synthesis reaction meaning

• Science Notes Posts
• Contact Science Notes
• Todd Helmenstine Biography
• Anne Helmenstine Biography
• Free Printable Periodic Tables (PDF and PNG)
• Periodic Table Wallpapers
• Interactive Periodic Table
• Periodic Table Posters
• How to Grow Crystals
• Chemistry Projects
• Fire and Flames Projects
• Holiday Science
• Chemistry Problems With Answers
• Physics Problems
• Unit Conversion Example Problems
• Chemistry Worksheets
• Biology Worksheets
• Periodic Table Worksheets
• Physical Science Worksheets
• Science Lab Worksheets
• My Amazon Books

What Is a Synthesis Reaction? Definition and Examples

A synthesis reaction is one of the four main types of chemical reactions , along with decomposition, single replacement , and double replacement reactions. Here is the synthesis reaction definition, examples of the reaction using elements and compounds, a look at how many reactants are involved, and how to recognize a synthesis reaction.

Synthesis Reaction Definition

A synthesis reaction is a chemical reaction that combines two or more simple elements or compounds to form a more complex product . A + B → AB This type of reaction is also called a direct combination reaction or simply a combination reaction. It’s the type of reaction that forms compounds from their elements. Synthesis reactions also make large molecules from smaller ones. A synthesis reaction is the opposite of a decomposition reaction , which breaks complex molecules into simpler ones.

Synthesis Reaction Examples

There are many examples of synthesis reactions. Some involve elements. In others, an element reacts with a compound. In still other cases, compounds react with other compounds to form larger molecules.

Synthesis Reactions Between Elements

• Iron and sulfur react to form iron sulfide. 8 Fe + S 8  → 8 FeS
• Potassium and chlorine react to form potassium chloride. 2K (s)  + Cl 2(g)  → 2KCl (s)
• Iron and oxygen react to form rust. 4 Fe (s) + 3 O 2  (g) → 2 Fe 2 O 3  (s)
• Hydrogen reacts with oxygen to form water. 2 H 2 (g) + O 2 (g) → 2 H 2 O(g)

Synthesis Reactions Between an Element and a Compound

• Carbon monoxide reacts with oxygen to form carbon dioxide. 2 CO(g) + O 2 (g) → 2CO 2 (g)
• Nitric oxide reacts with oxygen to form nitrogen dioxide. 2NO + O 2  → 2NO 2
• CH 2 CH 2 (g) + Br 2 (ℓ) → CH 2 BrCH 2 Br

Synthesis Reactions Between Compounds

• Sulfur oxide reacts with water to form sulfuric acid. SO 3  (g) + H 2 O (l) → H 2 SO 4  (aq)
• Calcium oxide reacts with water to form calcium hydroxide. 2CaO (s) + 2H 2 O (l) → 2Ca(OH) 2 (aq)
• Iron oxide and sulfur oxide react to form iron sulfate. Fe 2 O 3  + 3SO 3  → Fe 2 (SO 4 ) 3

How Many Reactants Are There?

Usually, there are two reactants in a synthesis reaction. They could be two elements, an element and a compound, or two compounds. However, sometimes more reactants combine to form a product. Here are examples of synthesis reactions involving three reactants:

• Sodium carbonate reacts with water and carbon dioxide to form sodium bicarbonate. Na 2 CO 3  + H 2 O + CO 2 → 2NaHCO 3
• Nitrogen reacts with water and oxygen to form ammonium nitrate. 2N 2 (g) + 4H 2 O(g) + O 2 (g) → 2NH 4 NO 3 (s)

How to Recognize a Synthesis Reaction

The easiest way to recognize a synthesis reaction is to look for a reaction where multiple reactants produce a single product. However, sometimes a synthesis reaction equation includes multiple products and reactants. A good example is the overall reaction for photosynthesis, in which carbon dioxide and water combine to form glucose and oxygen. CO 2  + H 2 O → C 6 H 12 O 6  + O 2 But, even in this case, two simpler molecules react to form a more complex one. So, this is the key in synthesis reaction identification.

Some synthesis reactions form predictable products. If you recognize them, it’s easy to recognize the reaction type:

• Reacting two elements forms a binary compound. For example, hydrogen and oxygen react to form water.
• When two nonmetals react, more than one product is possible. For example, sulfur and oxygen react to form sulfur dioxide or sulfur trioxide.
• Alkali metals react with nonmetals to form ionic compounds. For example, sodium and chlorine form sodium chloride.
• Transition metals react with nonmetals to form more than one possible product. To predict the product, you need to know the oxidation state (charge) or the metallic cation.
• Nonmetal oxides react with water to form acids. For example sulfur dioxide reacts with water to make sulfurous acid.
• Metallic oxides react with water to form bases.
• Nonmetal oxides react with one another to form salts.

Related Posts

Synthesis Reaction Description Plus Examples

Two or more simple substances combine to form more complex products

• Chemical Laws
• Periodic Table
• Projects & Experiments
• Scientific Method
• Biochemistry
• Physical Chemistry
• Medical Chemistry
• Chemistry In Everyday Life
• Famous Chemists
• Activities for Kids
• Abbreviations & Acronyms
• Weather & Climate
• Ph.D., Biomedical Sciences, University of Tennessee at Knoxville
• B.A., Physics and Mathematics, Hastings College

While there are many types of chemical reactions , they all fall into at least one of four broad categories: synthesis reactions, decomposition reactions , single displacement reactions, and double displacement reactions.

A synthesis reaction or direct combination reaction is a type of chemical reaction in which two or more simple substances combine to form a more complex product. The reactants may be elements or compounds, while the product is always a compound.

General Form of Synthesis Reactions

The general form of a synthesis reaction is:

A + B → AB

Examples of Synthesis Reactions

Here are some examples of synthesis reactions:

• Water: 2 H 2 (g) + O 2 (g) → 2 H 2 O(g)
• Carbon dioxide: 2 CO(g) + O 2 (g) → 2CO 2 (g)
• Ammonia: 3 H 2 (g) + N 2 (g) → 2 NH 3 (g)
• Aluminum oxide: 4 Al(s) + 3 O 2 (g) → 2 Al 2 O 3 (s)
• Iron sulfide: 8 Fe + S 8 → 8 FeS
• Potassium chloride: 2 K(s) + Cl 2 (g) → 2 KCl(s)

Recognizing Synthesis Reactions

The hallmark of a synthesis reaction is that a more complex product is formed from the reactants. One easy-to-recognize type of synthesis reaction occurs when two or more elements combine to form a compound. The other type of synthesis reaction happens when an element and a compound combine to form a new compound.

Basically, to identify this reaction, look for a product that contains all the reactant atoms. Be sure to count the number of atoms in both the reactants and the products. Sometimes when a chemical equation is written, "extra" information is given that might make it hard to recognize what is going on in a reaction. Counting numbers and types of atoms makes it easier to identify reaction types.

• Chemical Reaction Definition and Examples
• Synthesis Reaction Definition and Examples
• Simple Chemical Reactions
• Types of Chemical Reactions
• How Many Types of Chemical Reactions Are There?
• Single-Displacement Reaction Definition and Examples
• What Is a Chemical Reaction?
• Chemical Reaction Classification Practice Test
• Chemical Reaction vs. Chemical Equation
• Reactant Definition and Examples
• Decomposition Reaction Definition
• 4 Types of Inorganic Chemical Reactions
• What Is a Word Equation in Chemistry?
• Combustion Reactions in Chemistry
• Reaction Definition in Chemistry
• How to Calculate Theoretical Yield of a Reaction

Chemistry Learner

It's all about chemistry.

• Chemical Bonds
• Chemical Reactions
• Materials Chemistry
• Organic Chemistry
• Periodic Trends
• Periodic Table Groups
• How to Read Periodic Table
• Naming Covalent Compounds Worksheets
• Net Ionic Equation Worksheets
• Types of Chemical Reactions Worksheets
• Word Equations Worksheets
• Valence Electrons Worksheets
• Graphing Periodic Trends Worksheets
• Periodic Trends Ionization Energy Worksheets
• Atomic Structure And Isotopes Worksheets

Synthesis Reaction (Combination Reaction)

What is a synthesis reaction, how to identify a synthesis reaction, example of synthesis reaction, different types of synthesis reaction, examples of synthesis reactions in everyday life.

A synthesis reaction is a reaction in which two or more reactants chemically bond and combine to form a product. A synthesis reaction is also known as a combination reaction. Most synthesis reactions are exothermic reactions, i.e., heat is released during the reaction.

General Equation

The general chemical equation for a synthesis reaction is given by the following equation.

When writing an actual reaction, the reaction must be balanced.

A synthesis reaction combines all the reactants of the reaction to form a product. To recognize a synthesis reaction, look for a product that contains all the reactant atoms.

An example of a combination reaction is the combination of aluminum (Al) and oxygen (O 2 ) to aluminum oxide (Al 2 O 3 ).

4 Al (s) + 3 O 2 (g)  → 2 Al 2 O 3 (s)

There are three types of synthesis reaction.

1. Reaction between two elements

• The reaction between hydrogen (H 2 ) and nitrogen (N 2 ) to form ammonia (NH 3 )

N 2 (g) + 3 H 2 (g) → 2 NH 3 (g)

• The reaction between carbon (C) and oxygen (O 2 ) to form carbon dioxide (CO 2 )

C (s) + O 2 (g) → CO 2 (g)

• When sodium (Na) metal reacts with chlorine (Cl 2 ) gas, the reaction results in sodium chloride (NaCl), also known as common salt

2 Na (s) + Cl 2 (g) → 2 NaCl (s)

• The reaction between iron (Fe) and oxygen (O 2 ) results in iron (III) oxide (Fe 2 O 3 ), commonly known as rust. Rusting is a naturally occurring phenomenon.

4 Fe (s) + 3 O 2 (g) → 2 Fe 2 O 3 (s)

2. Reaction between two compounds

• When magnesium oxide (MgO) and carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) combine, the resulting product is magnesium carbonate (MgCO 3 )

MgO (s) + CO 2 (s) → MgCO 3 (s)

3. Reaction between an element and a compound

• The reaction between carbon monoxide (CO) and oxygen (O 2 ) yields carbon dioxide (CO 2 ).

2 CO (g) + O 2 (g) → 2 CO 2 (g)

There are a few examples of the synthesis reaction in real and daily life. Almost all real-life examples are seen in the industry. During industrial production, the synthesis reaction plays a significant part in synthesizing new compounds.

