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The Guide to Becoming a Medical Researcher

February 1, 2023

As a medical researcher, your job is to conduct research to improve the health status and longevity of the population. The career revolves around understanding the causes, treatments, and prevention of diseases and medical conditions through rigorous clinical investigations, epidemiological studies, and laboratory experiments. As a medical researcher, simply gaining formal education won’t suffice. You also need to hone your communication, critical thinking, decision-making, data collecting, data analyzing and observational skills. These skill sets will enable you to create a competitive edge in the research industry. On a typical day, a medical researcher would be collecting, interpreting, and analyzing data from clinical trials, working alongside engineering, regulatory, and quality assurance experts to evaluate the risk of medical devices, or maybe even preparing and examining medical samples for causes or treatments of toxicity, disease, or pathogens.

How To Become a Medical Research Doctor?

The roadmap to medical research is a bit tricky to navigate, because it is a profession that demands distinctive skills and expertise along with mandatory formal education. If you harbor an interest in scientific exploration and a desire to break new ground in medical knowledge, the first step is to earn a bachelor’s degree in a related field, such as biology, chemistry, or biochemistry. After completing your undergraduate education, you will need to earn a Medical Degree ( MD ) or a Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine (DO) degree, from a quality institution such as the Windsor university school of Medicine.

After that, the newly minted doctor of medicine (MD) may choose to complete a three-year residency program in a specialty related to medical research, such as internal medicine, pediatrics, or neurology, in addition to a doctor of philosophy (PhD) degree—the part that provides the research expertise. In some medical school programs, students may pursue a dual MD-PhD at the same time, which provides training in both medicine and research. They are specifically designed for those who want to become research physicians. Last but not the least, all physician-scientists must pass the first two steps of the United States Medical Learning Examination (USMLE).

Use your fellowship years to hone the research skills necessary to carry out independent research. You may also take courses in epidemiology, biostatistics, and other related fields. In order to publish your research in peer-reviewed journals to establish yourself as a medical researcher. To apply for a faculty position at a medical school, research institute, or hospital. To maintain your position as a medical research doctor, you must publish your research and make significant contributions to the field.

How Much Do Medical Researchers Make?

Having a clear idea of what to earn when you become a medical researcher can help you decide if this is a good career choice for you. The salaries of Medical Researchers in the US range from $26,980 to $155,180, with a median salary of $82,240. There is also room for career advancement and higher earning potential as you gain experience.

The Most Popular Careers in Medical Research

Medical Scientists – conduct research and experiments to improve our understanding of diseases and to develop new treatments. They also develop new medical technologies and techniques.
Biomedical engineers – design medical devices, such as pacemakers, prosthetics, and imaging machines. They also develop and improve existing medical technologies.
Clinical Trial Coordinators – oversee and manage clinical trials, which test new drugs and treatments. They are responsible for recruiting participants, collecting and analyzing data, and ensuring the trial is conducted in compliance with ethical standards.
Medical Laboratory Technicians – analyze bodily fluids and tissues to diagnose diseases and conditions. They perform tests using specialized equipment and techniques, and report results to physicians.
Biostatisticians – collect statistics to analyze data and test hypotheses in medical research. They design and analyze clinical trials, and use statistical models to understand the causes and effects of diseases.
Epidemiologists – study the causes, distribution, and control of diseases in populations. They collect and analyze data, and use their findings to develop strategies for preventing and controlling diseases.
Pathologists – diagnose diseases by examining tissues and bodily fluids. They use microscopes and other diagnostic tools to identify and study the changes in tissues caused by disease.
Genetic Counselors – help individuals understand and manage the risks associated with inherited genetic disorders. They educate patients about genetic tests and help families make informed decisions about their health.
Health Services Researchers – study the delivery of healthcare and identify ways to improve it.
Medical writers – write articles, reports, and other materials related to medical research.
Microbiologists – study microorganisms, including bacteria and viruses, to understand their behavior and impact on human health.
Neuroscientists – study the brain and nervous system to understand the underlying causes of neurological conditions.
Toxicologists – study the effects of toxic substances on living organisms and the environment.

Skills You Need to Become a Medical Researcher?

To be a successful medical scientist, you need a range of soft and hard skills to excel in your work. First things first, medical researchers must be able to analyze data, identify patterns, and draw conclusions from their findings. They must be able to think critically, ask relevant questions, and design experiments to answer those questions. Additionally, you should also have the knack of articulating your findings clearly and effectively, be it writing research papers, grant proposals, or technical reports that are clear, concise, and free from errors.

Medical researchers must be proficient in using various computer programs and software to collect, manage, analyze and interpret research data. They must be able to use laboratory equipment and techniques, as well as statistical analysis software and other tools for data analysis. Since medical research involves precise and meticulous work, so you must also pay close attention to detail to ensure that your findings are accurate and reliable. Not to mention, medical researchers often work in teams, so it pays off if you are good at collaborating with others effectively, sharing ideas, and working together to solve complex problems.

Lastly, medical researchers must have a thorough understanding of regulations and ethical guidelines that govern research, such as obtaining informed consent from study participants, ensuring data confidentiality, and adhering to safety protocols.

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Applying to Biomedical Research Programs

New section.

Learn about the process of applying to medical research programs.

A diligent, well-organized approach to applying to graduate school can help you gain admission to a program that best matches your professional goals.

Starting a career in medical research

If you have the intellectual and emotional resilience, also if you wish to contribute to the body of knowledge in medical sciences then you are a right candidate for a career in Medical Research. Devising and conducting experiments, investigating the epidemiological basis of a disease, working in collaboration with a team, ability to question intricate complexities of genome and proteome and effective written and oral communication skills are the chief qualities of an inborn medical researcher. If the following description sounds like you, then you are probably well suited for a career as a medical researcher.

Qualifications to become a medial researcher

The roadmap to medical researcher is complex because it’s a profession that demands distinctive skills and expertise along with mandatory formal education. The simplest formal degree requirement is minimum Masters or a Ph.D. For an outstanding career as a medical researcher, a Ph.D. will help you to go the distance in an academic career. There is right now an extraordinarily extensive overabundance of post-doctoral partnerships battling for an exceptional set number of lasting scholarly positions. Having said that, accomplishing a PhD in a science subject will stand you in great stead for various research positions. You can pursue a career in medical research by obtaining a formal education in either biological sciences or medicine however; medicine can broaden your options. Furthermore, after earning a formal education in either biology or medicine, the next milestone towards the development of a career in medical research is participating in a research-based internship. In most graduate schools, participating in a research internship and undertaking a research project is the part of the exclusively designed curriculum. This opportunity will allow you to get a chance to be mentored by a physician or research scientist where you can work in collaboration with the team on the ongoing research project.

In order to escalate to the position of the medical researcher, it is integral to complete an advanced degree program in either science or medicine. According to the US Bureau Labor Statistics (BLS), postgraduates and graduates with dual undergraduate degrees become successful candidates for the job positions.

After completing your advanced education, as a medical researcher you can start your aspiring and a challenging career with entry-level positions of medical research associate. As an associate, you are required to assist a scientist in devising, planning and conducting research trials. You can add something extraordinary to your resume by earning credentials offered to research professionals by regulatory bodies. Credential based certifications are not only going to prepare you for some verifiable skills needed in the career but will also aid you in advancing your career path to medical research.

The job role

As a medical researcher, it is your utmost responsibility to conduct research to improve the health status and longevity of the population. The career revolves around clinical investigations to understand human diseases and rigorous lab work. As a medical researcher, formal education will not suffice. As a developing medical researcher, you need to have effective communication, critical thinking, decision-making, data collecting, data analysing and observational skills. These skill sets will enable you to create a competitive edge in the research industry.

Your interest in scientific exploration and a desire to provide a breakthrough in medical knowledge will help you to explore and solve some unknown mysteries associated with complex diseases.

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Medical Scientists

Career, salary and education information.

What They Do : Medical scientists conduct research aimed at improving overall human health.

Work Environment : Medical scientists work in offices and laboratories. Most work full time.

How to Become One : Medical scientists typically have a Ph.D., usually in biology or a related life science. Some medical scientists get a medical degree instead of, or in addition to, a Ph.D.

Salary : The median annual wage for medical scientists is $95,310.

Job Outlook : Employment of medical scientists is projected to grow 17 percent over the next ten years, much faster than the average for all occupations.

Related Careers : Compare the job duties, education, job growth, and pay of medical scientists with similar occupations.

Following is everything you need to know about a career as a medical scientist with lots of details. As a first step, take a look at some of the following jobs, which are real jobs with real employers. You will be able to see the very real job career requirements for employers who are actively hiring. The link will open in a new tab so that you can come back to this page to continue reading about the career:

Top 3 Medical Scientist Jobs

Graduate student, Masters, PhD, or equivalent proficiency in Medical Science or a related-field * Excellent English verbal and written communication skills * Attention to detail and ability to spot ...

Primary Function The Medical Science Liaison is a key contributor to the company's clinical and commercial development with responsibility for establishing, developing, and maintaining relationships ...

Senior Med Science Liaison Cardiovascular Los Angeles San Diego The Senior Medical Science Liaison (MSL) serves as a trusted scientific expert and partner representing Bayer in the medical community ...

See all Medical Scientist jobs

What Medical Scientists Do [ About this section ] [ To Top ]

Medical scientists conduct research aimed at improving overall human health. They often use clinical trials and other investigative methods to reach their findings.

Duties of Medical Scientists

Medical scientists typically do the following:

Design and conduct studies that investigate both human diseases and methods to prevent and treat them
Prepare and analyze medical samples and data to investigate causes and treatment of toxicity, pathogens, or chronic diseases
Standardize drug potency, doses, and methods to allow for the mass manufacturing and distribution of drugs and medicinal compounds
Create and test medical devices
Develop programs that improve health outcomes, in partnership with health departments, industry personnel, and physicians
Write research grant proposals and apply for funding from government agencies and private funding sources
Follow procedures to avoid contamination and maintain safety

Many medical scientists form hypotheses and develop experiments, with little supervision. They often lead teams of technicians and, sometimes, students, who perform support tasks. For example, a medical scientist working in a university laboratory may have undergraduate assistants take measurements and make observations for the scientist's research.

Medical scientists study the causes of diseases and other health problems. For example, a medical scientist who does cancer research might put together a combination of drugs that could slow the cancer's progress. A clinical trial may be done to test the drugs. A medical scientist may work with licensed physicians to test the new combination on patients who are willing to participate in the study.

In a clinical trial, patients agree to help determine if a particular drug, a combination of drugs, or some other medical intervention works. Without knowing which group they are in, patients in a drug-related clinical trial receive either the trial drug or a placebo—a pill or injection that looks like the trial drug but does not actually contain the drug.

Medical scientists analyze the data from all of the patients in the clinical trial, to see how the trial drug performed. They compare the results with those obtained from the control group that took the placebo, and they analyze the attributes of the participants. After they complete their analysis, medical scientists may write about and publish their findings.

Medical scientists do research both to develop new treatments and to try to prevent health problems. For example, they may study the link between smoking and lung cancer or between diet and diabetes.

Medical scientists who work in private industry usually have to research the topics that benefit their company the most, rather than investigate their own interests. Although they may not have the pressure of writing grant proposals to get money for their research, they may have to explain their research plans to nonscientist managers or executives.

Medical scientists usually specialize in an area of research within the broad area of understanding and improving human health. Medical scientists may engage in basic and translational research that seeks to improve the understanding of, or strategies for, improving health. They may also choose to engage in clinical research that studies specific experimental treatments.

Work Environment for Medical Scientists [ About this section ] [ To Top ]

Medical scientists hold about 119,200 jobs. The largest employers of medical scientists are as follows:

Medical scientists usually work in offices and laboratories. They spend most of their time studying data and reports. Medical scientists sometimes work with dangerous biological samples and chemicals, but they take precautions that ensure a safe environment.

Medical Scientist Work Schedules

Most medical scientists work full time.

How to Become a Medical Scientist [ About this section ] [ To Top ]

Get the education you need: Find schools for Medical Scientists near you!

Medical scientists typically have a Ph.D., usually in biology or a related life science. Some medical scientists get a medical degree instead of, or in addition to, a Ph.D.

Education for Medical Scientists

Students planning careers as medical scientists generally pursue a bachelor's degree in biology, chemistry, or a related field. Undergraduate students benefit from taking a broad range of classes, including life sciences, physical sciences, and math. Students also typically take courses that develop communication and writing skills, because they must learn to write grants effectively and publish their research findings.

After students have completed their undergraduate studies, they typically enter Ph.D. programs. Dual-degree programs are available that pair a Ph.D. with a range of specialized medical degrees. A few degree programs that are commonly paired with Ph.D. studies are Medical Doctor (M.D.), Doctor of Dental Surgery (D.D.S.), Doctor of Dental Medicine (D.M.D.), Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine (D.O.), and advanced nursing degrees. Whereas Ph.D. studies focus on research methods, such as project design and data interpretation, students in dual-degree programs learn both the clinical skills needed to be a physician and the research skills needed to be a scientist.

Graduate programs emphasize both laboratory work and original research. These programs offer prospective medical scientists the opportunity to develop their experiments and, sometimes, to supervise undergraduates. Ph.D. programs culminate in a dissertation that the candidate presents before a committee of professors. Students may specialize in a particular field, such as gerontology, neurology, or cancer.

Those who go to medical school spend most of the first 2 years in labs and classrooms, taking courses such as anatomy, biochemistry, physiology, pharmacology, psychology, microbiology, pathology, medical ethics, and medical law. They also learn how to record medical histories, examine patients, and diagnose illnesses. They may be required to participate in residency programs, meeting the same requirements that physicians and surgeons have to fulfill.

Medical scientists often continue their education with postdoctoral work. This provides additional and more independent lab experience, including experience in specific processes and techniques, such as gene splicing. Often, that experience is transferable to other research projects.

Licenses, Certifications, and Registrations for Medical Scientists

Medical scientists primarily conduct research and typically do not need licenses or certifications. However, those who administer drugs or gene therapy or who otherwise practice medicine on patients in clinical trials or a private practice need a license to practice as a physician.

Medical Scientist Training

Medical scientists often begin their careers in temporary postdoctoral research positions or in medical residency. During their postdoctoral appointments, they work with experienced scientists as they continue to learn about their specialties or develop a broader understanding of related areas of research. Graduates of M.D. or D.O. programs may enter a residency program in their specialty of interest. A residency usually takes place in a hospital and varies in duration, generally lasting from 3 to 7 years, depending on the specialty. Some fellowships exist that train medical practitioners in research skills. These may take place before or after residency.

Postdoctoral positions frequently offer the opportunity to publish research findings. A solid record of published research is essential to getting a permanent college or university faculty position.

Work Experience in a Related Occupation for Medical Scientists

Although it is not a requirement for entry, many medical scientists become interested in research after working as a physician or surgeon , or in another medical profession, such as dentist .

Important Qualities for Medical Scientists

Communication skills. Communication is critical, because medical scientists must be able to explain their conclusions. In addition, medical scientists write grant proposals, because grants often are required to fund their research.

Critical-thinking skills. Medical scientists must use their expertise to determine the best method for solving a specific research question.

Data-analysis skills. Medical scientists use statistical techniques, so that they can properly quantify and analyze health research questions.

Decisionmaking skills. Medical scientists must determine what research questions to ask, how best to investigate the questions, and what data will best answer the questions.

Observation skills. Medical scientists conduct experiments that require precise observation of samples and other health-related data. Any mistake could lead to inconclusive or misleading results.

Medical Scientist Salaries [ About this section ] [ More salary/earnings info ] [ To Top ]

The median annual wage for medical scientists is $95,310. The median wage is the wage at which half the workers in an occupation earned more than that amount and half earned less. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $50,100, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $166,980.

The median annual wages for medical scientists in the top industries in which they work are as follows:

Job Outlook for Medical Scientists [ About this section ] [ To Top ]

Employment of medical scientists is projected to grow 17 percent over the next ten years, much faster than the average for all occupations.

About 10,000 openings for medical scientists are projected each year, on average, over the decade. Many of those openings are expected to result from the need to replace workers who transfer to different occupations or exit the labor force, such as to retire.

Employment of Medical Scientists

Demand for medical scientists will stem from greater demand for a variety of healthcare services as the population continues to age and rates of chronic disease continue to increase. These scientists will be needed for research into treating diseases, such as Alzheimer’s disease and cancer, and problems related to treatment, such as resistance to antibiotics. In addition, medical scientists will continue to be needed for medical research as a growing population travels globally and facilitates the spread of diseases.

The availability of federal funds for medical research grants also may affect opportunities for these scientists.

Careers Related to Medical Scientists [ About this section ] [ To Top ]

Agricultural and food scientists.

Agricultural and food scientists research ways to improve the efficiency and safety of agricultural establishments and products.

Biochemists and Biophysicists

Biochemists and biophysicists study the chemical and physical principles of living things and of biological processes, such as cell development, growth, heredity, and disease.

Epidemiologists

Epidemiologists are public health professionals who investigate patterns and causes of disease and injury in humans. They seek to reduce the risk and occurrence of negative health outcomes through research, community education, and health policy.

Health Educators and Community Health Workers

Health educators teach people about behaviors that promote wellness. They develop and implement strategies to improve the health of individuals and communities. Community health workers collect data and discuss health concerns with members of specific populations or communities.

Medical and Clinical Laboratory Technologists and Technicians

Medical laboratory technologists (commonly known as medical laboratory scientists) and medical laboratory technicians collect samples and perform tests to analyze body fluids, tissue, and other substances.

Microbiologists

Microbiologists study microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses, algae, fungi, and some types of parasites. They try to understand how these organisms live, grow, and interact with their environments.

