research methodology for synopsis

How to Write a Synopsis for Your Research |Steps in the Ph.D. Process

What is a Synopsis? Why do you need a synopsis for your doctoral research? What is the importance of a synopsis? How do you write and format a synopsis for your Ph.D.?

A synopsis, simply put, is a detailed summary of your research work that you will be doing for your doctoral degree.A synopsis is different from an abstract. You will submit your synopsis at the start of your research work along with your thesis title.

In simple terms, your synopsis is a write up which contains what you will be researching, the significance of your research to the field and how you will go about conducting this research. This document will be submitted before you start your research work and acts as a summary of what you plan to do in your research. In contrast, an abstract is the summary of your whole research thesis and will be written after the research is done and will be included along with your thesis.

The most important or significant use of a synopsis or why you should submit a synopsis is because this is the document that convinces the academic committee of your university as to why they should approve your research proposal. This is why the significance or contribution from your research to that particular field is included in the synopsis.

Writing a synopsis for your Ph.D. is an easy process once you have a clear idea about your research. The format of your synopsis will depend upon the guidelines provided by your university but we will provide you with a general outline on how to write a synopsis for a Ph.D.

The format for a synopsis will be as follows:

• Title of your research thesis: The title of your research project should be clearly defined in your synopsis. This will act as a clear indication of what your research is going to be.
• Introduction:Your introduction will contain a summary of the current level of knowledge in your field of research, the gaps in this knowledge and what your research will contribute to fill these gaps.
• Literature Review: Literature reviews are brief summaries of works that have already been published in journals and other academic forums which are concerned with the field of your research. You need to critically appraise what others have done and what they have found out pertaining to your field of research. Through this you can highlight where their work can be expanded on through your research.
• Aims and Objectives: This part of your synopsis is clear from its title. What is the aim of your research? What are you trying to find out? What are the objectives you are trying to achieve by conducting this research? You need to be very clear and concise while writing the aims and objectives of your research in the synopsis.
• Research Methodology: This is a very important part of your synopsis. Research methodology can be defined as“the specific procedures or techniques used to identify, select, process, and analyse information about a topic”. In your synopsis you need to include the outline of your research process, i.e.: how you will be doing your research. In this section you need to include the tools and equipment you will be using, how you will collect your data, and the methods you will use to analyse this collected data. Your research methodology will provide an insight into whether your research is achievable.
• References: You need to provide a list of all the material that you have referred to in the process of writing your synopsis. The format of how to list your references will be provided by your university.
• Conclusion:In the conclusion of your research, you must once again briefly summarise your Ph.D. research that you will be undertaking and why your research is needed. You will also need to include the limitations of your research project in this section.

This is the basic format of how to write a Ph.D. synopsis in India. This may change from university to university so make sure you write it according to the guidelines your university has provided you with. On average, your synopsis will come to around 30 pages.

We hope that this post has provided you with a better understanding about what is a research synopsis, the importance of a research synopsis and how to write a synopsis for your Ph.D.

Eduflair will most certainly be with you as a guide in your journey to fulfil your dreams of a doctoral degree. We wish you luck on your research journey.

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Here's What You Need to Understand About Research Methodology

Table of Contents

Research methodology involves a systematic and well-structured approach to conducting scholarly or scientific inquiries. Knowing the significance of research methodology and its different components is crucial as it serves as the basis for any study.

Typically, your research topic will start as a broad idea you want to investigate more thoroughly. Once you’ve identified a research problem and created research questions , you must choose the appropriate methodology and frameworks to address those questions effectively.

What is the definition of a research methodology?

Research methodology is the process or the way you intend to execute your study. The methodology section of a research paper outlines how you plan to conduct your study. It covers various steps such as collecting data, statistical analysis, observing participants, and other procedures involved in the research process

The methods section should give a description of the process that will convert your idea into a study. Additionally, the outcomes of your process must provide valid and reliable results resonant with the aims and objectives of your research. This thumb rule holds complete validity, no matter whether your paper has inclinations for qualitative or quantitative usage.

Studying research methods used in related studies can provide helpful insights and direction for your own research. Now easily discover papers related to your topic on SciSpace and utilize our AI research assistant, Copilot , to quickly review the methodologies applied in different papers.

The need for a good research methodology

While deciding on your approach towards your research, the reason or factors you weighed in choosing a particular problem and formulating a research topic need to be validated and explained. A research methodology helps you do exactly that. Moreover, a good research methodology lets you build your argument to validate your research work performed through various data collection methods, analytical methods, and other essential points.

Just imagine it as a strategy documented to provide an overview of what you intend to do.

While undertaking any research writing or performing the research itself, you may get drifted in not something of much importance. In such a case, a research methodology helps you to get back to your outlined work methodology.

A research methodology helps in keeping you accountable for your work. Additionally, it can help you evaluate whether your work is in sync with your original aims and objectives or not. Besides, a good research methodology enables you to navigate your research process smoothly and swiftly while providing effective planning to achieve your desired results.

What is the basic structure of a research methodology?

Usually, you must ensure to include the following stated aspects while deciding over the basic structure of your research methodology:

1. Your research procedure

Explain what research methods you’re going to use. Whether you intend to proceed with quantitative or qualitative, or a composite of both approaches, you need to state that explicitly. The option among the three depends on your research’s aim, objectives, and scope.

2. Provide the rationality behind your chosen approach

Based on logic and reason, let your readers know why you have chosen said research methodologies. Additionally, you have to build strong arguments supporting why your chosen research method is the best way to achieve the desired outcome.

3. Explain your mechanism

The mechanism encompasses the research methods or instruments you will use to develop your research methodology. It usually refers to your data collection methods. You can use interviews, surveys, physical questionnaires, etc., of the many available mechanisms as research methodology instruments. The data collection method is determined by the type of research and whether the data is quantitative data(includes numerical data) or qualitative data (perception, morale, etc.) Moreover, you need to put logical reasoning behind choosing a particular instrument.

4. Significance of outcomes

The results will be available once you have finished experimenting. However, you should also explain how you plan to use the data to interpret the findings. This section also aids in understanding the problem from within, breaking it down into pieces, and viewing the research problem from various perspectives.

5. Reader’s advice

Anything that you feel must be explained to spread more awareness among readers and focus groups must be included and described in detail. You should not just specify your research methodology on the assumption that a reader is aware of the topic.  

All the relevant information that explains and simplifies your research paper must be included in the methodology section. If you are conducting your research in a non-traditional manner, give a logical justification and list its benefits.

6. Explain your sample space

Include information about the sample and sample space in the methodology section. The term "sample" refers to a smaller set of data that a researcher selects or chooses from a larger group of people or focus groups using a predetermined selection method. Let your readers know how you are going to distinguish between relevant and non-relevant samples. How you figured out those exact numbers to back your research methodology, i.e. the sample spacing of instruments, must be discussed thoroughly.

For example, if you are going to conduct a survey or interview, then by what procedure will you select the interviewees (or sample size in case of surveys), and how exactly will the interview or survey be conducted.

7. Challenges and limitations

This part, which is frequently assumed to be unnecessary, is actually very important. The challenges and limitations that your chosen strategy inherently possesses must be specified while you are conducting different types of research.

The importance of a good research methodology

You must have observed that all research papers, dissertations, or theses carry a chapter entirely dedicated to research methodology. This section helps maintain your credibility as a better interpreter of results rather than a manipulator.

A good research methodology always explains the procedure, data collection methods and techniques, aim, and scope of the research. In a research study, it leads to a well-organized, rationality-based approach, while the paper lacking it is often observed as messy or disorganized.

You should pay special attention to validating your chosen way towards the research methodology. This becomes extremely important in case you select an unconventional or a distinct method of execution.

Curating and developing a strong, effective research methodology can assist you in addressing a variety of situations, such as:

• When someone tries to duplicate or expand upon your research after few years.
• If a contradiction or conflict of facts occurs at a later time. This gives you the security you need to deal with these contradictions while still being able to defend your approach.
• Gaining a tactical approach in getting your research completed in time. Just ensure you are using the right approach while drafting your research methodology, and it can help you achieve your desired outcomes. Additionally, it provides a better explanation and understanding of the research question itself.
• Documenting the results so that the final outcome of the research stays as you intended it to be while starting.

Instruments you could use while writing a good research methodology

As a researcher, you must choose which tools or data collection methods that fit best in terms of the relevance of your research. This decision has to be wise.

There exists many research equipments or tools that you can use to carry out your research process. These are classified as:

a. Interviews (One-on-One or a Group)

An interview aimed to get your desired research outcomes can be undertaken in many different ways. For example, you can design your interview as structured, semi-structured, or unstructured. What sets them apart is the degree of formality in the questions. On the other hand, in a group interview, your aim should be to collect more opinions and group perceptions from the focus groups on a certain topic rather than looking out for some formal answers.