• Synthesis of ammonia
• Commercial production of slaked lime (calcium hydroxide)
• Production of sodium chloride or common salt
• Preparation of hydrochloric acid and ammonium chloride

Other examples include

• Photosynthesis

Ans. A decomposition reaction is one when a substance decomposes into two or more products. This reaction is the opposite of what a combination does.

Ans. Yes. In fact, most common oxidation-reduction (redox) reactions are combination reactions.

Ans. Yes, a combination reaction can be an oxidation reaction if one of the reactants is oxygen.

Ans. While all combination reactions are exothermic, there can be an exception. The production of nitric oxide (NO) from nitrogen and oxygen is an endothermic reaction.

Ans. Dehydration synthesis is the formation of larger molecules from smaller reactants, followed by the loss of a water molecule.

Ans. Dehydration synthesis reactions build up the molecules and generally require energy, while hydrolysis reactions break down the molecules and generally release energy. The two are opposite to one another.

• Opentextbc.ca
• Chem.wisc.edu
• Cpanhd.sitehost.iu.edu
• Amrita.olabs.edu.in
• Chem.libretexts.org

Trending Topics

© 2024 ( Chemistry Learner )

Synthesis Reaction Essentials: A Comprehensive Guide for Beginners

Synthesis reaction s, also known as combination reactions, are chemical reactions where two or more substances combine to form a new compound. In these reactions, the reactants come together to create a single product. This type of reaction is commonly represented by the general equation : A + B → AB . Synthesis reaction s are an essential part of many chemical processes and are used in various industries , including pharmaceuticals, materials science, and manufacturing. They play a crucial role in the creation of new compounds and materials with specific properties .

Key Takeaways

Understanding synthesis reaction.

Synthesis reaction , also known as a combination reaction , is a type of chemical reaction where two or more reactants combine to form a single product. This reaction involves the formation of chemical bonds and the creation of a new compound. In synthesis reactions, the reactants are typically elements or simple compounds , and the product is a more complex compound.

Definition of Synthesis Reaction

A synthesis reaction is a chemical reaction in which two or more reactants combine to form a single product. This reaction is characterized by the formation of new chemical bonds and the creation of a compound that is different from the reactants. The reactants in a synthesis reaction are often elements or simple compounds , while the product is a more complex compound.

The Chemical Reaction of Synthesis

In a synthesis reaction, the reactants combine to form a single product. This reaction can be represented by a chemical equation , which shows the reactants on the left side and the product on the right side . The chemical equation for a synthesis reaction follows the general form :

Reactant 1 + Reactant 2 → Product

During a synthesis reaction, energy is often released or absorbed. If the reaction releases energy in the form of heat, it is called an exothermic reaction . On the other hand, if the reaction absorbs energy from the surroundings, it is known as an endothermic reaction .

Types of Synthesis Reaction

There are different types of synthesis reactions, depending on the nature of the reactants and the product formed. Some common types include:

Direct Combination : In this type of synthesis reaction, two elements combine to form a compound. For example, the reaction between hydrogen gas (H2) and oxygen gas (O2) to form water (H2O) is a direct combination synthesis reaction .

Metal Oxide Formation : When a metal reacts with oxygen, it forms a metal oxide compound . This type of synthesis reaction is commonly observed in the formation of rust, where iron reacts with oxygen to form iron oxide .

Non-Metal Oxide Formation : Similar to metal oxide formation , non-metals can also react with oxygen to form non-metal oxide compounds . For example, the reaction between sulfur (S) and oxygen (O2) to form sulfur dioxide (SO2) is a non- metal oxide formation synthesis reaction.

Inorganic Synthesis : Inorganic synthesis reactions involve the formation of compounds that do not contain carbon. These reactions can include the combination of elements or the reaction between an element and a compound.

Organic Synthesis : Organic synthesis reactions involve the formation of compounds that contain carbon. These reactions are commonly used in the production of pharmaceuticals, polymers, and other organic compounds .

In summary, synthesis reactions involve the combination of reactants to form a single product. These reactions play a crucial role in various chemical processes , including the formation of new compounds and the production of important chemicals . The understanding of synthesis reactions is essential in fields such as chemistry, materials science, and pharmaceutical research .

The Importance of Synthesis Reactions

Why Synthesis Reactions are Important

Synthesis reaction s play a crucial role in various scientific disciplines , including chemistry and biology. These reactions involve the combination of two or more reactants to form a new product . By understanding the importance of synthesis reactions, we can gain insights into the fundamental processes that occur in nature and harness them for practical applications .

In chemistry, synthesis reactions are essential for the creation of new compounds. Chemical synthesis allows us to produce a wide range of substances, from simple molecules to complex polymers . By carefully controlling the reaction conditions , such as temperature, pressure, and catalysts, chemists can manipulate the course of a synthesis reaction to obtain desired products . This ability to create specific compounds is vital for the development of new materials, pharmaceuticals, and other chemical products .

The Role of Synthesis Reactions in Biology

Synthesis reaction s are also integral to the functioning of living organisms . In biological systems , these reactions are responsible for the formation of essential molecules , such as proteins, nucleic acids , and carbohydrates. Through a series of synthesis reactions, the building blocks of these biomolecules are combined to create the complex structures necessary for life.

For example, in protein synthesis , amino acids are joined together through a process called peptide bond formation . This synthesis reaction is guided by the genetic information encoded in DNA and carried out by specialized cellular machinery . The ability to synthesize proteins is crucial for the growth , repair, and functioning of cells, tissues, and organs.

The Significance of Synthesis Reactions in Organic Chemistry

In organic chemistry , synthesis reactions are of utmost importance . Organic synthesis involves the creation of carbon-based compounds , which are the foundation of countless natural and synthetic substances . By understanding and manipulating synthesis reactions, organic chemists can design and produce molecules with specific properties and functions.

Organic synthesis plays a vital role in drug discovery and development. By synthesizing new compounds, researchers can explore their potential as therapeutic agents . Through careful design and optimization of synthesis reactions, chemists can create molecules that exhibit desired biological activities , such as targeting specific disease pathways or inhibiting enzymes.

In conclusion, synthesis reactions are of paramount importance in various scientific fields . Whether it is the creation of new chemical compounds , the formation of essential biomolecules in biology, or the design of novel organic molecules , synthesis reactions enable us to understand and manipulate the building blocks of matter. By harnessing the power of synthesis reactions, we can unlock new possibilities for scientific discovery and technological advancement .

Characteristics of Synthesis Reactions

Synthesis reaction s, also known as combination reactions, are a type of chemical reaction where two or more reactants combine to form a single product. These reactions are characterized by the formation of new chemical compounds through the combination of elements or smaller molecules . In synthesis reactions, the reactants undergo a chemical conversion , resulting in the formation of a more complex compound.

Identifying a Synthesis Reaction

To identify a synthesis reaction, we look for the presence of two or more reactants combining to form a single product. The chemical equation representing a synthesis reaction typically follows the pattern :

Reactant A + Reactant B → Product AB

In this reaction , Reactant A and Reactant B react together to form Product AB . The synthesis reaction can involve elements, compounds, or a combination of both. It is important to note that synthesis reactions are not limited to a specific type of compound or element, and they can occur in both inorganic and organic synthesis .

The Energy Dynamics in Synthesis Reactions

Synthesis reaction s can be classified as either exothermic or endothermic, depending on the energy transfer that occurs during the reaction.

In an exothermic synthesis reaction , energy is released in the form of heat. This means that the products have a lower energy state than the reactants, resulting in a release of energy to the surroundings. Exothermic synthesis reactions are often spontaneous and can occur without the need for external energy input .

On the other hand, endothermic synthesis reactions require an input of energy to proceed. The products in an endothermic reaction have a higher energy state than the reactants, and energy is absorbed from the surroundings. These reactions are non-spontaneous and require an external energy source to drive the reaction forward.

The Reversibility of Synthesis Reactions

Synthesis reaction s can be reversible or irreversible, depending on the conditions and the nature of the reactants and products.

In reversible synthesis reactions , the products can react with each other to reform the original reactants . This means that the reaction can proceed in both the forward and reverse directions . The reversibility of a synthesis reaction is influenced by factors such as the reaction conditions , the presence of catalysts, and the stability of the products.

Ir reversible synthesis reactions , on the other hand, proceed only in the forward direction and do not easily revert back to the original reactants . These reactions are often favored by the formation of stable products or by the removal of one or more of the reaction products .

In summary, synthesis reactions involve the combination of two or more reactants to form a single product. These reactions can be identified by the presence of multiple reactants and a single product in the chemical equation. The energy dynamics in synthesis reactions can be either exothermic or endothermic, depending on the energy transfer involved. Additionally, synthesis reactions can be reversible or irreversible, depending on the reaction conditions and the nature of the products formed.

Examples of Synthesis Reactions

Synthesis reaction s, also known as combination reactions, are a type of chemical reaction where two or more reactants combine to form a single product. These reactions play a crucial role in various fields of chemistry, including inorganic and organic synthesis . Let’s explore some examples of synthesis reactions in different contexts .

Synthesis Reaction Examples in Real Life

In our everyday lives , we encounter synthesis reactions without even realizing it. One common example is the formation of water through the combination of hydrogen and oxygen gas es. This reaction, represented by the chemical equation H2 + O2 → H2O, is an essential process for life on Earth. Another example is the synthesis of table salt ( sodium chloride ) from sodium and chlorine gases , which occurs through the reaction 2Na + Cl2 → 2NaCl.

Synthesis Reaction Examples in Everyday Chemistry

Synthesis reaction s are prevalent in everyday chemistry , particularly in the production of various compounds and materials. One example is the synthesis of ammonia, an essential component in fertilizers. This reaction involves the combination of nitrogen gas and hydrogen gas , represented by the equation N2 + 3H2 → 2NH3. Another example is the synthesis of sulfuric acid , a widely used industrial chemical . This reaction occurs when sulfur trioxide combines with water, as shown by the equation SO3 + H2O → H2SO4 .

Synthesis Reaction Examples in Organic Chemistry

In organic chemistry , synthesis reactions are fundamental for the creation of complex organic compounds . One example is the synthesis of aspirin, a widely used medication . This reaction involves the combination of salicylic acid and acetic anhydride , resulting in the formation of aspirin and acetic acid . Another example is the synthesis of ethanol, a common alcohol . This reaction occurs when ethylene gas combines with water, as represented by the equation C2H4 + H2O → C2H5OH.

