.
Use proper formatting: Citation styles typically have specific formatting requirements for different types of sources. Make sure to follow the proper formatting for each citation.
Order citations alphabetically: If listing multiple sources, they should be listed alphabetically by the author’s last name.
Be consistent: Use the same citation style throughout the entire paper or project.
Check for accuracy: Double-check all citations to ensure accuracy, including correct spelling of author names and publication information.
Use reputable sources: When selecting sources to cite, choose reputable and authoritative sources. Avoid sources that are biased or unreliable.
Include all sources: Make sure to include all sources used in the research, including those that were not directly quoted but still informed the work.
Use online tools : There are online tools available (e.g., citation generators) that can help with formatting and organizing references.

Purpose of References in Research

References in research serve several purposes:

To give credit to the original authors or sources of information used in the research. It is important to acknowledge the work of others and avoid plagiarism.
To provide evidence for the claims made in the research. References can support the arguments, hypotheses, or conclusions presented in the research by citing relevant studies, data, or theories.
To allow readers to find and verify the sources used in the research. References provide the necessary information for readers to locate and access the sources cited in the research, which allows them to evaluate the quality and reliability of the information presented.
To situate the research within the broader context of the field. References can show how the research builds on or contributes to the existing body of knowledge, and can help readers to identify gaps in the literature that the research seeks to address.

Importance of References in Research

References play an important role in research for several reasons:

Credibility : By citing authoritative sources, references lend credibility to the research and its claims. They provide evidence that the research is based on a sound foundation of knowledge and has been carefully researched.
Avoidance of Plagiarism : References help researchers avoid plagiarism by giving credit to the original authors or sources of information. This is important for ethical reasons and also to avoid legal repercussions.
Reproducibility : References allow others to reproduce the research by providing detailed information on the sources used. This is important for verification of the research and for others to build on the work.
Context : References provide context for the research by situating it within the broader body of knowledge in the field. They help researchers to understand where their work fits in and how it builds on or contributes to existing knowledge.
Evaluation : References provide a means for others to evaluate the research by allowing them to assess the quality and reliability of the sources used.

Advantages of References in Research

There are several advantages of including references in research:

Acknowledgment of Sources: Including references gives credit to the authors or sources of information used in the research. This is important to acknowledge the original work and avoid plagiarism.
Evidence and Support : References can provide evidence to support the arguments, hypotheses, or conclusions presented in the research. This can add credibility and strength to the research.
Reproducibility : References provide the necessary information for others to reproduce the research. This is important for the verification of the research and for others to build on the work.
Context : References can help to situate the research within the broader body of knowledge in the field. This helps researchers to understand where their work fits in and how it builds on or contributes to existing knowledge.
Evaluation : Including references allows others to evaluate the research by providing a means to assess the quality and reliability of the sources used.
Ongoing Conversation: References allow researchers to engage in ongoing conversations and debates within their fields. They can show how the research builds on or contributes to the existing body of knowledge.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

Data Collection – Methods Types and Examples

Delimitations in Research – Types, Examples and...

Research Process – Steps, Examples and Tips

Research Design – Types, Methods and Examples

Institutional Review Board – Application Sample...

Evaluating Research – Process, Examples and...

Encyclopedia of Personality and Individual Differences pp 1–3 Cite as

Reference Group Effect

Christoph Schild 3 ,
Karolina Ścigała 3 &
Ingo Zettler 3
Living reference work entry
First Online: 22 December 2017

1245 Accesses

2 Citations

1 Altmetric

The Reference Group Effect (RGE) describes “the confounding role of context in comparisons of mean questionnaire responses across different groups” (Heine et al. 2002 , p. 904).

Introduction

According to social comparison theory (Festinger 1954 ), people seek for evaluation of their or others characteristics since an inaccurate estimation of characteristics can lead to negative consequences in a variety of situations. If objective means are not given, the evaluations derive from comparisons with others. Heine et al. ( 2002 ) adopted this idea and suggested that such comparison processes might be the underlying mechanism of the Reference Group Effect (RGE) which describes “the confounding role of context in comparisons of mean questionnaire responses across different groups” (Heine et al. 2002 , p. 904).