In surveys, you are in better control if you specifically draft the questions you seek the response for. For example, you may choose to include free-style questions that can be answered descriptively, or you may provide a multiple-choice type response for questions. Besides, you can also opt to choose both ways, deciding what suits your research process and purpose better.

c. Sample Groups

Similar to the group interviews, here, you can select a group of individuals and assign them a topic to discuss or freely express their opinions over that. You can simultaneously note down the answers and later draft them appropriately, deciding on the relevance of every response.

d. Observations

If your research domain is humanities or sociology, observations are the best-proven method to draw your research methodology. Of course, you can always include studying the spontaneous response of the participants towards a situation or conducting the same but in a more structured manner. A structured observation means putting the participants in a situation at a previously decided time and then studying their responses.

Of all the tools described above, it is you who should wisely choose the instruments and decide what’s the best fit for your research. You must not restrict yourself from multiple methods or a combination of a few instruments if appropriate in drafting a good research methodology.

Types of research methodology

A research methodology exists in various forms. Depending upon their approach, whether centered around words, numbers, or both, methodologies are distinguished as qualitative, quantitative, or an amalgamation of both.

1. Qualitative research methodology

When a research methodology primarily focuses on words and textual data, then it is generally referred to as qualitative research methodology. This type is usually preferred among researchers when the aim and scope of the research are mainly theoretical and explanatory.

The instruments used are observations, interviews, and sample groups. You can use this methodology if you are trying to study human behavior or response in some situations. Generally, qualitative research methodology is widely used in sociology, psychology, and other related domains.

2. Quantitative research methodology

If your research is majorly centered on data, figures, and stats, then analyzing these numerical data is often referred to as quantitative research methodology. You can use quantitative research methodology if your research requires you to validate or justify the obtained results.

In quantitative methods, surveys, tests, experiments, and evaluations of current databases can be advantageously used as instruments If your research involves testing some hypothesis, then use this methodology.

3. Amalgam methodology

As the name suggests, the amalgam methodology uses both quantitative and qualitative approaches. This methodology is used when a part of the research requires you to verify the facts and figures, whereas the other part demands you to discover the theoretical and explanatory nature of the research question.

The instruments for the amalgam methodology require you to conduct interviews and surveys, including tests and experiments. The outcome of this methodology can be insightful and valuable as it provides precise test results in line with theoretical explanations and reasoning.

The amalgam method, makes your work both factual and rational at the same time.

Final words: How to decide which is the best research methodology?

If you have kept your sincerity and awareness intact with the aims and scope of research well enough, you must have got an idea of which research methodology suits your work best.

Before deciding which research methodology answers your research question, you must invest significant time in reading and doing your homework for that. Taking references that yield relevant results should be your first approach to establishing a research methodology.

Moreover, you should never refrain from exploring other options. Before setting your work in stone, you must try all the available options as it explains why the choice of research methodology that you finally make is more appropriate than the other available options.

You should always go for a quantitative research methodology if your research requires gathering large amounts of data, figures, and statistics. This research methodology will provide you with results if your research paper involves the validation of some hypothesis.

Whereas, if  you are looking for more explanations, reasons, opinions, and public perceptions around a theory, you must use qualitative research methodology.The choice of an appropriate research methodology ultimately depends on what you want to achieve through your research.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) about Research Methodology

1. how to write a research methodology.

You can always provide a separate section for research methodology where you should specify details about the methods and instruments used during the research, discussions on result analysis, including insights into the background information, and conveying the research limitations.

2. What are the types of research methodology?

There generally exists four types of research methodology i.e.

• Observation
• Experimental
• Derivational

3. What is the true meaning of research methodology?

The set of techniques or procedures followed to discover and analyze the information gathered to validate or justify a research outcome is generally called Research Methodology.

4. Where lies the importance of research methodology?

Your research methodology directly reflects the validity of your research outcomes and how well-informed your research work is. Moreover, it can help future researchers cite or refer to your research if they plan to use a similar research methodology.

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How to Write a Great Synopsis for Thesis

A synopsis is a structured outline of a research thesis and the steps followed to answer the research question. The goal of writing a synopsis is to clearly and thoroughly explain the need to investigate a certain problem using particular practical methods to conduct the study. One of the main components of this written work is an extensive literature review containing strong evidence that the proposed research is feasible.

Establishing the Background

A supervisor may ask you to write a synopsis for one or more reasons:

• to help you improve your critical thinking and writing skills
• to help you understand how to design a comprehensive synopsis
• to encourage you to write a comprehensive literature review to make sure that the research problem has not been answered yet
• to make you conduct a logical analysis of the steps that should be followed to meet the objectives of the research

A synopsis should be coherent in terms of research design. Thus, you should ensure that the research problem, aims, and research methods are logically linked and well-considered. Note that all synopses should contain answers for several crucial questions:

• Why should research on the proposed problem be undertaken?
• What is expected to be achieved?
• What has been done by other researchers on the proposed topic?
• How will the objectives of the study be achieved?

The Writing Process

Before proceeding, consider answering the following questions:

• Why am I going to study this topic?
• Why do I consider it to be important?
• Have I conducted an extensive literature review on the topic?
• What problem will the research help to solve?
• How do I incorporate previous studies on the topic?

The structure of a synopsis should correspond to the structure of qualifying research work, and the word count should be 2,500–3,000 words (Balu 38). The basic elements of a synopsis include a title page, contents page, an introduction, background, literature review, objectives, methods, experiments and results, conclusions, and references.

Introduction

As this comprises the first part of the main text, the introduction should convince readers that the study addresses a relevant topic and that the expected outcomes will provide important insights. Also, this section should include a brief description of the methods that will be used to answer the research question. Usually, the introduction is written in 1–3 paragraphs and answers the following questions:

• What is the topic of the research?
• What is the research problem that needs to be meaningfully understood or investigated?
• Why is the problem important?
• How will the problem be studied?

In this section, you should set the scene and better introduce the research topic by proving its scientific legitimacy and relevance. It is important to establish a clear focus and avoid broad generalizations and vague statements. If necessary, you may explain key concepts or terms. Consider covering the following points in this section:

• Discuss how the research will contribute to the existing scientific knowledge.
• Provide a detailed description of the research problem and purpose of the research.
• Provide a rationale for the study.
• Explain how the research question will be answered.
• Be sure to discuss the methods chosen and anticipated implications of the research.

Literature Review

A review of existing literature is an important part of a synopsis, as it:

• gives a more detailed look at scientific information related to the topic
• familiarizes readers with research conducted by others on a similar subject
• gives insight into the difficulties faced by other researchers
• helps identify variables for the research based on similar studies
• helps double-check the feasibility of the research problem.

When writing the literature review, do not simply present a list of methods researchers have used and conclusions they have drawn. It is important to compare and contrast different opinions and be unafraid to criticize some of them. Pay attention to controversial issues and divergent approaches used to address similar problems. You may discuss which arguments are more persuasive and which methods and techniques seem to be more valid and reliable. In this section, you are expected not to summarize but analyze the previous research while remembering to link it to your own purpose.

Identify the objectives of the research based on the literature review. Provide an overall objective related to the scientific contribution of the study to the subject area. Also include a specific objective that can be measured at the end of the research.

When writing this section, consider that the aim of the research is to produce new knowledge regarding the topic chosen. Therefore, the research methodology forms the core of your project, and your goal is to convince readers that the research design and methods chosen will rationally answer the research questions and provide effective tools to interpret the results correctly. It may be appropriate to incorporate some examples from your literature review into the description of the overall research design.

When describing the research methodology, ensure that you specify the approaches and techniques that will be used to answer the research question. In addition, be specific about applying the chosen methods and what you expect to achieve. Keep in mind that the methods section allows readers to evaluate the validity and feasibility of the study. Therefore, be sure to explain your decision to adopt specific methods and procedures. It is also important to discuss the anticipated barriers and limitations of the study and how they will be addressed. Specify what kind of contribution to the existing knowledge on the topic is expected, and discuss any ethical considerations that are relevant to the research.

Experiments and Results

Logically present and analyze the results of the study using tables or figures.

In this section, you should again state the significance of the research and summarize the study. Be sure to mention the study objectives and methods used to answer the research questions. Also, discuss how the results of the study contribute to the current knowledge on the problem.

A synopsis should contain a list of all references used. Make sure the references are formatted according to the chosen citation style and each source presented in this section is mentioned within the body of the synopsis.

The purpose of writing a synopsis is to show a supervisor a clear picture of a proposed project and allow him or her to find any gaps that have not been considered previously. A concisely written synopsis will help you gain approval to proceed with the actual research. While no rigid rules for writing this type of paper have been established, a synopsis should be constructed in a manner to help a supervisor understand the proposed research at first glance.