Synthesis reaction s are influenced by various factors , including reaction conditions , stoichiometry, catalysis, and reaction rates . The energy transfer and molecular structure play crucial roles in determining the feasibility and mechanism of these reactions. Additionally, synthesis reactions can occur in both exothermic and endothermic forms , depending on the energy changes involved.

In summary, synthesis reactions are essential for the formation of various chemical compounds in both real-life and laboratory settings . They demonstrate the principles of chemical bonding , stoichiometry, and energy transfer . Understanding and utilizing synthesis reactions allow scientists to create new materials, develop pharmaceuticals, and advance our understanding of the chemical world .

Working with Synthesis Reactions

Synthesis reaction s, also known as combination reactions, are an essential part of chemical synthesis. In these reactions, two or more reactants combine to form a single product. Understanding how to solve synthesis reaction problems, balance the chemical equation, and predict the outcome of a synthesis reaction is crucial for chemists and students alike.

How to Solve Synthesis Reaction Problems

To solve synthesis reaction problems, you need to identify the reactants and predict the product formed. This involves understanding the types of reactions and the principles of chemical bonding and molecular structure . By analyzing the reactants and their properties , you can determine the most likely product of the synthesis reaction .

It is important to consider the reaction conditions , such as temperature, pressure, and the presence of catalysts, as they can influence the reaction rate and the formation of specific compounds . Stoichiometry, which involves balancing the number of atoms on both sides of the chemical equation, is also crucial in solving synthesis reaction problems.

How to Balance a Synthesis Reaction

Balancing a synthesis reaction involves ensuring that the number of atoms of each element is the same on both sides of the chemical equation. This is done by adjusting the coefficients in front of the reactants and products. The goal is to achieve a balanced equation that follows the law of conservation of mass.

To balance a synthesis reaction, start by identifying the elements present in the reactants and products. Then, add coefficients to balance the number of atoms for each element. It may require trial and error, but with practice, you can become proficient in balancing synthesis reactions.

How to Predict a Synthesis Reaction

Predicting the outcome of a synthesis reaction requires knowledge of the properties of the reactants and the principles of chemical reactions . By understanding the reactivity of different elements and compounds, you can make educated predictions about the products formed in a synthesis reaction.

Factors such as the electronegativity , stability, and availability of reactants play a role in predicting the outcome of a synthesis reaction. Additionally, the energy transfer involved in the reaction, whether it is exothermic (releasing energy) or endothermic (absorbing energy), can influence the formation of specific products .

By considering the molecular structure , reaction mechanism , and reaction conditions , you can make informed predictions about the products of a synthesis reaction.

In conclusion, working with synthesis reactions involves understanding the principles of chemical synthesis, reaction types , and the factors that influence compound formation . By learning how to solve synthesis reaction problems, balance chemical equations , and predict the outcome of a synthesis reaction, you can enhance y our understanding of chemical processes and their applications in various fields.

Special Topics in Synthesis Reactions

Synthesis reactions and redox reactions.

In the realm of chemical synthesis, one of the fascinating areas to explore is the relationship between synthesis reactions and redox reactions. Redox reactions , also known as oxidation-reduction reactions , involve the transfer of electrons between reactants, resulting in changes in oxidation states . These reactions play a crucial role in various chemical processes , including synthesis reactions.

Synthesis reaction s, also referred to as combination reactions, involve the formation of a compound from simpler reactants . When synthesis reactions occur in conjunction with redox reactions, they can lead to the creation of new compounds with altered oxidation states . This interplay between synthesis and redox reactions allows for the synthesis of a wide range of chemical compounds with diverse properties and applications.

To better understand the connection between synthesis reactions and redox reactions, let’s consider an example . Imagine a reaction where a metal reacts with a non-metal to form an ionic compound . In this case , the metal loses electrons (undergoes oxidation) while the non-metal gains electrons (undergoes reduction). This simultaneous occurrence of synthesis and redox reactions results in the formation of a new compound with distinct properties compared to the reactants.

Synthesis Reactions and Condensation

Another intriguing aspect of synthesis reactions is their relationship with condensation reactions. Condensation reactions involve the combination of two or more molecules , resulting in the formation of a larger molecule and the release of a smaller molecule , such as water or alcohol. These reactions often occur in the presence of a catalyst or under specific reaction conditions .

When synthesis reactions occur in conjunction with condensation reactions, they can lead to the formation of complex compounds with unique molecular structure s. This combination of synthesis and condensation reactions allows for the synthesis of polymers, proteins, and other macromolecules essential for various biological and industrial processes .

To illustrate the connection between synthesis reactions and condensation, let’s consider the formation of a peptide bond . A peptide bond is formed when the carboxyl group of one amino acid reacts with the amino group of another amino acid , resulting in the release of a water molecule . This condensation reaction , coupled with the synthesis of the peptide bond , allows for the creation of proteins, which are vital for numerous biological functions .

Synthesis Reactions and Medicinal Uses of Pyrrole and Pyrazole

In the field of medicinal chemistry , synthesis reactions play a crucial role in the development of new drugs and therapeutic compounds . Two notable examples of compounds synthesized through specific synthesis reactions are pyrrole and pyrazole. These heterocyclic compounds have shown significant potential in various medicinal applications .

Pyrrole, a five-membered aromatic ring containing one nitrogen atom , is widely utilized in the synthesis of pharmaceuticals, agrochemicals, and natural products . Its unique molecular structure and reactivity make it a valuable building block for the synthesis of diverse compounds with medicinal properties .

Pyrazole, a five-membered aromatic ring containing two adjacent nitrogen atoms , is another compound of interest in medicinal chemistry . It exhibits a broad range of biological activities , including anti -inflammatory, analgesic, and antipyretic properties . The synthesis of pyrazole derivatives allows for the development of novel drugs targeting specific diseases and conditions.

In conclusion, the special topics in synthesis reactions encompass a wide range of fascinating areas , including the relationship between synthesis reactions and redox reactions, the interplay between synthesis reactions and condensation reactions, and the medicinal uses of compounds like pyrrole and pyrazole. These topics provide valuable insights into the diverse applications and significance of synthesis reactions in various scientific and industrial fields .

What Are the Basics of Platinum Investing for Beginners?

Platinum investing tips for beginners : Understand the basics before diving in. Start by researching the platinum market and its potential for growth. Consider the various ways to invest, such as purchasing physical platinum or investing in platinum exchange-traded funds (ETFs). Stay informed about market trends, global demand, and geopolitical factors that influence the platinum market. Lastly, diversify your investment portfolio to mitigate risk and consult with a financial advisor if needed.

In conclusion, synthesis reactions play a crucial role in chemistry. They involve the combination of two or more substances to form a new compound. These reactions are characterized by the formation of bonds and the release of energy. Synthesis reaction s are widely used in various industries , such as pharmaceuticals, materials science, and agriculture. They are also important in our daily lives , as they are responsible for the formation of essential compounds like water and proteins. Understanding synthesis reactions helps scientists and researchers develop new materials, drugs, and technologies that benefit society as a whole .

Frequently Asked Questions

1. What is a Synthesis Reaction in Chemistry?

A synthesis reaction in chemistry is a type of chemical reaction where two or more simple substances combine to form a more complex substance . The general form of a synthesis reaction is A + B → AB . This reaction type is integral to both inorganic and organic synthesis .

2. Can you give an example of a Synthesis Reaction in real life?

Yes, a common example of a synthesis reaction in real life is the process of photosynthesis in plants. In this process , carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O) react under sunlight to produce glucose (C6H12O6) and oxygen (O2).

3. Are Synthesis Reactions Reversible?

Yes, synthesis reactions can be reversible. However, the reversibility depends on the reaction conditions , such as temperature, pressure, and the presence of catalysts.

4. Do Synthesis Reactions involve Ions?

Yes, synthesis reactions can involve ions. For instance, when an acid and a base react, they form water and an ionic compound , known as a salt . This is a type of synthesis reaction.

5. How to Identify a Synthesis Reaction?

A synthesis reaction can be identified by observing the reactants and the products. If two or more reactants combine to form a single product, it is a synthesis or combination reaction .

6. Why are Synthesis Reactions Important?

Synthesis reaction s are fundamental to many natural and industrial processes . They are crucial in various fields, including medicine, where they are used to create complex molecules for drug development , and in manufacturing, where they are used to produce a wide range of materials.

7. What is a Dehydration Synthesis Reaction?

A dehydration synthesis reaction is a type of synthesis reaction where two molecules combine to form a larger molecule , with the removal of a water molecule . It is common in the formation of organic compounds .

8. Is a Synthesis Reaction Exothermic or Endothermic?

A synthesis reaction can be either exothermic or endothermic, depending on the nature of the reactants and products. If the reaction releases energy in the form of heat, it is exothermic. If it absorbs energy from its surroundings , it is endothermic.

9. How to Balance a Synthesis Reaction?

To balance a synthesis reaction, one must ensure that the number of atoms of each element is the same on both sides of the chemical equation. This involves adjusting the coefficients in front of the reactants and products as needed, following the principles of stoichiometry.

10. Are Synthesis Reactions Particularly Important in the Body?

Yes, synthesis reactions are essential in the body . They are involved in numerous biological processes , including protein synthesis , DNA replication , and the synthesis of essential compounds like hormones and neurotransmitters.

The TechieScience Core SME Team is a group of experienced subject matter experts from diverse scientific and technical fields including Physics, Chemistry, Technology,Electronics & Electrical Engineering, Automotive, Mechanical Engineering. Our team collaborates to create high-quality, well-researched articles on a wide range of science and technology topics for the TechieScience.com website.

All Our Senior SME are having more than 7 Years of experience in the respective fields . They are either Working Industry Professionals or assocaited With different Universities. Refer Our Authors Page to get to know About our Core SMEs.

Synthesis Reactions — Definition & Examples - Expii

Synthesis reactions — definition & examples.

In a synthesis reaction, or combination reaction, simpler reactants combine to form more complex products. The general equation is A + B → AB.

Explanations (4)

Synthesis reactions.

What are Synthesis Reactions?

• Synthesis reactions are reactions that involve multiple reactants reacting to form one single product.

Example: A + B → AB

• Synthesis reactions are exothermic reactions. So, they release energy as heat or light .

They involve the formation of either ionic or covalent bonds. The formation of a bond releases energy and increases stability. In contrast, breaking bonds requires energy.

Image source: Caroline Monahan

Synthesis Reaction Practice Problem

Which of the following are synthesis reactions?