Physicians and Surgeons

Physicians and surgeons diagnose and treat injuries or illnesses. Physicians examine patients; take medical histories; prescribe medications; and order, perform, and interpret diagnostic tests. They counsel patients on diet, hygiene, and preventive healthcare. Surgeons operate on patients to treat injuries, such as broken bones; diseases, such as cancerous tumors; and deformities, such as cleft palates.

Postsecondary Teachers

Postsecondary teachers instruct students in a wide variety of academic and technical subjects beyond the high school level. They may also conduct research and publish scholarly papers and books.

Veterinarians

Veterinarians care for the health of animals and work to improve public health. They diagnose, treat, and research medical conditions and diseases of pets, livestock, and other animals.

More Medical Scientist Information [ About this section ] [ To Top ]

For more information about research specialties and opportunities within specialized fields for medical scientists, visit

American Association for Cancer Research

American Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology

The American Society for Clinical Laboratory Science

American Society for Clinical Pathology

American Society for Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics

The American Society for Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics

The Gerontological Society of America

Infectious Diseases Society of America

National Institute of General Medical Sciences

Society for Neuroscience

Society of Toxicology

A portion of the information on this page is used by permission of the U.S. Department of Labor.

Explore more careers: View all Careers or the Top 30 Career Profiles

Search for jobs:.

MTS Biomedical Science How Do I Become a Biomedical Scientist – Education & Experience
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Biomedical scientists use scientific research to improve human health. They design studies to test and develop new treatment plans, analyze medical data to investigate pathogens and chronic diseases, and develop social programs that can improve outcomes in population health. Biomedical science is the science of medicine and to practice it, biomedical scientists need to be highly educated and supremely dedicated.

While the old school way of thinking used to prescribe biomedical scientists a linear pathway through school to positions in academic research, that’s not necessarily still the case. Between 2005 and 2009, some 100,000 doctoral degrees were awarded but only 16,000 new professor positions were created, according to a study published by the National Institutes of Health. But that apparent oversupply isn’t as grim as it looks: data from the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS 2023) projected a 10 percent increase in jobs for medical scientists nationally from 2022 to 2032.

Working in several sectors ranging from research to academia, biomedical scientists can choose to pursue work in faster-paced fields of industry or university-based laboratories. But everything comes with tradeoffs. Being under the direction of a specific corporate agenda, biomedical scientists who work as industry researchers generally have less intellectual freedom than their academic counterparts but are often paid higher salaries. On the other hand, biomedical scientists who work in academia may have intellectual freedom but can be constrained by grant funding, publication quotas, and teaching requirements.

Some biomedical scientists put themselves in a different category altogether by pursuing a medical degree alongside their research education, opening up the possibility of private practice and physician-related duties. It’s also becoming more common for biomedical scientists to seek employment in nontraditional roles: someone educated as a biomedical scientist may now apply their knowledge in fields like consulting, public policy, and patent law.

On the whole, occupations in biomedical science are growing and there are multiple pathways to pursue this career. The type of education will influence which biomedical science sector a professional will end up in. Read this step-by-step guide to becoming a biomedical scientist to plan for all possible options.

Step-By-Step Guide to Becoming a Biomedical Scientist

Step 1a: earn a bachelor’s degree (four years).

After graduating from high school, an aspiring biomedical scientist needs to earn a bachelor’s degree. At this stage, practically any major related to the life sciences is suitable: biology, chemistry, or biomedical engineering are all possibilities. Admissions requirements for undergraduate programs vary from school to school but generally include some combination of the following: a competitive high school GPA (3.0 or greater); SAT and/or ACT scores; letters of recommendation, and a personal statement.

Arizona State University

Arizona State University offers a BS in biological sciences with a concentration in biomedical sciences. The curriculum is designed for students who wish to pursue either medical school or biomedical research careers in academic, clinical, and industry settings. The program can be completed either online or on-campus.

Core classes cover conceptual approaches to biology; statistics for biosciences; advanced principles of biochemistry; developmental biology; genetics; and organic chemistry. Students may also apply for an accelerated program, which allows them to complete both a BS and MS in five years instead of six. The standard four-year BS program consists of 120 credit-hours.

Upon successfully completing the program, graduates can take up roles such as biological scientists, clinical trial managers, laboratory technologists, molecular biologists, pharmacists, and physician assistants.

Location: Tempe, AZ
Accreditation: Higher Learning Commission of the North Central Association of Colleges and Schools
Expected Time to Completion: 48 months
Estimated Tuition: $994 per credit

University of Iowa

The University of Iowa has a selective and challenging BS in biomedical sciences. As a collaboration between the biochemistry, biology, Immunology, chemistry, and microbiology departments, the program is designed to prepare students for the Medical College Admissions Test (MCAT) and biomedical research at the graduate level and beyond.

This program requires a minimum of 120 credit-hours, including at least 77 to 83 credits of work for the biomedical science major. The curriculum covers biology; biochemistry; microbiology; physics; human physiology; psychology; and statistics. Students are also encouraged to participate in the Iowa Center for Research by Undergraduates (ICRU) and to apply for research scholarships.

Location: Iowa City, Iowa
Accreditation: The Higher Learning Commission
Estimated Tuition: Iowa residents ($10,964); non-residents ($32,927)

Step 1b: Gain Early Work and Research Experience (Optional, Timeline Varies)

While earning a bachelor’s degree, many aspiring biomedical scientists gain some early work and research experience. While it’s not always a degree requirement, internships and laboratory assistantships can dramatically boost one’s applied skills and one’s academic applications.

Working in a research capacity under the supervision of dedicated biomedical scientists can be a rich education in and of itself and it can also help direct one’s education towards a specific niche of biomedical science.

Step 2: Earn a Master’s Degree (Optional, One to Three Years)

After earning their bachelor’s degree, some aspiring biomedical scientists opt to earn a master’s degree. While it’s not a requirement to practice biomedical science, a master’s degree can allow graduates to sharpen their expertise and enhance their applications for PhD or dual-degree programs. Furthermore, it’s possible at this stage to pair one’s master’s degree with a master’s in another field (e.g., public health, business administration) to widen one’s career options down the road.

Admissions requirements for biomedical science master’s programs vary from school to school but generally include some combination of the following: a competitive undergraduate GPA (3.0 or greater); MCAT and/or GRE scores; letters of recommendation; work and/or research experience; and a personal statement.

Tufts University

Tufts University offers a master’s of science in biomedical science (MBS) for pre-professional students who are looking to strengthen their academic credentials before applying to MD and PhD programs. The curriculum closely follows that of a first-year medical school student, with key courses in the following areas: anatomy, biochemistry, cell biology, medical genetics, microbiology, pathology, and pharmacology.

Tufts also allows students to get a dual degree, pairing the MBS with a master of business administration (MBA) or master of public health (MPH), which can significantly boost one’s competitiveness in tangential roles and sectors post-graduation. The baseline MBS program consists of 30 to 33 credits.

Location: Boston, MA
Accreditation: New England Association of Schools and Colleges (NEASC)
Expected Time to Completion: 12 months
Estimated Tuition: $58,560 per year

Miller School of Medicine at the University of Miami

The Miller School of Medicine at the University of Miami offers an intensive master of science in biomedical science (MiBS) degree that is designed to be completed in under a year.

The core curriculum covers coursework in areas such as biochemistry for the biosciences; laboratory research or physician shadowing; molecular biology for the biosciences; gross anatomy & histology; advanced molecular and cell biology; cell physiology; and basic pathobiology. Students may also choose to specialize in one of three customized tracks: medicine, research, or drug discovery. Students have access to hands-on faculty advising and mentoring when submitting applications to research placements and further schooling.

To get accepted into the program, applicants must have a bachelor’s degree from an accredited institution with sufficient undergraduate coursework, transcripts from all previously attended colleges and universities, GRE general exam scores (optional), a statement of purpose, three letters of recommendation, and TOEFL or IELTS scores for international students whose native language is not English.

Location: Miami, FL
Accreditation: Southern Association of Colleges and Schools Commission on Colleges (SACSCOC)
Expected Time to Completion: 10 months
Estimated Tuition: $50,000 per year

Step 3a: Earn a PhD (Four to Seven Years)

After completing their early education, aspiring biomedical scientists can earn a doctoral degree in biomedical science. While some may opt for a dual degree program (see step 3B below), a PhD can prepare graduates for work in academia, research, and industry.

Admissions requirements vary from school to school but generally include some combination of the following: an exemplary academic record (3.3 GPA or greater); GRE scores; letters of recommendation; work and/or research experience; a personal statement; and in-person interviews.

Boston University

The Program in Biomedical Science (PiBS) at Boston University offers students a PhD that can be tailored to their specific research interests. Ten different departments participate in the program: biochemistry; biophysics; genetics and genomics; immunology training; microbiology; molecular and translational medicine; nutrition and metabolism; oral biology; pathology and laboratory medicine; and physiology.

In the first year, students work with a faculty advisor to develop a personalized study plan. In addition to core courses and electives, students attend research seminars and experience three lab rotations. Participation in clinical shadowing and directed research prepares graduates for a career as biomedical scientists. Furthermore, the program provides a host of opportunities for professional development, which can aid one’s introduction into a career pipeline.

As part of the program, students will delve into topics such as protein structure, catalysis, and interaction; architecture and dynamics of the cell; mechanisms of cell communication; techniques in biochemistry, cell, and molecular biology; macromolecular assemblies; comprehensive immunology; and immunological basis of disease.

Accreditation: Liaison Committee on Medical Education of the Association of American Medical Colleges and the Council on Medical Education of the American Medical Association; New England Commission of Higher Education (NECHE)
Estimated Tuition: $1,994 per credit-hour

Step 3b: Consider a Dual MD-PhD Degree (Optional, Six to Eight Years)

Some biomedical scientists opt to pair their PhD with a medical doctor (MD) degree. While PhD programs focus primarily on research methods (e.g., project design, data interpretation), dual-degree programs complement that research education with the clinical skills necessary to be a practicing physician. The two skill sets complement each other well in biomedical science.

Requirements for dual-degree programs vary from school to school but often include some combination of the following: an exemplary undergraduate GPA (3.3 or greater), MCAT scores, letters of recommendation, work and/or research experience, a personal statement, and an in-person interview.

Burnett School of Biomedical Sciences at the University of Central Florida

The Burnett School of Biomedical Sciences at the University of Central Florida offers a rigorous, integrated MD-PhD program that allows students to complete the requirements of both degrees simultaneously. Students will take medical courses during their first two years and must pass the first of three United States Medical Licensing Exam (USMLE) exams at the end of year two before beginning full-time graduate studies.

During those first two years, students also must begin working on their PhD research project. While clinical clerkships (typically years three and four of medical school) may be deferred until a student has completed their PhD requirements, some level of ongoing clinical training must continue through the duration of the entire program.

In addition to the MD curriculum, the PhD adds a minimum of 72 credits of study, including core courses, electives, laboratory rotations, and dissertation research. Students with a master’s degree may waive up to 30 credits of this requirement with committee approval.

Location: Orlando, FL
Expected Time to Completion: 72 months
Estimated Tuition: In-state (369.65 per credit); out-of-state (1,194.05 per credit)

Step 4: Consider Postdoctoral Research Experience (Optional, Timeline Varies)

After completing their PhD, many biomedical scientists go into postdoctoral research. Gaining independent experience in running studies and publishing new research areas can be critical in winning tenure-track positions at universities and catapult one into desirable positions in the industrial sphere. In biomedical science, one research question often leads to another, and gaining postdoctoral research can boost one’s credentials.

Biomedical Scientist Certification & Licensure

According to the BLS (2023), medical scientists who primarily conduct research don’t need specific certification or license. However, biomedical scientists who practice medicine, administer drugs or gene therapy, or work in patient clinical trials or physicians’ clinics need a medical license to practice.

While medical licensure requirements vary by state, according to the American Medical Association , all states require physicians to pass the three-step United States Medical Licensing Exam (USMLE). Here are four certification options for biomedical scientists.

The United States Medical Licensing Exam (USMLE) is a three-part examination required for medical licensure in all 50 states. Also known colloquially as “the boards,” all practicing physicians must pass these exams, measuring scientific knowledge, clinical knowledge, and diagnosis and treatment.

Here are some other biomedical science certifications to consider.

North American Board of Naturopathic Examiners (NABNE)

Physicians who choose the naturopathic physician route and prove eligibility can take the Naturopathic Physicians Licensing Examinations (NPLEX) Part I – the Biomedical Science Examination. Students who choose this option must meet biomedical science coursework from an approved naturopathic medical program (ANMP) including anatomy, physiology, biochemistry, genetics, immunology, microbiology, pathology, and required laboratories.

American Medical Technologists (AMT) Certifications

American Medical Technologists (AMT) certifies medical laboratory technicians (MLTs) and offers four distinctive professional pathways for licensure. Aspiring biomedical scientists can earn certification through one of four routes, including an associate’s degree in medical laboratory technology; an alternative education route with two years of clinical laboratory science courses; the completion of a 50-week US military medical laboratory training program; or proof of a similar educational pathway.

Eligibility is confirmed via an online application at which point test-takers can register for the medical laboratory technician (MLT), medical technologist (MT), or another related allied health laboratory exam.

Institute of Biomedical Science (IBMS) Certifications

The Institute of Biomedical Science (IBMS) is an international organization dedicated to advancing knowledge and setting standards in biomedical science. IBMS offers a wealth of certifications for biomedical scientists:

IBMS Certificate of Competence: This professional qualification demonstrates an individual meets the Health & Care Professions Council (HCPC) standards to register as a biomedical scientist.
Specialist Diploma: Through submitting a portfolio of work as evidence of training, practical skills, specialist knowledge, and competency, early-career biomedical scientists can verify their experience with blood sciences or other biomedical disciplines.
Higher and expert qualifications: For biomedical scientists who want to advance their careers in management or demonstrate high levels of knowledge and competence, certificates and diplomas of expert practice are available in specialist areas. An online certificate of expert practice is available.
Advanced qualifications: Designed for senior-level biomedical scientists with PhDs, this certification verifies one’s commensurate experience as a medical consultant in areas of specialization such as cervical cytology, histopathology reporting, ophthalmic pathology, and specimen dissection.

Helpful Resources for Biomedical Scientists

All forms of science rely on iteration, innovation, and collaboration. To listen in on some of the high-level conversations in peer-reviewed biomedical science today, check out some resources below.

National Association for Biomedical Research (NABR)
National Institutes of Health (NIH)
Institute of Biomedical Science (IBMS)
Journal of Biomedical Science
Biomedical Research

Rachel Drummond has contributed insightful articles to MedicalTechnologySchools.com since 2019, where she offers valuable advice and guidance for those pursuing careers in the healthcare field, combining her passion for education with her understanding of the critical role that healthcare professionals play in promoting physical and mental well-being.

Rachel is a writer, educator, and coach from Oregon. She has a master’s degree in education (MEd) and has over 15 years of experience teaching English, public speaking, and mindfulness to international audiences in the United States, Japan, and Spain. She writes about the mind-body benefits of contemplative movement practices like yoga on her blog , inviting people to prioritize their unique version of well-being and empowering everyone to live healthier and more balanced lives.

Online Master's Degree Programs in Biomedical Sciences (MS)
Genetics Career Guide
Biomedical Science Certifications - AMT (MDT), ASBMB
Biomedical vs Healthcare Informatics
What Can I Do With a Master’s Degree in Biomedical Science?

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How to Become a Medical Researcher

Home / Medical / How to Become a Medical Researcher

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The medical industry heavily relies on the specialized work provided by Medical Researchers.

These professionals are at the forefront of medical advancements to develop treatments, medicines and possible cures for a variety of medical diseases and disorders.

Some common medical maladies and diseases Medical Researchers may study and investigate include: cancer, diabetes, Alzheimer’s and the medicines and treatments being developed for these disorders.

Individuals who want to become a Medical Researcher will need an extensive medical background, postsecondary degree and skills in data analysis in order to succeed in this profession.

Table of Contents

Education Requirements to Become a Medical Researcher

Medical researcher job description, national average salary, average salary by state.

These are the top 5 earning states in the field:

What does a medical researcher do?

How much does a medical researcher make, how much does it cost to become a medical researcher, what is the demand for medical researchers, how long does it take to become a medical researcher.

Individuals who want to become a Medical Researcher will need a strong background in medicine and complete required postsecondary degrees in order to enter this profession.

Medical Researchers will also have to attend medical school to attain a PhD in Biomedical Sciences or a Medical Degree (MD).

A medical license is a requirement for individuals who want to do medical research and treat patients.

As undergraduates, individuals who want to become a Medical Researcher will need pursue a degree in a science related field.

Some typical degrees individuals can seek include biology, chemistry and microbiology.

It is also highly recommended that undergraduates take classes in writing and English in order to develop skills useful in research and grant writing.

Other helpful courses include: mathematics, physical science and life sciences.

As graduate students, individuals who want to become a Medical Researcher have the option to pursue a PhD program or a dual program that combines a PhD and a medical degree.

Medical degree/PhD programs provide training in both research and medicine.

Under these dual programs, individuals can combine a PhD with the following degrees: Medical Doctor (M.D.), Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine (D.O.) or Doctor of Dental Medicine (DMD).

Traditional PhD programs are approximately 4 years in length and focus more on laboratory work and an individual’s own research.

During this phase, students will have the opportunity to focus on a specialization such as: cancers, neurology or gerontology.

Individuals will also be given the opportunity to supervise undergraduate students.

Students will also work in depth on their original research and prepare for a thesis reporting on their findings.

A thesis is a written hypothesis focusing on a student’s research that needs to be presented to a committee of professors.

Medical Researchers are highly educated professionals who work in the medical field providing research that help improve human health.

These professionals will spend their time researching medical problems, writing grants to keep their projects funded and write reports on their findings.

Some laboratory work includes developing and managing studies that help understand a variety of human ailments.

They will also investigate preventative care and treatment for the diseases they research.

They will work with medical samples and information to determine the causes and treatments.

