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Color Theory

What is color theory.

Color theory is the study of how colors work together and how they affect our emotions and perceptions. It's like a toolbox for artists, designers, and creators to help them choose the right colors for their projects. Color theory enables you to pick colors that go well together and convey the right mood or message in your work.

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Color is in the Beholders’ Eyes

“Color! What a deep and mysterious language, the language of dreams.” — Paul Gauguin, Famous post-Impressionist painter

Sir Isaac Newton established color theory when he invented the color wheel in 1666. Newton understood colors as human perceptions —not absolute qualities—of wavelengths of light . By systematically categorizing colors, he defined three groups:

Primary (red, blue, yellow).

Secondary (mixes of primary colors).

Tertiary (or intermediate —mixes of primary and secondary colors).

What Are Hue, Value and Saturation?

© Interaction Design Foundation, CC BY-SA 4.0

Hue is the attribute of color that distinguishes it as red, blue, green or any other specific color on the color wheel.

Value represents a color's relative lightness or darkness or grayscale and it’s crucial for creating contrast and depth in visual art.

Saturation , also known as chroma or intensity, refers to the purity and vividness of a color, ranging from fully saturated (vibrant) to desaturated (grayed).

In user experience (UX) design , you need a firm grasp of color theory to craft harmonious, meaningful designs for your users.

Use a Color Scheme and Color Temperature for Design Harmony

In screen design, designers use the additive color model , where red, green and blue are the primary colors. Just as you need to place images and other elements in visual design strategically, your color choices should optimize your users’ experience in attractive interfaces with high usability . When starting your design process, you can consider using any of these main color schemes:

Monochromatic : Take one hue and create other elements from different shades and tints of it.

Analogous : Use three colors located beside one another on the color wheel (e.g., orange, yellow-orange and yellow to show sunlight). A variant is to mix white with these to form a “high-key” analogous color scheme (e.g., flames).

Complementary : Use “opposite color” pairs—e.g., blue/yellow—to maximize contrast.

Split-Complementary (or Compound Harmony ): Add colors from either side of your complementary color pair to soften the contrast.

Triadic : Take three equally distant colors on the color wheel (i.e., 120° apart: e.g., red/blue/yellow). These colors may not be vibrant, but the scheme can be as it maintains harmony and high contrast. It’s easier to make visually appealing designs with this scheme than with a complementary scheme.

Tetradic : Take four colors that are two sets of complementary pairs (e.g., orange/yellow/blue/violet) and choose one dominant color. This allows rich, interesting designs. However, watch the balance between warm and cool colors.

Square : A variant of tetradic; you find four colors evenly spaced on the color wheel (i.e., 90° apart). Unlike tetradic, square schemes can work well if you use all four colors evenly.

Your colors must reflect your design’s goal and the brand’s personality . You should also apply color theory to optimize a positive psychological impact on users . So, you should carefully determine how the color temperature (i.e., your use of warm, neutral and cool colors) reflects your message.

For example, you can make a neutral color such as grey warm or cool depending on factors such as your organization’s character and the industry.

Use Color Theory to Match What Your Users Want to See

The right contrast is vital to catching users’ attention in the first place. The vibrancy you choose for your design is likewise crucial to provoking desired emotional responses from users. How they react to color choices depends on factors such as gender, experience, age and culture. In all cases, you should design for accessibility —e.g., regarding red-green color blindness. You can fine-tune color choices through UX research to resonate best with specific users. Your users will encounter your design with their expectations of what a design in a certain industry should look like. That’s why you must also design to meet your market’s expectations geographically . For example, blue, an industry standard for banking in the West, has positive associations in other cultures.

However, some colors can evoke contradictory feelings from certain nationalities (e.g., red: good fortune in China, mourning in South Africa, danger/sexiness in the USA). Overall, you should use usability testing to confirm your color choices.

Learn More about Color Theory

Take our course Visual Design: The Ultimate Guide .

Register for the How To Use Color Theory To Enhance Your Designs Master Class webinar with color experts Arielle Eckstut and Joann Eckstut.

See designer and author Cameron Chapman’s in-depth piece for insights, tips and examples of color theory at work.

For more on concepts associated with color theory and color scheme examples, read Tubik Studio’s guide .

Questions related to Color Theory

As an artist, it's important to have a solid understanding of color theory. This framework allows you to explore how colors interact and can be combined to achieve specific effects or reactions. It involves studying hues, tints, tones, and shades, as well as the color wheel and classifications of primary, secondary, and tertiary colors.

The Color Wheel © Interaction Design Foundation, CC BY-SA 4.0

Complementary and analogous colors are also important concepts to understand, as they can be used to create stunning color combinations. Additionally, color theory delves into the psychological effects of color, which can greatly impact the aesthetic and emotional impact of your art. By utilizing color theory, you can make informed decisions about color choices in your work and create art that truly resonates with your audience.

Color theory is a concept used in visual arts and design that explains how colors interact with each other and how they can be combined to create certain feelings, moods, and reactions. Arielle Eckstut, co-author of 'What Is Color? 50 Questions and Answers on the Science of Color,' explains that color does not exist outside of our perception, and different brains process visual information differently. Our retina, a part of the brain, plays a crucial role in color vision, and our brains constantly take in information from the outside world to inform us about our surroundings.

Watch this video for a deeper understanding of the science behind color:

To learn color theory, enroll in the ' Visual Design: The Ultimate Guide ' course on Interaction Design Foundation. This comprehensive course covers all aspects of visual design, including color theory. You will learn how colors interact with each other, how to combine them to create specific feelings and reactions, and how to use them effectively in your designs. 

The course includes video lectures, articles, and interactive exercises that will help you master color theory and other key concepts of visual design. Start your journey to becoming a color theory expert by signing up for the course today !

Color theory helps us make sense of the world around us by providing a shorthand for using products, distinguishing objects, and interpreting information. For instance, colors can help us quickly identify pills in a bottle or different dosages.

Designers also consider cultural, personal, and biological influences on color perception to ensure the design communicates the right information. Ultimately, color helps us navigate the world safely, quickly, and with joy. Find out more about the significance of color in design by watching this video:

To use color theory effectively, consider the following tips from Joann Eckstut, co-author of 'What Is Color? 50 Questions and Answers on the Science of Color, in this video:

Understand the effect of light: Daylight constantly changes, affecting the colors we see. Changing the light source will change the color appearance of objects.

Consider the surroundings: Colors appear to change depending on the colors around them, a phenomenon known as simultaneous contrast.

Be aware of metamerism: Colors that match under one light source may not fit under another.

Remember that various factors such as light source and surrounding colors influence color, which is not a fixed entity. Being aware of these factors will prepare you to work effectively with color. Watch the full video for more insights and examples.

Color theory, as we know it today, is a culmination of ideas developed over centuries by various artists and scientists. However, one key figure in its development is Sir Isaac Newton, who, in 1666, discovered the color spectrum by passing sunlight through a prism. He then arranged these colors in a closed loop, creating the first color wheel. Johann Wolfgang von Goethe later expanded on this with his book "Theory of Colours" in 1810, exploring the psychological effects of colors. 

Modern color theory has since evolved, incorporating principles from both Newton and Goethe, along with contributions from numerous other artists and researchers. To learn more about color theory, consider enrolling in the Visual Design - The Ultimate Guide course.

Understanding color theory might seem daunting at first, but it is manageable. Michal Malewicz emphasizes in the video below, that initially, a UX designer only needs three colors: a background color, a foreground (text) color, and an accent color. 

It's advisable to start with fewer colors and gradually incorporate more as you become comfortable. Also, avoid color combinations like red mixed with saturated blue or green, and always test your colors for contrast and accessibility. Mastering color theory ultimately comes down to practice and observation. If it looks good, then it is good. For a comprehensive learning experience, consider enrolling in the Visual Design - The Ultimate Guide course on Interaction Design Foundation. Enroll now

Literature on Color Theory

Here’s the entire UX literature on Color Theory by the Interaction Design Foundation, collated in one place:

Learn more about Color Theory

Take a deep dive into Color Theory with our course Visual Design: The Ultimate Guide .

In this course, you will gain a holistic understanding of visual design and increase your knowledge of visual principles , color theory , typography , grid systems and history . You’ll also learn why visual design is so important, how history influences the present, and practical applications to improve your own work. These insights will help you to achieve the best possible user experience.

In the first lesson, you’ll learn the difference between visual design elements and visual design principles . You’ll also learn how to effectively use visual design elements and principles by deconstructing several well-known designs. 

In the second lesson, you’ll learn about the science and importance of color . You’ll gain a better understanding of color modes, color schemes and color systems. You’ll also learn how to confidently use color by understanding its cultural symbolism and context of use. 

In the third lesson, you’ll learn best practices for designing with type and how to effectively use type for communication . We’ll provide you with a basic understanding of the anatomy of type, type classifications, type styles and typographic terms. You’ll also learn practical tips for selecting a typeface, when to mix typefaces and how to talk type with fellow designers. 

In the final lesson, you’ll learn about grid systems and their importance in providing structure within design . You’ll also learn about the types of grid systems and how to effectively use grids to improve your work.

You’ll be taught by some of the world’s leading experts . The experts we’ve handpicked for you are the Vignelli Distinguished Professor of Design Emeritus at RIT R. Roger Remington , author of “American Modernism: Graphic Design, 1920 to 1960”; Co-founder of The Book Doctors Arielle Eckstut and leading color consultant Joann Eckstut , co-authors of “What Is Color?” and “The Secret Language of Color”; Award-winning designer and educator Mia Cinelli , TEDx speaker of “The Power of Typography”; Betty Cooke and William O. Steinmetz Design Chair at MICA Ellen Lupton , author of “Thinking with Type”; Chair of the Graphic + Interactive communication department at the Ringling School of Art and Design Kimberly Elam , author of "Grid Systems: Principles of Organizing Type.”

Throughout the course, we’ll supply you with lots of templates and step-by-step guides so you can go right out and use what you learn in your everyday practice.

In the “ Build Your Portfolio Project: Redesign ,” you’ll find a series of fun exercises that build upon one another and cover the visual design topics discussed. If you want to complete these optional exercises, you will get hands-on experience with the methods you learn and in the process you’ll create a case study for your portfolio which you can show your future employer or freelance customers.

You can also learn with your fellow course-takers and use the discussion forums to get feedback and inspire other people who are learning alongside you. You and your fellow course-takers have a huge knowledge and experience base between you, so we think you should take advantage of it whenever possible.

You earn a verifiable and industry-trusted Course Certificate once you’ve completed the course. You can highlight it on your resume , your LinkedIn profile or your website .