Balu, R. “Writing a Good Ph.D Research Synopsis.” International Journal of Research in Science and Technology, vol. 5, no. 4, 2015, pp. 38–48.

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How to Write Research Methodology

Last Updated: May 21, 2023 Approved

This article was co-authored by Alexander Ruiz, M.Ed. and by wikiHow staff writer, Jennifer Mueller, JD . Alexander Ruiz is an Educational Consultant and the Educational Director of Link Educational Institute, a tutoring business based in Claremont, California that provides customizable educational plans, subject and test prep tutoring, and college application consulting. With over a decade and a half of experience in the education industry, Alexander coaches students to increase their self-awareness and emotional intelligence while achieving skills and the goal of achieving skills and higher education. He holds a BA in Psychology from Florida International University and an MA in Education from Georgia Southern University. wikiHow marks an article as reader-approved once it receives enough positive feedback. In this case, several readers have written to tell us that this article was helpful to them, earning it our reader-approved status. This article has been viewed 517,728 times.

The research methodology section of any academic research paper gives you the opportunity to convince your readers that your research is useful and will contribute to your field of study. An effective research methodology is grounded in your overall approach – whether qualitative or quantitative – and adequately describes the methods you used. Justify why you chose those methods over others, then explain how those methods will provide answers to your research questions. [1] X Research source

Describing Your Methods

• In your restatement, include any underlying assumptions that you're making or conditions that you're taking for granted. These assumptions will also inform the research methods you've chosen.
• Generally, state the variables you'll test and the other conditions you're controlling or assuming are equal.

• If you want to research and document measurable social trends, or evaluate the impact of a particular policy on various variables, use a quantitative approach focused on data collection and statistical analysis.
• If you want to evaluate people's views or understanding of a particular issue, choose a more qualitative approach.
• You can also combine the two. For example, you might look primarily at a measurable social trend, but also interview people and get their opinions on how that trend is affecting their lives.

• For example, if you conducted a survey, you would describe the questions included in the survey, where and how the survey was conducted (such as in person, online, over the phone), how many surveys were distributed, and how long your respondents had to complete the survey.
• Include enough detail that your study can be replicated by others in your field, even if they may not get the same results you did. [4] X Research source

• Qualitative research methods typically require more detailed explanation than quantitative methods.
• Basic investigative procedures don't need to be explained in detail. Generally, you can assume that your readers have a general understanding of common research methods that social scientists use, such as surveys or focus groups.

• For example, suppose you conducted a survey and used a couple of other research papers to help construct the questions on your survey. You would mention those as contributing sources.

Justifying Your Choice of Methods

• Describe study participants specifically, and list any inclusion or exclusion criteria you used when forming your group of participants.
• Justify the size of your sample, if applicable, and describe how this affects whether your study can be generalized to larger populations. For example, if you conducted a survey of 30 percent of the student population of a university, you could potentially apply those results to the student body as a whole, but maybe not to students at other universities.

• Reading other research papers is a good way to identify potential problems that commonly arise with various methods. State whether you actually encountered any of these common problems during your research.

• If you encountered any problems as you collected data, explain clearly the steps you took to minimize the effect that problem would have on your results.

• In some cases, this may be as simple as stating that while there were numerous studies using one method, there weren't any using your method, which caused a gap in understanding of the issue.
• For example, there may be multiple papers providing quantitative analysis of a particular social trend. However, none of these papers looked closely at how this trend was affecting the lives of people.

Connecting Your Methods to Your Research Goals

• Depending on your research questions, you may be mixing quantitative and qualitative analysis – just as you could potentially use both approaches. For example, you might do a statistical analysis, and then interpret those statistics through a particular theoretical lens.

• For example, suppose you're researching the effect of college education on family farms in rural America. While you could do interviews of college-educated people who grew up on a family farm, that would not give you a picture of the overall effect. A quantitative approach and statistical analysis would give you a bigger picture.

• If in answering your research questions, your findings have raised other questions that may require further research, state these briefly.
• You can also include here any limitations to your methods, or questions that weren't answered through your research.

• Generalization is more typically used in quantitative research. If you have a well-designed sample, you can statistically apply your results to the larger population your sample belongs to.

Template to Write Research Methodology

Community Q&A

• Organize your methodology section chronologically, starting with how you prepared to conduct your research methods, how you gathered data, and how you analyzed that data. [13] X Research source Thanks Helpful 0 Not Helpful 0
• Write your research methodology section in past tense, unless you're submitting the methodology section before the research described has been carried out. [14] X Research source Thanks Helpful 2 Not Helpful 0
• Discuss your plans in detail with your advisor or supervisor before committing to a particular methodology. They can help identify possible flaws in your study. [15] X Research source Thanks Helpful 0 Not Helpful 0

You Might Also Like

• ↑ http://expertjournals.com/how-to-write-a-research-methodology-for-your-academic-article/
• ↑ http://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide/methodology
• ↑ https://www.skillsyouneed.com/learn/dissertation-methodology.html
• ↑ https://uir.unisa.ac.za/bitstream/handle/10500/4245/05Chap%204_Research%20methodology%20and%20design.pdf
• ↑ https://elc.polyu.edu.hk/FYP/html/method.htm

About This Article

To write a research methodology, start with a section that outlines the problems or questions you'll be studying, including your hypotheses or whatever it is you're setting out to prove. Then, briefly explain why you chose to use either a qualitative or quantitative approach for your study. Next, go over when and where you conducted your research and what parameters you used to ensure you were objective. Finally, cite any sources you used to decide on the methodology for your research. To learn how to justify your choice of methods in your research methodology, scroll down! Did this summary help you? Yes No

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Home » Research Methodology – Types, Examples and writing Guide

Research Methodology – Types, Examples and writing Guide

Table of Contents

Research Methodology

Definition:

Research Methodology refers to the systematic and scientific approach used to conduct research, investigate problems, and gather data and information for a specific purpose. It involves the techniques and procedures used to identify, collect , analyze , and interpret data to answer research questions or solve research problems . Moreover, They are philosophical and theoretical frameworks that guide the research process.

Structure of Research Methodology

Research methodology formats can vary depending on the specific requirements of the research project, but the following is a basic example of a structure for a research methodology section:

I. Introduction

• Provide an overview of the research problem and the need for a research methodology section
• Outline the main research questions and objectives

II. Research Design

• Explain the research design chosen and why it is appropriate for the research question(s) and objectives
• Discuss any alternative research designs considered and why they were not chosen
• Describe the research setting and participants (if applicable)

III. Data Collection Methods

• Describe the methods used to collect data (e.g., surveys, interviews, observations)
• Explain how the data collection methods were chosen and why they are appropriate for the research question(s) and objectives
• Detail any procedures or instruments used for data collection

IV. Data Analysis Methods

• Describe the methods used to analyze the data (e.g., statistical analysis, content analysis )
• Explain how the data analysis methods were chosen and why they are appropriate for the research question(s) and objectives
• Detail any procedures or software used for data analysis

V. Ethical Considerations

• Discuss any ethical issues that may arise from the research and how they were addressed
• Explain how informed consent was obtained (if applicable)
• Detail any measures taken to ensure confidentiality and anonymity

VI. Limitations

• Identify any potential limitations of the research methodology and how they may impact the results and conclusions

VII. Conclusion

• Summarize the key aspects of the research methodology section
• Explain how the research methodology addresses the research question(s) and objectives

Research Methodology Types

Types of Research Methodology are as follows:

Quantitative Research Methodology

This is a research methodology that involves the collection and analysis of numerical data using statistical methods. This type of research is often used to study cause-and-effect relationships and to make predictions.

Qualitative Research Methodology

This is a research methodology that involves the collection and analysis of non-numerical data such as words, images, and observations. This type of research is often used to explore complex phenomena, to gain an in-depth understanding of a particular topic, and to generate hypotheses.

Mixed-Methods Research Methodology

This is a research methodology that combines elements of both quantitative and qualitative research. This approach can be particularly useful for studies that aim to explore complex phenomena and to provide a more comprehensive understanding of a particular topic.

Case Study Research Methodology

This is a research methodology that involves in-depth examination of a single case or a small number of cases. Case studies are often used in psychology, sociology, and anthropology to gain a detailed understanding of a particular individual or group.

Action Research Methodology

This is a research methodology that involves a collaborative process between researchers and practitioners to identify and solve real-world problems. Action research is often used in education, healthcare, and social work.

Experimental Research Methodology

This is a research methodology that involves the manipulation of one or more independent variables to observe their effects on a dependent variable. Experimental research is often used to study cause-and-effect relationships and to make predictions.

Survey Research Methodology

This is a research methodology that involves the collection of data from a sample of individuals using questionnaires or interviews. Survey research is often used to study attitudes, opinions, and behaviors.

Grounded Theory Research Methodology

This is a research methodology that involves the development of theories based on the data collected during the research process. Grounded theory is often used in sociology and anthropology to generate theories about social phenomena.