2S + 3O2 → 2SO3

HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H2O

MgO + CO2 → MgCO3

CO2 + H2O → H2CO3

2Ni2O3 → 4Ni + 3O2

Related Lessons

(Video) Synthesis Reactions: Chemical Reaction (5 of 11) Synthesis Reactions, an Explanation

By Step by Step Science

In this video, you will learn that a synthesis reaction occurs when two or more compounds or elements react with each other to form a singular compound. You will also learn different examples of synthesis reactions in this video.

Synthesis Reactions: What are synthesis reactions?

Image Source: Leo Dong

What is Chemical Synthesis like for Professional Chemists?

In general chemistry, synthesis reactions are the least complicated chemical reaction. You take two reactants and make one product. A generic balanced chemical equation would be A+B→AB. Unfortunately, in the real world, chemical synthesis is rarely so straightforward.

I remember a nightmare scenario from my organic chemistry class. I had one question left on our online homework. I was so close to finishing! I clicked the next button and saw the final problem. It was a fifteen-step synthesis! When you're learning organic chemistry, that's not a short puzzle. Often in chemical synthesis, there are many steps. Why? There are a couple of possible reasons. Sometimes, the reactants that produce an easy synthesis reaction are expensive. So, you might have to start with cheap reactants and build up your molecules. Other times, the reaction intermediates may be unstable. They only form during a series of chemical reactions. So, again we have to build up our reactants.

Planning a Chemical Synthesis

Chemical synthesis is the heart of applied chemistry . The chemist works to develop a procedure to produce their desired compound. What's the result? They construct the reaction mechanism , piece by piece. Along the way, they often have to manipulate specific steps to achieve their goals. They use their knowledge of chemistry principles to influence the reaction.

How would a chemist go about planning a synthesis? Most often, they start at the final product and work backward. Each step focuses on changing one specific bond or group of atoms . In organic chemistry, a compound's reactivity comes from functional groups. They are groupings of atoms with set chemical properties . For example, a carbon - oxygen - hydrogen set is the alcohol group. Because oxygen is bound to hydrogen, it is always a polar group . The oxygen-hydrogen bond is also a weak acid . So, we might manipulate it with a strong base . Other chemists, like inorganic chemists, often focus on individual atoms. But they also have to consider the reactivity of the element .

Performing the Lab Work

In college, I had a friend that was doing a research project. One of the steps in his synthesis formed a hydrate . But, before he could proceed to the next step, he needed to remove the water. So, his compound had to sit in a chemical oven for twelve hours. He didn't get it in until after his afternoon classes. So, he had to return to the lab at 3:00 am to take it out! In chemical synthesis, the lab work is often the most challenging part. Why? A chemical reaction gets influenced by so many factors! We must consider temperature , pressure , pH , time, and other factors. Often we have to manipulate many factors along the way.

Sometimes, we use chemical manipulation . For example, maybe step seven of a fifteen-step reaction is the rate-limiting step . What could we do? We might try to develop a catalyst . Remember, they lower a reaction's activation energy and improve its rate . Sometimes, we can research the published work of other chemists for possible catalysts. Other times, we may need to use theoretical modeling to develop a catalyst. Sometimes, we even have to synthesize the catalyst!

Other times, we need to use physical manipulations. For example, one of our steps could be an equilibrium reaction. But we want it to go to completion. How do we manipulate the equilibrium? We take advantage of Le' Chatlier's principle . If the reaction is endothermic, we could apply heat. What if it's exothermic? We could cool it. Sometimes we can physically separate our products. By removing the products, we alter the equilibrium.

What are Your Results?

Chemistry is complex. For example, sometimes, a reaction can produce multiple products. So, even if we successfully implement our plan, we may not get our desired result. Why? We also have to worry about the percent yield . Part of planning the mechanism is calculating the theoretical yield . But often, one of the steps will act as a limiting reagent . So, very rarely are the theoretical and actual yields equivalent. Sometimes, experimental errors mean we don't produce our desired amount.

Sciencing_Icons_Science SCIENCE

Sciencing_icons_biology biology, sciencing_icons_cells cells, sciencing_icons_molecular molecular, sciencing_icons_microorganisms microorganisms, sciencing_icons_genetics genetics, sciencing_icons_human body human body, sciencing_icons_ecology ecology, sciencing_icons_chemistry chemistry, sciencing_icons_atomic & molecular structure atomic & molecular structure, sciencing_icons_bonds bonds, sciencing_icons_reactions reactions, sciencing_icons_stoichiometry stoichiometry, sciencing_icons_solutions solutions, sciencing_icons_acids & bases acids & bases, sciencing_icons_thermodynamics thermodynamics, sciencing_icons_organic chemistry organic chemistry, sciencing_icons_physics physics, sciencing_icons_fundamentals-physics fundamentals, sciencing_icons_electronics electronics, sciencing_icons_waves waves, sciencing_icons_energy energy, sciencing_icons_fluid fluid, sciencing_icons_astronomy astronomy, sciencing_icons_geology geology, sciencing_icons_fundamentals-geology fundamentals, sciencing_icons_minerals & rocks minerals & rocks, sciencing_icons_earth scructure earth structure, sciencing_icons_fossils fossils, sciencing_icons_natural disasters natural disasters, sciencing_icons_nature nature, sciencing_icons_ecosystems ecosystems, sciencing_icons_environment environment, sciencing_icons_insects insects, sciencing_icons_plants & mushrooms plants & mushrooms, sciencing_icons_animals animals, sciencing_icons_math math, sciencing_icons_arithmetic arithmetic, sciencing_icons_addition & subtraction addition & subtraction, sciencing_icons_multiplication & division multiplication & division, sciencing_icons_decimals decimals, sciencing_icons_fractions fractions, sciencing_icons_conversions conversions, sciencing_icons_algebra algebra, sciencing_icons_working with units working with units, sciencing_icons_equations & expressions equations & expressions, sciencing_icons_ratios & proportions ratios & proportions, sciencing_icons_inequalities inequalities, sciencing_icons_exponents & logarithms exponents & logarithms, sciencing_icons_factorization factorization, sciencing_icons_functions functions, sciencing_icons_linear equations linear equations, sciencing_icons_graphs graphs, sciencing_icons_quadratics quadratics, sciencing_icons_polynomials polynomials, sciencing_icons_geometry geometry, sciencing_icons_fundamentals-geometry fundamentals, sciencing_icons_cartesian cartesian, sciencing_icons_circles circles, sciencing_icons_solids solids, sciencing_icons_trigonometry trigonometry, sciencing_icons_probability-statistics probability & statistics, sciencing_icons_mean-median-mode mean/median/mode, sciencing_icons_independent-dependent variables independent/dependent variables, sciencing_icons_deviation deviation, sciencing_icons_correlation correlation, sciencing_icons_sampling sampling, sciencing_icons_distributions distributions, sciencing_icons_probability probability, sciencing_icons_calculus calculus, sciencing_icons_differentiation-integration differentiation/integration, sciencing_icons_application application, sciencing_icons_projects projects, sciencing_icons_news news.

• Share Tweet Email Print
• Home ⋅
• Science ⋅
• Chemistry ⋅

What is a Synthesis Reaction?

Reduction of Benzophenone by Sodium Borohydride

Did you eat a synthesis reaction for breakfast? It's highly likely if you consumed taurine, which is the result of an organic synthesis reaction and commonly found in milk and eggs. In chemistry, a synthesis reaction is when two or more chemicals combine and form a more complex product. You will also have more reactants than products since two or more chemical species combine to form one new larger compound.

What Happens in a Synthesis Reaction?

In a synthesis reaction, two or more chemical species combine, forming a more complex product in the reaction. It is also called a direct reaction and is one of the most common chemical reactions. When the two or more reactants combine they make a larger compound. A synthesis reaction is the opposite of a decomposition reaction, which is when the bonds are broken in a complex product, and it splits the product into its respective components or elements.

What Is the General Form of a Synthesis Reaction?

The word synthesis means to put together. When two or more products are put together it produces a new single product. The basic form of the chemical equation is written as:

What are Some Synthesis Reaction Examples?

Some synthesis reactions occur when burning various metals by adding oxygen to them. Here are some examples:

Magnesium + oxygen → magnesium oxide

Alternatively, in the chemical equation:

2Mg + O 2 → 2MgO

This synthesis reaction gives off a very bright light, so if you perform it, wear safety goggles and don't look directly at the light, or you can harm your eyes.

Aluminum + bromine → aluminum bromide

Or in the chemical equation:

2Al + 3Br 2 → 2AlBr 3

What Is a Synthesis Reaction in Organic Chemistry?

Organic synthesis reactions involve organic compounds. Organic molecules are more complex than their inorganic counterparts are. In many cases, because of the complexity, synthesis reactions of organic compounds require several steps one after the other to create a single product. This makes intermediate compounds for each step before the final single product.

For example, when water combines with ethyl leads it forms ethanol or:

CH 2 = CH 2 + HCl → CH 3 -CH 2 Cl

Other Considerations of a Synthesis Reaction

A synthesis reaction can occur when combining elements and producing a new compound, combining compounds to produce a new compound, or combining both elements and compounds to result in a new compound.

When a metal and non-metal are combined, they produce an ionic compound.

When two non-metals combine, they produce a covalent compound.

When combining metal oxide and water (both compounds), it produces a new compound of a metal hydroxide.

Non-metal and water combinations result in an oxy acid compound.

Metal oxides and carbon dioxide combined produce metal carbonates.

The combination of an element and a compound to produce a new compound can be seen in carbon dioxide. This is the product of carbon monoxide and oxygen, written in a chemical equation as:

2CO (g) + O 2 (g) → 2CO 2 (g)

Related Articles

Three types of aqueous reactions, the differences between anionic and cationic single..., what are the reactants & products in a combustion reaction, how to identify the 6 types of chemical reactions, what is a double replacement reaction, what is a dehydration reaction, easy and fun chemical reaction experiments, why does vinegar affect limestone, type of reactions with copper & nitric acid, what are the reactants & products in the equation..., how are oxidation-reduction reactions used in everyday..., how to make sodium nitrate, physical and chemical properties for the element aluminum, how to prepare potassium chloride, which liquids will tarnish a penny faster, activation energy in an endergonic reaction, what is the difference between reactants & products....

• ThoughtCo.: Synthesis Reaction Definition and Examples
• Chemical Formula: Synthesis Reaction
• What Health: Taurine Overview

About the Author

Mary Lougee has been writing about chemistry, biology, algebra, geometry, trigonometry and calculus for more than 12 years. She gained the knowledge in these fields by taking accelerated classes throughout college while gaining her degree.