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Color and psychological functioning: a review of theoretical and empirical work

In the past decade there has been increased interest in research on color and psychological functioning. Important advances have been made in theoretical work and empirical work, but there are also important weaknesses in both areas that must be addressed for the literature to continue to develop apace. In this article, I provide brief theoretical and empirical reviews of research in this area, in each instance beginning with a historical background and recent advancements, and proceeding to an evaluation focused on weaknesses that provide guidelines for future research. I conclude by reiterating that the literature on color and psychological functioning is at a nascent stage of development, and by recommending patience and prudence regarding conclusions about theory, findings, and real-world application.

The past decade has seen enhanced interest in research in the area of color and psychological functioning. Progress has been made on both theoretical and empirical fronts, but there are also weaknesses on both of these fronts that must be attended to for this research area to continue to make progress. In the following, I briefly review both advances and weaknesses in the literature on color and psychological functioning.

Theoretical Work

Background and recent developments.

Color has fascinated scholars for millennia ( Sloane, 1991 ; Gage, 1993 ). Theorizing on color and psychological functioning has been present since Goethe (1810) penned his Theory of Colors , in which he linked color categories (e.g., the “plus” colors of yellow, red–yellow, yellow–red) to emotional responding (e.g., warmth, excitement). Goldstein (1942) expanded on Goethe’s intuitions, positing that certain colors (e.g., red, yellow) produce systematic physiological reactions manifest in emotional experience (e.g., negative arousal), cognitive orientation (e.g., outward focus), and overt action (e.g., forceful behavior). Subsequent theorizing derived from Goldstein’s ideas has focused on wavelength, positing that longer wavelength colors feel arousing or warm, whereas shorter wavelength colors feel relaxing or cool ( Nakashian, 1964 ; Crowley, 1993 ). Other conceptual statements about color and psychological functioning have focused on general associations that people have to colors and their corresponding influence on downstream affect, cognition, and behavior (e.g., black is associated with aggression and elicits aggressive behavior; Frank and Gilovich, 1988 ; Soldat et al., 1997 ). Finally, much writing on color and psychological functioning has been completely atheoretical, focused exclusively on finding answers to applied questions (e.g., “What wall color facilitates worker alertness and productivity?”). The aforementioned theories and conceptual statements continue to motivate research on color and psychological functioning. However, several other promising theoretical frameworks have also emerged in the past decade, and I review these frameworks in the following.

Hill and Barton (2005) noted that in many non-human animals, including primate species, dominance in aggressive encounters (i.e., superior physical condition) is signaled by the bright red of oxygenated blood visible on highly vascularized bare skin. Artificial red (e.g., on leg bands) has likewise been shown to signal dominance in non-human animals, mimicking the natural physiological process ( Cuthill et al., 1997 ). In humans in aggressive encounters, a testosterone surge produces visible reddening on the face and fear leads to pallor ( Drummond and Quay, 2001 ; Levenson, 2003 ). Hill and Barton (2005) posited that the parallel between humans and non-humans present at the physiological level may extend to artificial stimuli, such that wearing red in sport contests may convey dominance and lead to a competitive advantage.

Other theorists have also utilized a comparative approach in positing links between skin coloration and the evaluation of conspecifics. Changizi et al. (2006) and Changizi (2009) contend that trichromatic vision evolved to enable primates, including humans, to detect subtle changes in blood flow beneath the skin that carry important information about the emotional state of the conspecific. Increased red can convey anger, embarrassment, or sexual arousal, whereas increased bluish or greenish tint can convey illness or poor physiological condition. Thus, visual sensitivity to these color modulations facilitates various forms of social interaction. In similar fashion, Stephen et al. (2009) and Stephen and McKeegan (2010) propose that perceivers use information about skin coloration (perhaps particularly from the face, Tan and Stephen, 2012 ) to make inferences about the attractiveness, health, and dominance of conspecifics. Redness (from blood oxygenization) and yellowness (from carotenoids) are both seen as facilitating positive judgments. Fink et al. (2006) and Fink and Matts (2007) posit that the homogeneity of skin coloration is an important factor in evaluating the age, attractiveness, and health of faces.

Elliot and Maier (2012) have proposed color-in-context theory, which draws on social learning, as well as biology. Some responses to color stimuli are presumed to be solely due to the repeated pairing of color and particular concepts, messages, and experiences. Others, however, are presumed to represent a biologically engrained predisposition that is reinforced and shaped by social learning. Through this social learning, color associations can be extended beyond natural bodily processes (e.g., blood flow modulations) to objects in close proximity to the body (e.g., clothes, accessories). Thus, for example, red may not only increase attractiveness evaluations when viewed on the face, but also when viewed on a shirt or dress. As implied by the name of the theory, the physical and psychological context in which color is perceived is thought to influence its meaning and, accordingly, responses to it. Thus, blue on a ribbon is positive (indicating first place), but blue on a piece of meat is negative (indicating rotten), and a red shirt may enhance the attractiveness of a potential mate (red = sex/romance), but not of a person evaluating one’s competence (red = failure/danger).

Meier and Robinson (2005) and Meier (in press ) have posited a conceptual metaphor theory of color. From this perspective, people talk and think about abstract concepts in concrete terms grounded in perceptual experience (i.e., they use metaphors) to help them understand and navigate their social world ( Lakoff and Johnson, 1999 ). Thus, anger entails reddening of the face, so anger is metaphorically described as “seeing red,” and positive emotions and experiences are often depicted in terms of lightness (rather than darkness), so lightness is metaphorically linked to good (“seeing the light”) rather than bad (“in the dark”). These metaphoric associations are presumed to have implications for important outcomes such as morality judgments (e.g., white things are viewed as pure) and stereotyping (e.g., dark faces are viewed more negatively).

For many years it has been known that light directly influences physiology and increases arousal (see Cajochen, 2007 , for a review), but recently theorists have posited that such effects are wavelength dependent. Blue light, in particular, is posited to activate the melanopsin photoreceptor system which, in turn, activates the brain structures involved in sub-cortical arousal and higher-order attentional processing ( Cajochen et al., 2005 ; Lockley et al., 2006 ). As such, exposure to blue light is expected to facilitate alertness and enhance performance on tasks requiring sustained attention.

Evaluation and Recommendations

Drawing on recent theorizing in evolutionary psychology, emotion science, retinal physiology, person perception, and social cognition, the aforementioned conceptualizations represent important advances to the literature on color and psychological functioning. Nevertheless, theory in this area remains at a nascent level of development, and the following weaknesses may be identified.

First, the focus of theoretical work in this area is either extremely specific or extremely general. A precise conceptual proposition such as red signals dominance and leads to competitive advantage in sports ( Hill and Barton, 2005 ) is valuable in that it can be directly translated into a clear, testable hypothesis; however, it is not clear how this specific hypothesis connects to a broader understanding of color–performance relations in achievement settings more generally. On the other end of the spectrum, a general conceptualization such as color-in-context theory ( Elliot and Maier, 2012 ) is valuable in that it offers several widely applicable premises; however, these premises are only vaguely suggestive of precise hypotheses in specific contexts. What is needed are mid-level theoretical frameworks that comprehensively, yet precisely explain and predict links between color and psychological functioning in specific contexts (for emerging developments, see Pazda and Greitemeyer, in press ; Spence, in press ; Stephen and Perrett, in press ).

Second, the extant theoretical work is limited in scope in terms of range of hues, range of color properties, and direction of influence. Most theorizing has focused on one hue, red, which is understandable given its prominence in nature, on the body, and in society ( Changizi, 2009 ; Elliot and Maier, 2014 ); however, other hues also carry important associations that undoubtedly have downstream effects (e.g., blue: Labrecque and Milne, 2012 ; green: Akers et al., 2012 ). Color has three basic properties: hue, lightness, and chroma ( Fairchild, 2013 ). Variation in any or all of these properties could influence downstream affect, cognition, or behavior, yet only hue is considered in most theorizing (most likely because experientially, it is the most salient color property). Lightness and chroma also undoubtedly have implications for psychological functioning (e.g., lightness: Kareklas et al., 2014 ; chroma: Lee et al., 2013 ); lightness has received some attention within conceptual metaphor theory ( Meier, in press ; see also Prado-León and Rosales-Cinco, 2011 ), but chroma has been almost entirely overlooked, as has the issue of combinations of hue, lightness, and chroma. Finally, most theorizing has focused on color as an independent variable rather than a dependent variable; however, it is also likely that many situational and intrapersonal factors influence color perception (e.g., situational: Bubl et al., 2009 ; intrapersonal: Fetterman et al., 2015 ).

Third, theorizing to date has focused primarily on main effects, with only a modicum of attention allocated to the important issue of moderation. As research literatures develop and mature, they progress from a sole focus on “is” questions (“Does X influence Y?”) to additionally considering “when” questions (“Under what conditions does X influence Y and under what conditions does X not influence Y?”). These “second generation” questions ( Zanna and Fazio, 1982 , p. 283) can seem less exciting and even deflating in that they posit boundary conditions that constrain the generalizability of an effect. Nevertheless, this step is invaluable in that it adds conceptual precision and clarity, and begins to address the issue of real-world applicability. All color effects undoubtedly depend on certain conditions – culture, gender, age, type of task, variant of color, etc. – and acquiring an understanding of these conditions will represent an important marker of maturity for this literature (for movement in this direction, see Schwarz and Singer, 2013 ; Tracy and Beall, 2014 ; Bertrams et al., 2015 ; Buechner et al., in press ; Young, in press ). Another, more succinct, way to state this third weakness is that theorizing in this area needs to take context, in all its forms, more seriously.

Empirical Work

Empirical work on color and psychological functioning dates back to the late 19th century ( Féré, 1887 ; see Pressey, 1921 , for a review). A consistent feature of this work, from its inception to the past decade, is that it has been fraught with major methodological problems that have precluded rigorous testing and clear interpretation ( O’Connor, 2011 ). One problem has been a failure to attend to rudimentary scientific procedures such as experimenter blindness to condition, identifying, and excluding color deficient participants, and standardizing the duration of color presentation or exposure. Another problem has been a failure to specify and control for color at the spectral level in manipulations. Without such specification, it is impossible to know what precise combination of color properties was investigated, and without such control, the confounding of focal and non-focal color properties is inevitable ( Whitfield and Wiltshire, 1990 ; Valdez and Mehrabian, 1994 ). Yet another problem has been the use of underpowered samples. This problem, shared across scientific disciplines ( Maxwell, 2004 ), can lead to Type I errors, Type II errors, and inflated effect sizes ( Fraley and Vazire, 2014 ; Murayama et al., 2014 ). Together, these methodological problems have greatly hampered progress in this area.