Medical Researchers also work in conjunction with a variety of professionals such as industry experts, doctors and health departments to create programs that improve a population’s health.

Medical Researcher Salary and Career Path

In 2012, the median salary for Medical Researchers and Scientists was approximately $76,980 per year.

Exact wages will depend on a variety of factors including industry, level of experience and company size.

For example, Medical Researchers who work for state colleges, universities or professional schools earn an annual median salary of approximately $53,740 while individuals who work for pharmaceutical and medicine production companies earn a median income of approximately $92,940 per year.

The job outlook for Medical Researchers is expected to grow by 13 percent through the year 2022.

This job growth is expected to grow as fast as average when compared to other professions and is attributed to the increased demand for research into illnesses such as cancer, AIDS and Alzheimer’s.

In addition, Medical Researchers are also needed to study treatments and medicines such as resistance to antibiotics.

Clearly, this profession is one that many people depend on to help solve medical problems.

A career in Medical Research may be a great path for individuals who would like to work in medicine, but not directly treat patients.

This career gives individuals the opportunity to help make advancements in medicine, work in a challenging environment and work in one of the fastest growing industries.

The top earning state in the field is Massachusetts, where the average salary is $118,880.

The top earning state in the field is Massachusetts, where the average salary is $9,833.

The top earning state in the field is Massachusetts, where the average salary is $57.15.

Frequently Asked Questions

Medical researchers study diseases and try to find new treatments and ways of preventing illness in order to help improve human health.

They usually work in offices and laboratories and spend most of their time studying data and writing reports.

Medical researchers sometimes work with dangerous samples and chemicals and this is why they have to follow strict safety and sanitation procedures.

The exact job requirements vary depending on the field of employment.

Some medical researchers design and conduct studies to investigate a particular disease while others create and test medical devices.

As a medical researcher, you may also have to apply for funding for a particular research project.

To become a medical researcher you need not only a strong scientific background but also several important skills, such as dexterity, attention to detail, research, writing and communication skills.

According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, the median annual wage for medical scientists, in general, was $84,810 as of May 2018.

However, salaries in this field vary widely depending on the field of employment.

For example, those who work from the pharmaceutical and manufacturing field earned a median wage of $115,450 a year, while those who work in hospitals earned a median wage of $87,060 a year as of May 2018.

In order to become a medical researcher, you will usually need a bachelor’s degree in biology, chemistry, biotechnology or a related field and a Ph.D. in the field in which you want to specialize.

A four-year bachelor’s degree program can cost you anywhere between $5,000 and more than $30,000 a year.

Ph.D. programs usually focus on teaching students how to interpret data and how to design a research project, skills that are very important for medical scientists.

Some schools also offer dual programs that teach both the clinical skills needed to become a physician and the research skills needed if you decide to work in a lab.

Research-based Ph.D. programs cost, on average, around $35,000-$40,000 a year but tuition costs vary widely depending on the school you choose.

According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, employment of medical scientists is expected to grow 8 percent from 2018 to 2028, faster than the average for all occupations.

This growth is explained in part by the fact that more people are diagnosed with chronic conditions and rely on medical treatment to help control their illnesses.

Job prospects should be especially good for researchers who specialize in studying diseases such as Alzheimer’s disease, AIDS or cancer.

Medical researchers usually hold a bachelor’s degree in science and a Ph.D. in the field in their specialty.

While a bachelor’s degree can be earned after 4 years of post-secondary study, Ph.D. programs typically take 5-6 years.

This means that medical researchers may need up to 10 years of training beyond high school.

Related Careers

Clinical researchers plan and monitor trials to test how effective and safe new medical inventions are.

A cancer researcher conducts studies designed to answer specific questions about cancer.

Medical Assistant is responsible for a variety of patient care, technical, and clerical related functions.

Medical technicians, work closely with nurses to provide quality care for patients.

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I’m just from graduating from college and I’m looking for an university which offers medical research courses with full scholarship.

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Medical Research Scientist

What does a professional in this career do.

A Medical Research Scientist conducts research with the goal of understanding diseases and improving human health. May study biology and causes of health problems, assess effectiveness of treatments or develop new pharmaceutical products. May direct clinical trials to gather data..

Job Outlook

There were 186 Medical Research Scientist job postings in North Carolina in the past year and 8560 in the United States.

In combination with other careers in the Medical Scientist industry, which includes the Medical Research Scientist career, the following graph shows the number of people employed for each year since 2015:

Many new Medical Research Scientist jobs have salaries estimated to be in the following ranges, based on the requirements and responsibilities listed in job postings from the past year.

The average estimated salary in the United States for this career, based on job postings in the past year, is $141,677.

The average estimated salary in North Carolina for this career, based on job postings in the past year, is $142,784.

Percentiles represent the percentage that is lower than the value. For example, 25% of estimated salaries for Medical Research Scientist postings in the United States in the past year were lower than $63,416.

Education and Experience

Posted Medical Research Scientist jobs typically require the following level of education. The numbers below are based on job postings in the United States from the past year. Not all job postings list education requirements.

Posted Medical Research Scientist jobs typically require the following number of years of experience. The numbers below are based on job postings in the United States from the past year. Not all job postings list experience requirements.

Below are listings of the most common general and specialized skills Medical Research Scientist positions expect applicants to have as well as the most common skills that distinguish individuals from their peers. The percentage of job postings that specifically mention each skill is also listed.

Baseline Skills

A skill that is required across a broad range of occupations, including this one.

Research (27.07%)
Communication (14.66%)
Teaching (9.94%)
Management (9.11%)
Leadership (8.47%)
Writing (6.65%)
Presentations (5.92%)
Operations (5.62%)
Innovation (5.57%)
Planning (5.27%)

Defining Skills

A core skill for this occupation, it occurs frequently in job postings.

Diabetes Mellitus (21.45%)
Clinical Research (8.5%)
Endocrinology (79.67%)

Necessary Skills

A skill that is requested frequently in this occupation but isn’t specific to it.

Quality Improvement (2.46%)
Cell Cultures (4.85%)
Biochemical Assays (6.41%)
Cell Biology (5.26%)
Biochemistry (3.4%)
Data Analysis (4.65%)
Metabolism (6.42%)
Flow Cytometry (4.42%)
Biology (8.47%)
Immunology (5.74%)
Clinical Trials (6.38%)
Molecular Biology (5.69%)
Biotechnology (2.54%)
Pediatrics (10.13%)
Internal Medicine (6.76%)
R (Programming Language) (1.21%)
Pharmaceuticals (3.88%)
Oncology (10.44%)
Surgery (4.44%)
Nursing (5.77%)

Distinguishing Skills

A skill that may distinguish a subset of the occupation.

Endocrine Diseases And Disorders (2.86%)
Thyroid (6.13%)

Salary Boosting Skills

A professional who wishes to excel in this career path may consider developing the following highly valued skills. The percentage of job postings that specifically mention each skill is listed.

Endocrine Diseases And Disorders (35.54%)
Thyroid (76.05%)

Alternative Job Titles

Sometimes employers post jobs with Medical Research Scientist skills but a different job title. Some common alternative job titles include:

Endocrinology Physician
Endocrinologist
Endocrinology Registered Nurse
Pediatric Endocrinologist
Oncology Research Scientist
Endocrinology Medical Assistant
Reproductive Endocrinologist
Endocrinology Diabetes Care Specialist
Associate Scientist

Similar Occupations

If you are interested in exploring occupations with similar skills, you may want to research the following job titles. Note that we only list occupations that have at least one corresponding NC State Online and Distance Education program.

Biomedical Scientist

Common Employers

Here are the employers that have posted the most Medical Research Scientist jobs in the past year along with how many they have posted.

United States

Archway Physician Recruitment (257)
Britt Medical Search (203)
Enterprise Medical Recruiting (158)
CompHealth (154)
Cedars-Sinai (119)
AMN Healthcare (118)
AstraZeneca (101)
The Curare Group (98)
Summit Recruiting Services, LLC. (93)
Pacific Companies (82)

North Carolina

Atrium Health (17)
Atrium Health Floyd (14)
AMN Healthcare (13)
Archway Physician Recruitment (13)
Wake Forest Baptist Health (8)
University of North Carolina (7)
HCA Healthcare (7)
UNC Health (7)
Novant Health (6)
Duke University (6)

NC State Programs Relevant to this Career

If you are interested in preparing for a career in this field, the following NC State Online and Distance Education programs offer a great place to start!

All wages, job posting statistics, employment trend projections, and information about skill desirability on this page represents historical data and does not guarantee future conditions. Data is provided by and downloaded regularly from Lightcast. For more information about how Lightcast gathers data and what it represents, see Lightcast Data: Basic Overview on Lightcast's Knowledge Base website.

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Research scientist (medical)

Working as a medical research scientist means you'll be contributing to important developments in the world of medicine

As a medical research scientist, one of your aims will be to increase the body of scientific knowledge on topics related to medicine. You will do this by planning and conducting experiments and sharing your results.

You may also use your research to develop new, or improve existing, drugs, treatments or other medically-related products.

You can find work in higher education institutions, research institutes, hospitals, industry and medical research charities. The type of research you can carry out is wide ranging from from investigating the underlying basis of health or disease, to conducting clinical research and investigating methods of prevention, diagnosis and treatment of human disorders.

It's also possible for you to carry out molecular level research. This may involve using appropriate cell and animal models, or human volunteers may be used to study the clinical effects of various factors.

Responsibilities

Roles vary depending on the setting, but much of the work is laboratory-based. In general you'll need to:

plan and conduct experiments and analyse or interpret the results
keep accurate records of work undertaken
use specialist computer software to analyse data and to produce diagrammatic representation of results
write and submit applications and progress reports to funding bodies that support medical research (outside industry)
discuss research progress with other departments, e.g. production and marketing (in industry)
constantly consider the profit/loss potential of research products (in industry)
collaborate with industry, research institutes, hospitals and academia
teach and supervise students (in some higher education roles).

You'll often need to disseminate the results of your work to others, which means you'll:

carry out presentations or discussions at team meetings with colleagues
prepare presentations and deliver these at national and international scientific conferences
write original papers for publication in peer-reviewed medical or scientific journals. In industry, there is usually less pressure to publish.

It's also important to stay in touch with developments and advances in your field and so you'll need to:

read relevant scientific literature and journals
attend scientific meetings and conferences in order to hear presentations from other researchers and participate in informal discussions with scientists from other parts of the world.
If you're doing a PhD and have been awarded a studentship, it will usually come with a tax-free stipend to help cover living costs. This is currently at least £18,622 if funded by UKRI. Some institutions may award higher amounts or you may receive more if you’re industry funded or based in London.
If you've completed a PhD, you may start on £25,000 to £40,000 a year, depending on your specialist subject and experience.
Senior researchers and university professors earn in the region of £50,000 to £75,000 a year or more.

For current details on PhD studentship stipends, see UKRI - Studentships and Doctoral Training .

The majority of academic institutions in the UK have now implemented a single pay spine for all grades of staff. Pay varies according to whether you're leader of your own research group, part of a team of researchers or whether you've secured a lectureship while continuing your research.

Pay is usually higher in industry and the private sector.

Income figures are intended as a guide only.

Working hours

Your hours will vary depending on your setting. In academia in particular, there may be some flexibility with your start and finish times. Due to the nature of experimental work, hours can be irregular and may require some evening or weekend work.

You may be required to work longer hours when grant application deadlines are looming or an important experiment is underway. Overtime tends to be paid in industry but is unusual in academia.

What to expect

Work is mainly laboratory-based with some time spent in the office planning and writing up experiments. Some positions may require field work.
With career progression, the work becomes more office-based with a focus on writing grant applications, collaborating with other scientists, supervising staff, planning experiments, writing papers for publication and reviewing papers.
Care and attention to detail is required as work can involve contact with potentially toxic or radioactive materials.
Working with animals or animal-derived products, such as embryonic stem cells, may form part of the research, which will be an ethical dilemma for some. See the arguments at Understanding Animal Research .
Travel is sometimes required, as you'll often collaborate with other institutions. Some national and international travel is needed for attendance at conferences to present the results of your research and to keep up to date with research findings from peers. Travel typically becomes more frequent with career progression.
Initiatives are in place in various sectors to encourage equality, inclusion and diversity within medical research. UKRI has equality, diversity and inclusion policies and guidance with the aim to create a dynamic system of research and innovation in the UK.

Qualifications

You'll need a good honours degree in a medical or life science subject to become a medical researcher. Relevant subjects include:

biochemistry
biomedical sciences
medical microbiology
molecular biology
pharmacology
physiology.

Many areas of medical research now also look for graduates in chemistry, physics or statistics/bioinformatics, so you can be successful if you have a degree in one of these subjects.

Most people entering this field have or will be working towards a research-based MSc or a PhD. This is particularly important for higher level positions and career progression without a PhD (particularly in academia) is likely to be limited.

You may be able to enter with just your degree and no postgraduate qualification if you also have some significant laboratory experience but you'll typically still need a PhD to then progress.

Direct entry to a research scientist role with an HND or foundation degree only is not possible. With either of these qualifications, you may be able to enter at technician level, but you'll need to take further qualifications to become a medical researcher. Some employers allow you to study while working part time.

Funding is made available to research institutions via the Medical Research Council (MRC). This is then passed on to students in the form of scholarships, bursaries and studentships. Contact the individual institution to find out more about the funding options.

You'll need to show:

technical, scientific and numerical skills
good written and oral communication skills for report writing and presenting findings
genuine enjoyment of the research subject
a methodical approach to work with good planning skills
tenacity and patience when carrying out experiments
the ability to work well in teams and to network and forge links with collaborators
problem-solving skills and analytical thinking
attention to detail.

Work experience

Laboratory experience and knowledge of the range of techniques used will improve your chances of finding a research appointment. Experience can be achieved through either a placement year in industry or vacation work experience in academia or industry.

You could make speculative applications to potential academic supervisors to ask for work experience or shadowing opportunities. You may also want to consider getting experience within both industry and academia so you can see how the different sectors vary and where your preference lies.

Funding for placements and projects may be available through:

Nuffield Foundation

You should also try to keep up to date with developments in the medical field and the Medical Research Council (MRC) can help with this.

Find out more about the different kinds of work experience and internships that are available.

There are various employers in medical research, including:

industry (especially pharmaceutical companies)
non-governmental and voluntary bodies
medical research charities
research councils, especially the Medical Research Council (MRC)
universities.

Work outside industry is usually funded by the government through the allocation of research funding to universities, research councils and hospitals.

Medical research also receives extensive financial support from charitable bodies that fund specific research into their areas of interest.

Opportunities are also available through Knowledge Transfer Partnerships (KTP) . This is a joint project between a graduate, an organisation and a 'knowledge base', such as a university or a research organisation, which allows PhD graduates to apply research in a commercial environment.

Look for job vacancies at:

Medical Research Council (MRC)
Nature Jobs
New Scientist Jobs
Times Higher Education Uni Jobs

University websites advertise vacancies too.

Specialist recruitment agencies are used within the scientific community. These include:

Cranleigh Scientific

Professional development

If you're studying for a PhD while being employed in a medical research post, you'll be supported by a supervisor. Your institution is likely to provide additional training or you can access this through Vitae , which helps to support the professional development of researchers.

You'll need to keep up to date with developments in your field throughout your career and continuing professional development (CPD) is very important for this.

Technical training, either self-taught or from more experienced scientists, will allow you to learn new laboratory techniques. It's also common to visit other labs to be taught techniques that are already established elsewhere.

You'll be expected to attend conferences on a regular basis to hear about scientific advances and new research techniques. On occasion, you'll be required to present your own work.

Training may be more structured in industry and it may be possible for you to develop your own training programme with guidance from a mentor.

Membership of a professional organisation is useful for support throughout your career and to help with CPD. Many professional bodies have their own learning and training schemes and can help with how your record your CPD activities. You can also work towards professional qualifications or chartered status as you gain experience.

Relevant bodies include:

Royal Society of Biology

Career prospects

Career structures vary between sectors. In academia, once you've completed your PhD, it's likely you'll enter a postdoctoral position. These are normally short-term contracts of up to three years.

Career progression is related to the success of your research project(s), the quality and quantity of original papers you publish and your success in attracting funding. Building up experience in laboratory specialties can also help. With experience, you can progress to senior research fellow or professor and can one day manage your own team.

You'll usually have to undertake a few short-term contracts before you have a chance of securing a much sought-after permanent position in academic science. There are often teaching duties attached to these positions and opportunities are limited with high levels of competition.

Career development tends to be more structured in industry, hospitals or research institutes and involves taking on increased responsibilities, such as supervising and managing projects.

With experience and a successful track record, you can move into senior research and management roles. It's also be possible in some industrial companies to move into other functions, such as production, quality assurance, HR or marketing.

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Medical Laboratory Scientist

What does a medical laboratory scientist do.

A medical laboratory scientist (MLS), also known as a medical technologist or clinical laboratory scientist, works to analyze a variety of biological specimens. They are responsible for performing scientific testing on samples and reporting results to physicians.

Medical laboratory scientists perform complex tests on patient samples using sophisticated equipment like microscopes. The data they find plays an important role in identifying and treating cancer, heart disease, diabetes, and other medical conditions. It is estimated 60 to 70 percent of all decisions regarding a patient's diagnosis, treatment, hospital admission, and discharge are based on the results of the tests medical laboratory scientists perform.

Video: Behind the scenes: Medical Laboratory Scientist

Scope of practice

Medical laboratory scientists collaborate very closely with physicians and medical laboratory technicians in diagnosing and monitoring disease processes, as well as monitoring the effectiveness of therapy. Areas of medical laboratory training include microbiology, chemistry, hematology, immunology, transfusion medicine, toxicology, and molecular diagnostics.