Find Your Next Great Science Fair Project! GO

Synthesis Reactions

Synthesis reactions, also known as combination reactions, are chemical reactions in which two or more reactants combine to form a single product. This type of reaction is represented by the general equation: A + B → AB

Formation of a new substance: Synthesis reactions result in creating a new compound or molecule from simpler reactants.

Energy absorption: These reactions often require an input of energy, typically in the form of heat or light, to initiate the reaction.

Common examples of synthesis reactions include the formation of water (2H 2 + O 2 → 2H 2 O), the synthesis of ammonia (3H₂ + N₂ → 2NH₃), and photosynthesis (6CO 2 + 6H 2 O → C 6 H 12 O 6 + 6O 2 + 6H 2 ).

2.3 Chemical Reactions

Learning objectives.

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

• Distinguish between kinetic and potential energy, and between exergonic and endergonic chemical reactions
• Identify four forms of energy important in human functioning
• Describe the three basic types of chemical reactions
• Identify several factors influencing the rate of chemical reactions

One characteristic of a living organism is metabolism, which is the sum total of all of the chemical reactions that go on to maintain that organism’s health and life. The bonding processes you have learned thus far are anabolic chemical reactions; they form larger molecules from smaller molecules or atoms. Recall that metabolism can proceed in another direction: in catabolic chemical reactions, when bonds between components of larger molecules break, releasing smaller molecules or atoms. Both types of reactions involve exchanges not only of matter, but of energy.

The Role of Energy in Chemical Reactions

Chemical reactions require a sufficient amount of energy to cause the matter to collide with enough precision and force that old chemical bonds can be broken and new ones formed. In general, kinetic energy is the form of energy powering any type of matter in motion. Imagine you are building a brick wall. The energy it takes to lift and place one brick atop another is kinetic energy—the energy matter possesses because of its motion. Once the wall is in place, it stores potential energy. Potential energy is the energy of position, or the energy matter possesses because of the positioning or structure of its components. If the brick wall collapses, the stored potential energy is released as kinetic energy when the bricks fall.

In the human body, potential energy is stored in the bonds between atoms and molecules. Chemical energy is the form of potential energy in which energy is stored in chemical bonds. When those bonds are formed, chemical energy is invested, and when they break, chemical energy is released. Notice that chemical energy, like all energy, is neither created nor destroyed, rather, it is converted from one form to another. When you eat an energy bar before heading out the door for a hike, the honey, nuts, and other foods the bar contains are broken down and rearranged by your body into molecules that your muscle cells convert to kinetic energy.

Chemical reactions that release more energy than they absorb are characterized as exergonic. The catabolism of the foods in your energy bar is an example. Some of the chemical energy stored in the bar is absorbed into molecules your body uses for fuel, but some of it is released—for example, as heat. In contrast, chemical reactions that absorb more energy than they release are endergonic. These reactions require energy input and the resulting molecule stores not only the chemical energy in the original components, but also the energy that fueled the reaction. Since energy is neither created nor destroyed, where does the energy needed for endergonic reactions come from? In many cases, it comes from exergonic reactions.

Forms of Energy Important in Human Functioning

You have already learned that chemical energy is absorbed, stored, and released by chemical bonds. In addition to chemical energy, mechanical, radiant, and electrical energy are important in human functioning.

• Mechanical energy, which is stored in physical systems such as machines, engines, or the human body, directly powers the movement of matter. When you lift a brick into place on a wall, your muscles provide the mechanical energy that moves the brick.
• Radiant energy is energy emitted and transmitted as waves rather than matter. These waves vary in length from long radio waves and microwaves to short gamma waves emitted from decaying atomic nuclei. The full spectrum of radiant energy is referred to as the electromagnetic spectrum. The body uses the ultraviolet energy of sunlight to convert a compound in skin cells to vitamin D, which is essential to human functioning. The human eye evolved to see the wavelengths that comprise the colors of the rainbow, from red to violet, so that range in the spectrum is called “visible light.”
• Electrical energy, supplied by electrolytes in cells and body fluids, contributes to the voltage changes that help transmit impulses in nerve and muscle cells.

Characteristics of Chemical Reactions

All chemical reactions begin with a reactant , the general term for one or more substances that enter into the reaction. Sodium and chloride ions, for example, are the reactants in the production of table salt. One or more substances produced by a chemical reaction are called the product .

In chemical reactions, the components of the reactants—the elements involved and the number of atoms of each—are all present in the product(s). Similarly, there is nothing present in the products that are not present in the reactants. This is because chemical reactions are governed by the law of conservation of mass, which states that matter cannot be created or destroyed in a chemical reaction.

Just as you can express mathematical calculations in equations such as 2 + 7 = 9, you can use chemical equations to show how reactants become products. As in math, chemical equations proceed from left to right, but instead of an equal sign, they employ an arrow or arrows indicating the direction in which the chemical reaction proceeds. For example, the chemical reaction in which one atom of nitrogen and three atoms of hydrogen produce ammonia would be written as N + 3H→ NH 3 . Correspondingly, the breakdown of ammonia into its components would be written as NH 3 →N + 3H.

Notice that, in the first example, a nitrogen (N) atom and three hydrogen (H) atoms bond to form a compound. This anabolic reaction requires energy, which is then stored within the compound’s bonds. Such reactions are referred to as synthesis reactions. A synthesis reaction is a chemical reaction that results in the synthesis (joining) of components that were formerly separate ( Figure 2.3.1 a ). Again, nitrogen and hydrogen are reactants in a synthesis reaction that yields ammonia as the product. The general equation for a synthesis reaction is A + B→AB.

In the second example, ammonia is catabolized into its smaller components, and the potential energy that had been stored in its bonds is released. Such reactions are referred to as decomposition reactions. A decomposition reaction is a chemical reaction that breaks down or “de-composes” something larger into its constituent parts (see Figure 2.3.1 b ). The general equation for a decomposition reaction is: AB→A+B.

An exchange reaction is a chemical reaction in which both synthesis and decomposition occur, chemical bonds are both formed and broken, and chemical energy is absorbed, stored, and released (see Figure 2.3.1 c ). The simplest form of an exchange reaction might be: A+BC→AB+C. Notice that, to produce these products, B and C had to break apart in a decomposition reaction, whereas A and B had to bond in a synthesis reaction. A more complex exchange reaction might be: AB+CD→AC+B. Another example might be: AB+CD→AD+BC.

In theory, any chemical reaction can proceed in either direction under the right conditions. Reactants may synthesize into a product that is later decomposed. Reversibility is also a quality of exchange reactions. For instance, A+BC→AB+C could then reverse to AB+C→A+BC. This reversibility of a chemical reaction is indicated with a double arrow: A+BC⇄AB+C. Still, in the human body, many chemical reactions do proceed in a predictable direction, either one way or the other. You can think of this more predictable path as the path of least resistance because, typically, the alternate direction requires more energy.

Factors Influencing the Rate of Chemical Reactions

If you pour vinegar into baking soda, the reaction is instantaneous; the concoction will bubble and fizz, but many chemical reactions take time. A variety of factors influence the rate of chemical reactions. This section, however, will consider only the most important in human functioning.

Properties of the Reactants

If chemical reactions are to occur quickly, the atoms in the reactants have to have easy access to one another. Thus, the greater the surface area of the reactants, the more readily they will interact. When you pop a cube of cheese into your mouth, you chew it before you swallow it. Among other things, chewing increases the surface area of the food so that digestive chemicals can more easily get at it. As a general rule, gases tend to react faster than liquids or solids, again because it takes energy to separate particles of a substance, and gases by definition already have space between their particles. Similarly, the larger the molecule, the greater the number of total bonds, so reactions involving smaller molecules, with fewer total bonds, would be expected to proceed faster.

In addition, recall that some elements are more reactive than others. Reactions that involve highly reactive elements like hydrogen proceed more quickly than reactions that involve less reactive elements. Reactions involving stable elements like helium are not likely to happen at all.

Temperature

Nearly all chemical reactions occur at a faster rate at higher temperatures. Recall that kinetic energy is the energy of matter in motion. The kinetic energy of subatomic particles increases in response to increases in thermal energy. The higher the temperature, the faster the particles move, and the more likely they are to come in contact and react.

Concentration and Pressure

If just a few people are dancing at a club, they are unlikely to step on each other’s toes. As more and more people get up to dance—especially if the music is fast—collisions are likely to occur. It is the same with chemical reactions: the more particles present within a given space, the more likely those particles are to bump into one another. This means that chemists can speed up chemical reactions not only by increasing the concentration of particles—the number of particles in the space—but also by decreasing the volume of the space, which would correspondingly increase the pressure. If there were 100 dancers in that club, and the manager abruptly moved the party to a room half the size, the concentration of the dancers would double in the new space, and the likelihood of collisions would increase accordingly.

Enzymes and Other Catalysts

For two chemicals in nature to react with each other they first have to come into contact, and this occurs through random collisions. Since heat helps increase the kinetic energy of atoms, ions, and molecules, it promotes their collision. However, in the body, extremely high heat—such as a very high fever—can damage body cells and be life-threatening. On the other hand, normal body temperature is not high enough to promote the chemical reactions that sustain life. That is where catalysts come in.

In chemistry, a catalyst is a substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction without itself undergoing any change. You can think of a catalyst as a chemical change agent. They help increase the rate and force at which atoms, ions, and molecules collide, thereby increasing the probability that their valence shell electrons will interact.

The most important catalysts in the human body are enzymes. An enzyme is a catalyst composed of protein or ribonucleic acid (RNA), both of which will be discussed later in this chapter. Like all catalysts, enzymes work by lowering the level of energy that needs to be invested in a chemical reaction. A chemical reaction’s activation energy is the “threshold” level of energy needed to break the bonds in the reactants. Once those bonds are broken, new arrangements can form. Without an enzyme to act as a catalyst, a much larger investment of energy is needed to ignite a chemical reaction ( Figure 2.3.2 ).

Enzymes are critical to the body’s healthy functioning. They assist, for example, with the breakdown of food and its conversion to energy. In fact, most of the chemical reactions in the body are facilitated by enzymes.

Chapter Review

Chemical reactions, in which chemical bonds are broken and formed, require an initial investment of energy. Kinetic energy, the energy of matter in motion, fuels the collisions of atoms, ions, and molecules that are necessary if their old bonds are to break and new ones to form. All molecules store potential energy, which is released when their bonds are broken.