Although some of the aforementioned problems remain (see “Evaluation and Recommendations” below), others have been rectified in recent work. This, coupled with advances in theory development, has led to a surge in empirical activity. In the following, I review the diverse areas in which color work has been conducted in the past decade, and the findings that have emerged. Space considerations require me to constrain this review to a brief mention of central findings within each area. I focus on findings with humans (for reviews of research with non-human animals, see Higham and Winters, in press ; Setchell, in press ) that have been obtained in multiple (at least five) independent labs. Table ​ Table1 1 provides a summary, as well as representative examples and specific references.

Research on color and psychological functioning.

In research on color and selective attention, red stimuli have been shown to receive an attentional advantage (see Folk, in press , for a review). Research on color and alertness has shown that blue light increases subjective alertness and performance on attention-based tasks (see Chellappa et al., 2011 , for a review). Studies on color and athletic performance have linked wearing red to better performance and perceived performance in sport competitions and tasks (see Maier et al., in press , for a review). In research on color and intellectual performance, viewing red prior to a challenging cognitive task has been shown to undermine performance (see Shi et al., 2015 , for a review). Research focused on color and aggressiveness/dominance evaluation has shown that viewing red on self or other increases appraisals of aggressiveness and dominance (see Krenn, 2014 , for a review). Empirical work on color and avoidance motivation has linked viewing red in achievement contexts to increased caution and avoidance (see Elliot and Maier, 2014 , for a review). In research on color and attraction, viewing red on or near a female has been shown to enhance attraction in heterosexual males (see Pazda and Greitemeyer, in press , for a review). Research on color and store/company evaluation has shown that blue on stores/logos increases quality and trustworthiness appraisals (see Labrecque and Milne, 2012 , for a review). Finally, empirical work on color and eating/drinking has shown that red influences food and beverage perception and consumption (see Spence, in press , for a review).

The aforementioned findings represent important contributions to the literature on color and psychological functioning, and highlight the multidisciplinary nature of research in this area. Nevertheless, much like the extant theoretical work, the extant empirical work remains at a nascent level of development, due, in part, to the following weaknesses.

First, although in some research in this area color properties are controlled for at the spectral level, in most research it (still) is not. Color control is typically done improperly at the device (rather than the spectral) level, is impossible to implement (e.g., in web-based platform studies), or is ignored altogether. Color control is admittedly difficult, as it requires technical equipment for color assessment and presentation, as well as the expertise to use it. Nevertheless, careful color control is essential if systematic scientific work is to be conducted in this area. Findings from uncontrolled research can be informative in initial explorations of color hypotheses, but such work is inherently fraught with interpretational ambiguity ( Whitfield and Wiltshire, 1990 ; Elliot and Maier, 2014 ) that must be subsequently addressed.

Second, color perception is not only a function of lightness, chroma, and hue, but also of factors such as viewing distance and angle, amount and type of ambient light, and presence of other colors in the immediate background and general environmental surround ( Hunt and Pointer, 2011 ; Brainard and Radonjić, 2014 ; Fairchild, 2015 ). In basic color science research (e.g., on color physics, color physiology, color appearance modeling, etcetera; see Gegenfurtner and Ennis, in press ; Johnson, in press ; Stockman and Brainard, in press ), these factors are carefully specified and controlled for in order to establish standardized participant viewing conditions. These factors have been largely ignored and allowed to vary in research on color and psychological functioning, with unknown consequences. An important next step for research in this area is to move to incorporate these more rigorous standardization procedures widely utilized by basic color scientists. With regard to both this and the aforementioned weakness, it should be acknowledged that exact and complete control is not actually possible in color research, given the multitude of factors that influence color perception ( Committee on Colorimetry of the Optical Society of America, 1953 ) and our current level of knowledge about and ability to control them ( Fairchild, 2015 ). As such, the standard that must be embraced and used as a guideline in this work is to control color properties and viewing conditions to the extent possible given current technology, and to keep up with advances in the field that will increasingly afford more precise and efficient color management.

Third, although in some research in this area, large, fully powered samples are used, much of the research remains underpowered. This is a problem in general, but it is particularly a problem when the initial demonstration of an effect is underpowered (e.g., Elliot and Niesta, 2008 ), because initial work is often used as a guide for determining sample size in subsequent work (both heuristically and via power analysis). Underpowered samples commonly produce overestimated effect size estimates ( Ioannidis, 2008 ), and basing subsequent sample sizes on such estimates simply perpetuates the problem. Small sample sizes can also lead researchers to prematurely conclude that a hypothesis is disconfirmed, overlooking a potentially important advance ( Murayama et al., 2014 ). Findings from small sampled studies should be considered preliminary; running large sampled studies with carefully controlled color stimuli is essential if a robust scientific literature is to be developed. Furthermore, as the “evidentiary value movement” ( Finkel et al., 2015 ) makes inroads in the empirical sciences, color scientists would do well to be at the leading edge of implementing such rigorous practices as publically archiving research materials and data, designating exploratory from confirmatory analyses, supplementing or even replacing significant testing with “new statistics” ( Cumming, 2014 ), and even preregistering research protocols and analyses (see Finkel et al., 2015 , for an overview).

In both reviewing advances in and identifying weaknesses of the literature on color and psychological functioning, it is important to bear in mind that the existing theoretical and empirical work is at an early stage of development. It is premature to offer any bold theoretical statements, definitive empirical pronouncements, or impassioned calls for application; rather, it is best to be patient and to humbly acknowledge that color psychology is a uniquely complex area of inquiry ( Kuehni, 2012 ; Fairchild, 2013 ) that is only beginning to come into its own. Findings from color research can be provocative and media friendly, and the public (and the field as well) can be tempted to reach conclusions before the science is fully in place. There is considerable promise in research on color and psychological functioning, but considerably more theoretical and empirical work needs to be done before the full extent of this promise can be discerned and, hopefully, fulfilled.

Conflict of Interest Statement

The author declares that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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The Red and The Real: An Essay on Color Ontology

Jonathan Cohen, The Red and The Real: An Essay on Color Ontology , Oxford UP, 2009, 260pp., $75.00 (hbk), ISBN 9780199556168.

Reviewed by Adam Pautz, University of Texas at Austin

1 See Jackson and Pargetter (1987) and McLaughlin (2003). There is a difference between these authors and Cohen. They are realizer functionalists about color. By contrast, Cohen’s view is unique in that it is role functionalist (184) — something that was not so clear in some of his earlier work. However, realizer and role functionalists agree on the truth-conditions of whole color predications; they only disagree about the referents of color nouns. The dispute might appear trivial. (Indeed, Lewis (1994, 420) says the analogous realizer-role dispute in the mental case is ‘superficial’.) But it is related to interesting modal issues, as Cohen discusses (195, 198).

2 Tye 2006 and Byrne and Hilbert 2007 begin with this argument. Cohen might reply that the conflict intuition is dubious on the grounds that a survey conducted by Cohen and Nichols (reported by Cohen at p. 148) shows that many do not share this intuition. Cohen and Nichols presented undergraduate students with a case of variation and gave them three options: (i) variant 1 is right and variant 2 is wrong, (ii) variant 2 is right and variant 1 is wrong, (iii) there is no (absolute) fact of the matter. Cohen and Nichols found that some students chose (iii). But, even if students have conflict intuition, they are unlikely to choose (i) or (ii), given the symmetry of the evidence and the absence of an ‘independent test’ for color. In addition, (iii) is extremely vague: while it can be taken to express relationalism, it can also be taken to express an eliminativist or non-factualist attitude quite consistent with the conflict intuition. Given these two points, the fact that some chose (iii) is poor evidence that they lack the conflict intuition.

3 For the supervenience answer, see Byrne and Hilbert 2007, 88-89 (though they do not use this name).

4 As Cohen notes (47), Byrne and Hilbert try to defend inegalitarianism by saying that cases like the John-Jane case are similar to a case involving miscalibrated thermometers in which inegalitarianism seems like the right verdict. Cohen replies (52) that it is not obvious that the cases are similar. Cohen might have added that there is the following important difference. In the thermometer case, inegalitarianism is only plausible if some thermometers are miscalibrated or operating in non-optimal conditions. By contrast, neither John nor Jane is miscalibrated or operating in non-optimal conditions. So, whereas a plausible reductive psychosemantic theory might be consistent with inegalitarianism in the thermometer case, no reductive psychosemantic theory is consistent with inegalitarianism in the John-Jane case. The reductive inegalitarian might object against Cohen that the problem merely concerns providing a reductive theory of the representation of fine-grained colors (Byrne and Hilbert 2007, 90). In fact, this is not the problem Cohen stresses. Indeed, a simple tracking theory provides such a theory: as we saw, it entails that the fine-grained colors which John and Jane represent are identical with highly overlapping but distinct reflectance-types, in favor of (non-relational) pluralism and against inegalitarianism. The problem for reductive inegalitarians like Byrne and Hilbert is how to devise a (different) reductive account of the situation compatible with their inegalitarianism .

5 For a strong statement of anti-Mooreanism, see Sider (forthcoming).

6 For different versions of conciliatory eliminativism, see Jackson 1977, 128 and Chalmers 2006, 92.

7 Byrne and Hilbert (1997, 223) and Kalderon (2007, 583) describe non-relational pluralism as a possibility. Kalderon also is responsible for the metaphor of ‘selection’. But they admit that they do not have an argument for non-relational pluralism. (More recently, Byrne and Hilbert (2004, 2007) side with inegalitarianism.) However, as noted in the text (and as discussed at the end of this review), it might be that tracking theories and other naturalistic theories of representation provide a kind of psychosemantic argument for non-relational pluralism, so that Cohen must consider it a particularly serious rival to his relational pluralism. By contrast, as we have seen, inegalitarianism actually seems to conflict with reductive psychosemantics, making the reductive inegalitarianism of Tye and Byrne and Hilbert an inconsistent position. So, non-relational pluralism would be a natural retreat for reductive inegalitarians, even if it violates the conflict intuition motivating their inegalitarianism.

8 Tye and Bradley 2001, 482.

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The science of color, newton’s rainbow.

In the 1660s, English physicist and mathematician Isaac Newton began a series of experiments with sunlight and prisms. He demonstrated that clear white light was composed of seven visible colors.

By scientifically establishing our visible spectrum (the colors we see in a rainbow), Newton laid the path for others to experiment with color in a scientific manner. His work led to breakthroughs in optics, physics, chemistry, perception, and the study of color in nature.

Aristotle developed the first known theory of color, suggesting that all colors came from white and black (lightness and darkness) and related them to the four elements – water, air, earth, and fire. Aristotle’s beliefs on color were widely held for over 2000 years until being replaced by those of Newton.