Research Methodology Example

An Example of Research Methodology could be the following:

Research Methodology for Investigating the Effectiveness of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy in Reducing Symptoms of Depression in Adults

Introduction:

The aim of this research is to investigate the effectiveness of cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) in reducing symptoms of depression in adults. To achieve this objective, a randomized controlled trial (RCT) will be conducted using a mixed-methods approach.

Research Design:

The study will follow a pre-test and post-test design with two groups: an experimental group receiving CBT and a control group receiving no intervention. The study will also include a qualitative component, in which semi-structured interviews will be conducted with a subset of participants to explore their experiences of receiving CBT.

Participants:

Participants will be recruited from community mental health clinics in the local area. The sample will consist of 100 adults aged 18-65 years old who meet the diagnostic criteria for major depressive disorder. Participants will be randomly assigned to either the experimental group or the control group.

Intervention :

The experimental group will receive 12 weekly sessions of CBT, each lasting 60 minutes. The intervention will be delivered by licensed mental health professionals who have been trained in CBT. The control group will receive no intervention during the study period.

Data Collection:

Quantitative data will be collected through the use of standardized measures such as the Beck Depression Inventory-II (BDI-II) and the Generalized Anxiety Disorder-7 (GAD-7). Data will be collected at baseline, immediately after the intervention, and at a 3-month follow-up. Qualitative data will be collected through semi-structured interviews with a subset of participants from the experimental group. The interviews will be conducted at the end of the intervention period, and will explore participants’ experiences of receiving CBT.

Data Analysis:

Quantitative data will be analyzed using descriptive statistics, t-tests, and mixed-model analyses of variance (ANOVA) to assess the effectiveness of the intervention. Qualitative data will be analyzed using thematic analysis to identify common themes and patterns in participants’ experiences of receiving CBT.

Ethical Considerations:

This study will comply with ethical guidelines for research involving human subjects. Participants will provide informed consent before participating in the study, and their privacy and confidentiality will be protected throughout the study. Any adverse events or reactions will be reported and managed appropriately.

Data Management:

All data collected will be kept confidential and stored securely using password-protected databases. Identifying information will be removed from qualitative data transcripts to ensure participants’ anonymity.

Limitations:

One potential limitation of this study is that it only focuses on one type of psychotherapy, CBT, and may not generalize to other types of therapy or interventions. Another limitation is that the study will only include participants from community mental health clinics, which may not be representative of the general population.

Conclusion:

This research aims to investigate the effectiveness of CBT in reducing symptoms of depression in adults. By using a randomized controlled trial and a mixed-methods approach, the study will provide valuable insights into the mechanisms underlying the relationship between CBT and depression. The results of this study will have important implications for the development of effective treatments for depression in clinical settings.

How to Write Research Methodology

Writing a research methodology involves explaining the methods and techniques you used to conduct research, collect data, and analyze results. It’s an essential section of any research paper or thesis, as it helps readers understand the validity and reliability of your findings. Here are the steps to write a research methodology:

• Start by explaining your research question: Begin the methodology section by restating your research question and explaining why it’s important. This helps readers understand the purpose of your research and the rationale behind your methods.
• Describe your research design: Explain the overall approach you used to conduct research. This could be a qualitative or quantitative research design, experimental or non-experimental, case study or survey, etc. Discuss the advantages and limitations of the chosen design.
• Discuss your sample: Describe the participants or subjects you included in your study. Include details such as their demographics, sampling method, sample size, and any exclusion criteria used.
• Describe your data collection methods : Explain how you collected data from your participants. This could include surveys, interviews, observations, questionnaires, or experiments. Include details on how you obtained informed consent, how you administered the tools, and how you minimized the risk of bias.
• Explain your data analysis techniques: Describe the methods you used to analyze the data you collected. This could include statistical analysis, content analysis, thematic analysis, or discourse analysis. Explain how you dealt with missing data, outliers, and any other issues that arose during the analysis.
• Discuss the validity and reliability of your research : Explain how you ensured the validity and reliability of your study. This could include measures such as triangulation, member checking, peer review, or inter-coder reliability.
• Acknowledge any limitations of your research: Discuss any limitations of your study, including any potential threats to validity or generalizability. This helps readers understand the scope of your findings and how they might apply to other contexts.
• Provide a summary: End the methodology section by summarizing the methods and techniques you used to conduct your research. This provides a clear overview of your research methodology and helps readers understand the process you followed to arrive at your findings.

When to Write Research Methodology

Research methodology is typically written after the research proposal has been approved and before the actual research is conducted. It should be written prior to data collection and analysis, as it provides a clear roadmap for the research project.

The research methodology is an important section of any research paper or thesis, as it describes the methods and procedures that will be used to conduct the research. It should include details about the research design, data collection methods, data analysis techniques, and any ethical considerations.

The methodology should be written in a clear and concise manner, and it should be based on established research practices and standards. It is important to provide enough detail so that the reader can understand how the research was conducted and evaluate the validity of the results.

Applications of Research Methodology

Here are some of the applications of research methodology:

• To identify the research problem: Research methodology is used to identify the research problem, which is the first step in conducting any research.
• To design the research: Research methodology helps in designing the research by selecting the appropriate research method, research design, and sampling technique.
• To collect data: Research methodology provides a systematic approach to collect data from primary and secondary sources.
• To analyze data: Research methodology helps in analyzing the collected data using various statistical and non-statistical techniques.
• To test hypotheses: Research methodology provides a framework for testing hypotheses and drawing conclusions based on the analysis of data.
• To generalize findings: Research methodology helps in generalizing the findings of the research to the target population.
• To develop theories : Research methodology is used to develop new theories and modify existing theories based on the findings of the research.
• To evaluate programs and policies : Research methodology is used to evaluate the effectiveness of programs and policies by collecting data and analyzing it.
• To improve decision-making: Research methodology helps in making informed decisions by providing reliable and valid data.

Purpose of Research Methodology

Research methodology serves several important purposes, including:

• To guide the research process: Research methodology provides a systematic framework for conducting research. It helps researchers to plan their research, define their research questions, and select appropriate methods and techniques for collecting and analyzing data.
• To ensure research quality: Research methodology helps researchers to ensure that their research is rigorous, reliable, and valid. It provides guidelines for minimizing bias and error in data collection and analysis, and for ensuring that research findings are accurate and trustworthy.
• To replicate research: Research methodology provides a clear and detailed account of the research process, making it possible for other researchers to replicate the study and verify its findings.
• To advance knowledge: Research methodology enables researchers to generate new knowledge and to contribute to the body of knowledge in their field. It provides a means for testing hypotheses, exploring new ideas, and discovering new insights.
• To inform decision-making: Research methodology provides evidence-based information that can inform policy and decision-making in a variety of fields, including medicine, public health, education, and business.

Advantages of Research Methodology

Research methodology has several advantages that make it a valuable tool for conducting research in various fields. Here are some of the key advantages of research methodology:

• Systematic and structured approach : Research methodology provides a systematic and structured approach to conducting research, which ensures that the research is conducted in a rigorous and comprehensive manner.
• Objectivity : Research methodology aims to ensure objectivity in the research process, which means that the research findings are based on evidence and not influenced by personal bias or subjective opinions.
• Replicability : Research methodology ensures that research can be replicated by other researchers, which is essential for validating research findings and ensuring their accuracy.
• Reliability : Research methodology aims to ensure that the research findings are reliable, which means that they are consistent and can be depended upon.
• Validity : Research methodology ensures that the research findings are valid, which means that they accurately reflect the research question or hypothesis being tested.
• Efficiency : Research methodology provides a structured and efficient way of conducting research, which helps to save time and resources.
• Flexibility : Research methodology allows researchers to choose the most appropriate research methods and techniques based on the research question, data availability, and other relevant factors.
• Scope for innovation: Research methodology provides scope for innovation and creativity in designing research studies and developing new research techniques.

Research Methodology Vs Research Methods

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Encyclopedia of Evidence in Pharmaceutical Public Health and Health Services Research in Pharmacy pp 1–15 Cite as

Methodological Approaches to Literature Review

• Dennis Thomas 2 ,
• Elida Zairina 3 &
• Johnson George 4  
• Living reference work entry
• First Online: 09 May 2023

453 Accesses

The literature review can serve various functions in the contexts of education and research. It aids in identifying knowledge gaps, informing research methodology, and developing a theoretical framework during the planning stages of a research study or project, as well as reporting of review findings in the context of the existing literature. This chapter discusses the methodological approaches to conducting a literature review and offers an overview of different types of reviews. There are various types of reviews, including narrative reviews, scoping reviews, and systematic reviews with reporting strategies such as meta-analysis and meta-synthesis. Review authors should consider the scope of the literature review when selecting a type and method. Being focused is essential for a successful review; however, this must be balanced against the relevance of the review to a broad audience.