Medical laboratory scientists have a wide variety of responsibilities and duties, including:

Examining and analyzing blood, body fluids, tissues, and cells
Relaying test results to physicians
Utilizing microscopes, cell counters, and other high-precision lab equipment
Cross-matching blood for transfusion
Monitoring patient outcomes
Performing differential cell counts looking for abnormal cells to aid in the diagnosis of anemia and leukemia
Establishing quality assurance programs to monitor and ensure the accuracy of test results
Overseeing the work of a medical laboratory technician

Medical laboratory scientist vs. medical laboratory technician

While similar, there are a few key differences between a medical lab scientist and a medical lab technician. They both work in the lab and perform tests on biological samples, however, a medical lab scientist typically has more education and is able to perform more involved lab work. A medical lab technician performs more of the routine lab work and is often supervised by a medical lab scientist.

Medical laboratory scientist vs. medical laboratory assistant

A medical laboratory assistant is a subgroup of medical laboratory technician. They are responsible for preparing biological specimens, recording information, and perform more of the lab maintenance tasks such as cleaning equipment and stocking supplies. A medical laboratory scientist will work with a medical laboratory assistant by analyzing their prepared specimens and relaying information for them to record.

Work environment

Medical lab scientists work in hospitals, clinics, forensic or public health laboratories, as well as pharmaceutical industries, biotechnology companies, veterinary clinics, or research institutions. Depending on the setting, their work hours may vary; but typically labs are run 24 hours a day, seven days a week. This allows for flexibility in scheduling.

Medical laboratory scientists spend the majority of their time on their feet, analyzing test results in the lab.

Becoming a medical laboratory scientist

Successful medical lab scientists are effective communicators with a sound intellect and interest in science and technology. Excellent eye-hand coordination, dexterity, and visual acuity are important to skillfully perform and analyze tests.

Individuals who love science and research, but prefer to have little-to-no interaction with patients, would be a good fit for the medical laboratory scientist career.

Higher education requirements

After obtaining a high school diploma (or the equivalent), most will go on to obtain some level of higher education and training in order to become a medical laboratory scientist.

Common higher education requirements for medical laboratory scientist jobs include:

Completing a bachelor’s degree in medical technology or clinical laboratory science. A bachelor’s degree in a science or health-related field (e.g. chemistry or microbiology) may also be considered.
Completing a clinical laboratory program or internship through a hospital-based program or as part of their education
National certification as a medical technologist (MT), clinical laboratory scientist (CLS), or medical laboratory scientist (MLS)
Previous experience in a healthcare setting

Certification and licensing

Most employers require medical laboratory scientists to obtain certification through an accrediting body, such as the American Society for Clinical Pathology (ASCP) Board of Certification (BOC) . After passing the credentialing exam, medical laboratory scientists (MLS) can practice under the credentials of MLS(ASCP)CM.

Licensure by state may also be required.

Career opportunities and outlook

The median salary for a medical lab scientist is $57,800, though salaries can range between $30,000-$79,000 depending on education, location, and previous experience.

Job growth and security are high for medical laboratory technicians and scientists. According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics , there is currently a shortage of medical lab technicians and scientists in many parts of the country which guarantees ample employment opportunities and sometimes higher salaries for graduates. With the volume of laboratory tests continuing to increase due to both population growth and the development of new types of tests, job opportunities are expected to increase faster than average with over 26,000 new positions expected to be available by 2030.

With additional training and experience, a medical lab scientist can become a department lead or lab manager. Others may seek specializations to advance their careers. Typically, a medical lab technician will progress to a medical lab scientist with more training.

By the numbers

median annual salary

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job growth projected from 2020-2030

Medical laboratory scientist programs at Mayo Clinic

Mayo Clinic offers several programs and rotations to further your education and prepare you for a career as a medical laboratory scientist, medical laboratory assistant, or medical laboratory technician.

Medical Laboratory Science Clinical Rotation (Arizona)
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Careers in healthcare: Let us help you find your fit

How to Become a Doctor: A Step-by Step Guide

Becoming a physician is a lengthy process that requires years of hard work and tremendous patience.

How to Become a Doctor: A Guide

A group of research doctors gatherred around a monitor looking at a patients data.

Getty Images

A young person who dreams of becoming a doctor should investigate the profession as much as possible before embarking on this arduous career path.

There are few professions with higher stakes than the field of medicine. The consequences of a doctor's decisions can be enormous, leading to either marvelous or disastrous results.

Premeds and Compassion in Medicine

Ali Lotfi, M.D. Nov. 17, 2020

Becoming a physician in the U.S. is a time-consuming endeavor , and anyone who intends to pursue a medical career in this country should expect medical training to last at least seven years beyond college.

Doctors are typically well compensated. According to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, the median salary among U.S. doctors in May 2019 exceeded $200,000.

Here is a list of the rungs on the ladder into the U.S. medical profession.

Explore your options.
Take premed classes and earn good grades.
Participate in meaningful extracurricular activities.
Prep for the MCAT and ace it.
Prepare applications to multiple medical schools.
Impress med school interviewers and get at least one acceptance letter.
Enroll in the right type of medical school for you.
Pass the first two portions of the allopathic or osteopathic national medical licensing exam.
Apply for and match with a residency program.
Graduate from medical school.
Start your residency and get a general medical license.
Achieve board certification within your medical specialty or subspecialty.

Step 1: Explore Your Options

A young person who dreams of becoming a doctor should investigate the profession as much as possible before embarking on this arduous career path, experts say. Aspiring physicians should conduct informational interviews with doctors and gain some clinical experience so they can gauge whether they would excel at and enjoy the practice of medicine.

Potential doctors should also take demanding science classes to assess their personal affinity for technical fields of study, since those academic disciplines aren't right for everybody, experts say.

College hopefuls who are contemplating a career in medicine should look for undergraduate institutions with high-quality premedical student advisers and significant student research options. High school juniors and seniors who are determined to become doctors should investigate baccalaureate-M.D. programs , which can allow them to earn both a college degree and medical degree within seven years, experts suggest.

Step 2: Take Premed Classes and Earn Good Grades

Because medical schools have a significant number of academic prerequisites , premeds need to consult with their academic advisers to ensure that they take all of the necessary undergraduate courses, according to experts. Individuals who discover their desire to become doctors after they receive their college degree may opt to enroll in a post-baccalaureate premed program so that they can complete all of the required premed classes.

Petros Minasi Jr., senior director of premed programs at Kaplan, says a college's premed or prehealth adviser should be able to tell a premed precisely which undergraduate courses he or she needs to take. Premeds should not overload themselves with multiple extremely difficult classes in a single semester, Minasi warns, but they should take challenging classes as a general rule.

Solid academic performance in premed coursework is the norm among competitive med school applicants, and a stellar undergraduate GPA is a big plus.

Step 3: Participate in Meaningful Extracurricular Activities

A premed who does well in his or her courses but does nothing else is unlikely to get noticed by and admitted into top medical schools. So it's important that prospective med students do something besides study, experts say.

However, the quality of a person's activities outside the classroom matters much more than either the quantity of activities or the number of hours devoted to those activities.

Substantive scholarly research or a job as either a medical scribe or a medical assistant tends to be viewed positively in the admissions process, med school admissions officers say. They also suggest that accomplishments in nonscientific or nonmedical endeavors such as music or athletics are an asset, since they make a candidate appear to be well-rounded and suggest that he or she is an interesting person.

Dr. Mark Rosenberg, vice dean for education and academic affairs at the University of Minnesota Medical School , says that premeds should not focus on maximizing the amount of extracurricular experience they possess, since what really counts is the valuable lessons from extracurricular activities.

Rosenberg, a professor of medicine and a nephrologist, says that his med school looks for evidence of an inclination toward serving others, "socio-cultural humility" and reliability.

Dr. Megan Boysen Osborn, associate dean for students at the University of California—Irvine School of Medicine , emphasizes that it is OK to take a break between college and medical school, since that extra time can allow premeds to gain additional research and clinical experience beyond what they could get as an undergraduate.

Step 4: Prep for the MCAT and Ace It

The Medical College Admission Test is one tool that med schools use to screen applicants, so it is important for premeds to perform well on this exam. The multihour test requires extensive content knowledge; it is not a test that anyone should attempt to cram for, experts warn.

Perfect MCAT scores are rare, since the test is very hard. Premeds should research the median MCAT scores at the med schools they are most interested in, and they should take the MCAT only when they are consistently capable of reaching their target score on practice exams, experts recommend.

Step 5: Prepare Applications to Multiple Medical Schools

Because medical schools generally have lofty standards, prospective med students should take extreme care when crafting their personal statement and when drafting their secondary, school-specific application essays , according to med school admissions officials.

Osborn, an emergency medicine physician, warns med school hopefuls not to rush through the completion of their secondary application forms, since the information that med schools request is often pivotal during the selection process.

Premeds should think strategically about which extracurricular activities they include in their application and how they describe those activities, since admissions officers will scrutinize the activities list , experts suggest. Also, given the low acceptance rates at most medical schools, premeds should plan on applying to numerous schools to increase their odds of admission, experts warn, noting that it is better to err on the side of excess rather than restraint.

Step 6: Impress Med School Interviewers and Get at Least 1 Acceptance Letter

Candidates who look good on paper will be invited to medical school interviews so that admissions committees can gauge if the person is truly as outstanding as they appear on paper, so it is important to thoroughly prepare for those interviews, experts suggest.

Anyone who receives an interview invitation should bear in mind that this is a positive sign about their candidacy, experts say.

Step 7: Enroll in the Right Type of Medical School for You

Aspiring physicians can elect to attend either a research-oriented academic institution or at a school that focuses on primary care .

They also have a choice between two types of medical degrees : the Medical Doctor, or M.D., degree and the Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine, or D.O., degree. Both programs involve a mix of medical science courses and clinical rotations. However, one key difference is that D.O. schools teach numerous hands-on healing techniques that are distinctive to the practice of osteopathic medicine.

Step 8: Pass the First 2 Portions of the Allopathic or Osteopathic National Medical Licensing Exam

Allopathic and osteopathic medical students at U.S. medical schools typically take two of the three parts of their national licensing examinations during medical school, experts say. M.D. students take the United States Medical Licensing Examination, or USMLE, while D.O. students are required to take the Comprehensive Osteopathic Medical Licensing Examination of the United States, or COMLEX-USA. D.O. students may elect to take the USMLE in addition to the COMLEX-USA.

Dr. Chris Cimino, a vice president with Kaplan Medical – the unit of Kaplan that prepares aspiring doctors for the USMLE licensing exams – says the vast majority of U.S. medical students pass the licensing exams they take during med school.

Step 9: Apply for and Match With a Residency Program

Fourth-year medical students generally attempt to match with a residency program within the medical specialty they find most interesting. Most medical students participate in the National Resident Matching Program, though some get involved with specialty-specific matching programs such as those for aspiring urologists and ophthalmologists. Some medical specialties, such as orthopedic surgery , are highly competive so usually only the highest-achieving medical students are able to match.

Step 10: Graduate From Medical School

Once someone has earned a medical degree and graduated from medical school, he or she is officially a doctor. However, even after a person obtains a medical degree, he or she typically needs to complete a medical residency within a particular medical specialty, such as pediatrics or radiology , in order to practice medicine independently in his or her community.

There are some regions of the U.S. where med school grads who have not obtained residencies can work as health care providers, such as Missouri, Utah and Arkansas. The intention behind this accommodation for individuals with a medical degree but without a residency is to address doctor shortages.

Step 11: Start Your Residency and Get a General Medical License

Medical residencies vary in length, usually ranging from three to seven years depending on the specialty. Residencies allow medical school grads to learn the art and science of a particular area of medicine, whether it is obstetrics-gynecology or dermatology .

Toward the beginning of their residency, medical residents take the last part of either the USMLE or the COMLEX-USA, which makes them eligible for a general medical license that allows someone to practice medicine without being supervised by another doctor.

However, they still need to apply for a medical license in their jurisdiction, since medical licensing boards not only evaluate licensing exam scores but also conduct background checks. Licensure candidates should plan on submitting their curriculum vitae or resume to their licensing board, since one reason for the licensure procedure is to ensure that candidates are technically qualified.

Residents who want to develop extraordinary expertise within a particular niche of medicine, such as cardiology or hand surgery , may opt to pursue a medical fellowship within that field.

Step 12: Achieve Board Certification Within Your Medical Specialty or Subspecialty

After someone has completed the necessary residency and fellowship training, they must pass the applicable board exam. Then they can apply for board certification within their discipline through the American Board of Medical Specialties.

What to Consider Before Trying to Become a Doctor

Since it takes many years to become a board-certified doctor, it's foolish to pursue a career in medicine solely out of desire for prestige or money, experts say. Medicine is a demanding profession, so once someone becomes a doctor, the struggle isn't over.

Employment as a physician often requires irregular hours and sometimes involves significant stress, according to experts, and it often necessitates a degree of selflessness since there are numerous inconveniences involved in health care professions. However, there is something exhilarating about helping patients through dark times in their lives, doctors say, adding that they take pride in their work and receive gratification from improving the well-being of others.

"It's a long journey and it's a hard journey," Osborn says to aspiring doctors, "and so I hope that you enjoy each step."

Searching for a medical school? Get our complete rankings of Best Medical Schools.

Should You Become a Doctor?

Tags: medical school , education , graduate schools , students , medicine

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HEALTHCARE CAREER GUIDES

Clinical Research Coordinator Career

What is a clinical research coordinator.

Clinical research coordinators (CRCs) manage everything from participant recruitment to data collection. They’re responsible for directing the day-to-day activities involved in a diverse range of scientific inquiries, including drug trials, epidemiological investigations, genetic testing, and observational studies. CRCs help maintain a study's overall quality and integrity, ensuring that all systems and procedures adhere to informed consent laws, ethical standards, and federal regulations established by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Another central aspect of their work involves facilitating communication between the research team and the Institutional Review Board (IRB), an administrative body that safeguards participants’ rights. Before an organization can initiate a study, research coordinators must submit the study to the IRB for approval and make any requested modifications. A clinical research coordinator’s job is highly collaborative. Working closely with principal investigators, study sponsors, and regulatory agencies, these professionals promote goal alignment and foster a spirit of teamwork throughout the research process.

RESPONSIBILITIES

What Does a Clinical Research Coordinator Do?

Clinical research professionals’ work responsibilities can vary. A typical day often involves the following tasks:

Recruiting patients to participate in clinical trials and research studies.
Explaining the risks and potential benefits to participants so they can provide informed consent.
Answering patients’ questions and addressing any of their concerns.
Preparing and submitting reports detailing research practices to the IRB and FDA.
Scheduling appointments and medical procedures.
Ensuring that clinical studies comply with all relevant laws and regulations.
Enabling smooth communication between the study subjects and the clinical staff.
Conducting baseline assessments and patient interviews.
Collecting and organizing data, including patient medical histories, study procedures, and test results.
Maintaining updated documentation for regulatory authorities.
Drafting reports about adverse events and protocol deviations.
Managing the inventory of laboratory supplies and equipment.
Assisting with grant applications, expense tracking, and participant reimbursement.

Where Does a Clinical Research Coordinator Work?

Clinical research coordinators play a crucial role in the healthcare industry. These professionals work in a variety of settings, including:

Academic medical centers
Universities
Pharmaceutical companies
Biotech companies
Private research clinics
Government agencies
Nonprofit organizations

EDUCATION & BEST DEGREES

How do i become a clinical research coordinator .

The educational requirements for a clinical research coordinator position can differ based on the organization and job responsibilities. Employers typically seek candidates with at least a bachelor’s degree in a science or medical field. Many clinical research coordinators have educational backgrounds in public health, biology, health science , health and human services , biomedical technology, or healthcare administration . A graduate degree such as a master’s in public health may be required for senior positions or specialized roles. Individuals seeking to enhance their expertise and career prospects can also pursue professional certifications such as the Certified Clinical Research Professional (CCRP) and Certified Clinical Research Coordinator (CCRC) certifications.

Best Degrees for a Clinical Research Coordinator

An online health degree program for students who are committed to making a...

An online health degree program for students who are committed to making a difference for patients in a variety of ways.

Time: 63% of students finish this program in 24 months
Tuition: $4,085 per 6-month term
Courses: 35 total courses in this program

Skills for your résumé that you will learn in this program:

Epidemiology
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This degree allows you to work inside the healthcare industry, while also directly working with patients who need help.

An online health science program designed for students who want real-world...

An online health science program designed for students who want real-world skills for valuable health careers.

Time: 63% of students finish similar programs in 24 months.
Tuition: $4,210 per 6-month term
Courses: 28 total courses in this program
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A master's focused on managing comprehensive, value-based care, directly...

A master's focused on managing comprehensive, value-based care, directly in line with innovations in health and healthcare.

Time: 60% of grads finish within 21 months.
Tuition: $4,755 per 6-month term.
Courses: 12 total courses in this program.
Collaborative Leadership
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Your rich experience in a health-related field can mean more when you bring a master's level of understanding to the problems that organizations need to solve.

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This program is not the only degree WGU offers designed to create leaders in the field of healthcare. Compare our health leadership degrees.

How Much Does a Clinical Research Coordinator Make?

According to Salary.com, the average annual salary for clinical research coordinators is $69,974 . Professionals in this field typically earn between $60,108 and $80,825 a year. However, the top 10% of earners can make more than $90,705. Salaries can vary depending on several factors, including geographic location, industry, work experience, certifications, and education. Clinical research coordinators with significant on-the-job experience can expect to earn higher wages than those just starting their careers.

What Is the Job Outlook for a Clinical Research Coordinator?

Advancements in technology and increased funding for scientific research have led to a growing demand for clinical research coordinators who can manage medical studies. From 2022 to 2032, the job growth for natural sciences managers, including research coordinators, is projected to increase by 5% . This is nearly twice the average growth rate for all occupations, meaning the job outlook for clinical research coordinators is favorable. According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS), there will be about 6,500 clinical research coordinator openings each year during this period.