Opticks , one of the great works in the history of science, documents Newton’s discoveries from his experiments passing light through a prism. He identified the ROYGBIV colors (red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet) that make up the visible spectrum. The visible spectrum is the narrow portion within the electromagnetic spectrum that can be seen by the human eye. Other forms of electromagnetic radiation, waves of energy, that we cannot see include radio, gamma and microwaves. The cells in our eyes called cones are sensitive to the wavelengths found in the visible spectrum. They allow us to see the all the colors of the rainbow.

…if the Sun’s Light consisted of but one sort of Rays, there would be but one Colour in the whole World… –Sir Isaac Newton, Opticks

Goethe challenged Newton’s views on color, arguing that color was not simply a scientific measurement, but a subjective experience perceived differently by each viewer. His contribution was the first systematic study on the physiological effects of color. Goethe’s views were widely adopted by artists. Although Goethe is best known for his poetry and prose, he considered Theory of Colors his most important work.

Colour are light’s suffering and joy. –Johann Wolfgang von Goethe

This very rare book formed the foundation for modern color printing. Le Blon was the first to outline a three-color printing method using primary colors (red, yellow, blue) to create secondary colors (green, purple, orange). He makes an important distinction between “material colors,” as used by painters, and colored light, which was the focus of Newton’s color theories. Le Blon’s distinction marks the first documentation of what is now referred to as additive and subtractive color systems. Rainbows, TVs, computer screens and mobile devices all emit light and are examples of an additive color system (the subject of Newton’s Opticks). Red, green and blue are the primary additive colors and when combined they produce transparent white light. Books, paintings, grass and cars are examples of a subtractive color system which is based on the chemical makeup of an object and its reflection of light as a color. Subtractive primary colors - blue, red, and yellow – are often taught to us as children, and when mixed together they create black.

…I arriv’d at the skill of reducing the Harmony of Colouring in painting to Mechanical Practice… –J.C. Le Blon, Coloritto

These colorful line diagrams reveal the chemical compositions of metals. When a pure metal is burned and viewed through a spectroscope, each element gives off unique spectra, a sort of color fingerprint. This method, called spectral analysis, led to the discovery of new elements, and marked the first steps towards quantum theory.

Can you see the numbers in the circles? 4.5 percent of the population cannot see the entire visible spectrum, a condition called color vision deficiency, or color blindness. Ishihara plates are used to test patients for the various types of color blindness.

Can you find the animal hiding in this image? Camouflage uses color to conceal forms by creating optical illusions. American artist Abbott Thayer introduced the concept of  disruptive patterning , in which an animal’s uneven markings can disguise its outline. In this illustration Thayer shows how a peacock can disappear into its surroundings.

Thayer, an American artist, devoted much of his life to understanding how animals conceal themselves in nature for survival. In his book, Concealing Coloration in the Animal Kingdom, Thayer presented his beliefs of protective coloration as an essential factor in evolution helping animals disguise themselves from predators. He received much praise and criticism. He was extreme in his views arguing that all animal coloration was for protective purposes and failing to recognize other possible reasons such as sexual selection – characteristics for attracting a mate.  Teddy Roosevelt most notably attacked his theories by pointing out that this concealment doesn’t last all season, or even all day, but was dependent on a single frozen moment in times. Despite these shortcomings, Thayer went on to be the first to propose camouflage for military purposes.  Although his suggestions were initially rejected, his former students were among the founders of the American Camouflage Society in 1916 and his theories were eventually adopted and are still used today.

The colorful pattern on this German aircraft from World War I is called lozenge camouflage. Its disruptive pattern applied Abbott Thayer’s theories in an effort to inhibit enemy observation from the air and on the ground.

Elements of Design: Spotlight on Color

Color, like line, shape, texture, and the other elements of art and design, communicates meaning and creates visually compelling experiences. Here’s how.

Take a moment to think about your favorite color. Close your eyes and let it fill your mind. Why is it your favorite? Does it invoke a specific memory or item of significance? Does it call to mind a feeling or mood that resonates with you?

Color is one of several components of visual art and design known collectively as the elements of art and design . These elements vary from context to context but are generally accepted to include shape, value, space, form, line, texture, and color. Each of the elements  can be combined with the others to communicate meaning and create visually compelling experiences. While most of the individual elements must be combined into complex relationships to impact a viewer, color is has the potential to communicate independently of the others.

Color, for example, has the power to stir up feelings that are both personal and shared. In this way, color is perhaps the most accessible element of visual language. Without any experience analyzing visual works, most viewers can appreciate the way color impacts the reading or experience of an image or object. Color is seemingly self-evident and uncomplicated, yet color theory and its depths have enraptured philosophers , artists , and scholars alike for centuries .

Color theory may be familiar to many readers through popular color psychology, which influences Western culture, from social media trends to government institutions . Popular color psychology is so pervasive that it’s often satirized . But pop color systems ultimately have very little impact on the interpretation of color in visual works beyond how popular color psychology has itself created cultural associations with certain colors (e.g., red signifies passion and purple projects power).

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While the jury is still out on fixed psychological color relationships, cultural significance of colors and the visual relationship between colors outside of cultural meaning do have very clear implications on how viewers perceive visual works. This is as true of incidental color in documentary or archival visual material as it is true of artistic works and other intentional uses of color. Take, for example, the following image. The content, a city street, can be read easily in black and white. Yet when color is restored, details flourish. The separation between the red roof and blueish church spires becomes clear. The textural difference between the trees and shingles becomes distinct. The pale yellow that fills the sky and kisses the buildings’ edges fills the frame with a sense of rising sunlight that is illegible without color.

Color provides visual information here, enriching our understanding of the image’s content and perhaps calling to mind symbolic associations with key colors that are included. While color theory can become endlessly complex and often philosophical, anyone interested in visual exploration can begin to approach color on a handful of key levels:

1. Color can have visual impact beyond cultural associations.

While general agreement about color organization and classification was in flux for a large part of modern history , it is now generally understood that there are three primary, or foundational colors: red, yellow, and blue. From these are derived secondary colors—orange, green, and violet—tertiary colors, and so on. Different combinations of such colors are used to produce visual harmony or contrast, independent of any meaning applied to specific colors. When set against one another, complimentary colors—color pairs like red and green or violet and yellow—create a jarring effect, replete with contrast.

Color can also indicate universally understood relationships, like time of day or fixed color associations that are widely recognized across cultures. Often, spatial relationships can emphasize or clarify these color associations. This makes it possible for viewers, regardless of experience or background, to quickly recognize otherwise abstract images like a blue rectangle above a green one as scenes like a sky and grass or water meeting at a horizon.

2. Color can reinforce or clarify understanding.

Beyond adding a layer of visual interest, color often serves to reinforce viewers’ understanding of an image. Color echoes, and even sometimes exaggerates, what can already be read a scene’s figures and forms through both color relationships and culturally recognizable color associations.

Color can also clarify the way an image is read and understood, just as the addition of green to an image would distinguish a grassy landscape from a snowy one. Ambiguity in an image is often resolved and questions are answered with the application of color. In the image below, color declares that this is an image of fecundity amid volcanic activity, rather than an image of destruction. Here, color also adds identifying detail to abstracted plant and animal forms, identifying birds like the Hawaiian honeycreeper and O’u through distinctive coloring.

3. Color can be symbolic.

On a basic level, symbolic colors can be created when a color is chosen and declared to have a particular meaning or association, like colors on a nation’s flag or the colors worn by a sports team. These can have a direct meaning that is widely recognized. For example, red, white, and blue are associated with the United States of America, and while various meanings have been ascribed to the three colors over time, the colors’ combined association with the United States holds significance in itself.

When this American war effort recruitment poster was created, the red background, white nurses cap, and blue dress would have undoubtedly been chosen to mimic the colors of the American flag. The cuffs that cut across the image emphasize the relationship between national service, shared sacrifice, and patriotic duty.

At a more complex level, color can also be imbued with symbolic meaning over time within, or even across, cultures. Red brings to mind immediate and powerful symbolic associations in most cultures. While these are often flattened into overly simplified one-to-one relationships—red equals alert, passion, luck, love, risk—even one color in a single image can have nuanced symbolic connections, and these can vary from viewer to viewer, even in the same cultural context. A red health information poster could communicate a complex mix of danger and warning but also the promise of aid (e.g., the Red Cross), depending on the viewer’s experience and context. The red jacket of a pirate could suggest daring and bravery but also violence, depending on the pirate tales the viewer is familiar with. Red, in combination with other culturally significant symbols like flowers, could convey anything from respect and admiration to enduring love.

Check back in a March for a column about symbols.

ON-YOUR-OWN EXERCISE

Consider the following image. Take a moment to examine color and how it impacts how you view this illustration. Is the use of color symbolic, culturally significant, or even compelling in itself? Without knowing the story behind the image, what can you infer about the relationship and nature of the two figures based on the colors used? What can you infer about their environment? What would be missing if the color faded to black and white?

JSTOR further reading:

“He” Had Me at Blue: Color Theory and Visual Art by Barbara L. Miller  A Critical Account of Some of Josef Albers’ Concepts of Color by Alan Lee  Color Theory and the Perception of Art by Peter John Brownlee  GOETHE’S THEORY OF COLORS  by WM. T. Harris Red, Yellow and Blue: The Historical Origin of Color Systems by David Burton  Weaving the Rainbow: Visions of Color in World History by Robert Finlay

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What is colour theory? A complete introductory guide

Colour theory is a guiding set of principles that informs how designers choose and apply colour. Learn all about colour theory—and how to use it—in this guide.

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What is UX? Why has it become so important? Could it be a career for you? Learn the answers, and more, with a free 7-lesson video course.

Colour is one of the most powerful tools in a designer’s toolkit—and choosing a product or brand’s colour scheme is one of the most important decisions a designer can make. 

Working with colour isn’t simply a case of picking your favourite hues and hoping for the best. It’s a little more technical, requiring knowledge of the colour wheel, achieving colour harmony, and understanding how different colours can influence people’s emotions and behaviours. 

These are all crucial aspects of colour theory, and we’ll explain them—and more—in this guide. 

We’ll demystify some of the most confusing colour theory jargon, clarify the most important concepts, and show you, in practical terms, how to apply colour theory to your work as a designer.

Here’s what we’ll cover:

Let’s begin our journey into the dazzling world of colour theory!

What is colour theory? A definition

Colour theory is a set of concepts, principles, and guidelines that help artists and designers to use colour effectively in their work. It’s based on a combination of science, maths, and psychology—a fascinating discipline!