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Thomas, D., Zairina, E., George, J. (2023). Methodological Approaches to Literature Review. In: Encyclopedia of Evidence in Pharmaceutical Public Health and Health Services Research in Pharmacy. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-50247-8_57-1

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What Is Research Methodology? A Plain-Language Explanation & Definition (With Examples)

By Derek Jansen (MBA)  and Kerryn Warren (PhD) | June 2020 (Last updated April 2023)

If you’re new to formal academic research, it’s quite likely that you’re feeling a little overwhelmed by all the technical lingo that gets thrown around. And who could blame you – “research methodology”, “research methods”, “sampling strategies”… it all seems never-ending!

In this post, we’ll demystify the landscape with plain-language explanations and loads of examples (including easy-to-follow videos), so that you can approach your dissertation, thesis or research project with confidence. Let’s get started.

Research Methodology 101

• What exactly research methodology means
• What qualitative , quantitative and mixed methods are
• What sampling strategy is
• What data collection methods are
• What data analysis methods are
• How to choose your research methodology
• Example of a research methodology

What is research methodology?

Research methodology simply refers to the practical “how” of a research study. More specifically, it’s about how  a researcher  systematically designs a study  to ensure valid and reliable results that address the research aims, objectives and research questions . Specifically, how the researcher went about deciding:

• What type of data to collect (e.g., qualitative or quantitative data )
• Who  to collect it from (i.e., the sampling strategy )
• How to  collect  it (i.e., the data collection method )
• How to  analyse  it (i.e., the data analysis methods )

Within any formal piece of academic research (be it a dissertation, thesis or journal article), you’ll find a research methodology chapter or section which covers the aspects mentioned above. Importantly, a good methodology chapter explains not just   what methodological choices were made, but also explains  why they were made. In other words, the methodology chapter should justify  the design choices, by showing that the chosen methods and techniques are the best fit for the research aims, objectives and research questions. 

So, it’s the same as research design?

Not quite. As we mentioned, research methodology refers to the collection of practical decisions regarding what data you’ll collect, from who, how you’ll collect it and how you’ll analyse it. Research design, on the other hand, is more about the overall strategy you’ll adopt in your study. For example, whether you’ll use an experimental design in which you manipulate one variable while controlling others. You can learn more about research design and the various design types here .

Need a helping hand?

What are qualitative, quantitative and mixed-methods?

Qualitative, quantitative and mixed-methods are different types of methodological approaches, distinguished by their focus on words , numbers or both . This is a bit of an oversimplification, but its a good starting point for understanding.

Let’s take a closer look.

Qualitative research refers to research which focuses on collecting and analysing words (written or spoken) and textual or visual data, whereas quantitative research focuses on measurement and testing using numerical data . Qualitative analysis can also focus on other “softer” data points, such as body language or visual elements.

It’s quite common for a qualitative methodology to be used when the research aims and research questions are exploratory  in nature. For example, a qualitative methodology might be used to understand peoples’ perceptions about an event that took place, or a political candidate running for president. 

Contrasted to this, a quantitative methodology is typically used when the research aims and research questions are confirmatory  in nature. For example, a quantitative methodology might be used to measure the relationship between two variables (e.g. personality type and likelihood to commit a crime) or to test a set of hypotheses .

As you’ve probably guessed, the mixed-method methodology attempts to combine the best of both qualitative and quantitative methodologies to integrate perspectives and create a rich picture. If you’d like to learn more about these three methodological approaches, be sure to watch our explainer video below.

What is sampling strategy?

Simply put, sampling is about deciding who (or where) you’re going to collect your data from . Why does this matter? Well, generally it’s not possible to collect data from every single person in your group of interest (this is called the “population”), so you’ll need to engage a smaller portion of that group that’s accessible and manageable (this is called the “sample”).

How you go about selecting the sample (i.e., your sampling strategy) will have a major impact on your study.  There are many different sampling methods  you can choose from, but the two overarching categories are probability   sampling and  non-probability   sampling .

Probability sampling  involves using a completely random sample from the group of people you’re interested in. This is comparable to throwing the names all potential participants into a hat, shaking it up, and picking out the “winners”. By using a completely random sample, you’ll minimise the risk of selection bias and the results of your study will be more generalisable  to the entire population. 

Non-probability sampling , on the other hand,  doesn’t use a random sample . For example, it might involve using a convenience sample, which means you’d only interview or survey people that you have access to (perhaps your friends, family or work colleagues), rather than a truly random sample. With non-probability sampling, the results are typically not generalisable .

To learn more about sampling methods, be sure to check out the video below.

What are data collection methods?

As the name suggests, data collection methods simply refers to the way in which you go about collecting the data for your study. Some of the most common data collection methods include:

• Interviews (which can be unstructured, semi-structured or structured)
• Focus groups and group interviews
• Surveys (online or physical surveys)
• Observations (watching and recording activities)
• Biophysical measurements (e.g., blood pressure, heart rate, etc.)
• Documents and records (e.g., financial reports, court records, etc.)

The choice of which data collection method to use depends on your overall research aims and research questions , as well as practicalities and resource constraints. For example, if your research is exploratory in nature, qualitative methods such as interviews and focus groups would likely be a good fit. Conversely, if your research aims to measure specific variables or test hypotheses, large-scale surveys that produce large volumes of numerical data would likely be a better fit.

What are data analysis methods?

Data analysis methods refer to the methods and techniques that you’ll use to make sense of your data. These can be grouped according to whether the research is qualitative  (words-based) or quantitative (numbers-based).

Popular data analysis methods in qualitative research include:

• Qualitative content analysis
• Thematic analysis
• Discourse analysis
• Narrative analysis
• Interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA)
• Visual analysis (of photographs, videos, art, etc.)

Qualitative data analysis all begins with data coding , after which an analysis method is applied. In some cases, more than one analysis method is used, depending on the research aims and research questions . In the video below, we explore some  common qualitative analysis methods, along with practical examples.  

Moving on to the quantitative side of things, popular data analysis methods in this type of research include:

• Descriptive statistics (e.g. means, medians, modes )
• Inferential statistics (e.g. correlation, regression, structural equation modelling)

Again, the choice of which data collection method to use depends on your overall research aims and objectives , as well as practicalities and resource constraints. In the video below, we explain some core concepts central to quantitative analysis.

How do I choose a research methodology?

As you’ve probably picked up by now, your research aims and objectives have a major influence on the research methodology . So, the starting point for developing your research methodology is to take a step back and look at the big picture of your research, before you make methodology decisions. The first question you need to ask yourself is whether your research is exploratory or confirmatory in nature.

If your research aims and objectives are primarily exploratory in nature, your research will likely be qualitative and therefore you might consider qualitative data collection methods (e.g. interviews) and analysis methods (e.g. qualitative content analysis). 

Conversely, if your research aims and objective are looking to measure or test something (i.e. they’re confirmatory), then your research will quite likely be quantitative in nature, and you might consider quantitative data collection methods (e.g. surveys) and analyses (e.g. statistical analysis).

Designing your research and working out your methodology is a large topic, which we cover extensively on the blog . For now, however, the key takeaway is that you should always start with your research aims, objectives and research questions (the golden thread). Every methodological choice you make needs align with those three components. 

Example of a research methodology chapter

In the video below, we provide a detailed walkthrough of a research methodology from an actual dissertation, as well as an overview of our free methodology template .

Psst… there’s more (for free)

This post is part of our dissertation mini-course, which covers everything you need to get started with your dissertation, thesis or research project. 

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199 Comments

Thank you for this simple yet comprehensive and easy to digest presentation. God Bless!

You’re most welcome, Leo. Best of luck with your research!

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please provide a research mehodology example for zoology

It’s very educative and well explained

Thanks for the concise and informative data.

This is really good for students to be safe and well understand that research is all about

Thank you so much Derek sir🖤🙏🤗

Very simple and reliable

This is really helpful. Thanks alot. God bless you.

very useful, Thank you very much..

thanks a lot its really useful

in a nutshell..thank you!

Thanks for updating my understanding on this aspect of my Thesis writing.

thank you so much my through this video am competently going to do a good job my thesis

Thanks a lot. Very simple to understand. I appreciate 🙏

Very simple but yet insightful Thank you

This has been an eye opening experience. Thank you grad coach team.

Very useful message for research scholars

Really very helpful thank you

yes you are right and i’m left

Research methodology with a simplest way i have never seen before this article.

wow thank u so much

Good morning thanks so much for the on line lectures am a student of university of Makeni.select a research topic and deliberate on is so that we will continue to understand more.sorry that’s a suggestion.

Very precise and informative.

Thanks for simplifying these terms for us, really appreciate it.

Thanks this has really helped me. It is very easy to understand.