In the following, we will (i) introduce the RGE in more detail and (ii) explain how it can affect personality research. Furthermore, we will (iii) follow up with implications for...

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution .

Credé, M., Bashshur, M., & Niehorster, S. (2010). Reference group effects in the measurement of personality and attitudes. Journal of Personality Assessment, 92 , 390–399. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2010.497393 .

Article PubMed Google Scholar

Festinger, L. (1954). A theory of social comparison processes. Human Relations, 7 , 117–140. https://doi.org/10.1177/001872675400700202 .

Article Google Scholar

Heine, S. J., Lehman, D. R., Peng, K., & Greenholtz, J. (2002). What’s wrong with cross-cultural comparisons of subjective Likert scales? The reference-group effect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82 , 903–918. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.82.6.903 .

Heine, S. J., Buchtel, E. E., & Norenzayan, A. (2008). What do cross-national comparisons of personality traits tell us? The case of conscientiousness. Psychological Science, 19 , 309–313. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02085.x .

Marsh, H. W., & Hau, K.-T. (2003). Big-Fish-Little-Pond effect on academic self-concept: A cross-cultural (26-country) test of the negative effects of academically selective schools. American Psychologist, 58 , 364–376. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.58.5.364 .

Rothenbusch, S., Zettler, I., Voss, T., Lösch, T., & Trautwein, U. (2016). Exploring reference group effects on teachers’ nominations of gifted students. Journal of Educational Psychology, 108 , 883–897. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000085 .

Wood, A. M., Brown, G. D. A., Maltby, J., & Watkinson, P. (2012). How are personality judgments made? A cognitive model of reference group effects, personality scale responses, and behavioral reactions. Journal of Personality, 80 , 1275–1311. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2012.00763.x .

Download references

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Department of Psychology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark

Christoph Schild, Karolina Ścigała & Ingo Zettler

You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Christoph Schild .

Editor information

Editors and affiliations.

Oakland University, Rochester, USA

Virgil Zeigler-Hill

Todd K. Shackelford

Section Editor information

Department of Educational Sciences, University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy

Patrizia Velotti

Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

About this entry

Cite this entry.

Schild, C., Ścigała, K., Zettler, I. (2018). Reference Group Effect. In: Zeigler-Hill, V., Shackelford, T. (eds) Encyclopedia of Personality and Individual Differences. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-28099-8_840-1

Download citation

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-28099-8_840-1

Received : 25 September 2017

Accepted : 18 December 2017

Published : 22 December 2017

Publisher Name : Springer, Cham

Print ISBN : 978-3-319-28099-8

Online ISBN : 978-3-319-28099-8

eBook Packages : Springer Reference Behavioral Science and Psychology Reference Module Humanities and Social Sciences Reference Module Business, Economics and Social Sciences

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Find a journal
Track your research

Research Reference Group

MATES Program foundations are built on research performed by a broad, diverse and rich bank of academics. Research has been conducted by AISRAP, Newcastle University, University of Queensland, University of South Australia, University of Central Queensland, Deakin University, University of Melbourne and Murdoch University among many others.

MATES' close collaboration with key researchers has enabled development of extensive, peer-reviewed evaluations from a multitude of sources which support the MATES program logic.

Allison Milner Memorial PhD Scholarship

Members of the mates research reference group, prof. tony lamontagne, chair of the mates research reference group.

Professor Tony LaMontagne’s career has been dedicated to developing the scientific and public understanding of work as a social determinant of health, and translating this research into policy and practice to improve workplace and worker health.

Jorgen Gullestrup

Jorgen is an Allison Milner Memorial Scholarship PhD student researching the topic “Male help-offering in suicide prevention”. He is a plumber by trade and was founding CEO of MATES from 2007-2021.