What Skills Does a Clinical Research Coordinator Need?

Because the role involves a diverse set of responsibilities, clinical research coordinators need a combination of communication abilities, technical expertise, and managerial skills. Critical aptitudes for this job include:

Technological proficiency. Research institutions use digital management systems, electronic investigator site files, electronic health record systems, and other technologies to automate tasks and organize information.
Interpersonal communication. Clinical research coordinators utilize excellent communication skills to explain complex study protocols to subjects and to collaborate with interdisciplinary teams.
Cultural sensitivity. Because they work with patients from diverse backgrounds, clinical research coordinators must understand cultural nuances and be respectful of differing beliefs.
Medical knowledge. A basic understanding of medical terminology and healthcare practices helps facilitate smooth communication between research coordinators, investigators, and patients.
Data management. Because they manage vital details about participants and procedures, clinical research coordinators should be adept at collecting and organizing data.
Regulatory knowledge. To ensure compliance, clinical research coordinators need a comprehensive understanding of the laws, regulations, and standards involved in clinical research.
Writing. Clinical research coordinators compose reports about research progress, adverse events, study outcomes, and compliance issues.
Organization. Keeping orderly records of appointment schedules, research procedures, regulatory documentation, assessment data, and other information is essential to a research coordinator’s job.
Time management. Clinical research coordinators often direct multiple studies simultaneously, so they must prioritize tasks and manage their time effectively.
Adaptability . Study modifications, conflicts of interest, budgetary constraints, and other unexpected challenges are common, so research coordinators should be able to adapt to changing circumstances.

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Your chance of acceptance, your chancing factors, extracurriculars, what are the best undergrad degrees for pre-med students.

I'm super interested in pursuing medicine, but I'm not sure what major to choose for my undergraduate degree. Which degrees are recommended to prep for medical school and a career as a doctor?

Choosing a major for your undergraduate degree is an important decision, especially when you have a clear goal of pursuing medicine. While there is no single best major for a pre-med student, there are a few popular options known for their strong preparation for medical school. These degrees typically provide a solid foundation in the sciences, ensuring you have the necessary prerequisites and a deep understanding of the subjects you will encounter in medical school. Some commonly recommended majors include:

1. Biology: This major covers a wide range of topics related to living organisms and will give you an excellent understanding of the human body, genetics, and other essential subjects in medicine.

2. Biochemistry: As a biochemistry major, you will study the chemical processes occurring in living organisms. This field combines the principles of both biology and chemistry, giving you a deeper understanding of the biochemical processes at play in the human body.

3. Chemistry: This major will familiarize you with various chemical principles and laboratory techniques. It can be particularly beneficial if you are considering a career in pharmacology or clinical research.

4. Biomedical Engineering: Biomedical engineering is the application of engineering principles and design concepts to medicine and biology. As a biomedical engineering major, you will learn how to develop medical devices and technologies, which can provide a unique perspective as a medical professional.

5. Neuroscience: If you're interested in the brain and nervous system, a major in neuroscience will provide a comprehensive understanding of the subject, which can be beneficial if you are considering a specialization in neurology or psychiatry.

6. Psychology: As a psychology major, you will learn about human behavior and cognitive processes. This knowledge can be helpful in understanding patients' mental health and behavior in a clinical setting.

Bear in mind that while these majors are frequently pursued by pre-med students, medical schools generally do not require applicants to have a specific major. In fact, some medical schools encourage a diverse range of academic backgrounds among their students. The key is to make sure you complete the required prerequisite courses (biology, chemistry, physics, and math) as part of your undergraduate degree.

Ultimately, the best major for a pre-med student is the one in which they can excel academically, develop critical thinking skills, and maintain a strong GPA. Consider your interests and strengths, and remember that there are successful medical students from various academic backgrounds.

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CollegeVine’s Q&A seeks to offer informed perspectives on commonly asked admissions questions. Every answer is refined and validated by our team of admissions experts to ensure it resonates with trusted knowledge in the field.

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How You Could Become a Medical Coder in just 4 Months

Training – Debt-Free Blueprint, to get your medical coding training
Be Job-Ready – Discover #1 Thing employers want from Medical Billers & Coders
Experience – How to get valuable experience before your first job

Medical Billing and Coding Classes

Do you want to enter the rewarding field of Medical Billing and Coding? But are unsure of where and how to start?

Are you also looking helplessly for Medical Billing and Coding classes, and are confused about what to pick?

If you nodded yes to those questions, you’ve landed at the right place.

In this article, we will break down everything you need to know about Medical Billing and Coding classes, what you need to become one, the types of classes available, and more.

We will also help you discover our top pick for the best online medical and billing coding class for 2024.

So, let’s hop in.

What Is A Medical Biller and Coder? And What Do They Do?

Let us first understand what Medical Billers and Coders are, and what their duties are.

A medical biller and coder is an important part of the healthcare administration process. They play an essential role in ensuring that healthcare providers receive proper reimbursement for their services while also maintaining accurate patient records.

So, what do they do? Let’s take a look at some of their duties:

1. Coding : Medical billers and coders assign specific codes to diagnoses, procedures, and treatments according to the standardized code sets such as ICD-10-CM (International Classification of Diseases, 10th Revision, Clinical Modification) and CPT (Current Procedural Terminology). These codes are used for billing purposes, insurance claims, and statistical analysis.

2. Billing : Once the procedures and diagnoses are coded, medical billers generate bills and claims based on these codes. They submit these claims to insurance companies or government healthcare programs like Medicare or Medicaid for reimbursement. They also follow up on unpaid claims and may resubmit claims with corrections if necessary.

3. Insurance Verification: Medical billers often verify patients’ insurance coverage to ensure that the services provided are covered by the patient’s insurance plan. They may also communicate with insurance companies to resolve any coverage issues or discrepancies.

4. Patient Billing and Communication: They handle billing inquiries from patients, explain charges, and assist with setting up payment plans if needed. They also maintain patient billing records and ensure compliance with relevant healthcare regulations such as HIPAA (Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act).

Read More: What is Medical Billing and Coding? What Does a Medical Coder Do?

What You Need to Become a Medical Biller and Coder

If you’re still here, you might be wondering what it takes to excel as a Medical Biller and Coder.

Allow us to guide you through the essentials.

To master the Medical Billing and Coding field, three key components are necessary: Training, Certification, and Experience.

Let’s explore each in detail.

1. Training:

Starting your journey to become a successful medical biller and coder begins with acquiring proper training, which can be obtained through various avenues, such as:

– Associate Degrees: Some people prefer to pursue formal education programs offered by community colleges, vocational schools, or universities, often resulting in associate degrees in medical billing and coding.

– Online Courses: Many online platforms provide courses tailored for medical billing and coding, offering flexibility and convenience for self-paced learning. Completing your training through online programs is widely recommended for its accessibility.

2. Certification:

While not always mandatory, certification is highly recommended in the field of Medical Billing and Coding, as most employers prefer or even require it.

This is because certification demonstrates proficiency and expertise, which helps in enhancing job prospects.

There are many types of certifications for medical billers and coders. The most common certifications include:

– Certified Professional Coder (CPC) by the American Academy of Professional Coders (AAPC).

– Certified Coding Specialist (CCS) by the American Health Information Management Association (AHIMA).

– Certified Billing and Coding Specialist (CBCS) by the National Healthcareer Association (NHA).

3. Experience:

While formal training and certification are essential, practical experience is equally essential for becoming proficient in medical billing and coding.

Experience allows you to apply knowledge in real-world settings, refine skills, and become acquainted with the intricacies of billing and coding processes.

Experience can be gained through:

– Internships/Externships: Many training programs or educational institutions offer internship or externship opportunities, providing hands-on experience.

– Entry-Level Positions: Starting in roles like medical records clerk or billing assistant offers valuable experience and opportunities for advancement.

Medical Billing and Coding Classes Online

Online classes are nowadays gaining more and more popularity, simply because of the many perks they offer.

People are leaning towards online classes as opposed to choosing the traditional methods for schooling since online classes remove major hassles, such as scheduled classes and extra costs.

Let us look at why online classes are better:

1. Flexibility : Online classes allow you to study at your own pace and on your own schedule. This flexibility is particularly good for individuals with busy lifestyles, such as working professionals or parents.

2. Accessibility : Online classes can be accessed from anywhere with an internet connection, which removes the need to commute to a physical classroom. This accessibility makes it easier for individuals in remote areas or those with mobility issues to pursue education.

3. More Affordable: Online classes often have lower tuition fees compared to traditional in-person programs. Additionally, you can save money on commuting, parking, and other expenses associated with attending classes on campus.

4. Personalized Learning: Online classes often offer a variety of resources, such as video lectures, interactive modules, and virtual simulations, allowing you to choose the learning methods that suit you best. You can also revisit materials as needed and progress at your own pace.

Read: Online Medical Coding Courses

Our Top Pick for 2024 – The Best Online Medical Billing & Coding Class

Wondering if there’s a single program that can fulfill all your requirements for becoming a successful Medical Biller and Coder?

Yes! There is indeed such a program, and it’s our top recommendation for 2024:

PREPPY’s Online Medical Billing & Coding Training Program.

You might think we sound biased, but there’s a reason, or many reasons why. Preppy offers a variety of benefits, exceeding expectations in every aspect of training and preparation.

Let’s see why Preppy’s program is a standout choice:

1. University Partnership: Preppy has collaborated with Auburn University, a partnership with an accredited university, ensuring that the training program adheres to all the educational standards. This collaboration adds an extra layer of credibility, reassuring students that they’re receiving education of the highest quality.

2. Certificate of Completion: Upon successfully completing the program, students receive a Certificate of Completion from Auburn University. This certificate holds significant weight in the industry and serves as a valuable addition to one’s resume when seeking employment opportunities.

3. Affordability : Preppy understands the financial constraints that many aspiring medical billers and coders face. So, they’ve made it a priority to offer the most affordable training option possible. This commitment ensures that students can pursue their career aspirations without being burdened by excessive student loan debt or relying on financial aid.

4. 100% Online and Self-Paced Learning: The program is entirely online, allowing students to access course materials and lectures from anywhere with an internet connection. The self-paced nature of the program offers unparalleled flexibility, accommodating students with busy schedules or other personal commitments.

5. Preparation for Certification Exams: Preppy’s curriculum is meticulously designed to fully prepare students for national certification exams, such as those administered by reputable organizations like the AAPC (CPC exam). By covering the necessary knowledge and skills required for these exams, Preppy significantly enhances students’ likelihood of passing and obtaining certification.

6. Faster Course Completion: Unlike traditional educational programs that may span several months or years, Preppy’s program offers flexibility in training duration. With the option to complete the training in as little as four months, students can fast-track their entry into the workforce and kickstart their careers sooner.

7. Externship Opportunities: Recognizing the importance of hands-on experience in the healthcare field, Preppy offers externship opportunities as an integral part of its program. These opportunities provide students with invaluable practical experience in real-world healthcare settings, allowing them to apply their knowledge in a professional environment and network with industry professionals.

8. Free Laptop: As an added bonus, enrolling in Preppy’s program includes a free laptop for students to utilize during their studies and beyond. This perk not only alleviates the financial burden on students but also ensures that they have the necessary technology to thrive in an online learning environment.

9. Continuous Support: Throughout the program, Preppy provides support to its students. This includes access to a dedicated Student Coordinator who can address any questions or concerns, as well as 24/7 technical support to assist with any technical issues that may arise. By offering ongoing support, Preppy aims to ensure that students have a positive learning experience and are well-prepared for success in their careers.

Click Here to Read More About Preppy’s Online Medical Billing and Coding Training

Top Skills Required to Become a Medical Biller & Coder

Now, let’s also discuss what skills you may need to become a pro at medical billing & coding, and shine in front of employers.

To excel as a Medical Biller and Coder, you’ll need a blend of technical expertise, attention to detail, and communication skills.

Here are the top skills required:

1. Medical Terminology: Understanding medical terminology is essential for accurately assigning codes to diagnoses and procedures.

2. Coding Proficiency: Proficiency in assigning accurate codes using standardized code sets like ICD-10-CM, CPT, and HCPCS is crucial for proper billing and reimbursement.

3. Attention to Detail: Medical billing and coding require meticulous attention to detail to avoid errors that could lead to claim denials or compliance issues.

4. Analytical Skills: The ability to analyze medical records and extract relevant information for coding purposes is essential for accurate billing.

5. Regulations Knowledge: Familiarity with healthcare regulations, such as HIPAA and insurance guidelines, is necessary to ensure compliance and protect patient confidentiality.

6. Software Proficiency: Competence in using billing and coding software systems is important for efficient data entry, claims processing, and record keeping.

7. Communication Skills: Effective communication with healthcare providers, insurance companies, and patients is essential for resolving billing inquiries, clarifying coding issues, and ensuring accurate documentation.

Becoming a master at Medical Billing and Coding requires key skills. By honing these skills through education and experience, you can thrive in this dynamic field, ensuring accurate billing and efficient healthcare administration.

Whether through formal education or online training, aspiring Medical Billers and Coders have ample opportunities to succeed in the healthcare industry.

Medical Billing and Coding FAQs

Is becoming a medical biller and coder hard.

Becoming a medical biller and coder requires dedication to learning medical terminology, coding systems, and healthcare laws. While certification is preferred by some employers, it’s not always required. Continuous education is essential to stay updated on industry changes. Overall, while it requires effort, becoming a medical biller and coder is achievable with the right training and dedication.

Is Medical Billing and Coding worth it?

Yes, medical billing and coding can be worth it. It offers opportunities for stable employment, competitive salaries, and potential for career advancement. With the right training and certification, medical billers and coders can find fulfilling careers in a growing industry that plays a crucial role in healthcare operations.

Are online classes better for Medical Billing and Coding?

Yes, online classes are often better for Medical Billing and Coding due to their flexibility, accessibility, and personalized learning experience. Online classes allow students to study at their own pace, access course materials from anywhere with an internet connection, and choose learning methods that suit their preferences. Additionally, online programs often collaborate with industry experts to ensure curriculum relevance and offer networking opportunities with peers and instructors.

Related Resources:

How Long is Medical Billing and Coding School
Medical Billing and Coding Salary
A Day in the Life of a Medical Biller and Coder
Medical Billing vs Coding
CPC Certification

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About the author, grant aldrich.

Cultural Relativity and Acceptance of Embryonic Stem Cell Research

Article sidebar.

Main Article Content

There is a debate about the ethical implications of using human embryos in stem cell research, which can be influenced by cultural, moral, and social values. This paper argues for an adaptable framework to accommodate diverse cultural and religious perspectives. By using an adaptive ethics model, research protections can reflect various populations and foster growth in stem cell research possibilities.

INTRODUCTION

Stem cell research combines biology, medicine, and technology, promising to alter health care and the understanding of human development. Yet, ethical contention exists because of individuals’ perceptions of using human embryos based on their various cultural, moral, and social values. While these disagreements concerning policy, use, and general acceptance have prompted the development of an international ethics policy, such a uniform approach can overlook the nuanced ethical landscapes between cultures. With diverse viewpoints in public health, a single global policy, especially one reflecting Western ethics or the ethics prevalent in high-income countries, is impractical. This paper argues for a culturally sensitive, adaptable framework for the use of embryonic stem cells. Stem cell policy should accommodate varying ethical viewpoints and promote an effective global dialogue. With an extension of an ethics model that can adapt to various cultures, we recommend localized guidelines that reflect the moral views of the people those guidelines serve.

Stem cells, characterized by their unique ability to differentiate into various cell types, enable the repair or replacement of damaged tissues. Two primary types of stem cells are somatic stem cells (adult stem cells) and embryonic stem cells. Adult stem cells exist in developed tissues and maintain the body’s repair processes. [1] Embryonic stem cells (ESC) are remarkably pluripotent or versatile, making them valuable in research. [2] However, the use of ESCs has sparked ethics debates. Considering the potential of embryonic stem cells, research guidelines are essential. The International Society for Stem Cell Research (ISSCR) provides international stem cell research guidelines. They call for “public conversations touching on the scientific significance as well as the societal and ethical issues raised by ESC research.” [3] The ISSCR also publishes updates about culturing human embryos 14 days post fertilization, suggesting local policies and regulations should continue to evolve as ESC research develops. [4] Like the ISSCR, which calls for local law and policy to adapt to developing stem cell research given cultural acceptance, this paper highlights the importance of local social factors such as religion and culture.

I. Global Cultural Perspective of Embryonic Stem Cells

Views on ESCs vary throughout the world. Some countries readily embrace stem cell research and therapies, while others have stricter regulations due to ethical concerns surrounding embryonic stem cells and when an embryo becomes entitled to moral consideration. The philosophical issue of when the “someone” begins to be a human after fertilization, in the morally relevant sense, [5] impacts when an embryo becomes not just worthy of protection but morally entitled to it. The process of creating embryonic stem cell lines involves the destruction of the embryos for research. [6] Consequently, global engagement in ESC research depends on social-cultural acceptability.

a. US and Rights-Based Cultures

In the United States, attitudes toward stem cell therapies are diverse. The ethics and social approaches, which value individualism, [7] trigger debates regarding the destruction of human embryos, creating a complex regulatory environment. For example, the 1996 Dickey-Wicker Amendment prohibited federal funding for the creation of embryos for research and the destruction of embryos for “more than allowed for research on fetuses in utero.” [8] Following suit, in 2001, the Bush Administration heavily restricted stem cell lines for research. However, the Stem Cell Research Enhancement Act of 2005 was proposed to help develop ESC research but was ultimately vetoed. [9] Under the Obama administration, in 2009, an executive order lifted restrictions allowing for more development in this field. [10] The flux of research capacity and funding parallels the different cultural perceptions of human dignity of the embryo and how it is socially presented within the country’s research culture. [11]

b. Ubuntu and Collective Cultures

African bioethics differs from Western individualism because of the different traditions and values. African traditions, as described by individuals from South Africa and supported by some studies in other African countries, including Ghana and Kenya, follow the African moral philosophies of Ubuntu or Botho and Ukama , which “advocates for a form of wholeness that comes through one’s relationship and connectedness with other people in the society,” [12] making autonomy a socially collective concept. In this context, for the community to act autonomously, individuals would come together to decide what is best for the collective. Thus, stem cell research would require examining the value of the research to society as a whole and the use of the embryos as a collective societal resource. If society views the source as part of the collective whole, and opposes using stem cells, compromising the cultural values to pursue research may cause social detachment and stunt research growth. [13] Based on local culture and moral philosophy, the permissibility of stem cell research depends on how embryo, stem cell, and cell line therapies relate to the community as a whole. Ubuntu is the expression of humanness, with the person’s identity drawn from the “’I am because we are’” value. [14] The decision in a collectivistic culture becomes one born of cultural context, and individual decisions give deference to others in the society.