I found the notes and the presentation assisting and opening my understanding on research methodology

Good presentation

Im so glad you clarified my misconceptions. Im now ready to fry my onions. Thank you so much. God bless

Thank you a lot.

thanks for the easy way of learning and desirable presentation.

Thanks a lot. I am inspired

Well written

I am writing a APA Format paper . I using questionnaire with 120 STDs teacher for my participant. Can you write me mthology for this research. Send it through email sent. Just need a sample as an example please. My topic is ” impacts of overcrowding on students learning

Thanks for your comment.

We can’t write your methodology for you. If you’re looking for samples, you should be able to find some sample methodologies on Google. Alternatively, you can download some previous dissertations from a dissertation directory and have a look at the methodology chapters therein.

All the best with your research.

Thank you so much for this!! God Bless

Thank you. Explicit explanation

Thank you, Derek and Kerryn, for making this simple to understand. I’m currently at the inception stage of my research.

Thnks a lot , this was very usefull on my assignment

excellent explanation

I’m currently working on my master’s thesis, thanks for this! I’m certain that I will use Qualitative methodology.

Thanks a lot for this concise piece, it was quite relieving and helpful. God bless you BIG…

I am currently doing my dissertation proposal and I am sure that I will do quantitative research. Thank you very much it was extremely helpful.

Very interesting and informative yet I would like to know about examples of Research Questions as well, if possible.

I’m about to submit a research presentation, I have come to understand from your simplification on understanding research methodology. My research will be mixed methodology, qualitative as well as quantitative. So aim and objective of mixed method would be both exploratory and confirmatory. Thanks you very much for your guidance.

OMG thanks for that, you’re a life saver. You covered all the points I needed. Thank you so much ❤️ ❤️ ❤️

Thank you immensely for this simple, easy to comprehend explanation of data collection methods. I have been stuck here for months 😩. Glad I found your piece. Super insightful.

I’m going to write synopsis which will be quantitative research method and I don’t know how to frame my topic, can I kindly get some ideas..

Thanks for this, I was really struggling.

This was really informative I was struggling but this helped me.

Thanks a lot for this information, simple and straightforward. I’m a last year student from the University of South Africa UNISA South Africa.

its very much informative and understandable. I have enlightened.

An interesting nice exploration of a topic.

Thank you. Accurate and simple🥰

This article was really helpful, it helped me understanding the basic concepts of the topic Research Methodology. The examples were very clear, and easy to understand. I would like to visit this website again. Thank you so much for such a great explanation of the subject.

Thanks dude

Thank you Doctor Derek for this wonderful piece, please help to provide your details for reference purpose. God bless.

Many compliments to you

Great work , thank you very much for the simple explanation

Thank you. I had to give a presentation on this topic. I have looked everywhere on the internet but this is the best and simple explanation.

thank you, its very informative.

Well explained. Now I know my research methodology will be qualitative and exploratory. Thank you so much, keep up the good work

Well explained, thank you very much.

This is good explanation, I have understood the different methods of research. Thanks a lot.

Great work…very well explanation

Thanks Derek. Kerryn was just fantastic!

Great to hear that, Hyacinth. Best of luck with your research!

Its a good templates very attractive and important to PhD students and lectuter

Thanks for the feedback, Matobela. Good luck with your research methodology.

Thank you. This is really helpful.

You’re very welcome, Elie. Good luck with your research methodology.

Well explained thanks

This is a very helpful site especially for young researchers at college. It provides sufficient information to guide students and equip them with the necessary foundation to ask any other questions aimed at deepening their understanding.

Thanks for the kind words, Edward. Good luck with your research!

Thank you. I have learned a lot.

Great to hear that, Ngwisa. Good luck with your research methodology!

Thank you for keeping your presentation simples and short and covering key information for research methodology. My key takeaway: Start with defining your research objective the other will depend on the aims of your research question.

My name is Zanele I would like to be assisted with my research , and the topic is shortage of nursing staff globally want are the causes , effects on health, patients and community and also globally

Thanks for making it simple and clear. It greatly helped in understanding research methodology. Regards.

This is well simplified and straight to the point

Thank you Dr

I was given an assignment to research 2 publications and describe their research methodology? I don’t know how to start this task can someone help me?

Sure. You’re welcome to book an initial consultation with one of our Research Coaches to discuss how we can assist – https://gradcoach.com/book/new/ .

Thanks a lot I am relieved of a heavy burden.keep up with the good work

I’m very much grateful Dr Derek. I’m planning to pursue one of the careers that really needs one to be very much eager to know. There’s a lot of research to do and everything, but since I’ve gotten this information I will use it to the best of my potential.

Thank you so much, words are not enough to explain how helpful this session has been for me!

Thanks this has thought me alot.

Very concise and helpful. Thanks a lot

Thank Derek. This is very helpful. Your step by step explanation has made it easier for me to understand different concepts. Now i can get on with my research.

I wish i had come across this sooner. So simple but yet insightful

really nice explanation thank you so much

I’m so grateful finding this site, it’s really helpful…….every term well explained and provide accurate understanding especially to student going into an in-depth research for the very first time, even though my lecturer already explained this topic to the class, I think I got the clear and efficient explanation here, much thanks to the author.

It is very helpful material

I would like to be assisted with my research topic : Literature Review and research methodologies. My topic is : what is the relationship between unemployment and economic growth?

Its really nice and good for us.

THANKS SO MUCH FOR EXPLANATION, ITS VERY CLEAR TO ME WHAT I WILL BE DOING FROM NOW .GREAT READS.

Short but sweet.Thank you

Informative article. Thanks for your detailed information.

I’m currently working on my Ph.D. thesis. Thanks a lot, Derek and Kerryn, Well-organized sequences, facilitate the readers’ following.

great article for someone who does not have any background can even understand

I am a bit confused about research design and methodology. Are they the same? If not, what are the differences and how are they related?

Thanks in advance.

concise and informative.

Thank you very much

How can we site this article is Harvard style?

Very well written piece that afforded better understanding of the concept. Thank you!

Am a new researcher trying to learn how best to write a research proposal. I find your article spot on and want to download the free template but finding difficulties. Can u kindly send it to my email, the free download entitled, “Free Download: Research Proposal Template (with Examples)”.

Thank too much

Thank you very much for your comprehensive explanation about research methodology so I like to thank you again for giving us such great things.

Good very well explained.Thanks for sharing it.

Thank u sir, it is really a good guideline.

so helpful thank you very much.

Thanks for the video it was very explanatory and detailed, easy to comprehend and follow up. please, keep it up the good work

It was very helpful, a well-written document with precise information.

how do i reference this?

MLA Jansen, Derek, and Kerryn Warren. “What (Exactly) Is Research Methodology?” Grad Coach, June 2021, gradcoach.com/what-is-research-methodology/.

APA Jansen, D., & Warren, K. (2021, June). What (Exactly) Is Research Methodology? Grad Coach. https://gradcoach.com/what-is-research-methodology/

Your explanation is easily understood. Thank you

Very help article. Now I can go my methodology chapter in my thesis with ease

I feel guided ,Thank you

This simplification is very helpful. It is simple but very educative, thanks ever so much

The write up is informative and educative. It is an academic intellectual representation that every good researcher can find useful. Thanks

Wow, this is wonderful long live.

Nice initiative

thank you the video was helpful to me.

Thank you very much for your simple and clear explanations I’m really satisfied by the way you did it By now, I think I can realize a very good article by following your fastidious indications May God bless you

Thanks very much, it was very concise and informational for a beginner like me to gain an insight into what i am about to undertake. I really appreciate.

very informative sir, it is amazing to understand the meaning of question hidden behind that, and simple language is used other than legislature to understand easily. stay happy.

This one is really amazing. All content in your youtube channel is a very helpful guide for doing research. Thanks, GradCoach.

research methodologies

Please send me more information concerning dissertation research.

Nice piece of knowledge shared….. #Thump_UP

This is amazing, it has said it all. Thanks to Gradcoach

This is wonderful,very elaborate and clear.I hope to reach out for your assistance in my research very soon.

This is the answer I am searching about…

realy thanks a lot

Thank you very much for this awesome, to the point and inclusive article.

Thank you very much I need validity and reliability explanation I have exams

Thank you for a well explained piece. This will help me going forward.

Very simple and well detailed Many thanks

This is so very simple yet so very effective and comprehensive. An Excellent piece of work.

I wish I saw this earlier on! Great insights for a beginner(researcher) like me. Thanks a mil!

Thank you very much, for such a simplified, clear and practical step by step both for academic students and general research work. Holistic, effective to use and easy to read step by step. One can easily apply the steps in practical terms and produce a quality document/up-to standard

Thanks for simplifying these terms for us, really appreciated.

Thanks for a great work. well understood .

This was very helpful. It was simple but profound and very easy to understand. Thank you so much!