Four forms of energy essential to human functioning are: chemical energy (which is stored and released as chemical bonds are formed and broken), mechanical energy (which directly powers physical activity), radiant energy (emitted as waves such as in sunlight), and electrical energy, the power of moving electrons.

Chemical reactions begin with reactants and end with products. Synthesis reactions bond reactants together, a process that requires energy, whereas decomposition reactions break the bonds within a reactant and thereby release energy. In exchange reactions, bonds are both broken and formed, and energy is exchanged.

The rate at which chemical reactions occur is influenced by several properties of the reactants: temperature, concentration and pressure, and the presence or absence of a catalyst. An enzyme is a catalytic protein that speeds up chemical reactions in the human body.

Review Questions

Critical thinking questions.

AB+CD→AD+BE

Is this a legitimate example of an exchange reaction? Why or why not?

It is not. An exchange reaction might be AB+CD→AC+BD or AB+CD→AD+BC. In all chemical reactions, including exchange reactions, the components of the reactants are identical to the components of the products. A component present among the reactants cannot disappear, nor can a component not present in the reactants suddenly appear in the products.

When you do a load of laundry, why do you not just drop a bar of soap into the washing machine? In other words, why is laundry detergent sold as a liquid or powder?

Recall that the greater the surface area of reactants, the more quickly and easily they will interact. It takes energy to separate particles of a substance. Powder and liquid laundry detergents, with relatively more surface area per unit, can quickly dissolve into their reactive components when added to the water.

This work, Anatomy & Physiology, is adapted from Anatomy & Physiology by OpenStax , licensed under CC BY . This edition, with revised content and artwork, is licensed under CC BY-SA except where otherwise noted.

Images, from Anatomy & Physiology by OpenStax , are licensed under CC BY except where otherwise noted.

Access the original for free at https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology/pages/1-introduction .

Anatomy & Physiology Copyright © 2019 by Lindsay M. Biga, Staci Bronson, Sierra Dawson, Amy Harwell, Robin Hopkins, Joel Kaufmann, Mike LeMaster, Philip Matern, Katie Morrison-Graham, Kristen Oja, Devon Quick, Jon Runyeon, OSU OERU, and OpenStax is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

A + B ---> AB

Mg + O 2 ---> MgO H 2 + O 2 ---> H 2 O K + Cl 2 ---> KCl Fe + O 2 ---> Fe 2 O 3

CaO + CO 2 ---> CaCO 3 Na 2 O + CO 2 ---> Na 2 CO 3 KCl + O 2 ---> KClO 3 Ba(ClO 3 ) 2 ---> BaCl 2 + O 2

CO 2 + H 2 O ---> C 6 H 12 O 6 + O 2

H 2 + O 2 ---> H 2 O 2

1) Direct union of two elements will produce a binary compound. 2) Metallic oxides and carbon dioxide react to produce carbonates. 3. Binary salts and oxygen react to produce a chlorate.

CaO + H 2 O ---> Ca(OH) 2 Na 2 O + H 2 O ---> NaOH N 2 O 5 + H 2 O ---> HNO 3 P 2 O 5 + H 2 O ---> H 3 PO 4

1) LiCl + O 2 ---> 2) Na 2 O + CO 2 ---> 3) SO 3 + H 2 O ---> 4) N 2 + H 2 --->

LiCl + O 2 are the products of a chlorate decomposing.

Chlorate is always ClO 3 ¯ Li is plus one

LiCl + O 2 ---> LiClO 3

Na 2 O + CO 2 are the products of a carbonate decomposing.

Carbonate is always CO 3 2 ¯ Na is plus one

Na 2 O + CO 2 ---> Na 2 CO 3

SO 3 + H 2 O are the products of an acid decomposing.

In SO 3 the S has an oxidation number of +6 H has its usual value of +1 and O has its usual value of -2

SO 3 + H 2 O ---> H 2 SO 4

N 2 + H 2 are the products of a binary compound decomposing.

N has a charge of -3 H has its usual value of +1

N 2 + H 2 ---> NH 3

Synthesis is the production of chemical compounds by reaction from simpler materials. The construction of complex and defined new molecules is a challenging and complicated undertaking, and one that requires the constant development of new reactions, catalysts and techniques.

Synthesis projects underpin developments in a very wide range of areas. This makes chemical synthesis a unique and enabling science; it means that the design of new molecules can be put into practice so that the target compounds can be made and tested for interesting properties or activity. 

Areas in which synthesis is essential

Catalysts Catalysis is critical to a very wide range of industrial processes, encompassing both bulk and fine chemical manufacture.  The rational design, synthesis and optimization of catalyst systems is therefore crucial to the development of more efficient, selective and environmentally tolerant processes.  Research in this area is focussed on both metal-containing and metal-free systems, and targets not only better catalysts for existing processes but also entirely new catalytic transformations.

Medicine and drug discovery The development of new pharmaceutical products is an extremely important aspect of organic synthesis.  This undertaking enables the discovery and optimisation of complex molecules with potent and selective biological activity.  An understanding of synthetic chemistry allows balancing of chemical properties so that the molecules behave as desired in cells and patients.  New reaction development is another essential facet of this work, because it opens up previously inaccessible routes to new compounds.

New materials The preparation of functional materials with custom-designed properties (e.g. electronic, optical, magnetic) is fundamental to breakthroughs in areas such as batteries, solar cell development, superconductors, smart materials etc., which hold much promise for future technologies.  Oxford has a long-established track record in this area, with the fundamental synthetic work underpinning lithium ion battery technology having been carried out in the Department.

Chemical biology The synthesis of molecules that are designed to interact with and probe biological systems is very useful for investigating and understanding the processes involved in living systems.  Such compounds allow us to understand fundamental biological processes more clearly, and to aid drug discovery through effective target validation.

Natural products The history of medicines, flavourings and agrochemicals illustrates the central importance of natural products.  Synthetic chemistry is very useful in mimicking Nature and allowing us to prepare complex molecules that are produced naturally but without disrupting the source itself.  Such natural products, and analogues thereof, have myriad uses as drugs, flavourings and agrochemicals.

Imaging Synthetic dyes and probes have been extremely important in recent developments in imaging, which means that more powerful and less intrusive techniques can be used in the search for diseased or damaged tissue.

Theme co-ordinators

News and articles related to this theme, researchers associated with this theme.

Search suggestions

• conductivity
• counting platform scale

• All Categories
• Events & Webinars

Synthesis Reactions

Providing automated tools to deliver life changing products, applications, publications, related products.

• More Information

What Is a Synthesis Reaction?

A synthesis reaction, also known as a direct combination or combination reaction, is a chemical process in which two or more simple elements or compounds combine to form a more complex product. It is represented by the equation: A + B → AB.

Synthesis reactions play a crucial role in creating compounds from their constituent elements and generating larger molecules from smaller ones. They are the opposite of decomposition reactions, which break down complex substances into simpler components. Synthesis reactions are one of the major classes of chemical reactions, which include single displacement, double displacement, and combustion reactions.

Complex Synthesis Reactions

Many synthesis reactions are far more complex than the above reaction: A + B → AB. For example, organic synthesis reactions may involve more than two different molecules, and mixtures of products can occur along with unreacted starting materials. Intermediate molecules may form that can lead to the formation of byproducts. In addition, depending on how the two colliding reactant molecules orient, both the desired product and byproducts may form - which may effect product purity.

There are various types of synthesis reactions. For example, nucleophilic and electrophilic addition and substitution reactions are broad reaction types that yield innumerable examples of synthesis reactions.

When two or more reactants combine to form a more complex molecule, the composition of the final reaction mixture is dependent on the conditions under which the reaction is carried out. 

Factors Influencing Successful Synthesis Reactions

A successful synthesis reaction maximizes the creation of desired molecules and minimizes byproduct molecules. A thorough understanding of reaction kinetics, mechanism, and effect of reaction variables are keys to successful synthesis reactions.

• Quality of Reactants, Reagents, and Catalysts -  The quality and purity of starting materials and stable sources/vendors of those materials is key to successful, reproducible synthesis reactions and processes.
• Reaction Conditions -  Since synthesis reactions are sensitive to reaction parameters, such as temperature, pressure, agitation rate, and dosing rate, precise and accurate control of these variables is crucial to the successful outcome. EasyMax chemical synthesis reactor provides automated parameter control, accuracy, and precision of reaction parameters.
• Reaction Equipment -  In the pharmaceutical industry, most synthesis reactions run in batch mode. The physical configuration of EasyMax reactors are an improvement over the classic round bottom flask due to surface area and agitation efficiency considerations. Continuous flow processes are rapidly becoming more frequently used, and ReactIR technology accommodates the real-time analysis of continuous flow and batch syntheses.
• Reaction Kinetics -  A thorough understanding of reaction rates is crucial to ensure optimized product yield and minimum byproducts. Through data-rich experiments, ReactIR simplifies and speeds the measurement of kinetic factors in synthesis reactions.
• Product Isolation/Purity -  Though separation techniques are a mainstay for product isolation and purity, an understanding of reaction variables to reduce the presence of impurities that may be difficult to separate from the product is important.  By optimizing reaction variables, ReactIR with EasyMax aids in impurity reduction.  As important, a thorough understanding and control of crystallization via ParticleTrack and ParticleView technology is critical to ensuring purity and ease of isolating desired products.
• Safety - Commercially important chemistry requires lab-to-plant protocols that provide optimized yield, acceptable impurity profiles, and safe operation. ReactIR advances reaction scale-up by elucidating the effects of reaction variables on overall synthesis performance. Reaction calorimetry ensures safe reactions from screening through scale-up to process by measuring heat of reaction. ReactIR   in-situ   analytics minimizes the exposure of scientists and technicians to toxic chemicals and potentially hazardous reactions by eliminating grab sampling for offline analysis. When offline analysis is required, EasySampler provides automated, in-situ sampling and dilution of samples for HPLC, eliminating worker exposure.

Workstations for Automated and Unattended Synthesis Reactions

Individually, or as an integrated chemical workstation, these tools provide critical support for better synthesis reactions:

• Chemical Synthesis Reactors (EasyMax and OptiMax) Unattended, precise control and data collection of reaction conditions
• FTIR and Raman Spectrometers Real-time tracking and profiling of key reaction species as a function of reaction time to aid kinetics and mechanistic investigations
• Automated, Inline Sampling (EasySampler) Unattended, representative sampling of reactions when offline analysis is required
• EasyViewer In-situ video microscopy of particle/droplet size and shape to quickly increase purity and yield during work-up
• Powerful Analytical Software (iC) Integrates data streams for comprehensive understanding and data management

Replace Manual Synthesis Reaction Steps

With automated synthesis workstations.