Consent differs in cultures where thought and moral philosophy are based on a collective paradigm. So, applying Western bioethical concepts is unrealistic. For one, Africa is a diverse continent with many countries with different belief systems, access to health care, and reliance on traditional or Western medicines. Where traditional medicine is the primary treatment, the “’restrictive focus on biomedically-related bioethics’” [is] problematic in African contexts because it neglects bioethical issues raised by traditional systems.” [15] No single approach applies in all areas or contexts. Rather than evaluating the permissibility of ESC research according to Western concepts such as the four principles approach, different ethics approaches should prevail.

Another consideration is the socio-economic standing of countries. In parts of South Africa, researchers have not focused heavily on contributing to the stem cell discourse, either because it is not considered health care or a health science priority or because resources are unavailable. [16] Each country’s priorities differ given different social, political, and economic factors. In South Africa, for instance, areas such as maternal mortality, non-communicable diseases, telemedicine, and the strength of health systems need improvement and require more focus. [17] Stem cell research could benefit the population, but it also could divert resources from basic medical care. Researchers in South Africa adhere to the National Health Act and Medicines Control Act in South Africa and international guidelines; however, the Act is not strictly enforced, and there is no clear legislation for research conduct or ethical guidelines. [18]

Some parts of Africa condemn stem cell research. For example, 98.2 percent of the Tunisian population is Muslim. [19] Tunisia does not permit stem cell research because of moral conflict with a Fatwa. Religion heavily saturates the regulation and direction of research. [20] Stem cell use became permissible for reproductive purposes only recently, with tight restrictions preventing cells from being used in any research other than procedures concerning ART/IVF. Their use is conditioned on consent, and available only to married couples. [21] The community's receptiveness to stem cell research depends on including communitarian African ethics.

c. Asia

Some Asian countries also have a collective model of ethics and decision making. [22] In China, the ethics model promotes a sincere respect for life or human dignity, [23] based on protective medicine. This model, influenced by Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM), [24] recognizes Qi as the vital energy delivered via the meridians of the body; it connects illness to body systems, the body’s entire constitution, and the universe for a holistic bond of nature, health, and quality of life. [25] Following a protective ethics model, and traditional customs of wholeness, investment in stem cell research is heavily desired for its applications in regenerative therapies, disease modeling, and protective medicines. In a survey of medical students and healthcare practitioners, 30.8 percent considered stem cell research morally unacceptable while 63.5 percent accepted medical research using human embryonic stem cells. Of these individuals, 89.9 percent supported increased funding for stem cell research. [26] The scientific community might not reflect the overall population. From 1997 to 2019, China spent a total of $576 million (USD) on stem cell research at 8,050 stem cell programs, increased published presence from 0.6 percent to 14.01 percent of total global stem cell publications as of 2014, and made significant strides in cell-based therapies for various medical conditions. [27] However, while China has made substantial investments in stem cell research and achieved notable progress in clinical applications, concerns linger regarding ethical oversight and transparency. [28] For example, the China Biosecurity Law, promoted by the National Health Commission and China Hospital Association, attempted to mitigate risks by introducing an institutional review board (IRB) in the regulatory bodies. 5800 IRBs registered with the Chinese Clinical Trial Registry since 2021. [29] However, issues still need to be addressed in implementing effective IRB review and approval procedures.

The substantial government funding and focus on scientific advancement have sometimes overshadowed considerations of regional cultures, ethnic minorities, and individual perspectives, particularly evident during the one-child policy era. As government policy adapts to promote public stability, such as the change from the one-child to the two-child policy, [30] research ethics should also adapt to ensure respect for the values of its represented peoples.

Japan is also relatively supportive of stem cell research and therapies. Japan has a more transparent regulatory framework, allowing for faster approval of regenerative medicine products, which has led to several advanced clinical trials and therapies. [31] South Korea is also actively engaged in stem cell research and has a history of breakthroughs in cloning and embryonic stem cells. [32] However, the field is controversial, and there are issues of scientific integrity. For example, the Korean FDA fast-tracked products for approval, [33] and in another instance, the oocyte source was unclear and possibly violated ethical standards. [34] Trust is important in research, as it builds collaborative foundations between colleagues, trial participant comfort, open-mindedness for complicated and sensitive discussions, and supports regulatory procedures for stakeholders. There is a need to respect the culture’s interest, engagement, and for research and clinical trials to be transparent and have ethical oversight to promote global research discourse and trust.

d. Middle East

Countries in the Middle East have varying degrees of acceptance of or restrictions to policies related to using embryonic stem cells due to cultural and religious influences. Saudi Arabia has made significant contributions to stem cell research, and conducts research based on international guidelines for ethical conduct and under strict adherence to guidelines in accordance with Islamic principles. Specifically, the Saudi government and people require ESC research to adhere to Sharia law. In addition to umbilical and placental stem cells, [35] Saudi Arabia permits the use of embryonic stem cells as long as they come from miscarriages, therapeutic abortions permissible by Sharia law, or are left over from in vitro fertilization and donated to research. [36] Laws and ethical guidelines for stem cell research allow the development of research institutions such as the King Abdullah International Medical Research Center, which has a cord blood bank and a stem cell registry with nearly 10,000 donors. [37] Such volume and acceptance are due to the ethical ‘permissibility’ of the donor sources, which do not conflict with religious pillars. However, some researchers err on the side of caution, choosing not to use embryos or fetal tissue as they feel it is unethical to do so. [38]

Jordan has a positive research ethics culture. [39] However, there is a significant issue of lack of trust in researchers, with 45.23 percent (38.66 percent agreeing and 6.57 percent strongly agreeing) of Jordanians holding a low level of trust in researchers, compared to 81.34 percent of Jordanians agreeing that they feel safe to participate in a research trial. [40] Safety testifies to the feeling of confidence that adequate measures are in place to protect participants from harm, whereas trust in researchers could represent the confidence in researchers to act in the participants’ best interests, adhere to ethical guidelines, provide accurate information, and respect participants’ rights and dignity. One method to improve trust would be to address communication issues relevant to ESC. Legislation surrounding stem cell research has adopted specific language, especially concerning clarification “between ‘stem cells’ and ‘embryonic stem cells’” in translation. [41] Furthermore, legislation “mandates the creation of a national committee… laying out specific regulations for stem-cell banking in accordance with international standards.” [42] This broad regulation opens the door for future global engagement and maintains transparency. However, these regulations may also constrain the influence of research direction, pace, and accessibility of research outcomes.

e. Europe

In the European Union (EU), ethics is also principle-based, but the principles of autonomy, dignity, integrity, and vulnerability are interconnected. [43] As such, the opportunity for cohesion and concessions between individuals’ thoughts and ideals allows for a more adaptable ethics model due to the flexible principles that relate to the human experience The EU has put forth a framework in its Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Dignity of the Human Being allowing member states to take different approaches. Each European state applies these principles to its specific conventions, leading to or reflecting different acceptance levels of stem cell research. [44]

For example, in Germany, Lebenzusammenhang , or the coherence of life, references integrity in the unity of human culture. Namely, the personal sphere “should not be subject to external intervention.” [45] Stem cell interventions could affect this concept of bodily completeness, leading to heavy restrictions. Under the Grundgesetz, human dignity and the right to life with physical integrity are paramount. [46] The Embryo Protection Act of 1991 made producing cell lines illegal. Cell lines can be imported if approved by the Central Ethics Commission for Stem Cell Research only if they were derived before May 2007. [47] Stem cell research respects the integrity of life for the embryo with heavy specifications and intense oversight. This is vastly different in Finland, where the regulatory bodies find research more permissible in IVF excess, but only up to 14 days after fertilization. [48] Spain’s approach differs still, with a comprehensive regulatory framework. [49] Thus, research regulation can be culture-specific due to variations in applied principles. Diverse cultures call for various approaches to ethical permissibility. [50] Only an adaptive-deliberative model can address the cultural constructions of self and achieve positive, culturally sensitive stem cell research practices. [51]

II. Religious Perspectives on ESC

Embryonic stem cell sources are the main consideration within religious contexts. While individuals may not regard their own religious texts as authoritative or factual, religion can shape their foundations or perspectives.

The Qur'an states:

“And indeed We created man from a quintessence of clay. Then We placed within him a small quantity of nutfa (sperm to fertilize) in a safe place. Then We have fashioned the nutfa into an ‘alaqa (clinging clot or cell cluster), then We developed the ‘alaqa into mudgha (a lump of flesh), and We made mudgha into bones, and clothed the bones with flesh, then We brought it into being as a new creation. So Blessed is Allah, the Best of Creators.” [52]

Many scholars of Islam estimate the time of soul installment, marked by the angel breathing in the soul to bring the individual into creation, as 120 days from conception. [53] Personhood begins at this point, and the value of life would prohibit research or experimentation that could harm the individual. If the fetus is more than 120 days old, the time ensoulment is interpreted to occur according to Islamic law, abortion is no longer permissible. [54] There are a few opposing opinions about early embryos in Islamic traditions. According to some Islamic theologians, there is no ensoulment of the early embryo, which is the source of stem cells for ESC research. [55]

In Buddhism, the stance on stem cell research is not settled. The main tenets, the prohibition against harming or destroying others (ahimsa) and the pursuit of knowledge (prajña) and compassion (karuna), leave Buddhist scholars and communities divided. [56] Some scholars argue stem cell research is in accordance with the Buddhist tenet of seeking knowledge and ending human suffering. Others feel it violates the principle of not harming others. Finding the balance between these two points relies on the karmic burden of Buddhist morality. In trying to prevent ahimsa towards the embryo, Buddhist scholars suggest that to comply with Buddhist tenets, research cannot be done as the embryo has personhood at the moment of conception and would reincarnate immediately, harming the individual's ability to build their karmic burden. [57] On the other hand, the Bodhisattvas, those considered to be on the path to enlightenment or Nirvana, have given organs and flesh to others to help alleviate grieving and to benefit all. [58] Acceptance varies on applied beliefs and interpretations.

Catholicism does not support embryonic stem cell research, as it entails creation or destruction of human embryos. This destruction conflicts with the belief in the sanctity of life. For example, in the Old Testament, Genesis describes humanity as being created in God’s image and multiplying on the Earth, referencing the sacred rights to human conception and the purpose of development and life. In the Ten Commandments, the tenet that one should not kill has numerous interpretations where killing could mean murder or shedding of the sanctity of life, demonstrating the high value of human personhood. In other books, the theological conception of when life begins is interpreted as in utero, [59] highlighting the inviolability of life and its formation in vivo to make a religious point for accepting such research as relatively limited, if at all. [60] The Vatican has released ethical directives to help apply a theological basis to modern-day conflicts. The Magisterium of the Church states that “unless there is a moral certainty of not causing harm,” experimentation on fetuses, fertilized cells, stem cells, or embryos constitutes a crime. [61] Such procedures would not respect the human person who exists at these stages, according to Catholicism. Damages to the embryo are considered gravely immoral and illicit. [62] Although the Catholic Church officially opposes abortion, surveys demonstrate that many Catholic people hold pro-choice views, whether due to the context of conception, stage of pregnancy, threat to the mother’s life, or for other reasons, demonstrating that practicing members can also accept some but not all tenets. [63]

Some major Jewish denominations, such as the Reform, Conservative, and Reconstructionist movements, are open to supporting ESC use or research as long as it is for saving a life. [64] Within Judaism, the Talmud, or study, gives personhood to the child at birth and emphasizes that life does not begin at conception: [65]

“If she is found pregnant, until the fortieth day it is mere fluid,” [66]

Whereas most religions prioritize the status of human embryos, the Halakah (Jewish religious law) states that to save one life, most other religious laws can be ignored because it is in pursuit of preservation. [67] Stem cell research is accepted due to application of these religious laws.

We recognize that all religions contain subsets and sects. The variety of environmental and cultural differences within religious groups requires further analysis to respect the flexibility of religious thoughts and practices. We make no presumptions that all cultures require notions of autonomy or morality as under the common morality theory , which asserts a set of universal moral norms that all individuals share provides moral reasoning and guides ethical decisions. [68] We only wish to show that the interaction with morality varies between cultures and countries.

III. A Flexible Ethical Approach

The plurality of different moral approaches described above demonstrates that there can be no universally acceptable uniform law for ESC on a global scale. Instead of developing one standard, flexible ethical applications must be continued. We recommend local guidelines that incorporate important cultural and ethical priorities.

While the Declaration of Helsinki is more relevant to people in clinical trials receiving ESC products, in keeping with the tradition of protections for research subjects, consent of the donor is an ethical requirement for ESC donation in many jurisdictions including the US, Canada, and Europe. [69] The Declaration of Helsinki provides a reference point for regulatory standards and could potentially be used as a universal baseline for obtaining consent prior to gamete or embryo donation.

For instance, in Columbia University’s egg donor program for stem cell research, donors followed standard screening protocols and “underwent counseling sessions that included information as to the purpose of oocyte donation for research, what the oocytes would be used for, the risks and benefits of donation, and process of oocyte stimulation” to ensure transparency for consent. [70] The program helped advance stem cell research and provided clear and safe research methods with paid participants. Though paid participation or covering costs of incidental expenses may not be socially acceptable in every culture or context, [71] and creating embryos for ESC research is illegal in many jurisdictions, Columbia’s program was effective because of the clear and honest communications with donors, IRBs, and related stakeholders. This example demonstrates that cultural acceptance of scientific research and of the idea that an egg or embryo does not have personhood is likely behind societal acceptance of donating eggs for ESC research. As noted, many countries do not permit the creation of embryos for research.

Proper communication and education regarding the process and purpose of stem cell research may bolster comprehension and garner more acceptance. “Given the sensitive subject material, a complete consent process can support voluntary participation through trust, understanding, and ethical norms from the cultures and morals participants value. This can be hard for researchers entering countries of different socioeconomic stability, with different languages and different societal values. [72]

An adequate moral foundation in medical ethics is derived from the cultural and religious basis that informs knowledge and actions. [73] Understanding local cultural and religious values and their impact on research could help researchers develop humility and promote inclusion.

IV. Concerns

Some may argue that if researchers all adhere to one ethics standard, protection will be satisfied across all borders, and the global public will trust researchers. However, defining what needs to be protected and how to define such research standards is very specific to the people to which standards are applied. We suggest that applying one uniform guide cannot accurately protect each individual because we all possess our own perceptions and interpretations of social values. [74] Therefore, the issue of not adjusting to the moral pluralism between peoples in applying one standard of ethics can be resolved by building out ethics models that can be adapted to different cultures and religions.

Other concerns include medical tourism, which may promote health inequities. [75] Some countries may develop and approve products derived from ESC research before others, compromising research ethics or drug approval processes. There are also concerns about the sale of unauthorized stem cell treatments, for example, those without FDA approval in the United States. Countries with robust research infrastructures may be tempted to attract medical tourists, and some customers will have false hopes based on aggressive publicity of unproven treatments. [76]

For example, in China, stem cell clinics can market to foreign clients who are not protected under the regulatory regimes. Companies employ a marketing strategy of “ethically friendly” therapies. Specifically, in the case of Beike, China’s leading stem cell tourism company and sprouting network, ethical oversight of administrators or health bureaus at one site has “the unintended consequence of shifting questionable activities to another node in Beike's diffuse network.” [77] In contrast, Jordan is aware of stem cell research’s potential abuse and its own status as a “health-care hub.” Jordan’s expanded regulations include preserving the interests of individuals in clinical trials and banning private companies from ESC research to preserve transparency and the integrity of research practices. [78]

The social priorities of the community are also a concern. The ISSCR explicitly states that guidelines “should be periodically revised to accommodate scientific advances, new challenges, and evolving social priorities.” [79] The adaptable ethics model extends this consideration further by addressing whether research is warranted given the varying degrees of socioeconomic conditions, political stability, and healthcare accessibilities and limitations. An ethical approach would require discussion about resource allocation and appropriate distribution of funds. [80]

While some religions emphasize the sanctity of life from conception, which may lead to public opposition to ESC research, others encourage ESC research due to its potential for healing and alleviating human pain. Many countries have special regulations that balance local views on embryonic personhood, the benefits of research as individual or societal goods, and the protection of human research subjects. To foster understanding and constructive dialogue, global policy frameworks should prioritize the protection of universal human rights, transparency, and informed consent. In addition to these foundational global policies, we recommend tailoring local guidelines to reflect the diverse cultural and religious perspectives of the populations they govern. Ethics models should be adapted to local populations to effectively establish research protections, growth, and possibilities of stem cell research.

For example, in countries with strong beliefs in the moral sanctity of embryos or heavy religious restrictions, an adaptive model can allow for discussion instead of immediate rejection. In countries with limited individual rights and voice in science policy, an adaptive model ensures cultural, moral, and religious views are taken into consideration, thereby building social inclusion. While this ethical consideration by the government may not give a complete voice to every individual, it will help balance policies and maintain the diverse perspectives of those it affects. Embracing an adaptive ethics model of ESC research promotes open-minded dialogue and respect for the importance of human belief and tradition. By actively engaging with cultural and religious values, researchers can better handle disagreements and promote ethical research practices that benefit each society.