Dr. Chris Bowden BA Hons I, MA, Ph.D Health

Dr. Chris Bowden is a lecturer in Te Puna Akopai/ School of Education at Te Herenga Waka/Victoria University of Wellington. He teaches in the area of child and adolescent development in the undergraduate programme, and child and adolescent mental health, and counselling and in the Masters of Educational Psychology programme.

Prof. Andrew Page

Andrew C Page is Pro Vice-Chancellor (Research) Professor in the School of Psychological Science, University of Western Australia. He is director of the Western Australia Centre for Mental Health Research and his current research focus is on improving the efficiency and effectiveness of psychological treatments as well as the prediction and prevention of self-harm and suicide.

Victoria Ross

Dr Victoria Ross is a senior research fellow at the Australian Institute for Suicide Research and Prevention (AISRAP). Her key research areas are workplace mental health and suicide prevention, suicide bereavement support, and suicide prevention program evaluation.

Michael Quinlan

Michael Quinlan PhD, FASSA is Emeritus Professor of industrial relations at UNSW. His expertise and research focus is on occupational health and safety (OHS), especially the effects of work organisation (like subcontracting and precarious work) and regulation, including detailed research especially in the construction, road transport and mining industries.

Associate Professor Jacinta Hawgood

Dr. Jacinta Hawgood is Senior Lecturer and Program Director of Suicidology at the Australian Institute for Suicide Research and Prevention (AISRAP), where she has worked since 2000. Jacinta has a passion for supporting people in suicidal distress as well as their families, and educating those who work in suicide prevention, from service providers to policy makers.

Simon Tyler

Simon Tyler (B. Psych. Sci. (Hons), MS. Psychology) is a PhD Candidate for the University of South Australia’s Mental Health and Suicide Prevention Research Group (Division of Health Sciences). He is also the recipient of the Inaugural Allison Milner Memorial Fund Scholarship with his work aimed at furthering understanding of the nature and drivers of suicide in the construction industry.

Tania King is a social epidemiologist whose work is broadly focussed on understanding the way mental health and suicide is patterned across society. A central focus of this research is examining the role of paid and unpaid work in shaping mental health outcomes, particularly in relation to male-dominated occupational settings.

Chris Doran

Christopher Doran is a Professor of Health Economics at Central Queensland University (since 2015) and is currently leading the research cluster for resilience and wellbeing (CReW). His main area of research is quantitative analysis with a focus on mental health and Indigenous primary health care.

From our researchers

“I have been involved in research into suicide prevention since 1987, and was Chairman of Suicide Prevention Australia from 1995-2001. My colleagues and I, over the years, have published over 120 suicide prevention research papers in international journals. I was invited to become a Board member of Mates in Construction (Qld), and had the privilege over five years to watch MATES evolve into a carefully developed program that clearly grabbed the attention of workers in the industry keen to support their mates through hard times. We have published research demonstrating how the program works, but also how it prevents suicides — that is ‘outcome research’ (so rare in social sciences). We have demonstrated that MATES saves lives and is implicated in reduction of the male suicide rate in Queensland. Clearly, the MATES program is unique, soundly conceived and effective. It is undoubtedly in the public interest for State Governments to implement policies that provide sustainable levels of funding to promote the reach of this outstanding program. I would urge the WA Government to support MATES in WA and provide sustainable funding that will save lives.”

– Graham Martin OAM, MD, MBBS, FRANZCP, DPM, Professor Emeritus Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, The University of Queensland

“I have undertaken significant research into the impact of the MATES in Construction program and played a role in the program’s ongoing evidence-based improvement processes. The program is clearly making a substantial contribution to changing the culture of the construction industry in relation to mental health and suicide. It is undoubtedly saving many lives and delivering improved wellbeing for workers and their families.”

- Jacinta Hawgood; BSSc, BPsy(Hons), MClinPsy, MAPS , Senior Lecturer | Program Director Suicidology, Australian Institute for Suicide Research and Prevention, Griffith University.

share this!