Smart chemical synthesis reactors, combined with unattended dosing and automated sampling, provide a simple and safe way to precisely control reaction parameters and obtain reaction information unattended and around the clock.

• Automatically record recipe steps, experimental conditions and analytical data making it easy to repeat experiments and share findings with colleagues
• Run reactions at any temperature from -90°C to 180°C without an ice bath, oil bath, or heating mantle
• Configure parameter controls (such as temperature, dosing, sampling, and stirring) separately for each vessel
• For multi-parameter analysis, including Design of Experiments (DoE) studies , precise and reproducible control help to yield accurate results 
• Interchangeable sleeves, glass reactors, and tubes provide flexibility to synthesize at volumes from 0.5 mL to 1000 mL

Enhance Understanding of Synthesis Reactions with FTIR & Raman

Gain in-depth information about reaction kinetics, mechanisms, and pathways.  Support safe and optimized scale-up of chemistry.  ReactIR and ReactRaman spectrometers provide in-situ, real-time monitoring of chemical reactions for batch and continuous flow syntheses. 

• Develop real-time trending profiles for key reaction species: reactants, intermediates, products, and byproducts
• Obtain data-rich information for traditional kinetic analysis or Reaction Progress Kinetics Analysis (RPKA) methods
• Monitor reactions where removing a sample for offline analysis is difficult, impossible, or undesirable – low temperature, elevated temperature/pressure, viscous, toxic reagents, highly energetic reactions, air/moisture sensitive, transient intermediates
• Investigate key stages of a reaction or process, such as reaction start, induction period, accumulation, conversion, and endpoint. Detect reaction stalling or upsets
• Rapidly determine the effect of variables on reactions
• Investigate the broadest range of chemical reactions with ReactIR and ReactRaman. Choose the best technique to match specific chemistries and reaction variables. 
• Enhance understanding of solution crystallization processes with ReactRaman for monitoring crystallographic form and polymorphism, and ReactIR for investigating solvent effects and supersaturation. 

View a Live eDemo from your work or home office on your schedule.

Automated Sampling For Synthesis Reactions

EasySampler is an automated, unattended technology delivering representative and reproducible samples. The probe-based technology has a micro-pocket, which takes samples at any given time, quenches in situ, and dilutes for ready-to-analyze offline samples. 

EasySampler supports reaction understanding by providing samples on demand. Sampling is performed under reaction conditions, making it truly representative. The samples, once collected and time-stamped, can be analyzed via offline analytical methods and the result integrated back into the data stream. An additional value lies in the increased data quality through automatic and seamless data collection. The increased accuracy and precision of automated sampling provide higher quality than manual sampling. 

Improve Synthesis Reactions with Fewer Experiments

Combine pat data with advanced modeling.

Reaction Lab uses process analytical technology (PAT) data to accurately model the effect of a range of variables simultaneously, thereby revealing the best set of operating conditions for synthesis reactions. The response of the reaction to the effect of varying specific parameters and conditions is determined, and response surfaces generated give insight into product yield/impurity tradeoffs.

Furthermore, the information from PAT and Reaction Lab facilitates a greater understanding and support for proposed reaction mechanisms and permits processes to be more effectively designed based on this insight. 

Featured Application: Understanding α,β-Unsaturated Imine Formation

Determine relative reaction rates and further mechanistic understanding.

Calow, A. D. J., Carbó, J. J., Cid, J., Fernández, E., & Whiting, A. (2014). Understanding α,β-Unsaturated Imine Formation from Amine Additions to α,β-Unsaturated Aldehydes and Ketones: An Analytical and Theoretical Investigation.  The Journal of Organic Chemistry ,  79 (11), 5163–5172.  In previous work, the researchers had reported a catalytic method to synthesize chiral γ-amino alcohols via in-situ generation of α,β-unsaturated imines. They stated that there was a lack of kinetic or mechanistic studies regarding the relative 1,2- versus 1,4- addition of primary amines to α,β-unsaturated aldehydes and ketones. To further this understanding, the researchers used in-situ ReactIR spectroscopy along with NMR studies and DFT calculations, to better characterize the addition of primary amines to α,β-unsaturated aldehydes and ketones (1,2- vs 1,4-addition) and examine the relative rates of these reactions.

ReactIR data showed that when benzylamine was added to crotonaldehyde, 1,2- addition resulted exclusively whereas when benzylamine was added to methyl vinyl ketone, 1,4- addition resulted exclusively.

Synthesis Reaction Examples

• Polymerization Reactions
• Organometallic Chemistry
• Metal-Catalyzed Reactions
• Flow Chemistry
• Design of Experiments (DoE)
• Low Temperature Chemistry
• Elevated Pressure Chemistry ( Hydrogenation Reactions )
• Enzyme Catalyzed Reactions Biocatalysis
• Oligonucleotide Synthesis

Automated Chemistry Solutions for Synthesis Reactions in Industry-Related Publications

Below is a selection of publications where automated solutions are used for synthesis reactions.

• Wang, C., Wang, H., Huang, C., Wu, C., & Sun, T. (2023). Precise Control of the Oxidation Reaction in a High-Purity Dexlansoprazole Synthesis Process Using In Situ Infrared. Organic Process Research & Development . https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.oprd.3c00098
• Yang, H. S., Macha, L., Ha, H. J., & Yang, J. W. (2021). Functionalisation of esters via 1,3-chelation using NaOtBu: mechanistic investigations and synthetic applications.  Organic Chemistry Frontiers ,  8 (1), 53–60. https://doi.org/10.1039/d0qo01135e
• Millward, M. J., Ellis, E., Ward, J. W., & Clayden, J. (2021). Hydantoin-bridged medium ring scaffolds by migratory insertion of urea-tethered nitrile anions into aromatic C–N bonds.  Chemical Science ,  12 (6), 2091–2096. https://doi.org/10.1039/d0sc06188c
• Jurica, J. A., & McMullen, J. P. (2021). Automation Technologies to Enable Data-Rich Experimentation: Beyond Design of Experiments for Process Modeling in Late-Stage Process Development.  Organic Process Research & Development ,  25 (2), 282–291. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.oprd.0c00496
• Sato, Y., Liu, J., Kukor, A. J., Culhane, J. C., Tucker, J. V., Kucera, D. J., Cochran, B. M., & Hein, J. E. (2021). Real-Time Monitoring of Solid–Liquid Slurries: Optimized Synthesis of Tetrabenazine. Journal of Organic Chemistry , 86 (20), 14069–14078. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.joc.1c01098
• Shi, Y., Prieto, P. L., Zepel, T., Grunert, S., & Hein, J. E. (2021). Automated Experimentation Powers Data Science in Chemistry.  Accounts of Chemical Research ,  54 (3), 546–555. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.accounts.0c00736
• Connor, C. G., DeForest, J. C., Dietrich, P., Do, N. M., Doyle, K. M., Eisenbeis, S., Greenberg, E., Griffin, S. H., Jones, B. P., Jones, K. N., Karmilowicz, M., Kumar, R., Lewis, C. A., McInturff, E. L., McWilliams, J. C., Mehta, R., Nguyen, B. D., Rane, A. M., Samas, B., . . . Webster, M. E. (2020). Development of a Nitrene-Type Rearrangement for the Commercial Route of the JAK1 Inhibitor Abrocitinib.  Organic Process Research & Development ,  25 (3), 608–615. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.oprd.0c00366
• Glace, A. W., Cohen, B. M., Dixon, D. D., Beutner, G. L., Vanyo, D., Akpinar, F., Rosso, V., Fraunhoffer, K. J., DelMonte, A. J., Santana, E., Wilbert, C., Gallo, F., & Bartels, W. (2020). Safe Scale-up of an Oxygen-Releasing Cleavage of Evans Oxazolidinone with Hydrogen Peroxide.  Organic Process Research & Development ,  24 (2), 172–182. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.oprd.9b00462
• Benkovics, T., McIntosh, J., Silverman, S., Kong, J., Maligres, P., Itoh, T., Yang, H., Huffman, M., Verma, D., Pan, W., Ho, H. I., Vroom, J., Knight, A., Hurtak, J., Morris, W., Strotman, N., Murphy, G., Maloney, K., & Fier, P. (2020). Evolving to an Ideal Synthesis of Molnupiravir, an Investigational Treatment for COVID-19.  ChemRxiv . Published. https://doi.org/10.26434/chemrxiv.13472373.v1
• Mennen, S. M., Alhambra, C., Allen, C. L., Barberis, M., Berritt, S., Brandt, T. A., Campbell, A. D., Castañón, J., Cherney, A. H., Christensen, M., Damon, D. B., Eugenio de Diego, J., García-Cerrada, S., García-Losada, P., Haro, R., Janey, J., Leitch, D. C., Li, L., Liu, F., . . . Zajac, M. A. (2019). The Evolution of High-Throughput Experimentation in Pharmaceutical Development and Perspectives on the Future.  Organic Process Research & Development ,  23 (6), 1213–1242. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.oprd.9b00140
• Wang, K., Han, L., Mustakis, J., Li, B., Magano, J., Damon, D. B., Dion, A., Maloney, M. T., Post, R., & Li, R. (2019). Kinetic and Data-Driven Reaction Analysis for Pharmaceutical Process Development.  Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research ,  59 (6), 2409–2421. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.iecr.9b03578

Chemical Synthesis Reactors

Automated Sampling Systems

FTIR and Raman Spectrometers

Particle Size Analyzers

iC Software Suite

Scale‑up Suite

Request quote or info get a quote instant quote solution information request a demo.

• Cambridge Dictionary +Plus

Meaning of synthesis in English

Your browser doesn't support HTML5 audio

synthesis noun ( CHEMICAL PRODUCTION )

• absorptive capacity
• absorptivity
• acidification
• endothermic reaction
• exothermic reaction
• fermentation

synthesis noun ( MIX )

• be neither one thing nor the other idiom
• blend in/blend into something
• homogeneous mixture
• saturated solution

synthesis | American Dictionary

Examples of synthesis, collocations with synthesis.

These are words often used in combination with synthesis .

Click on a collocation to see more examples of it.

Translations of synthesis

Get a quick, free translation!