Great and amazing research guidelines. Best site for learning research

hello sir/ma’am, i didn’t find yet that what type of research methodology i am using. because i am writing my report on CSR and collect all my data from websites and articles so which type of methodology i should write in dissertation report. please help me. i am from India.

how does this really work?

perfect content, thanks a lot

As a researcher, I commend you for the detailed and simplified information on the topic in question. I would like to remain in touch for the sharing of research ideas on other topics. Thank you

Impressive. Thank you, Grad Coach 😍

Thank you Grad Coach for this piece of information. I have at least learned about the different types of research methodologies.

Very useful content with easy way

Thank you very much for the presentation. I am an MPH student with the Adventist University of Africa. I have successfully completed my theory and starting on my research this July. My topic is “Factors associated with Dental Caries in (one District) in Botswana. I need help on how to go about this quantitative research

I am so grateful to run across something that was sooo helpful. I have been on my doctorate journey for quite some time. Your breakdown on methodology helped me to refresh my intent. Thank you.

thanks so much for this good lecture. student from university of science and technology, Wudil. Kano Nigeria.

It’s profound easy to understand I appreciate

Thanks a lot for sharing superb information in a detailed but concise manner. It was really helpful and helped a lot in getting into my own research methodology.

Comment * thanks very much

This was sooo helpful for me thank you so much i didn’t even know what i had to write thank you!

You’re most welcome 🙂

Simple and good. Very much helpful. Thank you so much.

This is very good work. I have benefited.

Thank you so much for sharing

This is powerful thank you so much guys

I am nkasa lizwi doing my research proposal on honors with the university of Walter Sisulu Komani I m on part 3 now can you assist me.my topic is: transitional challenges faced by educators in intermediate phase in the Alfred Nzo District.

Appreciate the presentation. Very useful step-by-step guidelines to follow.

I appreciate sir

wow! This is super insightful for me. Thank you!

Indeed this material is very helpful! Kudos writers/authors.

I want to say thank you very much, I got a lot of info and knowledge. Be blessed.

I want present a seminar paper on Optimisation of Deep learning-based models on vulnerability detection in digital transactions.

Need assistance

Dear Sir, I want to be assisted on my research on Sanitation and Water management in emergencies areas.

I am deeply grateful for the knowledge gained. I will be getting in touch shortly as I want to be assisted in my ongoing research.

The information shared is informative, crisp and clear. Kudos Team! And thanks a lot!

hello i want to study

Hello!! Grad coach teams. I am extremely happy in your tutorial or consultation. i am really benefited all material and briefing. Thank you very much for your generous helps. Please keep it up. If you add in your briefing, references for further reading, it will be very nice.

All I have to say is, thank u gyz.

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thank you, it is very useful

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Research synopsis writing

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Synopsis is a short summary of your Ph.D thesis work. This paper suggests some ideas to motivate the young researchers for effectively writing the Ph.D synopsis with essential tips and tricks.This can act as a reference and help young researcher to going to write Ph.D synopsis.

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Guidelines for writing a research project synopsis or protocol

"Success is often the result of taking a mis - step in the right direction. "

Al Bernstein

A protocol or a synopsis of a research project is a document submitted to an authority or an institution for the purpose of

• Ethical clearance
• Formal registration to universities for the award of a degree or doctorate
• Peer review
• Financial assistance from organizations like ICMR, DST, NACO, DGHS, and MHRD

Synopsis is the gist of your planned project submitted for approval from competent authorities. It gives a panoramic view of your research for quick analysis by the reviewers.

Thus, a protocol or a synopsis forms an integral part of a research project or a thesis. Many universities have made it mandatory for the postgraduate degree student to prepare a thesis as a part of their postgraduate training. A good knowledge about how a protocol or a synopsis is written is imperative to all people involved in medical research.

Literally, protocol (Greek word, protokollon - first page) means a format procedure for carrying out a scientific research. Synopsis (Greek word, sun - together, opsis - seeing) means brief summary of something. Frequently, both the terms are used as synonyms but the term ′synopsis′ is used more often.

A synopsis should be constructed in a manner that facilitates the reviewer to understand the research project at a glance. It should be brief but precise. A synopsis can be structured in the following manner:

• Statement of the problem and hypothesis
• Aims and objectives
• Review of literature
• Research methodology
• Official requirements

Title The title of the research project should be brief but informative; sensationalization of the title is best avoided. It should neither be too short nor too long. Any name of the institution, the number of cases to be studied should not be included. The hypothesis to be studied can be included.

a. "Study of ectopic pregnancy"

This was a title chosen for university registration. The title is too short. It does not state the problem or the hypothesis and is least informative. More meaningful title shall be, "Study of ectopic pregnancy in relation to morbidity, mortality, and intervention in a referral hospital".

b. "A novel sustained release matrix based on biodegradable poly (esteramides) and, impregnated with bacteriophages and an antibiotic shows promise in management of infected venous stasis ulcer and other poorly healing wounds", (Int. J Dermat vol 8 2002). The title is long and ill conceived. It gives a confusing picture about the study problem. Such long titles are best avoided. Certain amount of sensationalization is also present by using term ′novel′. More meaningful title shall be, "Response of venous stasis ulcers and other poorly healing wounds to a biodegradable matrix impregnated with bacteriophages and an antibiotic". The other details about the new method can be mentioned while stating the problem.

c. "Fine needle aspiration, as a diagnostic tool for papulonodular skin lesions". This is an acceptable, informative, and precise title. It states the hypothesis correctly.

Statement of the problem or hypothesis The problem being studied should be mentioned in precise and clear terms. Understanding the problem aids the researcher in constructing the research proposal. It also allows the person to formulate the hypothesis. The problem under study should be relevant to the present. A brief account of its utility at the local or national level has to be discussed. The present status of the problem and the necessity for taking up the study needs to be mentioned.

Hypothesis is mentioned as a tentative prediction or explanation of the relationship between two or more variables. Hypothesis should not be a haphazard guess but should reflect the knowledge, imagination, and experience of the investigator. Hypothesis can be formulated by understanding the problem, reviewing the literature on it, and considering other factors. A researcher can state the problem and the hypothesis in about 200 words covering all the aspects described above.

Aims and objectives All research projects should have objectives and aims and every effort should be made to achieve them. The objectives and aims should be only a few (2-3). They must pertain to the study problem. Usages of terms like "first study", "the only study", etc. should be avoided.

Review of literature Review of literature is a very important part of a research project. It achieves the following:

• Familiarizes the reader to the problem under study.
• It describes the work done by others either at local or international level on it or similar subject.
• It helps the researcher to understand the difficulties faced by others and the corrective steps taken or modifications made by them. The researcher can anticipate similar or additional problems during the study and review of literature helps him in anticipating them.
• Research methodology of the researcher can be structured and modified after reviewing the literature.
• The review assists in identifying various variables in the research project and conceptualizes their relationship.
• Review of literature in a synopsis helps the reviewer in assessing the knowledge of the researcher. The reviewer can assess the work put in by the researcher and also assists in assessing the feasibility of the study.

The review of literature in a synopsis need not be exhaustive. The relevant information should be covered in about 300 words quoting 8-10 authentic, easily retrievable references. Literature can be reviewed by using various scientific-information-gathering methods. These are journals, national or international; bulletins of organizations like WHO, CDC, and ICMR; books; computer-assisted searches like Medline and Medlar; and personal communications with other researchers. Internet provides a vast avenue for information gathering. Care must be taken to retrieve only relevant information. In this era of information technology review of literature is literally "just a click away".

Research methodology In a synopsis the research methodology adopted should be mentioned in about 150-200 words. The research methodology forms the core of the research project. The methodology should cover the following aspects:

• Study design

Study settings

• Study methods - examinations or investigations
• Data collection
• Data analysis

Study design The methodology starts with selection of study design. A single study design or a combination can be selected e.g.:

Descriptive designs

Cross-sectional study or survey

Epidemiological description of disease occurrence

Community diagnosis

Study of natural history of a disease

Observational analytical designs

Prospective study

Retrospective study

Follow-up study

Experimental designs

Animal studies

Therapeutic clinical trials - drugs

Prophylactic clinical trials- vaccines

Field trials

Operational designs

A mention about the research setting should be made. This includes information about the institution, facilities available, time of study, and population of study.

Sampling Sampling is selecting a sample of appropriate size for the study. The sample size depends on the study design. The study population can be population of cases, population of people, or population of recipients of certain treatment.

There are many methods for sampling like simple random, systemic and stratified sampling, cluster sampling, etc. Care should be taken to ensure that the sample size is adequate to produce meaningful results. The sample size should be adequate to apply all relevant tests of statistical significance. The samples should be representative of the population and should be reliable. This minimizes sampling errors.