Colour theory helps us to understand the anatomy of colour, how different colour combinations work together to achieve different effects and the role that colour plays in creating a strong brand identity and a delightful user experience .

Once you’re well-versed in colour theory, you can confidently choose the most effective colour schemes for a given product or design project. You’ll be able to use colour to connect with your target audience and to improve the readability, usability, and accessibility of your designs. 

The power of colour is truly endless—and colour theory will help you to unleash it. But, before we jump into the specifics of colour theory, let’s consider why colour is so important in the design field.

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Why does colour matter in design?

When it comes to designing successful products, colour isn’t merely a decorative layer. It defines the entire visual brand (along with other elements such as typography, logos, and imagery), and it impacts the end user’s perception and experience of the product. 

Here’s why colour matters beyond aesthetics: 

• Colour is crucial for brand identity and recognition. When you think of some of the most famous brands, you can probably visualise their brand colours off the top of your head. Ikea? Blue and yellow. Starbucks? Green and white. The NHS? Blue and white. You get the gist! Colour is at the heart of all the most memorable brands.
• Colour can evoke emotions and impact people’s mood and behaviour. According to colour psychology , different colours can elicit different emotional responses. This, in turn, can impact a person’s behaviour—which is especially interesting in the context of designing products and services that are geared towards particular user actions. We’ll take a closer look at colour psychology later on in this guide.
• Colour helps to create contrast, which improves the readability and accessibility of digital products. When designing an app or a website, how do you ensure that all text is clearly legible? How do you make sure that all the different UI elements are easily distinguishable from one another? You use colour to create contrast. This has a major impact on the ease and accessibility of the entire user experience. 

As you can see, colour isn’t just beautiful. It’s functional, too, and must be applied with care. On that note, let’s dive into the fundamentals of colour theory.

Colour theory basics: Primary, secondary, and tertiary colours

Primary, secondary, and tertiary colours form the basis of colour theory. You’re probably already familiar with these concepts, but we’ll provide a quick refresher here just in case:

• Primary colours are those that cannot be created by mixing other colours together. The three primary colours are red, yellow, and blue.
• Secondary colours are created by mixing two primary colours together. The three secondary colours are orange, purple, and green.
• Tertiary colours are the result of combining a primary colour with a secondary colour. There are six tertiary colours: magenta (red mixed with purple); vermillion (red mixed with orange); violet (blue mixed with purple); teal (blue mixed with green); amber (yellow mixed with orange); and chartreuse (yellow mixed with green). 

With primary, secondary, and tertiary colours, we’ve got twelve colours in total. But that’s not where the possibilities end! Each of those basic colours comes in a range of different variations, opening up a whole spectrum of colours to choose from.

You can think of these different variations as the elements or properties of a colour, and we’ll introduce them next.

Understanding the elements and properties of colour: Hue, shade, tint, and tone

How do we get from just twelve colours (three primary colours, three secondary colours, and six tertiary colours) to the much broader range of colours we know exists in the world? 

Four words: Hue , shade , tint , and tone . 

These are settings you can dial up or down to achieve different variations of each colour, giving you a much wider array of colours (or colour variations) to work with. 

Here’s what each term means:

• Hue is the colour in its purest form. When you mix two primary colours (hues) to get a secondary colour—say, mixing red and yellow to get orange—you’re mixing the hues of red and yellow to get the hue of orange. All primary and secondary colours are hues.
• Shade . Now, if you want to create a darker version of a colour, you can add black to a particular hue. For example, if you add black to blue, you’ll get a darker version of the original blue colour.
• Tint is the opposite of shade. If you want to achieve a lighter version of a colour, you can add white. As such, different colours can have a range of shades and tints in varying degrees.
• Tone , sometimes referred to as saturation, is achieved by adding grey (i.e. white and black) to the original hue. Again, adding both white and black will give you yet another variation of that colour. 

You can see how, with the dialling up and down of these various properties, the spectrum of colours available for you to work with extends well beyond the twelve primary, secondary, and tertiary colours. 

Now things are getting more complex! How do designers make sense of all the different possibilities and potential colour combinations? Cue the colour wheel.

An introduction to the colour wheel and the 6 main colour schemes

What is the colour wheel.

The colour wheel is a circular representation of all the different colours and their possible variations. It depicts all the primary, secondary, and tertiary colours, as well as their respective hues, shades, tints, and tones. 

The colour wheel is an incredibly useful tool because it allows you to see, at a glance, the relationship between different colours based on their position on the wheel. 

These can be broken down into different colour schemes—otherwise known as colour palettes or colour combinations.

The 6 main colour schemes

Colour schemes are essentially combinations of colours that work well together. Each colour scheme helps to achieve a different effect, so your choice will depend on the design context and your goals.

• Complementary: A complementary colour scheme uses two colours which are located directly opposite each other on the colour wheel. Complementary colour pairings achieve the highest level of contrast.
• Analogous: An analogous colour scheme uses colours that are next to each other on the colour wheel. If you were creating an analogous colour scheme made up of three colours, you’d choose your main colour and the colour either side of it. For a five-colour scheme, you’d add the colours that are next to your second and third colours on the wheel (i.e. the outer colours). Analogous colours harmonise well together but create minimal contrast.
• Monochromatic: As the name suggests, monochromatic colour schemes use just one colour in various tints, shades, and tones. Monochromatic palettes are often associated with simplicity, elegance, and ‘cleanness’. Note that you won’t achieve much contrast with a monochromatic colour scheme.
• Triadic: A triadic colour scheme comprises three colours that are evenly spaced around the colour wheel. A triadic combination of colours is great for creating high contrast while achieving harmony.
• Split-complementary: A split-complementary palette takes one dominant colour and the two colours that are directly next to the dominant colour’s complement on the colour wheel. In other words, to choose the second and third colours in a split-complementary scheme, find the colour directly opposite your first colour on the colour wheel (that’s its complement) and then choose the two colours that are located next to (i.e. either side) of that colour.
• Tetradic: This is also known as a double complementary or rectangle colour scheme. Tetradic colour palettes use two complementary colour pairs. If you were to cut out a paper rectangle and place it at different angles over the colour wheel, you’d find your colour pairings at each of the rectangle’s four points. 

Now we know all about how different colours work together to form colour schemes, let’s introduce another key concept: colour psychology.

An introduction to colour psychology—how do different colours make us feel?

Colour psychology explores how different colours can impact our mood, emotions, and behaviours. As a designer, the colours you choose will conjure up certain associations and/or elicit certain emotions. As such, a product’s colour scheme can have a big impact on how a user feels when they interact with the product.

So, when working with colour, it’s important to be aware of the symbolic meanings typically associated with each colour—and how these can vary across different cultures and user groups. 

Here are some common colour associations:

• Red: Love, passion, energy, danger, power, intensity.
• Pink: Romance, delicacy, softness, nurture, optimism, playfulness, fun.
• Blue: Wisdom, dependability, calm, peace, relaxation, coolness, sadness.
• Green: Nature, freshness, health, renewal, prosperity, jealousy. 
• Yellow: Hope, optimism, fun, joy, happiness, warmth, danger, caution. 
• Orange: Energy, warmth, optimism, abundance, kindness, warning, danger. 
• Purple: Royalty, nobility, glamour, mystery, luxury. 
• Black: Elegance, power, sophistication, strength, luxury, sadness, grief.
• White: Purity, simplicity, tranquillity, peace, openness. 

As you can see, some colours hold contradictory associations—such as blue which can evoke feelings of calm and peace, but may also be associated with sadness. It all depends on the context and on the person perceiving it.

What are the best colour tools for designers?

We’ve covered a lot of theory. But, when it comes to working with colour, you don’t necessarily need to pore over the colour wheel every time you start a new project, or spend hours running back over colour theory to ensure you’re making effective colour choices. 

As with most aspects of the UX and UI design process , there are tools that can help you. So what are some of the best colour tools for UX and UI designers? Let’s take a look.

Colour pickers and colour palette generators

• Adobe Color —a colour wheel and colour palette generator, used to create and browse colour schemes.
• HueSnap —a free colour picker and colour palette generator tool. Use the colour picker to ‘extract’ colour from existing graphics, or create brand new colour schemes from scratch.
• Khroma —uses AI to learn which colours you like and enables you to generate custom colour palettes.
• Coolors —a free, beginner-friendly colour palette generator with extensions for Adobe Photoshop and Illustrator.
• Colormind —uses deep learning (a type of AI) to generate colour schemes.

Tools for checking colour contrast

• WCAG Color Contrast Checker —enter your colour combinations to check if they pass conformance (i.e. that they provide enough contrast to comply with accessibility guidelines).
• Coolors Color Contrast Checker —calculates the contrast ratio of text and background colours.
• Adobe Color Contrast Analyzer —type/paste in the HEX code for your text and background colours to get a contrast ratio.

Tying it all together: How to choose the right colour palettes and use colour theory to design beautiful, user-friendly products

As a designer, your goal is to make effective colour choices for a given product or project. You then need to apply your chosen colours so that the end result is aesthetically pleasing, accessible, and user-friendly. 

So how do you go about that? How do you actually use colour theory in practical terms? Let’s take a look. 

Consider the brand identity

If you’re designing for a particular brand or developing a brand identity from scratch, you first need to consider what brand values you want to convey. What does the brand stand for? What values does it embody? What industry is it operating in? 

All of these factors will determine your colour choices. For example, colours that work well for a luxury beauty brand may not hit the mark for a financial technology company. That’s because those brands have different values and purposes. 

Think about the people who will perceive your colours

This goes hand-in-hand with brand identity. As you choose or create a colour palette, it’s important to consider your target audience. Who will be perceiving the colours? What kind of reaction or emotion do you want to evoke? What kind of colour scheme is most likely to resonate with them as they engage with the product at a particular moment in time? 

Here you want to apply some colour psychology. Consider what different colours mean to your target audience and how your colour choices might influence their emotions. 

Use colour to create contrast (and make your designs more user-friendly)

Once you’ve decided on a colour palette, you’ll then apply those colours throughout the product you’re designing. As you do so, it’s essential to ensure that you’re creating sufficient contrast.

Contrast is crucial for accessibility. Think how difficult it is to read, say, light grey text on a plain white background, or white text overlayed on a busy image or textured background. 

The Web Content Accessibility Guidelines outline a set of standards that must be met in order to ensure that web and digital content is accessible for everybody, including people with disabilities. These guidelines state that text and interactive elements should have a colour contrast ratio of at least 4:5:1. 

When applying colour, use colour contrast checkers (like those we mentioned previously, including the WCAG Color Contrast Checker ) to ensure that you’re meeting accessibility standards.