April 12, 2024

This article has been reviewed according to Science X's editorial process and policies . Editors have highlighted the following attributes while ensuring the content's credibility:

fact-checked

trusted source

Research team discovers more than 50 potentially new deep-sea species in one of the most unexplored areas of the planet

by Barcelona Supercomputing Center

International team co-led by a BSC researcher discovers more than 50 new deep-sea species in one of the most unexplored areas of the planet

An international group of scientists, co-led by researcher Ariadna Mechó of the Barcelona Supercomputing Center—Centro Nacional de Supercomputación (BSC-CNS), observed 160 species on seamounts off the coast of Chile that had not yet been known to live in the region and suspect that at least 50 of these species are new to science.

The recent Schmidt Ocean Institute expedition to the underwater mountains of the Salas y Gómez Ridge, a remote and underexplored area that stretches from offshore Chile to Rapa Nui, resulted in identifying deep-sea corals , glass sponges, sea urchins , squids, fishes, mollusks, crabs, sea stars, squat lobsters, and other species likely never-before observed by scientists.

Mechó, a researcher in the Climate Variability and Change group at the BSC's Earth Sciences Department, presented the results of the 40-day scientific cruise " Unexplored Seamounts of the Salas y Gómez Ridge " and the current negotiations to create a blue corridor in the area at the " Ocean Decade MPA Forum: Progress, obstacles and solutions ," an off-site event organized in the framework of the UN Ocean Decade Conference held in Barcelona from 10–12 April 2024.

"The main results of this campaign are that we have found between 50 and 60 potentially new species at first sight, a number that is likely to increase as we have many samples to work on in the laboratory.

"We also found one of the deepest mesophotic corals in the world, extending the distribution of this Polynesian fauna by several hundred kilometers. And at depth, we have found fields of sponges and corals, habitats that are considered vulnerable and in need of protection," said Mechó.

The expedition took place from 24 February to 4 April with an international team of 25 scientists from 14 organizations in five countries (Chile, United States, Italy, Spain, Netherlands), including the first Rapa Nui marine biologist , Emilia Ra'a Palma Tuki, a recent graduate of the Universidad Católica del Norte in Chile.

The Rapa Nui Sea Council, or Koro Nui o te Vaikava, supported the expedition, providing the main permit to work in the area, and collaborated by providing a Koro Nui observer and a local sailing expert to bring to the expedition their perspectives as members of the Rapa Nui community.

The information collected during this research expedition will provide the scientific basis to inform the management of existing marine protected areas and potentially expand them, especially around the island of Rapa Nui.

One of the most unexplored areas of the planet

The cruise is devoted to studying the ecosystems of one of the most unexplored areas of the world, the submarine mountains and oceanic islands of the Salas y Gómez Ridge, which is a 2,900-kilometer-long underwater mountain chain comprising more than 200 seamounts from offshore Chile to Rapa Nui, otherwise known as Easter Island (or Isla de Pascua).

This ridge hosts one of the most unique and biodiverse seascapes on Earth, with an extremely high rate of endemism, critical habitats for benthic organisms, essential migration corridors for highly mobile species, and the presence of over 80 threatened or endangered species.

In addition, the Salas y Gómez Ridge possesses a rich cultural and maritime heritage with profound connections to Indigenous islander and mainland communities and other nations. This remote, underexplored region likely harbors pristine and unexploited habitats with abundant biodiversity that require international cooperation to protect them before they are lost.

Modeling the ocean with supercomputing

The role of BSC and supercomputing in the campaign is to provide climate modeling data through different scenarios to establish the distribution of key species in the area. This will help us understand how these species will be impacted by future changes, depending on each possible scenario.

"But first, we need to better understand the biodiversity and connectivity of the region to know which keystone species are found there and on which mountains exactly, as well as potential faunal breaks (where communities change or stop connecting with each other). Basically, it is a unique exploration in places where practically everything is unexplored," said Mechó.

The aim is to provide the critical information to support the designation of the Salas y Gomez Ridge as an ecologically and biologically significant marine area (EBSA) by the Convention on Biological Diversity and an ecological and socioeconomic "priority area" for international protection, by the High Seas Treaty .