Word of the Day

call centre

a large office in which a company's employees provide information to its customers, or sell or advertise its goods or services, by phone

Varied and diverse (Talking about differences, Part 1)

Learn more with +Plus

• Recent and Recommended {{#preferredDictionaries}} {{name}} {{/preferredDictionaries}}
• Definitions Clear explanations of natural written and spoken English English Learner’s Dictionary Essential British English Essential American English
• Grammar and thesaurus Usage explanations of natural written and spoken English Grammar Thesaurus
• Pronunciation British and American pronunciations with audio English Pronunciation
• English–Chinese (Simplified) Chinese (Simplified)–English
• English–Chinese (Traditional) Chinese (Traditional)–English
• English–Dutch Dutch–English
• English–French French–English
• English–German German–English
• English–Indonesian Indonesian–English
• English–Italian Italian–English
• English–Japanese Japanese–English
• English–Norwegian Norwegian–English
• English–Polish Polish–English
• English–Portuguese Portuguese–English
• English–Spanish Spanish–English
• English–Swedish Swedish–English
• Dictionary +Plus Word Lists
• synthesis (CHEMICAL PRODUCTION)
• synthesis (MIX)
• Collocations
• Translations
• All translations

To add synthesis to a word list please sign up or log in.

Add synthesis to one of your lists below, or create a new one.

{{message}}

Something went wrong.

There was a problem sending your report.

• school Campus Bookshelves
• menu_book Bookshelves
• perm_media Learning Objects
• login Login
• how_to_reg Request Instructor Account
• hub Instructor Commons

Margin Size

• Download Page (PDF)
• Download Full Book (PDF)
• Periodic Table
• Physics Constants
• Scientific Calculator
• Reference & Cite
• Tools expand_more
• Readability

selected template will load here

This action is not available.

27.9: Synthesis of Organic Compounds

• Last updated
• Save as PDF
• Page ID 24398

\( \newcommand{\vecs}[1]{\overset { \scriptstyle \rightharpoonup} {\mathbf{#1}} } \)

\( \newcommand{\vecd}[1]{\overset{-\!-\!\rightharpoonup}{\vphantom{a}\smash {#1}}} \)

\( \newcommand{\id}{\mathrm{id}}\) \( \newcommand{\Span}{\mathrm{span}}\)

( \newcommand{\kernel}{\mathrm{null}\,}\) \( \newcommand{\range}{\mathrm{range}\,}\)

\( \newcommand{\RealPart}{\mathrm{Re}}\) \( \newcommand{\ImaginaryPart}{\mathrm{Im}}\)

\( \newcommand{\Argument}{\mathrm{Arg}}\) \( \newcommand{\norm}[1]{\| #1 \|}\)

\( \newcommand{\inner}[2]{\langle #1, #2 \rangle}\)

\( \newcommand{\Span}{\mathrm{span}}\)

\( \newcommand{\id}{\mathrm{id}}\)

\( \newcommand{\kernel}{\mathrm{null}\,}\)

\( \newcommand{\range}{\mathrm{range}\,}\)

\( \newcommand{\RealPart}{\mathrm{Re}}\)

\( \newcommand{\ImaginaryPart}{\mathrm{Im}}\)

\( \newcommand{\Argument}{\mathrm{Arg}}\)

\( \newcommand{\norm}[1]{\| #1 \|}\)

\( \newcommand{\Span}{\mathrm{span}}\) \( \newcommand{\AA}{\unicode[.8,0]{x212B}}\)

\( \newcommand{\vectorA}[1]{\vec{#1}}      % arrow\)

\( \newcommand{\vectorAt}[1]{\vec{\text{#1}}}      % arrow\)

\( \newcommand{\vectorB}[1]{\overset { \scriptstyle \rightharpoonup} {\mathbf{#1}} } \)

\( \newcommand{\vectorC}[1]{\textbf{#1}} \)

\( \newcommand{\vectorD}[1]{\overrightarrow{#1}} \)

\( \newcommand{\vectorDt}[1]{\overrightarrow{\text{#1}}} \)

\( \newcommand{\vectE}[1]{\overset{-\!-\!\rightharpoonup}{\vphantom{a}\smash{\mathbf {#1}}}} \)

Wöhler synthesis of Urea in 1828 heralded the birth of modern chemistry. The Art of synthesis is as old as Organic chemistry itself. Natural product chemistry is firmly rooted in the science of degrading a molecule to known smaller molecules using known chemical reactions and conforming the assigned structure by chemical synthesis from small, well known molecules using well established synthetic chemistry techniques. Once this art of synthesizing a molecule was mastered, chemists attempted to modify bioactive molecules in an attempt to develop new drugs and also to unravel the mystery of biomolecular interactions. Until the middle of the 20th Century, organic chemists approached the task of synthesis of molecules as independent tailor made projects, guided mainly by chemical intuition and a sound knowledge of chemical reactions. During this period, a strong foundation was laid for the development of mechanistic principles of organic reactions, new reactions and reagents. More than a century of such intensive studies on the chemistry of carbohydrates, alkaloids, terpenes and steroids laid the foundation for the development of logical approaches for the synthesis of molecules.

The job of a synthetic chemist is akin to that of an architect (or civil engineer). While the architect could actually see the building he is constructing, a molecular architect called Chemist is handicapped by the fact that the molecule he is synthesizing is too small to be seen even through the most powerful microscope developed to date. With such a limitation, how does he ‘see’ the developing structure? For this purpose, a chemist makes use of spectroscopic tools. How does he cut, tailor and glue the components on a molecule that he cannot see? For this purpose chemists have developed molecular level tools called Reagents and Reactions. How does he clean the debris and produce pure molecules? This feat is achieved by crystallization, distillation and extensive use of Chromatography techniques. A mastery over several such techniques enables the molecular architect (popularly known as organic chemist) to achieve the challenging task of synthesizing the mirade molecular structures encountered in Natural Products Chemistry, Drug Chemistry and modern Molecular Materials. In this task, he is further guided by several ‘thumb rules’ that chemists have evolved over the past two centuries. The discussions on the topics Name Reactions, Reagents for synthesis, Spectroscopy and Chromatography are beyond the scope of this write-up. Let us begin with a brief look at some of the important ‘Rules’ in organic chemistry that guide us in planning organic synthesis. We would then discuss Protection and Deprotection of some important functional groups. We could then move on to the Logic of planning Organic Synthesis.

Modern Synthesis

A multi-step synthesis of any organic compound requires the chemist to accomplish three related tasks:

• Constructing the carbon framework or skeleton of the desired molecule.
• Introducing, removing or transforming functional groups in a fashion that achieves the functionality of the desired compound.
• Exercising selective stereocontrol at all stages in which centers of stereoisomerism are created or influenced. These are not discrete independent tasks to be attacked and solved in turn, but must be integrated and correlated in an overall plan. Thus, the assembly of the molecular framework will depend in part on the structure and functionality of available starting materials, the selectivity (regio and stereo) of the various reactions that may be used to stitch them together, and the loss or relocation of functional groups in the intermediate compounds formed on the way to the final product.

Other factors must also be considered, always in context with those listed above:

• Since a successful synthesis must produce the desired product in reasonable amount, it should be as short and efficient as possible. A two or three-step sequence is usually better than a six or seven step procedure, even if the individual step yields are better in the longer route. Most reactions do not proceed in 100% yield, and the losses are multiplied with each additional step. Furthermore, a long multi-step synthesis requires many hours of effort by the chemists conducting the reactions.
• The format of a synthesis is important. Assuming a constant yield for each step, a linear sequence of reactions gives a poorer overall yield than the same number of convergent reactions, as shown in the following diagram.
• If numerous functional groups are present at intermediate stages, some of these may require protection from unwanted reaction. Since the use of a protective group requires its introduction and later removal, such operations can add many steps to a synthesis. A similar cost is attached to the use of blocking and activating groups.
• The starting compounds and reagents for a synthesis must be purchased, so economic considerations are often significant. Recovery or recycling of expensive reagents and catalysts is often desirable. Also, if large amounts of useless by-products are formed in the synthesis, the expense of their disposal is a factor. The term atom efficiency has been coined to reflect the latter point.
• For a given target molecule, several different reaction sequences may serve to accomplish its synthesis. Indeed, new synthetic routes to known compounds continue to be reported, particularly as new reactions are developed and applied to difficult transformations. Evaluating the quality and efficacy of these diverse procedures involves consideration of all the above. Over the course of the past hundred years, a very large number of syntheses for a wide variety of compounds have been recorded. For all but the simplest of these, a majority of the reactions in the synthesis involve functional group modification, preceding or following a smaller number of carbon-carbon bond forming reactions. Because functional group chemistry consists of such a vast number of addition, elimination and substitution interconversions, it is not possible to identify a general pattern in their application to synthesis. Instead, an example from the synthesis of reserpine by the R. B. Woodward group (Harvard), displayed in the following diagram, will serve to illustrate the importance of regio and stereo-control in the course of functional group modification.

Contributors and Attributions

• Prof. R Balaji Rao (Department of Chemistry, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi) as part of Information and Communication Technology

William Reusch, Professor Emeritus ( Michigan State U. ), Virtual Textbook of Organic Chemistry

• More from M-W
• To save this word, you'll need to log in. Log In

Definition of synthesis

• amalgamation
• combination
• intermixture

Examples of synthesis in a Sentence

These examples are programmatically compiled from various online sources to illustrate current usage of the word 'synthesis.' Any opinions expressed in the examples do not represent those of Merriam-Webster or its editors. Send us feedback about these examples.

Word History

Greek, from syntithenai to put together, from syn- + tithenai to put, place — more at do

1589, in the meaning defined at sense 1a

Phrases Containing synthesis

synthesis gas

Dictionary Entries Near synthesis

Cite this entry.

“Synthesis.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary , Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/synthesis. Accessed 13 May. 2024.

Kids Definition

Kids definition of synthesis, medical definition, medical definition of synthesis, more from merriam-webster on synthesis.

Nglish: Translation of synthesis for Spanish Speakers

Britannica English: Translation of synthesis for Arabic Speakers

Britannica.com: Encyclopedia article about synthesis

Subscribe to America's largest dictionary and get thousands more definitions and advanced search—ad free!

Can you solve 4 words at once?

Word of the day.

See Definitions and Examples »

Get Word of the Day daily email!

Popular in Grammar & Usage

More commonly misspelled words, your vs. you're: how to use them correctly, every letter is silent, sometimes: a-z list of examples, more commonly mispronounced words, how to use em dashes (—), en dashes (–) , and hyphens (-), popular in wordplay, the words of the week - may 10, a great big list of bread words, 10 scrabble words without any vowels, 8 uncommon words related to love, 9 superb owl words, games & quizzes.