Use colour to establish a visual hierarchy and achieve consistency

How you organise different elements on the screen or page determines their importance in the overall visual hierarchy. For example, you might place the most important information at the top of the screen so the user sees it first. 

Colour also plays an important role in establishing visual hierarchy. Use high colour contrast or dial up colour intensity to make important elements stand out, use colour to group related elements, and apply colour consistently to help the user learn your interface—for example, by learning to associate certain colours with certain actions or information. 

Being strategic with your application of colour helps to ensure that your product is not only beautiful and on-brand, but also easy to learn, use, and navigate. And that’s ultimately what good design is all about!

That’s a wrap!

That marks the end of our ultimate guide to colour theory. Hopefully, you now feel much better equipped to choose effective colour schemes and use colour to connect with your target audience, improve the accessibility and usability of your products, and develop strong and memorable brand identities. 

Of course, colour is just one aspect of a delightful user experience. If you’d like to learn more about creating beautiful, user-friendly products, discover the power of mood boards in this guide , learn the 7 fundamental principles of icon design here , and take inspiration from these 9 examples of great UI design from around the web .

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Color theory and design

2011, Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Computational Statistics

Related Papers

Asim Kumar Roy Choudhury

Colour is also an integral part of our daily life, be it textiles, paints, plastics or printing. We can’t even imagine a colourless world around us. Despite being so important and so close to everyone’s day-to-day life, it is not possible to express colour in unique or in specific language. We remember colour till we look at it. The moment we take away our sight from it, it gets erased from our memory. The colour scientists attempted to specify colour in explicit universal language so that it could be understood by everyone involved with colour and colour reproduction. This led to express colour numerically which is unique and unambiguous specification of colour.

Our question is: how do things look to the color-blind? But what does that mean? Who are the “color-blind”?

Daniel Garside

In this chapter, we introduce the molecular structure of the genes encoding the human cone photopig-ments and their expression in photoreceptor cells. We also consider the consequences that alterations in those genes have on the spectral sensitivity of the pho-topigments, the cone photoreceptor mosaic, and the perceptual worlds of the color normal and color blind individuals who possess them. Throughout, we highlight areas in which our knowledge is still incomplete.

Jaap van Brakel

Journal of Vision

Encyclopedia of Color Science and Technology

Jose Luis Caivano

José Luis Caivano y Antal Nemcsics. “Color order systems”. En: Encyclopedia of Color Science and Technology, editor general R. Luo, editor de la sección Art and Design, J. Caivano (Nueva York: Springer-Verlag, ed. online 2015, ed. impresa 2016, ISBN 978-1-4419-8072-4, doi 10.1007/978-1-4419-8071-7_232), 16 págs., ed. impresa págs. 329-343.

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5.1: Final Exam Essay

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• Page ID 177198

Introduction

Write in your own words, do not copy and paste the text (this is plagiarism). Each question is worth 20 points for 100 points total.

Submitting Your Essay

Submit your essay in the Final Essay Assignment in Canvas. It must be in one of the following file formats: .doc, .docx, .rtf, Google doc, or .pdf.

• Include the number of the question you're answering before your essay answer. Pay attention to what the question is asking. There may be more than one part to each question.
• Answer each question section in paragraph format, one paragraph for each question, minimum.
• Use complete sentences and correct grammar.
• Go into detail in your writing. Do not over-simplify your answers.
• Write clearly and cleanly for best results.

Research chapters 5, 6, 7, and 8 in C olor: A workshop for artists and designers (Hornung, 2012).

• Describe the principal of optical mixing and discuss the types of images that use this process.
• Give the artist’s name, title of the work, medium and date.
• Describe how the optical mixing process is used in the artist’s work.
• What did he contribute to color theory?
• Describe one of one of his classic experiments.
• Give one of Josef Albers’ quotes.
• Discuss the differences between median and dark transparency. Describe how you achieved the two types of transparency in your own Transparency and Space project.
• Discuss ways in which hue, value and saturation can contribute to or disrupt color harmony.
• In which cases are bridge tones helpful?
• Describe two approaches to color inventory. Discuss reasons an artist might want to create color inventories.

Goethe on the Psychology of Color and Emotion

By maria popova.

One of Goethe’s most radical points was a refutation of Newton’s ideas about the color spectrum, suggesting instead that darkness is an active ingredient rather than the mere passive absence of light.

Light and darkness, brightness and obscurity, or if a more general expression is preferred, light and its absence, are necessary to the production of color… Color itself is a degree of darkness.

But perhaps his most fascinating theories explore the psychological impact of different colors on mood and emotion — ideas derived by the poet’s intuition, which are part entertaining accounts bordering on superstition, part prescient insights corroborated by hard science some two centuries later, and part purely delightful manifestations of the beauty of language.

YELLOW This is the color nearest the light. It appears on the slightest mitigation of light, whether by semi-transparent mediums or faint reflection from white surfaces. In prismatic experiments it extends itself alone and widely in the light space, and while the two poles remain separated from each other, before it mixes with blue to produce green it is to be seen in its utmost purity and beauty. How the chemical yellow develops itself in and upon the white, has been circumstantially described in its proper place. In its highest purity it always carries with it the nature of brightness, and has a serene, gay, softly exciting character. State is agreeable and gladdening, and in its utmost power is serene and noble, it is, on the other hand, extremely liable to contamination, and produces a very disagreeable effect if it is sullied , or in some degree tends to the minus side. Thus, the color of sulphur, which inclines to green, has a something unpleasant in it. When a yellow color is communicated to dull and coarse surfaces, such as common cloth, felt, or the like, on which it does not appear with full energy, the disagreeable effect alluded to is apparent. By a slight and scarcely perceptible change, the beautiful impression of fire and gold is transformed into one not undeserving the epithet foul; and the color of honour and joy reversed to that of ignominy and aversion. To this impression the yellow hats of bankrupts and the yellow circles on the mantles of Jews, may have owed their origin. RED-YELLOW As no color can be considered as stationary, so we can very easily augment yellow into reddish by condensing or darkening it. The color increases in energy, and appears in red-yellow more powerful and splendid. All that we have said of yellow is applicable here, in a higher degree. The red-yellow gives an impression of warmth and gladness, since it represents the hue of the intenser glow of fire. YELLOW-RED As pure yellow passes very easily to red-yellow, so the deepening of this last to yellow-red is not to be arrested. The agreeable, cheerful sensation which red-yellow excites increases to an intolerably powerful impression in bright yellow-red. The active side is here in its highest energy, and it is not to be wondered at that impetuous, robust, uneducated men, should be especially pleased with this color. Among savage nations the inclination for it has been universally remarkedy and when children, left to themselves, begin to use tints, they never spare vermilion and minium. In looking steadfastly at a perfectly yellow-red surface, the color seems actually to penetrate the organ. It produces an extreme excitement, and still acts thus when somewhat darkened. A yellow-red cloth disturbs and enrages animals. I have known men of education to whom its effect was intolerable if they chanced to see a person dressed in a scarlet cloak on a grey, cloudy day. The colors on the minus side are blue, red-blue, and blue-red. They produce a restless, susceptible, anxious impression. BLUE As yellow is always accompanied with light, so it may be said that blue still brings a principle of darkness with it. This color has a peculiar and almost indescribable effect on the eye. As a hue it is powerful — but it is on the negative side, and in its highest purity is, as it were, a stimulating negation. Its appearance, then, is a kind of contradiction between excitement and repose. As the upper sky and distant mountains appear blue, so a blue surface seems to retire from us. But as we readily follow an agreeable object that flies from us, so we love to contemplate blue — not because it advances to us, but because it draws us after it. Blue gives us an impression of cold, and thus, again, reminds us of shade. We have before spoken of its affinity with black. Rooms which are hung with pure blue, appear in some degree larger, but at the same time empty and cold. The appearance of objects seen through a blue glass is gloomy and melancholy. When blue partakes in some degree of the plus side, the effect is not disagreeable. Sea-green is rather a pleasing color. RED-BLUE We found yellow very soon tending to the intense state, and we observe the same progression in blue. Blue deepens very mildly into red, and thus acquires a somewhat active character, although it is on the passive side. Its exciting power is, however, of a different kind from that of the red-yellow. It may be said to disturb, rather than enliven. As augmentation itself is not to be arrested, so we feel an inclination to follow the progress of the color, not, however, as in the case of the red-yellow, to see it still increase in the active sense, but to find a point to rest in. In a very attenuated state, this color is known to us under the name of lilac; but even in this degree it has a something lively without gladness. BLUE-RED This unquiet feeling increases as the hue progresses, and it may be safely assumed, that a carpet of a perfectly pure deep blue-red would be intolerable. On this account, when it is used for dress, ribbons, or other ornaments, it is employed in a very attenuated and light state, and thus displays its character as above defined, in a peculiarly attractive manner. As the higher dignitaries of the church have appropriated this unquiet color to themselves, we may venture to say that it unceasingly aspires to the cardinal’s red through the restless degrees of a still impatient progression. RED Whoever is acquainted with the prismatic origin of red will not think it paradoxical if we assert that this color partly actu , partly potentia , includes all the other colors. We have remarked a constant progress or augmentation in yellow and blue, and seen what impressions were produced by the various states; hence it may naturally be inferred that now, in the junction of the deepened extremes a feeling of satisfaction must succeed; and thus, in physical phenomena, this highest of all appearances of color arises from the junction of two contrasted extremes which have gradually prepared themselves for a union. As a pigment, on the other hand, it presents itself to us already formed, and is most perfect as a hue in cochineal; a substance which, however, by chemical action may be made to tend to the plus or the minus side, and may be considered to have attained the central point in the best carmine. The effect of this color is as peculiar as its nature. It conveys an impression of gravity and dignity, and at the same time of grace and attractiveness. The first in its dark deep state, the latter in its light attenuated tint; and thus the dignity of age and the amiableness of youth may adorn itself with degrees of the same hue. History relates many instances of the jealousy of sovereigns with regard to the quality of red. Surrounding accompaniments of this color have always a grave and magnificent effect. The red glass exhibits a bright landscape in so dreadful a hue as to inspire sentiments of awe. GREEN If yellow and blue, which we consider as the most fundamental and simple colors, are united as they first appear, in the first state of their action, the color which we call green is the result. The eye experiences a distinctly grateful impression from this color. If the two elementary colors are mixed in perfect equality so that neither predominates, the eye and the mind repose on the result of this junction as upon a simple color. The beholder has neither the wish nor the power to imagine a state beyond it. Hence for rooms to live in constantly, the green color is most generally selected.

Though hardly a work of science, Theory of Colors stands as an absorbing account of the philosophy and artistic experience of color, bridging the intuitive and the visceral in a way that, more than two hundred years later, continues to intrigue.