This cruise was strongly connected with an earlier campaign deployed between January and February 2024 and focused on studying the junction between the Salas y Gomez and the Nazca Ridge, and the Desventuradas Islands .

During the two cruises, more than 100 new species have been discovered on the Salas y Gomez and the Nazca Ridge (SyGR), as well as coral and sponge gardens. That will emphasize the need for a blue corridor along the Salas y Gómez and Nazca Ridges, creating one of the first and larger high-seas marine protected areas in the world.

Provided by Barcelona Supercomputing Center

Explore further

Feedback to editors

Aboriginal people made pottery, sailed to distant islands thousands of years before Europeans arrived

6 hours ago

The experimental demonstration of a verifiable blind quantum computing protocol

Apr 13, 2024

A machine learning-based approach to discover nanocomposite films for biodegradable plastic alternatives

Saturday Citations: Listening to bird dreams, securing qubits, imagining impossible billiards

Physicists solve puzzle about ancient galaxy found by Webb telescope

Researchers study effects of solvation and ion valency on metallopolymers

Chemists devise easier new method for making a common type of building block for drugs

New study details how starving cells hijack protein transport stations

Apr 12, 2024

New species of ant found pottering under the Pilbara named after Voldemort

Searching for new asymmetry between matter and antimatter

Relevant physicsforums posts, mold in plastic water bottles what does it eat.

3 hours ago

Dolphins don't breathe through their esophagus

7 hours ago

Is this egg-laying or something else?

Color recognition: what we see vs animals with a larger color range, how to implement beamforming in ultrasound diffraction tomography.

Apr 10, 2024

Potentially fatal dog parasite found in the Colorado River

Apr 9, 2024

Protecting high seas off Chile's coast depends on UN vote in New York

Feb 18, 2023

Greenpeace calls for high seas protected area in Galapagos

Mar 11, 2024

Eight new deep-sea species of marine sponges discovered

Mar 7, 2024

Much still pending on how high seas sanctions will work

Jun 19, 2023

Scientists explore seamounts in Phoenix Islands Archipelago, gain insights into deep water diversity

Jul 9, 2021

'Huge' overfishing problem shows need to ratify ocean treaty: Greenpeace

Sep 14, 2023

Recommended for you

Bonobos are more aggressive than previously thought, study shows

Where have all the right whales gone? Researchers map population density to make predictions

Africa's iconic flamingos threatened by rising lake levels, study shows

Iconic savanna mammals face genetic problems due to fences and roads

Traces of DNA in the stomachs of predatory snails provide new insights into the ecology of placozoans

Apr 11, 2024

Let us know if there is a problem with our content

Use this form if you have come across a typo, inaccuracy or would like to send an edit request for the content on this page. For general inquiries, please use our contact form . For general feedback, use the public comments section below (please adhere to guidelines ).

Please select the most appropriate category to facilitate processing of your request

Thank you for taking time to provide your feedback to the editors.

Your feedback is important to us. However, we do not guarantee individual replies due to the high volume of messages.

E-mail the story

Your email address is used only to let the recipient know who sent the email. Neither your address nor the recipient's address will be used for any other purpose. The information you enter will appear in your e-mail message and is not retained by Phys.org in any form.

Newsletter sign up

Get weekly and/or daily updates delivered to your inbox. You can unsubscribe at any time and we'll never share your details to third parties.

More information Privacy policy

Donate and enjoy an ad-free experience

We keep our content available to everyone. Consider supporting Science X's mission by getting a premium account.

E-mail newsletter

An official website of the United States government

Here’s how you know

The .gov means it’s official.

Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

The site is secure.

The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

Russia-related Designations and Designations Updates; Issuance of Russia-related General Licenses

The Department of the Treasury's Office of Foreign Assets Control (OFAC) is issuing Russia-related General License 79 , "Authorizing the Wind Down of Transactions Involving Certain Entities Blocked on December 12, 2023," and Russia-related General License 80 , "Authorizing Certain Transactions Related to Debt or Equity of, or Derivative Contracts Involving, Highland Gold Mining Limited."