This brief exploration of the religious and cultural differences that impact ESC research reveals the nuances of relative ethics and highlights a need for local policymakers to apply a more intense adaptive model.

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[5] Concerning the moral philosophies of stem cell research, our paper does not posit a personal moral stance nor delve into the “when” of human life begins. To read further about the philosophical debate, consider the following sources:

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[7] Socially, at its core, the Western approach to ethics is widely principle-based, autonomy being one of the key factors to ensure a fundamental respect for persons within research. For information regarding autonomy in research, see: Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, & National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research (1978). The Belmont Report. Ethical principles and guidelines for the protection of human subjects of research.; For a more in-depth review of autonomy within the US, see: Beauchamp, T. L., & Childress, J. F. (1994). Principles of Biomedical Ethics . Oxford University Press.

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[9] Stem Cell Research Enhancement Act of 2005, H. R. 810, 109 th Cong. (2001). https://www.govtrack.us/congress/bills/109/hr810/text ; Bush, G. W. (2006, July 19). Message to the House of Representatives . National Archives and Records Administration. https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2006/07/20060719-5.html

[10] National Archives and Records Administration. (2009, March 9). Executive order 13505 -- removing barriers to responsible scientific research involving human stem cells . National Archives and Records Administration. https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/removing-barriers-responsible-scientific-research-involving-human-stem-cells

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[13] Source for further reading: Tangwa G. B. (2007). Moral status of embryonic stem cells: perspective of an African villager. Bioethics , 21(8), 449–457. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8519.2007.00582.x , see also Mnisi, F. M. (2020). An African analysis based on ethics of Ubuntu - are human embryonic stem cell patents morally justifiable? African Insight , 49 (4).

[14] Jecker, N. S., & Atuire, C. (2021). Bioethics in Africa: A contextually enlightened analysis of three cases. Developing World Bioethics , 22 (2), 112–122. https://doi.org/10.1111/dewb.12324

[15] Jecker, N. S., & Atuire, C. (2021). Bioethics in Africa: A contextually enlightened analysis of three cases. Developing World Bioethics, 22(2), 112–122. https://doi.org/10.1111/dewb.12324

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[17] Department of Health Republic of South Africa. (2021). Health Research Priorities (revised) for South Africa 2021-2024 . National Health Research Strategy. https://www.health.gov.za/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/National-Health-Research-Priorities-2021-2024.pdf

[18] Oosthuizen, H. (2013). Legal and Ethical Issues in Stem Cell Research in South Africa. In: Beran, R. (eds) Legal and Forensic Medicine. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-32338-6_80 , see also: Gaobotse G (2018) Stem Cell Research in Africa: Legislation and Challenges. J Regen Med 7:1. doi: 10.4172/2325-9620.1000142

[19] United States Bureau of Citizenship and Immigration Services. (1998). Tunisia: Information on the status of Christian conversions in Tunisia . UNHCR Web Archive. https://webarchive.archive.unhcr.org/20230522142618/https://www.refworld.org/docid/3df0be9a2.html

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[21] Kooli, C. Review of assisted reproduction techniques, laws, and regulations in Muslim countries. Middle East Fertil Soc J 24 , 8 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1186/s43043-019-0011-0 ; Gaobotse, G. (2018) Stem Cell Research in Africa: Legislation and Challenges. J Regen Med 7:1. doi: 10.4172/2325-9620.1000142

[22] Pang M. C. (1999). Protective truthfulness: the Chinese way of safeguarding patients in informed treatment decisions. Journal of medical ethics , 25(3), 247–253. https://doi.org/10.1136/jme.25.3.247

[23] Wang, L., Wang, F., & Zhang, W. (2021). Bioethics in China’s biosecurity law: Forms, effects, and unsettled issues. Journal of law and the biosciences , 8(1). https://doi.org/10.1093/jlb/lsab019 https://academic.oup.com/jlb/article/8/1/lsab019/6299199

[24] Wang, Y., Xue, Y., & Guo, H. D. (2022). Intervention effects of traditional Chinese medicine on stem cell therapy of myocardial infarction. Frontiers in pharmacology , 13 , 1013740. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2022.1013740

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[30] Chen, H., Wei, T., Wang, H. et al. Association of China’s two-child policy with changes in number of births and birth defects rate, 2008–2017. BMC Public Health 22 , 434 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-022-12839-0

[31] Azuma, K. Regulatory Landscape of Regenerative Medicine in Japan. Curr Stem Cell Rep 1 , 118–128 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40778-015-0012-6

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[35] Alahmad, G., Aljohani, S., & Najjar, M. F. (2020). Ethical challenges regarding the use of stem cells: interviews with researchers from Saudi Arabia. BMC medical ethics, 21(1), 35. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12910-020-00482-6

[36] Association for the Advancement of Blood and Biotherapies. https://www.aabb.org/regulatory-and-advocacy/regulatory-affairs/regulatory-for-cellular-therapies/international-competent-authorities/saudi-arabia

[37] Alahmad, G., Aljohani, S., & Najjar, M. F. (2020). Ethical challenges regarding the use of stem cells: Interviews with researchers from Saudi Arabia. BMC medical ethics , 21 (1), 35. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12910-020-00482-6

[38] Alahmad, G., Aljohani, S., & Najjar, M. F. (2020). Ethical challenges regarding the use of stem cells: Interviews with researchers from Saudi Arabia. BMC medical ethics , 21(1), 35. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12910-020-00482-6

Culturally, autonomy practices follow a relational autonomy approach based on a paternalistic deontological health care model. The adherence to strict international research policies and religious pillars within the regulatory environment is a great foundation for research ethics. However, there is a need to develop locally targeted ethics approaches for research (as called for in Alahmad, G., Aljohani, S., & Najjar, M. F. (2020). Ethical challenges regarding the use of stem cells: interviews with researchers from Saudi Arabia. BMC medical ethics, 21(1), 35. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12910-020-00482-6), this decision-making approach may help advise a research decision model. For more on the clinical cultural autonomy approaches, see: Alabdullah, Y. Y., Alzaid, E., Alsaad, S., Alamri, T., Alolayan, S. W., Bah, S., & Aljoudi, A. S. (2022). Autonomy and paternalism in Shared decision‐making in a Saudi Arabian tertiary hospital: A cross‐sectional study. Developing World Bioethics , 23 (3), 260–268. https://doi.org/10.1111/dewb.12355 ; Bukhari, A. A. (2017). Universal Principles of Bioethics and Patient Rights in Saudi Arabia (Doctoral dissertation, Duquesne University). https://dsc.duq.edu/etd/124; Ladha, S., Nakshawani, S. A., Alzaidy, A., & Tarab, B. (2023, October 26). Islam and Bioethics: What We All Need to Know . Columbia University School of Professional Studies. https://sps.columbia.edu/events/islam-and-bioethics-what-we-all-need-know

[39] Ababneh, M. A., Al-Azzam, S. I., Alzoubi, K., Rababa’h, A., & Al Demour, S. (2021). Understanding and attitudes of the Jordanian public about clinical research ethics. Research Ethics , 17 (2), 228-241. https://doi.org/10.1177/1747016120966779

[40] Ababneh, M. A., Al-Azzam, S. I., Alzoubi, K., Rababa’h, A., & Al Demour, S. (2021). Understanding and attitudes of the Jordanian public about clinical research ethics. Research Ethics , 17 (2), 228-241. https://doi.org/10.1177/1747016120966779

[41] Dajani, R. (2014). Jordan’s stem-cell law can guide the Middle East. Nature 510, 189. https://doi.org/10.1038/510189a

[42] Dajani, R. (2014). Jordan’s stem-cell law can guide the Middle East. Nature 510, 189. https://doi.org/10.1038/510189a

[43] The EU’s definition of autonomy relates to the capacity for creating ideas, moral insight, decisions, and actions without constraint, personal responsibility, and informed consent. However, the EU views autonomy as not completely able to protect individuals and depends on other principles, such as dignity, which “expresses the intrinsic worth and fundamental equality of all human beings.” Rendtorff, J.D., Kemp, P. (2019). Four Ethical Principles in European Bioethics and Biolaw: Autonomy, Dignity, Integrity and Vulnerability. In: Valdés, E., Lecaros, J. (eds) Biolaw and Policy in the Twenty-First Century. International Library of Ethics, Law, and the New Medicine, vol 78. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-05903-3_3

[44] Council of Europe. Convention for the protection of Human Rights and Dignity of the Human Being with regard to the Application of Biology and Medicine: Convention on Human Rights and Biomedicine (ETS No. 164) https://www.coe.int/en/web/conventions/full-list?module=treaty-detail&treatynum=164 (forbidding the creation of embryos for research purposes only, and suggests embryos in vitro have protections.); Also see Drabiak-Syed B. K. (2013). New President, New Human Embryonic Stem Cell Research Policy: Comparative International Perspectives and Embryonic Stem Cell Research Laws in France. Biotechnology Law Report , 32 (6), 349–356. https://doi.org/10.1089/blr.2013.9865

[45] Rendtorff, J.D., Kemp, P. (2019). Four Ethical Principles in European Bioethics and Biolaw: Autonomy, Dignity, Integrity and Vulnerability. In: Valdés, E., Lecaros, J. (eds) Biolaw and Policy in the Twenty-First Century. International Library of Ethics, Law, and the New Medicine, vol 78. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-05903-3_3

[46] Tomuschat, C., Currie, D. P., Kommers, D. P., & Kerr, R. (Trans.). (1949, May 23). Basic law for the Federal Republic of Germany. https://www.btg-bestellservice.de/pdf/80201000.pdf

[47] Regulation of Stem Cell Research in Germany . Eurostemcell. (2017, April 26). https://www.eurostemcell.org/regulation-stem-cell-research-germany

[48] Regulation of Stem Cell Research in Finland . Eurostemcell. (2017, April 26). https://www.eurostemcell.org/regulation-stem-cell-research-finland

[49] Regulation of Stem Cell Research in Spain . Eurostemcell. (2017, April 26). https://www.eurostemcell.org/regulation-stem-cell-research-spain

[50] Some sources to consider regarding ethics models or regulatory oversights of other cultures not covered:

Kara MA. Applicability of the principle of respect for autonomy: the perspective of Turkey. J Med Ethics. 2007 Nov;33(11):627-30. doi: 10.1136/jme.2006.017400. PMID: 17971462; PMCID: PMC2598110.

Ugarte, O. N., & Acioly, M. A. (2014). The principle of autonomy in Brazil: one needs to discuss it ... Revista do Colegio Brasileiro de Cirurgioes , 41 (5), 374–377. https://doi.org/10.1590/0100-69912014005013

Bharadwaj, A., & Glasner, P. E. (2012). Local cells, global science: The rise of embryonic stem cell research in India . Routledge.

For further research on specific European countries regarding ethical and regulatory framework, we recommend this database: Regulation of Stem Cell Research in Europe . Eurostemcell. (2017, April 26). https://www.eurostemcell.org/regulation-stem-cell-research-europe

[51] Klitzman, R. (2006). Complications of culture in obtaining informed consent. The American Journal of Bioethics, 6(1), 20–21. https://doi.org/10.1080/15265160500394671 see also: Ekmekci, P. E., & Arda, B. (2017). Interculturalism and Informed Consent: Respecting Cultural Differences without Breaching Human Rights. Cultura (Iasi, Romania) , 14 (2), 159–172.; For why trust is important in research, see also: Gray, B., Hilder, J., Macdonald, L., Tester, R., Dowell, A., & Stubbe, M. (2017). Are research ethics guidelines culturally competent? Research Ethics , 13 (1), 23-41. https://doi.org/10.1177/1747016116650235

[52] The Qur'an (M. Khattab, Trans.). (1965). Al-Mu’minun, 23: 12-14. https://quran.com/23

[53] Lenfest, Y. (2017, December 8). Islam and the beginning of human life . Bill of Health. https://blog.petrieflom.law.harvard.edu/2017/12/08/islam-and-the-beginning-of-human-life/

[54] Aksoy, S. (2005). Making regulations and drawing up legislation in Islamic countries under conditions of uncertainty, with special reference to embryonic stem cell research. Journal of Medical Ethics , 31: 399-403.; see also: Mahmoud, Azza. "Islamic Bioethics: National Regulations and Guidelines of Human Stem Cell Research in the Muslim World." Master's thesis, Chapman University, 2022. https://doi.org/10.36837/ chapman.000386

[55] Rashid, R. (2022). When does Ensoulment occur in the Human Foetus. Journal of the British Islamic Medical Association , 12 (4). ISSN 2634 8071. https://www.jbima.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/01/2-Ethics-3_-Ensoulment_Rafaqat.pdf.

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[57] Jafari, M., Elahi, F., Ozyurt, S. & Wrigley, T. (2007). 4. Religious Perspectives on Embryonic Stem Cell Research. In K. Monroe, R. Miller & J. Tobis (Ed.), Fundamentals of the Stem Cell Debate: The Scientific, Religious, Ethical, and Political Issues (pp. 79-94). Berkeley: University of California Press. https://escholarship.org/content/qt9rj0k7s3/qt9rj0k7s3_noSplash_f9aca2e02c3777c7fb76ea768ba458f0.pdf https://doi.org/10.1525/9780520940994-005

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[59] There is no explicit religious reference to when life begins or how to conduct research that interacts with the concept of life. However, these are relevant verses pertaining to how the fetus is viewed. (( King James Bible . (1999). Oxford University Press. (original work published 1769))

Jerimiah 1: 5 “Before I formed thee in the belly I knew thee; and before thou camest forth out of the womb I sanctified thee…”

In prophet Jerimiah’s insight, God set him apart as a person known before childbirth, a theme carried within the Psalm of David.

Psalm 139: 13-14 “…Thou hast covered me in my mother's womb. I will praise thee; for I am fearfully and wonderfully made…”

These verses demonstrate David’s respect for God as an entity that would know of all man’s thoughts and doings even before birth.

[60] It should be noted that abortion is not supported as well.

[61] The Vatican. (1987, February 22). Instruction on Respect for Human Life in Its Origin and on the Dignity of Procreation Replies to Certain Questions of the Day . Congregation For the Doctrine of the Faith. https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/cfaith/documents/rc_con_cfaith_doc_19870222_respect-for-human-life_en.html

[62] The Vatican. (2000, August 25). Declaration On the Production and the Scientific and Therapeutic Use of Human Embryonic Stem Cells . Pontifical Academy for Life. https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/pontifical_academies/acdlife/documents/rc_pa_acdlife_doc_20000824_cellule-staminali_en.html ; Ohara, N. (2003). Ethical Consideration of Experimentation Using Living Human Embryos: The Catholic Church’s Position on Human Embryonic Stem Cell Research and Human Cloning. Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology . Retrieved from https://article.imrpress.com/journal/CEOG/30/2-3/pii/2003018/77-81.pdf.

[63] Smith, G. A. (2022, May 23). Like Americans overall, Catholics vary in their abortion views, with regular mass attenders most opposed . Pew Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2022/05/23/like-americans-overall-catholics-vary-in-their-abortion-views-with-regular-mass-attenders-most-opposed/

[64] Rosner, F., & Reichman, E. (2002). Embryonic stem cell research in Jewish law. Journal of halacha and contemporary society , (43), 49–68.; Jafari, M., Elahi, F., Ozyurt, S. & Wrigley, T. (2007). 4. Religious Perspectives on Embryonic Stem Cell Research. In K. Monroe, R. Miller & J. Tobis (Ed.), Fundamentals of the Stem Cell Debate: The Scientific, Religious, Ethical, and Political Issues (pp. 79-94). Berkeley: University of California Press. https://escholarship.org/content/qt9rj0k7s3/qt9rj0k7s3_noSplash_f9aca2e02c3777c7fb76ea768ba458f0.pdf https://doi.org/10.1525/9780520940994-005

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[67] Jafari, M., Elahi, F., Ozyurt, S. & Wrigley, T. (2007). 4. Religious Perspectives on Embryonic Stem Cell Research. In K. Monroe, R. Miller & J. Tobis (Ed.), Fundamentals of the Stem Cell Debate: The Scientific, Religious, Ethical, and Political Issues (pp. 79-94). Berkeley: University of California Press. https://escholarship.org/content/qt9rj0k7s3/qt9rj0k7s3_noSplash_f9aca2e02c3777c7fb76ea768ba458f0.pdf https://doi.org/10.1525/9780520940994-005

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Mifrah Hayath

SM Candidate Harvard Medical School, MS Biotechnology Johns Hopkins University

Olivia Bowers

MS Bioethics Columbia University (Disclosure: affiliated with Voices in Bioethics)

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Published: 10 May 2024

Challenges and opportunities of English as the medium of instruction in diploma midwifery programs in Bangladesh: a mixed-methods study

Anna Williams 1 ,
Jennifer R. Stevens 2 ,
Rondi Anderson 3 &
Malin Bogren 4

BMC Medical Education volume 24 , Article number: 523 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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English is generally recognized as the international language of science and most research on evidence-based medicine is produced in English. While Bangla is the dominant language in Bangladesh, public midwifery degree programs use English as the medium of instruction (EMI). This enables faculty and student access to the latest evidence-based midwifery content, which is essential for provision of quality care later. Yet, it also poses a barrier, as limited English mastery among students and faculty limits both teaching and learning.

This mixed-methods study investigates the challenges and opportunities associated with the implementation of EMI in the context of diploma midwifery education in Bangladesh. Surveys were sent to principals at 38 public midwifery education institutions, and 14 English instructors at those schools. Additionally, ten key informant interviews were held with select knowledgeable stakeholders with key themes identified.