— Published August 17, 2012 — https://www.themarginalian.org/2012/08/17/goethe-theory-of-colours/ —

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Color Worqx

• Color Theory Overview
• Color Basics
• Color Systems
• Color Wheel
• Complementary Colors
• After Images
• Color Combinations
• Color & Contrast
• Itten's Contrasts
• Proportion & Intensity
• Contrast & Dominance
• Shades & Tints
• Color Studies
• Palette Picker

Color Theory: Overview

Why study color theory.

If you are involved in the creation or design of visual documents, an understanding of color will help when incorporating it into your own designs. Choices regarding color often seem rather mystical, as many seem to base decisions on nothing other than "it looks right." Although often told I had an eye for color, the reason why some colors worked together while others did not always intrigued me and I found the study of color theory fascinating.

While attending the University of Minnesota I enrolled in almost every course I could from different departments: graphic design, interior design, and fine arts. During my studies, I learned that there were 2 main reasons why scholars investigated color—the first involved the communication of colors; the other involved the application of color.

Communicating Color

What is red? Candy apple red, blood red, catsup red, rose red... to try and communicate a specific hue is difficult without some sort of coding system. Early in the 1900's, Albert Munsell, a professor at an art school in Boston developed a color system which offered a means to name colors. With a published system, people could be specific about which red they were referring. Munsell's system has been reworked for today's use with the Pantone color system, TRUEMATCH, CIE systems and others.

Color Application

With respect to the arts, color was part of the realistic, visual representation of form, but one group of painters abandoned the traditional practices regarding color in painting. This group of artists were influenced by Cezanne, Van Gogh, and Gauguin. Led by Henri Matisse, they were known as the Fauves, or "the wild beasts." Their exuberant use of brilliant hues seem to disregard imitative color 1 . Whereas other artists had used color as the description of an object, the Fauves let color become the subject of their painting. A painting in the "Fauvist Manner" was one that related color shapes; rather than unifying a design with line, compositions sought an expressiveness within the relationships of the whole. This turn from tradition brought an integrity to color in that color was regarded on its own merit.

The next several pages of this site offer a tutorial regarding color theory. After reviewing the information, I hope you will see that the successful use of color is not at all mystical, and that by understanding a few things about color, it is possible to incorporate into your designs with a confidence based on tested concepts and methods.

To begin the tutorial, view: Color Basics

Review resources & learn more about color: resources and bibliography

To make comments or ask questions: contact worqx

1   The Minneapolis Institute of Arts, Matisse, Minneapolis, Minneapolis Institute of Arts, 1994.

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Color and the Brain: Are We All Simply Puppets of the Color Palette?

We are honoring the top eight winners of our Student STEM Writing Contest by publishing their essays. This one is by Helen Roche.

By The Learning Network

This essay, by Helen Roche, 17, from Lakewood High School in Lakewood, Ohio , is one of the top eight winners of The Learning Network’s third annual STEM Writing Contest , for which we received 3,564 entries.

You can find the work of all of our student winners here .

Just as we consume food, we consume color at an even greater rate, constantly digesting the different tonalities that paint our world. But little do we know that the beige of the library walls we study in, the red of busy hallways and restaurants, and the blue of your own bedroom have been strategically chosen from millions of different swatches and tones and shades to control our bodily functions and alter our emotional behavior.

From the moment you entered the world, you were swaddled in a baby pink blanket. The same pink of the padded walls that consoled a kicking and screaming child detained at the San Bernardino County Probation Department in California to sleep within 10 minutes. The same pink that covers the buildings of urban cities to prevent vandalism. And the same pink on the walls of visiting football teams’ locker rooms to calm grown men into submission and defeat. This shade of “Baker-Miller” pink finds itself recurring in our lives, all resulting in the same effect — comfort.

It’s known that color sets a mood: red feels energetic; orange and yellow are lively and a bit overwhelming; green and blue bring calmness; violet feels creative; pink is comforting; and neutrals feel … neutral. But it’s not so known how and why. Stephen Westland, a professor and the chair of color science and technology at the University of Leeds, explains that these effects are based on “light but not vision.” When exposed to color, the retinal cells of the eye don’t just send signals to the visual cortex to recognize such color, but also to the hypothalamus, the part of the brain in charge of the body’s self-regulation — the part of the brain unable to recognize visual images at all . Simply seeing a color, or, more particularly, the light the color gives off, can affect a person’s mood, temperature, sleep, heart rate, ability to eat and breathing patterns.

This stands true in an experiment conducted by Harold Wohlfarth, published in a 1982 issue of the International Journal of Biosocial Research, in which he repainted an orange and white classroom in shades of blue and installed gray carpeting in place of the previous orange rug; all of the students’ blood pressure, respiration rates and pulses dropped, and they all became calmer, after the room makeover. That included two blind students: Although their eyes were unable to see the physical changes, their hypothalami picked up the changes in wavelengths, so they were ultimately able to reap the same benefits of those with sight.

It might seem silly, but simple changes in colors can save lives. All around the world, each day, the color blue saves lives, whether by bathing a premature baby in blue light to replace blood transfusions or by shining blue light on the platforms of Tokyo’s Yamanote rail lines to keep a survivor of depression here to live another day. Blue is just one color, so imagine what the whole rainbow could do with a little research.

Maybe now you’ll think a little harder about that shirt you wear tomorrow — not only what it will say about you, but what it will do to you.

Works Cited

Gruson, Lindsey. “ Color Has a Powerful Effect on Behavior, Researchers Assert .” The New York Times, 19 Oct. 1982.

“ The Psychology of Color .” The New York Times, 8 Jan. 2006.

“ The Psychology of Colors and Their Meanings. ” Color Psychology, 2021.

Westland, Stephen. “ Does Color Really Affect Our Mind and Body? A Professor of Color Science Explains .” The Conversation, 25 Sept. 2017.

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Color Theory: The Importance of Visible Light and Color in the Plant Kingdom

Color Theory

            Visible light and color undoubtedly influence and affect living things, ranging from plants, animals to assorted microorganisms. Indeed, virtually every species in the plant kingdom thrives on visible light and is inhibited by infrared and ultraviolet energy. Infrared and ultraviolet at either end of the spectrum, plus the colors located within the visible spectrum, bring about physiological and psychological effects in animals and human beings (Walker, 2004).

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             Hayden Frye, the coach of the University of Iowa Hawkeyes football team, hasn’t lost a home game in many years of coaching at that college. Part of his success he attributes to the colors of the home team and visiting team locker rooms. The Hawkeyes’ locker room is painted blue. The visiting team’s locker room is decorated in pink. The color blue gives the Iowa players a feeling of strength and aggression. Pink, on the other hand, has a weakening effect on physical strength and causes the release of norepinephrine in the body and brain.  Norepinephrine is a chemical that inhibits the specific hormones that contribute to aggressive behavior. Frye’s paint job therefore diminishes the aggression and strength of the opposing team members (Walker, 2004).

            In 1979, researchers at the University of California at Berkeley concluded a study done within the California prison system. Prison guards selected for their strength and endurance were instructed to exercise with heavy dumbbells. They performed as many curls with the weights as possible. Some of the guards were exceedingly muscular and strong. One guard was able to repeat the curling exercise with heavy weights an astounding twenty-eight times. When he finished, a tall, wide blue poster board was placed in front of him, blocking his view of everything but the blue color. Even though he felt some fatigue and used the same weights, he was still able to repeat the exercise and even increase his number of curls by one, making an astounding twenty-nine curls. However, when the researchers replaced the blue poster board with a pink board, the muscular guard, even after resting, was able to curl the weights only five times. Other strong and muscle-bound guards repeated the exercise with the same results (Walker, 2004).

            While people react to the message sent by color on cognitive, emotional and symbolic levels, they cannot always explain those reactions. Colors send innumerable signals about people, places and things. In general, Birren distinguishes between warm and cool colors. Warm colors are those in the red range, while cool colors are those in the blue to green range. Warm colors tend to be perceived as active and exciting colors that speed up our perception of time. They can be cozy and inviting or passionate. In contrast, cool colors slow down our professional (Starr and McCormick, 2004).

            Red is a powerful color associated with vitality, energy and ambition. It is an action color that prompts people to pay attention and react. Pink on the other hand, is a lighter shade of red, rather than being a color in and of itself. Research reported on the previous example that pink can have a weakening or calming effect that helps relax muscles. Pink has a more calming and soothing effect than do other warm colors. Chiazzari reports that pink also helps people feel protected and nurtured. Orange is an uplifting, energetic color that jovially conveys warmth. It is associated with Halloween, Thanksgiving and autumn. Birren reports that it is a social, cheerful color. Chiazarri and Birren describe orange as having a stimulating effect on the gastric system. Indeed, architects and interior designers often recommend orange for dining rooms or cafes because of its effect on digestion. However, orange is not a serious color and as a result can be seen as superficial. Orange also symbolized caution. Being symbolically associated with Halloween, orange can also convey distrust, as it symbolically represents deceit (Starr and McCormick, 2004).

            Luscher describes yellow as a bright, stimulating color. His research shows that like exposing people to red, exposing people to the color yellow increases blood pressure, pulse rates and respiration rates. Moreover, yellow affects the sympathetic nervous system. Symbolically, yellow is the color of energetic thought. It stimulates discrimination, memory, clear thinking, decision making and good, reason-based judgment. Yellow is color of summer and sunlight. It is optimistic and joyous. However, yellow may also symbolize cowardice, prejudice and fear. On the other hand, as one of the cooler colors, green conveys peace, quiet and relaxation and can make people feel lazy. It symbolizes being socially well adjusted, and is preferred by those who belong to clubs or undertake civil duties (Starr and McCormick, 2004).

            Indigo is the color for insight and intuitive wisdom. In addition to this, it presents the human mind with the deepest reality of beauty and truth in everything. Purple or violet on the other hand is the color for connectedness to transcendent spirit and the feeling of being at home in the cosmos. It also allows the human mind to feel freedom and oneness (Bennett, 2004).

            Color in general, is fundamental to virtually every facet of life. Yet the way one individual perceives a color may be different from another individual’s perception. In addition to this, color sets a mood. Mood effects and color psychology should be carefully considered as to effect the desired message.  When you combine colors creatively, you can portray themes, convey ideas, and stimulate other individuals to take action (Kupsh and Graves, 1993).

Bennet, R.R. (2004). Healing Magic: A Green Witch Guidebook. New York: Sterling Publishing Company, Inc.

Kupsh, J. and P.R. Graves. (1993). Here’s How: Create High-Impact Business Presentations. Chicago: NTC/Contemporary Publishing Company.