Additionally, OFAC has updated its Specially Designated Nationals and Blocked Persons List:

The following vessels have been added to OFAC's SDN List:

ARKADIY CHERNYSHEV (UBSH5) General Cargo Russia flag; Vessel Year of Build 1988; Vessel Registration Identification IMO 8714695 (vessel) [RUSSIA-EO14024] (Linked To: IBEX SHIPPING INC). CAPTAIN YAKUBOVICH (UBCG2) General Cargo Russia flag; Vessel Year of Build 1984; Vessel Registration Identification IMO 8318740 (vessel) [RUSSIA-EO14024] (Linked To: IBEX SHIPPING INC). MARIA (UBRH7) General Cargo Russia flag; Vessel Year of Build 1986; Vessel Registration Identification IMO 8517839 (vessel) [RUSSIA-EO14024] (Linked To: IBEX SHIPPING INC).

Unrelated Administrative List Updates:

IMAGES

50 Reference Group Examples (2024)
Reference Groups: Meaning, Types, Primary and Secondary Reference Groups
Learn About a Reference Group in Marketing
General rules: Reference list
Harvard Style
PPT

VIDEO

Part 08: Questionnaire, Reference and Abstract by Dr. Walter
What is reference group in marketing?
How to Do Research and Get Published
Accessing RefWorks
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY-LECTURE 59-SOCIOMETRY
MSR Overview: Introduction & Logistics, Overview, The 4th Paradigm; Tech Surveys