Surveys found that English instructors are primarily guest lecturers, trained in general or business English, without a standardized curriculum or functional English language laboratories. Three themes were identified in the key informant interviews. First, in addition to students’ challenges with English, faculty mastery of English presented challenges as well. Second, language labs were poorly maintained, often non-functional, and lacked faculty. Third, an alternative education model, such as the English for Specific Purposes (ESP) curriculum, has potential to strengthen English competencies within midwifery schools.

Conclusions

ESP, which teaches English for application in a specific discipline, is one option available in Bangladesh for midwifery education. Native language instruction and the middle ground of multilingualism are also useful options. Although a major undertaking, investing in an ESP model and translation of technical midwifery content into relevant mother tongues may provide faster and more complete learning. In addition, a tiered system of requirements for English competencies tied to higher levels of midwifery education could build bridges to students to help them access global evidence-based care resources. Higher levels might emphasize English more heavily, while the diploma level would follow a multilingualism approach, teach using an ESP curriculum, and have complementary emphasis on the mother tongue.

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Introduction

As the international language of science, English holds an important position in the education of healthcare professionals. Globally, most scientific papers are published in English. In many non-native English-speaking countries, English is used as the language of instruction in higher education [ 1 ]. The dominant status held by the English language in the sciences is largely considered to increase global access to scientific information by unifying the scientific community under a single lingua franca [ 2 ].

In Bangladesh, where the mother tongue is Bangla and midwifery diploma programs are taught in English, knowledge of English facilitates student and instructor access to global, continuously updated evidence-based practice guidance. This includes basic and scientific texts, media-based instructional materials (including on life-saving skills), professional journals, and proceedings of medical conferences. Many of these resources are available for free online, which can be particularly useful in healthcare settings that have not integrated evidence-based practice.

In addition to opportunity though, English instruction also creates several challenges. Weak student and faculty English competency may impede midwifery education quality in Bangladesh. Globally, literature has linked limited instructor competency in the language of instruction with reduced depth, nuance, and accuracy in conveying subject matter content [ 3 ]. This can lead to the perpetuation of patterns of care in misalignment with global evidence. In addition, students’ native language proficiency in their topic of study can decline when instruction is in English, limiting native language communication between colleagues on the job later on [ 4 , 5 ].

In this paper, we examine the current status of English language instruction within public diploma midwifery programs in Bangladesh. Midwifery students are not required to demonstrate a certain skill level in English to enter the program. However, they are provided with English classes in the program. Midwifery course materials are in English, while—for ease and practicality—teaching aids and verbal classroom instruction are provided in Bangla. Following graduation, midwifery students must pass a national licensing exam given in English to practice. Upon passing, some new midwives are deployed as public employees and are posted to sub-district health facilities where English is not used by either providers or clients. Others will seek employment as part of non-governmental organization (NGO) projects where English competency can be of value for interacting with global communities, and for participating in NGO-specific on-the-job learning opportunities. The mix of both challenge and opportunity in this context is complex.

Our analysis examines the reasons for the identified English competency gaps within midwifery programs, and potential solutions. We synthesize the findings and discuss solutions in the context of the global literature. Finally, we present a set of viable options for strengthening English competencies among midwifery faculty and students to enable better quality teaching and greater learning comprehension among students.

Study design

We employed a mixed-methods study design [ 6 ] in order to assess the quality of English instruction within education programs, and options for its improvement. Data collection consisted of two surveys of education institutes, a web-search of available English programs in Bangladesh, and key informant interviews. Both surveys followed a structured questionnaire with a combination of open- and closed-ended questions and were designed by the authors. One survey targeted the 38 institute principals and the other targeted 14 of the institutes’ 38 English instructors (those for whom contact information was shared). The web-search focused on generating a list of available English programs in Bangladesh that had viable models that could be tapped into to strengthen English competencies among midwifery faculty and students. Key informant interviews were unstructured and intended to substantiate and deepen understanding of the survey and web-search findings.

No minimum requirements exist for students’ English competencies upon entry into midwifery diploma programs. Students enter directly from higher secondary school (12th standard) and complete the midwifery program over a period of three years. Most students come from modest economic backgrounds having completed their primary and secondary education in Bangla. While English instruction is part of students’ secondary education, skill attainment is low, and assessment standards are not in place to ensure student mastery. To join the program, midwifery students are required to pass a multi-subject entrance exam that includes a component on English competency. However, as no minimum English standard must be met, the exam does not screen out potential midwifery students. Scoring, for instance, is not broken down by subject. This makes it possible to answer zero questions correctly in up to three of the subjects, including English, and pass the exam.

Processes/data collection

Prior to the first survey, principals were contacted by UNFPA with information about the survey and all provided verbal consent to participate. The survey of principals collected general information about the resources available for English instruction at the institutes. It was a nine-item questionnaire with a mix of Yes/No, multiple choice and write-in questions. Specific measures of interest were whether and how many English instructors the institutes had, instructors’ hiring criteria, whether institutes had language labs and if they were in use, and principals’ views on the need for English courses and their ideal mode of delivery (e.g., in-person, online, or a combination). This survey also gathered contact information of institute English instructors. These measures were chosen as they were intended to provide a high-level picture of institutes’ English resources such as faculty availability and qualifications, and use of language labs. To ensure questions were appropriately framed, a pilot test was conducted with two institute principals and small adjustments were subsequently made. Responses were shared via an electronic form sent by email and were used to inform the second survey as well as the key informant interviews. Of the 38 principals, 36 completed the survey.

The second survey, targeting English instructors, gathered information on instructors’ type of employment (e.g., institute faculty or adjunct lecturers); length of employment; student academic focus (e.g., midwifery or nursing); hours of English instruction provided as part of the midwifery diploma program; whether a standard English curriculum was used and if it was tailored toward the healthcare profession; use of digital content in teaching; education and experience in English teaching; and their views on student barriers to learning English. These measures were chosen to provide a basic criterion for assessing quality of English instruction, materials and resources available to students. For instance, instructors’ status as faculty would indicate a stronger degree of integration and belonging to the institute midwifery program than a guest lecturer status which allows for part time instruction with little job security. In addition, use of a standard, professionally developed English curriculum and integration of digital content into classroom learning would be indicative of higher quality than learning materials developed informally by instructors themselves without use of listening content by native speakers in classrooms. The survey was piloted with two English instructors. Based on their feedback, minor adjustments were made to one question, and it was determined that responses were best gathered by phone due to instructors’ limited internet access. Of the 14 instructors contacted, 11 were reached and provided survey responses by phone.

The web-search gathered information on available English language instruction programs for adults in Bangladesh, and the viability of tapping into any of them to improve English competency among midwifery students and faculty. Keywords Bangladesh + English courses , English training , English classes , study English and learn English were typed into Google’s search platform. Eleven English language instruction programs were identified. Following this, each program was contacted either by phone or email and further detail about the program’s offerings was collected.

Unstructured key informant interviews were carried out with select knowledgeable individuals to substantiate and enhance the credibility of the survey and web-search findings. Three in-country expert English language instructors and four managers of English language teaching programs were interviewed. In addition, interviews were held with three national-level stakeholders knowledgeable about work to make functional technologically advanced English language laboratories that had been installed at many of the training institutes. Question prompts included queries such as, ‘In your experience, what are the major barriers to Bangla-medium educated students studying in English at the university level?’, ‘What effective methods or curricula are you aware of for improving student English to an appropriate competency level for successful learning in English?’, and, ‘What options do you see for the language lab/s being used, either in their originally intended capacity or otherwise?’

Data analysis

All data were analyzed by the lead researcher. Survey data were entered into a master Excel file and grouped descriptively to highlight trends and outliers, and ultimately enable a clear description of the structure and basic quality attributes (e.g., instructors’ education, hours of English instruction, and curriculum development resources used). Web-search findings were compiled in a second Excel file with columns distinguishing whether they taught general English (often aimed at preparing students for international standard exams), Business English, or English for Specific Purposes (ESP). This enabled separation of standalone English courses taught by individual instructors as part of vocational or academic programs of study in other fields, and programs with an exclusive focus on English language acquisition. Key informant interviews were summarized in a standard notes format using Word. An inductive process of content analysis was carried out, in which content categories were identified and structured to create coherent meaning [ 7 ]. From this, the key overall findings and larger themes that grew from the initial survey and web-search results were drawn out.

The surveys (Tables 1 and 2 ) found that English instructors are primarily long-term male guest lecturers employed at each institute for more than two years. All principal respondents indicated that there is a need for English instruction—18 of the 19 reported that this is best done through a combination of in-person and computer-based instruction. Ten institutes reported that they have an English language lab, but none were used as such. The other institutes did not have language labs. The reported reasons for the labs not being in use were a lack of trained staff to operate them and some components of the technology not being installed or working properly. The findings from the instructors’ survey indicated that English instructors typically develop their own learning materials and teach general English without tailoring content to healthcare contexts. Only two mentioned using a standard textbook to guide their instruction and one described consulting a range of English textbooks to develop learning content. None reported using online or other digital tools for language instruction in their classrooms. Most instructors had an advanced degree (i.e., master’s degree) in English, and seven had received training in teaching English. Interviews with instructors also revealed that they themselves did not have mastery of English, as communication barriers in speaking over the phone appeared consistently across 10 of the 11 instructor respondents.

The web-search and related follow up interviews found that most English instruction programs (10 out of the 11) were designed for teaching general English and/or business English. The majority were offered through private entities aiming to reach individuals intending to study abroad, access employment that required English, or improve their ability to navigate business endeavors in English. One program, developed by the British Council, had flexibility to tailor its structure and some of its content to the needs of midwifery students. However, this was limited in that a significant portion of the content that would be used was developed for global audiences and thus not tailored to a Bangladeshi audience or to any specific discipline. One of the university English programs offered a promising ESP model tailored to midwifery students. It was designed by BRAC University’s Institute of Language for the university’s private midwifery training program.

Three themes emerged from the other key informant interviews (Table 3 ). The first was that, in addition to students’ challenges with English, faculty mastery of English presented challenges as well. Of the 34 faculty members intending to participate in the 2019–2020 cohort for the Dalarna master’s degree, half did not pass the prerequisite English exam. Ultimately, simultaneous English-Bangla translation was necessary for close to half of the faculty to enable their participation in the master’s program. English language limitations also precluded one faculty member from participating in an international PhD program in midwifery.

The second theme highlighted the language labs’ lack of usability. The language labs consisted of computers, an interactive whiteboard, audio-visual equipment, and associated software to allow for individualized direct interactions between teacher and student. However, due to the lack of appropriately trained staff to manage, care for and use the language lab equipment, the investment required to make the labs functional appeared to outweigh the learning advantages doing so would provide. Interviews revealed that work was being done, supported by a donor agency, on just one language lab, to explore whether it could be made functional. The work was described as costly and challenging, and required purchasing a software license from abroad, thus likely being impractical to apply to the other labs and sustain over multiple years.

The third theme was around the ESP curriculum model. The program developers had employed evidence-informed thinking to develop the ESP learning content and consulted student midwives on their learning preferences. Due to the student input, at least 80% of the content was designed to directly relate to the practice of midwifery in Bangladesh, while the remaining 10–20% references globally relevant content. This balance was struck based on students’ expressed interest in having some exposure to English usage outside of Bangladesh for their personal interest. For conversation practice, the modules integrated realistic scenarios of midwives interacting with doctors, nurses and patients. Also built into written activities were exercises where students were prompted to describe relevant health topics they are concurrently studying in their health, science or clinical classes. Given the midwifery students’ educational backgrounds and intended placements in rural parts of Bangladesh, an ESP curriculum model appeared to be the most beneficial existing program to pursue tapping into to strengthen English competencies within midwifery programs. This was because the content would likely be more accessible to students than a general English course by having vocabulary, activities and examples directly relevant to the midwifery profession.

The study findings demonstrate key weaknesses in the current model of English instruction taught in public midwifery programs. Notably, the quantitative findings revealed that some English instructors do not have training in teaching English, and none used standard curricula or online resources to structure and enhance their classroom content. In addition, weak mastery of English among midwifery faculty was identified in the qualitative data, which calls into question faculty’s ability to fully understand and accurately convey content from English learning materials. Global literature indicates that this is not a unique situation. Many healthcare faculty and students in low-resource settings, in fact, are faced with delivering and acquiring knowledge in a language they have not sufficiently mastered [ 8 ]. As a significant barrier to knowledge and skill acquisition for evidence-based care, this requires more attention from global midwifery educators [ 9 ].

Also holding back students’ English development is the finding from both the quantitative and qualitative data that none of the high-tech language labs were being used as intended. This indicates a misalignment with the investment against the reality of the resources at the institutes to use them. While setting up the costly language labs appears to have been a large investment with little to no return, it does demonstrate that strengthening English language instruction in post-secondary public education settings is a priority that the Bangladesh government is willing to invest in. However, scaling up access to an ESP curriculum model tailored to future midwifery practitioners in Bangladesh may be a more worthwhile investment than language labs [ 10 ].

The ESP approach teaches English for application in a specific discipline. It does this by using vocabulary, examples, demonstrations, scenarios and practice activities that are directly related to the context and professions those studying English live and work (or are preparing to work) in. One way ESP has been described, attributed to Hutchinson and Waters (1987), is, “ESP should properly be seen not as any particular language product but as an approach to language teaching in which all decisions as to content and method are based on the learner’s reason for learning” [ 11 ]. It is proposed by linguistic education researchers as a viable model for strengthening language mastery and subject matter comprehension in EMI university contexts [ 12 ].

Though it did not arise as a finding, reviewing the literature highlighted that Bangla language instruction may be an additional, potentially viable option. Linguistic research has long shown that students learn more thoroughly and efficiently in their mother tongue [ 12 ]. Another perhaps more desirable option may be multilingualism, which entails recognizing native languages as complementary in EMI classrooms, and using them through verbal instruction and supplemental course materials. Kirkpatrick, a leading scholar of EMI in Asia, suggests that multilingualism be formally integrated into EMI university settings [ 13 ]. This approach is supported by evidence showing that the amount of native language support students need for optimal learning is inversely proportional to their degree of English proficiency [ 14 ].

Ultimately, despite the language related learning limitations identified in this study, and the opportunities presented by native language and multilingualism approaches, there remains a fundamental need for members of the midwifery profession in Bangladesh to use up-to-date guidance on evidence-based midwifery care [ 11 ]. Doing that currently requires English language competence. Perhaps a tiered system of requirements for English competencies that are tied to diploma, Bachelor’s, Master’s and PhD midwifery programs could build bridges for more advanced students to access global resources. Higher academic levels might emphasize English more heavily, while the diploma level could follow a multilingualism approach—teaching using an ESP curriculum and integrating Bangla strategically to support optimal knowledge acquisition for future practice in rural facilities. Ideally, scores on a standard English competency exam would be used to assess students’ language competencies prior to entrance in English-based programs and that this would require more stringent English skill development prior to entering a midwifery program.

Methodological considerations

One of the limitations of this study is that it relied on self-reports and observation, rather than tested language and subject matter competencies. Its strengths though are in the relatively large number of education institutes that participated in the study, and the breadth of knowledge about faculty and student subject matter expertise among study co-authors. It was recognized that the lead researcher might be biased toward pre-determined perceptions of English competencies being a barrier to teaching and learning held by the lead institution (UNFPA). It was also recognized that due to the inherent power imbalance between researcher and participants, the manner of gathering data and engaging with stakeholders may contribute to confirmation bias, with respondents primarily sharing what they anticipated the researcher wished to hear (e.g., that English needed strengthening and the lead agency should take action to support the strengthening). The researcher thus engaged with participants independently of UNFPA and employed reflexivity by designing and carrying out the surveys to remotely collect standard data from institutes, as well as casting a wide net across institutes to increase broad representation. In addition, while institutes were informed that the surveys were gathering information about the English instruction within the institutes, no information was shared about potential new support to institutes. Finally, the researcher validated and gathered further details on the relevant information identified in the surveys through key informant interviews, which were held with stakeholders independent of UNFPA.

Adapting and scaling up the existing ESP modules found in this study, and integrating Bangla where it can enhance subject-matter learning, may be a useful way to help midwifery students and faculty improve their knowledge, skills, and critical thinking related to the field of midwifery. Given the educational backgrounds and likely work locations of most midwives in Bangladesh and many other LMICs, practitioners may want to consider investing in more opportunities for local midwives to teach and learn in their mother tongue. This type of investment would ideally be paired with a tiered system in which more advanced English competencies are required at higher-levels of education to ensure integration of global, evidence-based approaches into local standards of care.

Declarations.

Data availability

The datasets used and analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

Abbreviations

Bangladesh Rehabilitation Assistance Committee

English medium instruction

English for Specific Purposes

Low- and Middle-Income Countries

Ministry of Health and Family Welfare

United Nations Population Fund

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Acknowledgements

The authors acknowledge Farida Begum, Rabeya Basri, and Pronita Raha for their contributions to data collection for this assessment.

This project under which this study was carried out was funded by funded by the Foreign Commonwealth and Development Office.

Open access funding provided by University of Gothenburg.

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Authors contributions in the development of this paper were as follows: AW- Concept, acquisition, drafting, revision, analysis, interpretation. JRS- Concept, revision. RA- Concept, analysis MB- Revision, analysis, interpretationAll authors read and approved the final manuscript.

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This study was part of a larger project in Bangladesh approved by the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare (MOHFW) with project ID UZJ31. The MOHFW project approval allows data collection of this type, that is carried out as part of routine program monitoring and improvement, including informed verbal consent for surveys and key informant interviews.

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Williams, A., Stevens, J., Anderson, R. et al. Challenges and opportunities of English as the medium of instruction in diploma midwifery programs in Bangladesh: a mixed-methods study. BMC Med Educ 24 , 523 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-024-05499-8

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Received : 31 July 2023

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Published : 10 May 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-024-05499-8