Starr, H. and M. McCormick. (2004). Jury Selection: An Attorney’s Guide to Jury Law and Methods. New York: Aspen Publishers.

Walker, Morton. (2004). The Power of Color. New York: Avery Publishing Group, Inc.

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Leadership is one of the most complex and multifaceted phenomena to which organisational and psychological research has been applied. While the term "leader" was noted as early as the 1300s (The Oxford English Dictionary, 1933) and conceptualised even before biblical times, the term leadership has been in existence only since the late 1700s (Stogdill, 1974). Even

The Ashanti Kingdom

            The history of a nation is a very essential component in understanding how the lives of its people as well as its culture and heritage have evolved through time. It is said that ones’ historical past is important in appreciating the present and planning about the future. This holds true in the case of

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The Color Blue: Meaning and Color Psychology

Feeling blue might not be such a bad thing

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Amy Morin, LCSW, is a psychotherapist and international bestselling author. Her books, including "13 Things Mentally Strong People Don't Do," have been translated into more than 40 languages. Her TEDx talk,  "The Secret of Becoming Mentally Strong," is one of the most viewed talks of all time.

• Blue Psychology

How does the color blue make you feel? We have long believed certain colors can evoke different moods and feelings, and some research has supported the idea that colors can have psychological effects.

Blue is a color often found in nature, such as the pale blue of a daytime sky or the rich dark blue of a deep pool of water. This is perhaps why we often describe blue as calm and serene. Yet, as a cool color, blue can sometimes seem icy, distant, or even cold.

Learn more about the psychology of the color blue, including various color blue meanings related to culture, spirituality, and more.

The Psychology of Blue

A survey spanning 10 countries found that blue is the most popular "favorite color" for people globally, with men preferring blue more often than women (40% versus 24%, respectively, among subjects from the United States). But what impact does this color have on us psychologically?

Color psychology tells us a lot about the effects that certain colors can have on a person's mood, emotions, and behaviors. Here's what we know about the psychology of blue:

• Because blue is favored by so many people, it is often viewed as a non-threatening color that can seem conservative and traditional .
• Blue calls to mind feelings of calmness and relaxation . It is often described as peaceful, tranquil, secure, and orderly.
• Blue is seen as a sign of stability and reliability . Businesses that want to project an image of security often utilize blue in their advertising and marketing efforts.
• Blue can also create feelings of sadness or aloofness . Consider how a painting that heavily features blue, such as those produced by Picasso during his "blue period," can seem lonely, sad, or forlorn.
• Blue is often used to decorate offices because research has shown that people are more productive and creative when working in blue rooms .
• Blue is one of the most popular colors, but it is also one of the least appetizing . Some weight loss plans even recommend eating your food off a blue plate. Why? Blue rarely occurs naturally in food. Also, humans are geared to avoid foods that are poisonous, and blue coloring in food is often a sign of spoilage or poison.

Blue can also affect a person's physiological functions. For instance, research has found that the color blue can reduce a person's heart rate, causing a "sleepy effect." It can also lower body temperature.

Blue Feelings

Look at the use of blue in the image that accompanies this article. How does blue make you feel? Do you associate blue with certain qualities or situations? Also, consider how blue is used in language: blue moon, blue Monday, blue blood, the blues, and blue ribbon.

Individual experiences have an important effect on the moods that colors can create. If you associate the color blue with a vivacious and lively friend, you might see it as a high-energy color that evokes a sense of excitement.

The Color Blue Meanings

The meaning we assign to the color blue can vary based on several factors, some of which include our culture, spirituality, symbolism, and more.

Cultural Meanings

The feelings evoked by certain colors are not necessarily universal. Cultural differences sometimes play a role in how people perceive color. According to research, here's what the color blue means in various areas of the world:

• India : Blue represents truth, mercy, and love
• Latin America : Blue is associated with mourning, but also trust and tranquility
• North America : Blue is soothing and signifies a trustworthy person or official business
• United Kingdom : Blue symbolizes tranquility, dignity, and decorum
• Western European countries : Blue is truth, serenity, reliability, responsibility, and fidelity

Spiritual Meanings

Blue is often considered a spiritual color as its hues make up the sky, which is representative of heaven. Blue is also the primary color of the oceans and seas, and many people feel connected to these bodies of water spiritually.

The throat chakra is represented by the color blue, with some studies connecting this chakra (or energy center) with "high spirituality" in people who regularly practice yoga .

Symbolic Meanings

Blue symbolizes trust, responsibility, dedication, and bravery. Several law enforcement agencies in America don blue uniforms as this color is seen as being more authoritative (especially when the hue is dark) and often evokes feelings of security .

In the workplace, the blue throat chakra is associated with higher levels of employee loyalty and goal orientation. It also symbolizes calmness, dependability, health, and healing.

Other Meanings

Some assign the color blue with other meanings based on the context in which it is used.

• Blue meaning in love : In love and relationships, the color blue represents fidelity and loyalty, hence the reason that, in America, it is traditional for a bride to wear "something blue" on her wedding day.
• Blue meaning in life : Blue often represents peace and tranquility in one's life. As we grow older, blue spaces can even provide therapeutic benefits.
• Blue meaning in personality : People with a "blue color personality" typically have certain traits, namely compassion , sympathy, sincerity, imagination, and enthusiasm.

Overview of Color Psychology

The idea that color affects us psychologically is not a new concept as it first emerged in 1810 when the German poet and scientist Johann Wolfgang von Goethe penned the Theory of Colours . Since then, color psychology has been expanded upon as researchers seek to explain the impact it has on how we think, feel, and behave.

Color's effects are so impactful that it has led to the development of color therapy . Also known as chromotherapy, color therapy helps treat mental health conditions by bringing balance to the body and mind through exposure to colored lights, visualizing certain colors, and massage with colored oils.

Keep in Mind

While exploring the psychology of color can be interesting, it is also important to remember that reactions to color can also be highly personal. Past experiences can play a role in shaping how people feel about and respond to different colors.

While some people find blue to be a sad or somber color, others may interpret it as peaceful or inspiring. Pay attention to how the color blue makes you feel and consider some of the different influences that may have influenced your feelings.

Press Play to Learn More About How Colors Affect the Mind and Body

Hosted by therapist Amy Morin, LCSW, this episode of The Verywell Mind Podcast shares how colors influence the mind and body. Click below to listen now.

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Elliot AJ. Color and psychological functioning: a review of theoretical and empirical work .  Front Psychol . 2015;6:368. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00368

Jordan W. Why is blue the world's favorite color? YouGov America.

AL-Ayash A, Kane RT, Smith D, Green-Armytage P. The influence of color on student emotion, heart rate, and performance in learning environments . Color Res Appl . 2015;41(2):196-205. doi:10.1002/col.21949

Savavibool N, Gatersleben B, Moorapun C. The effects of colour in work environment: A systematic review . Asian J Behav Stud . 2018;3(13):149-160. doi:10.21834/ajbes.v3i13.152

Schlintl C, Schienle A. Effects of coloring food images on the propensity to eat: A placebo approach with color suggestions . Front Psychol . 2020;11:589826. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.589826

Suzuki M, Kimura R, Kido Y, Inoue T, Moritani T, Nagai N. Color of hot soup modulates postprandial satiety, thermal sensation, and body temperature in young women . Appetite . 2017;114:209-216. doi:10.1016/j.appet. 2017.03.041

Alnasuan A. Color psychology . Am Res J Human Soc Sci . 2016;2016:1-6.

Priyal VV, Ramkumar N. Effect of Aura-Chakra, yoga and spirituality on an individual's performance in the workplace . Studies Ethno-Med . 2016;10(2):166-177. doi:10.1080/09735070.2016.11905485

Mendelson D. Uniform color theory . Security Management.

Xu L, Xu M. Comparison on wedding culture between China and Western countries . 2018 8th International Conference on Education, Management, Computer and Society.

Finlay J, Franke T, McKay H, Sims-Gould J. Therapeutic landscapes and wellbeing in later life: Impacts of blue and green spaces for older adults . Health & Place . 2015;34:97-106. doi:10.1016/j.healthplace.2015.05.001

MSU Extension. Real Colors personality temperament tool - Part 5: Blue . Michigan State University.

Elliot AJ. Color and psychological functioning: a review of theoretical and empirical work . Front Psychol . 2015;6:368. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00368

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By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Essays on Colors: What Is Your Favorite Color?

“What is your favorite color?” is not the only question you can answer in your essay on color. There are a lot of other color-related issues to consider in essays on colors.

Anyway, if you want to write your favorite color essay, include the following points:

• Reasons why you like this particular color;
• How does this color make you feel?
• Where can this color be found?
• What do you associate with this color? etc.

If you want to go some other way, we are glad to present several other options for writing essays on colors.

Investigating a certain color

Take any color as a basis for your essay on color. Let it be white, for instance. Investigate the following aspects and write about them in your essay on the color white:

• things that white symbolizes (brides, doctors, innocence, purity, etc);
• some peculiarities of white, like it may cause headache for some people;
• some ways to combine white with other colors;
• good and bad things associated with white, e.g. a white knight or a white flag.

Color theory essays

Color theory essays will be devoted to some basic rules of mixing colors. Make sure you highlight in your paper such essential concepts as primary and secondary colors.

Essays on “The Color Purple”

“The Color Purple” (mind, not “The Colour Purple”!) is a famous book by Alice Walker that can also be a perfect basis for your essay. So, read it, analyze the main characters and themes. Check more details in our article about an essay on The Color Purple.

Tips for writing Salvador Dali essays might be useful as well, and you can trace the colors Dali used in the creation of his paintings.

Quantum gate sets for lattice QCD in the strong-coupling limit: N f =1

• Fromm, Michael
• Philipsen, Owe
• Unger, Wolfgang
• Winterowd, Christopher

We derive the primitive quantum gate sets to simulate lattice quantum chromodynamics (LQCD) in the strong-coupling limit with one flavor of massless staggered quarks. This theory is of interest for studies at non-zero density as the sign problem can be overcome using Monte Carlo methods. In this work, we use it as a testing ground for quantum simulations. The key point is that no truncation of the bosonic Hilbert space is necessary as the theory is formulated in terms of color-singlet degrees of freedom ("baryons" and "mesons"). The baryons become static in the limit of continuous time and decouple, whereas the dynamics of the mesonic theory involves two qubits per lattice site. Lending dynamics also to the "baryons" simply requires to use the derived gate set in its controlled version.

• Hamiltonian lattice gauge theory;
• Quantum computing;
• High Energy Physics - Lattice;
• Quantum Physics