COMMENTS

Reference Group in Sociology: Definition, Types & Examples
A reference group is a collectivity to which individuals or groups refer when making comparisons about their lives. They may be positive or negative, encompassing respective behavior that is aspired to and behavior that is rejected as inappropriate. The reference groups that someone has can also change over time, as attitudes and beliefs evolve.
Reference Group: Types, Functions, Characteristics, Importance
The term reference group, originally coined by Hebert Hyman in his book The Psychology of Status (1942), is used to describe any group that an individual uses as a point of comparison in the process of self-appraisal.The points of comparison (or reference) that an individual looks at could be the norms, attitudes, and values of the reference group members.
6.1E: Reference Groups
Figure 6.1E. 1 6.1 E. 1: Reference group: Reference groups provide the benchmarks and contrast needed for comparison and evaluation of group and personal characteristics. They become the individual's frame of reference and source for ordering his or her experiences, perceptions, cognition, and ideas of self. An example of a reference group is ...
What Is a Reference Group in Sociology?
A reference group is a collection of people that we use as a standard of comparison for ourselves regardless of whether we are part of that group. We rely on reference groups to understand social norms, which then shape our values, ideas, behavior, and appearance. This means that we also use them to evaluate the relative worth, desirability, or ...
Reference Groups (Sociology): Definition and Types
A reference group is a group of people whose norms influence a person's behaviors. We use the group as a 'frame of reference' to make behavioral decisions. Traditionally, we would refer to a reference group as the social group (and its norms) that we wish to belong to, and therefore, we use its norms as a reference for idealized behaviors.
What Is a Reference Group? (With Tips for Creating One)
Updated September 30, 2022. In sociology, a reference group is a collection of people who act as a baseline that individuals or other groups use for comparison. Reference groups are important in social science research, but they also matter to marketing professionals who can use them to understand and predict consumer behaviors.
Reference Group in Sociology
What are some examples of reference groups? Informal reference groups are peer groups, families, and neighbors. Formal reference groups are gardening clubs, political parties, and labor unions ...
Reference Groups: A Review and Commentary
Review and Commentary. The phenomena which the reference group concept describes have historically been suggested by the ideas of in-groups and out-groups (Sumner, 1906), pri-. mary groups (Cooley, 1909), the generalized other (Mead, 1934), the marginal man (Stonequist, 1937), and significant others (Sullivan, 1940). The term ref-.
Reference Group
A reference group is any group that people use as a point of comparison to form their own attitudes, values, beliefs, and behaviors. For example, new college students may use older (and presumably wiser) college students as a reference group to form their attitudes about politics, what clothes to wear, how much alcohol to drink, what music to listen to, what restaurants to frequent, and so on.
Reference Group Effect
The Reference Group Effect and Personality Research. As personality characteristics are often assessed via Likert-based questionnaires, the RGE should be taken into account when interpreting corresponding results (on both an individual- and a group-level). Indeed, a study by Credé et al. ( 2010) has indicated that different reference groups ...
Reference Groups as Perspectives
In spite of ambiguity, reference group has become an increasingly popular concept, utilized in hypotheses concerning a variety of social pehnomena. The restriction of this concepts to a single referent, namely, group whose perspective is used as a frame of reference by the actor, will increase its usefulness as an analytic tool. Shared perspectives arise through participation in common ...
The role of reference group influence: A benchmarking study with
Studies have shown that reference group influence is a differentiator for gender, although such gender-based studies on reference group influence considered women as one group. Research on reference group influence on men and women shows that gender is an influential constituent in consumer decision-making (Fletschner & Carter, 2008).
Reference group theory with implications for ...
Although the American Soldier was a classic study in reference group research, the concepts of the theory did not come into prominence until Merton & Kitt (1950) published the results of synthesized studies involving reference groups and offered detailed discussions on research related to the field of reference group theory, introducing a new ...
Laying the foundations of community engagement in Aboriginal health
One approach used to incorporate the key elements of community engagement and involve Aboriginal people in Aboriginal health research is to engage a community reference group to provide oversight, input and cultural guidance to research projects [5, 20].Community reference groups formalize the academic-community partnership by providing a mechanism which emphasizes information and power ...
Qualitative Research Reference Group
The Qualitative Research Reference Group is a group of experienced qualitative researchers belonging to different topic-based research groups within the Medical School. This includes using a broad range of qualitative research approaches to explore health services delivery, perspectives on social care, and the environment and human health. Our ...
Reference Groups: Everything You Need to Know
A reference group is a collection of people who share some common attribute or experience. Reference groups can be used for a variety of purposes, including: 1. Determining the best course of action. A reference group can be used to help determine the best course of action by providing feedback and advice. 2.
References in Research
Journal Articles. References to journal articles usually include the author's name, title of the article, name of the journal, volume and issue number, page numbers, and publication date. Example: Johnson, T. (2021). The Impact of Social Media on Mental Health. Journal of Psychology, 32 (4), 87-94.
PDF Reference Group Effect
compared to a reference group with very high Extraversion levels. The Reference Group Effect and Cross-Cultural Research By looking at participants from different cultures, cross-cultural research is well suited for investi-gating RGEs. In a seminal study, Heine et al. (2002) showed this on the example of Individual-ism and Collectivism (IC).
Academic ResearcReference Group
Research Reference Group. MATES Program foundations are built on research performed by a broad, diverse and rich bank of academics. Research has been conducted by AISRAP, Newcastle University, University of Queensland, University of South Australia, University of Central Queensland, Deakin University, University of Melbourne and Murdoch University among many others.
Omitting Axillary Dissection in Breast Cancer with Sentinel-Node
In the European Organization for Research and Treatment of Cancer (EORTC) 10981-22023 Comparison of Complete Axillary Lymph Node Dissection with Axillary Radiation Therapy in Treating Women with ...
Study links accelerated aging to cancer risk in younger adults
Researchers looking for clues to why some types of cancer are on the rise in younger adults say they've found an interesting lead — a connection to accelerated biological aging.
Helldivers 2 Stealth Drops New Ship Upgrades
Helldivers 2 developer Arrowhead has stealth dropped new ship upgrades alongside the new Premium Warbond, Democratic Detonation.. Six new ship upgrades are now in the Playstation 5 and PC third ...
Victor Mukhin
Biography: Victor M. Mukhin was born in 1946 in the town of Orsk, Russia. In 1970 he graduated the Technological Institute in Leningrad. Victor M. Mukhin was directed to work to the scientific-industrial organization "Neorganika" (Elektrostal, Moscow region) where he is working during 47 years, at present as the head of the laboratory of carbon sorbents.
About the company
About the company. In 1995 it was registered in Moscow representative office of «Granaria Food Group bv», which began to explore the potential of the Russian market. In February 1996, the company was founded by «Chaka», which started selling nuts under the brand name «Chaka» on the Russian market. In September 1998, Elektrostal (Moscow ...
What's quieter than a fish? A school of them
Swimming in schools makes fish surprisingly stealthy underwater, with a group able to sound like a single fish. Engineers working with a high-tech simulation of schooling mackerel offer new ...
Research team discovers more than 50 potentially new deep-sea species
An international group of scientists, co-led by researcher Ariadna Mechó of the Barcelona Supercomputing Center—Centro Nacional de Supercomputación (BSC-CNS), observed 160 species on seamounts ...
Russia-related Designations and Designations Updates; Issuance of
The Department of the Treasury's Office of Foreign Assets Control (OFAC) is issuing Russia-related General License 79, "Authorizing the Wind Down of Transactions Involving Certain Entities Blocked on December 12, 2023," and Russia-related General License 80, "Authorizing Certain Transactions Related to Debt or Equity of, or Derivative Contracts Involving, Highland Gold Mining Limited."
Rosatom Starts Production of Rare-Earth Magnets for Wind Power
For reference: TVEL Fuel Company of Rosatom incorporates enterprises for the fabrication of nuclear fuel, conversion and enrichment of uranium, production of gas centrifuges, as well as research and design organizations. It is the only supplier of nuclear fuel for Russian nuclear power plants.

Reference Group in Sociology

Key Takeaways

Definitions, Functions, and Examples

Types of Reference Groups

Types of Positive Reference Groups: Contractual and Aspirational

Types of Negative Reference Groups: Disclamant and Avoidant

Characteristics of Reference Groups

Application in Marketing

Reference Group: Types, Functions, Characteristics, Importance

Functions of Reference Groups

Types of Reference Groups

Characteristics of Reference Groups

Pragati Kalive

6.1E: Reference Groups

What Is a Reference Group?

How We Relate to and Embrace Norms

Specific Types of Reference Group Norms

Reference Groups (Sociology): Definition and Types

Definition of Reference Groups

Concept’s Origins

Types of Reference Groups

Examples of Membership Reference Groups

2. Aspirational Reference Groups

Examples of Aspirational Reference Groups

3. Dissociative Reference Groups

Examples of Dissociative Reference Groups

Primary vs Secondary Reference Groups

1. Primary Reference Groups

Examples of Primary Reference Groups

2. Secondary Reference Groups

Examples of Secondary Reference Groups

Two ways Reference Groups Influence Behavior

1. Normative Influence

Examples of Normative Influence

2. Informational Influence

Examples of Informational Influence

Leave a Comment Cancel Reply

Reference group theory with implications for information studies: a theoretical essay

Introduction

Brief history of reference group theory

Constructs and basic concepts

Clarification

Basic propositions

Application of reference group theory to information behaviour research

Laying the foundations of community engagement in Aboriginal health research: establishing a community reference group and terms of reference in a novel research field

Plain English Summary

Project context and setting

Research methods

Study design

Aboriginal capacity building

Participants and recruitment

Data collection

Data analysis

Phase 1: Key informant yarning interviews—developing a draft terms of reference

Phase 2: Consensus focus group—formalizing the terms of reference

Availability of data and materials

Abbreviations

Acknowledgements

Author information

Contributions

Corresponding author

Ethics declarations

Consent for publication

Competing interests

Additional information

Supplementary Information

Additional file 2

Additional file 3

Rights and permissions

About this article

Share this article

Research Involvement and Engagement

Qualitative Research Reference Group

Reference Groups: Everything You Need to Know

What are Reference Groups?

Types of Reference Groups

Aspirational Reference Group

Comparative Reference Group

Dissociative Reference Group

Collective Reference Group