Variables Variables are the factors that can change. These changes can affect the outcome of a research project. Thus, it is important to identify the variables at the planning stage. They should be quantified with a measurable unit. Knowledge of the various variables in a research project will assist in refining the objectives. Usually, objectives of a research will be to see the effect of independent variables on dependent variables. There are four types of variables.

Independent variables

These are the variables that can be manipulated by the researcher and the effects of that are observed on the other variables. For example, predisposing factors, risk factors and cause.

Dependent variables

The changes occur as a result of independent variables. For example, disease and outcome.

Intervening variables

These may influence the effect of independent variables on the dependent variables. For example, while studying the response of HIV-AIDS to HAART the outcome may be influenced by the presence of antitubercular drugs.

Background variables

These are changes that are relevant in the groups or population under study. These need to be included in the study. For example, age, sex, and ethnic origin.

Controls Control groups increase the validity of the research project. They usually consist of units of same population but differ in some respects. Controls are not necessary for all research projects. As far as possible they should be used in all analytical studies, drug trials, and intervention programs.

Study methods Here the researcher will have to describe the method of data collection, which may be in the form of:

• Questionnaire
• Medical examination
• Laboratory investigations
• Screening procedures

A sample of the proforma should be prepared and attached. The possible cost involved and any financial assistance received must be mentioned.

Data collection A brief note on how data are collected should be included. The information should be about:

• The organizational setup
• Training to data collecting team
• Logistic support
• Plans for collaboration with other organization should be included

Data analysis Data analysis is an important part of a research project. A good analysis leads to good results. The plans for data analysis should be mentioned under the following heads Statistical methods, Computer program used, and Data sorting method. A general statement "appropriate statistical methods will be used." must be avoided.

Ethical clearance Wherever necessary, ethical committee clearance from the institute should be obtained. The certificate must be attached. Ethical clearance is required in all human and animal studies.

References All references quoted in review of literature and anywhere else in the synopsis should be listed here. There are two styles for writing references, Vancouver style and Harvard style. Vancouver style is easy to follow as it depends on the numbers as quoted in text.

Official requirements A synopsis is incomplete if it does not contain the following information:

• Name of the researcher and designation
• Name and designation of the guide
• Name and designation of head of department\institution
• Name of the institution
• Signatures of all with official seal

Synopsis writing is an important step in a research project. A good synopsis will give maximum information in minimum words. A well-conceived synopsis will go a long way in convincing the reviewer about the ability of the researcher to conduct the project. In cases of need for financial assistance, the request will be considered favorably. Thus, all research workers should make efforts to prepare a well-structured synopsis.

Acknowledgments

The author is thankful to M/s Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers for their permission to reproduce this article from the "Handbook on Health Professional Education" published by them. [21] [Table 1]

Suggested read for related articles:

• Eat Coat, Eat! Writing style and Indian Dermatology… October 28, 2023
• Equipoise: Where does it stand in current clinical research February 25, 2022
• Research waste is universal June 1, 2022

© Copyright 2024 – Indian Journal of Dermatology, Venereology and Leprology – All rights reserved. Published by Scientific Scholar on behalf of Indian Association of Dermatologists, Venereologists & Leprologists (IADVL), India.

ISSN (Print): 0378-6323 ISSN (Online): 0973-3922

How to Write a Synopsis for Research

• Table of Contents

What is synopsis?

The Synopsis is mainly the gist of your already planned research project submitted for approval from higher authorities. It shows a clear transparent view of your research work. On the other hand, it is the crux of a general survey that gives an idea about what a composition is all about. In other words, it is a brief view of the thorny work. It is a short outline of your thesis work. 

It shows what your research work is all about. Moreover, it gives you and your supervisor a clear view of the research topic and provides clarity behind the research aim. In this, you tell your supervisor why did you conduct this research ? You also describe your time frame.

This paper views the supervisor a brief precise overview of the whole dissertation as well. Most of the supervisors specifically read this in the research work. Thus, a synopsis is only a promo that shows whether the research work is excellent or dull. The structure of the Synopsis should be authentic and precise as well. 

Format Of writing synopsis

As we know, synopsis is imperative for all the researcher’s work. The supervisors’ primary focus in conducting the research papers is on this. Also, the format is a brief discussion of your project plan. There are various formats of Synopsis, varying from institution to institution. In addition, an institution offers many disciplines; sometimes, each field has its structure to conduct the research in real-time.  

This focus on the general format that almost entire educational institutions are following. This is the most popular format. Moreover, this has some heading to represent your topic truly. The format must be facile so that readers can easily understand it.

In this, you divide your whole plan or idea into components so you can not miss any information regarding the research paper. You can say that the format gives you an in-depth picture of the research in the various components. So, you must follow these guidelines while conducting the study:

The first page of your dissertation consists of the title. It should be precise, not too long or short. Therefore, this reflects your study objective and should be decided and written after completing the Synopsis. This should be a clear representation of your topic and give you an overview of your research as well, in addition. Always think about the concise and clear topic so that it can raise interest in the reader. 

 So, it covers the title on which you conduct your title. This should adequately describe the entire research content. The synopsis topic elaborates on this category as well. Also, your name (student name), registration number, supervisor’s name, and supervisor details like his job title (professor or assistant professor). Moreover, your university name and department name are also in it. 

The title is the central part of the synopsis that reads the most, and it should also be eye-catching. Because many readers first look at the title page. On the other hand, the catchy, unique topic creates a good image in the supervisor’s mind about the paper. 

Table Of Content s

Table of a content list the chapters and the central dissertation section alongside the page numbers. So, it is easy to see what carrier holds what chapter. You can save your time by adding this table to your paper. It also demonstrates to your supervisor the covered chapters or headings. 

Read More: How to Create Table of Contents for Research Paper?

You can generate an automatic table after formatting the whole paper or make a manual one. The synopsis should be reader friendly. The central synopsis part is this table, which also gives you a picture of the different research categories. 

This category gives a good impression and presents the paper with a professional look. Moreover, it is complicated to search for any heading without it. It arranges all the information in the best way so that a supervisor or a reader can quickly assess it. So, it is a road map in complex cases. For example, chapter one (Introduction) covers the research gap , problems, and many more. 

Chapter 1: Introduction

You add all the relevant detail to show that your topic is worth reading. This is named the first chapter in the synopsis writing. On the other hand, this is the central portion of the research study. So, the reader is more attentive during the reading of this portion. It would be the great if you state and follow such few headings in this first research chapter. 

Background Of The Study

You will have to write your study background in this section. In addition, it describes your research study area as well. This section gives a reader in depth study of the research topic and it give you an overview of the study. Moreover, never focus on the ambiguous side in this heading. This area should not be too long or short. This category length depends on the overall size of the research paper synopsis. It should cover approximately one page of research synopsis.

• Research Gap

A research gap shows a problem not being reviewed or solved in the existing research studies or publications. Moreover, it can be a new idea and a thought process that you can prove in real-time. It should cover approximately two pages. But it depends on the number of variables, and the limit can exceed if you use more variables in your study. 

• Research Problem

This is an area of the problem the researcher wants to address in the Synopsis. This is managed as a question mark in the Synopsis and should be a real-time problem . In addition, the problem should be measurable in real time as well. If we talk about the section length, it should cover a half page or one full page.

• Research Questions

It helps to identify your research path. You first determine the total variables on which you want to conduct the study. Some are dependent, and some are independent variables. Also, some are mediators, and some are moderators. Therefore, you state the questions according to your variables. You will have to write down all your authentic research questions . The hypothesis is stated in this section.

Research Objectives

You will have to state the study’s objective. So, this is the end result researcher want to achieve. It will clearly state the study’s purpose and focus on real-time, and should be measurable. Moreover, it is the guideline of the research performance.

Significance Of The Study

It consists of Theoretical Contribution and Applied Contribution. It shows why this study is needed in the research field. Moreover, this section also elaborates on the research topic’s importance and impact on others. It justifies your research study, and if you talk about the length, this covers approximately half of the page. 

Chapter 2: Literature review

This is chapter two. It is the review of the existing research publication relevant to your topic. You also describe the variables and their relationship between them. So, you also add some researchers’ points of view with the citation to defend your statement regarding the topic. You will have to cover all the sections in it.

Independent Variables

First, you will have to define all the independent variables. You can manipulate and control these variables, and, in the study, these are not influenced by any other variables. This is the single variable, and you see their effect on the dependent variables in the study.

You will have to define the mediators’ variables. In addition, the mediators’ variables describe that how the two variables show relationship to each other. These are the intervening variables, which also show the relationship between the two variables.

Dependent variable

In this, you will have to state the definition of the dependent variable. This variable change with the independent variables’ manipulation. In addition, this is the variable being tested and measured in the research paper. So, this is the measurable variable in the study.

Read More: Chi-Square Test (Χ²) || Examples, Types, and Assumptions

Moderator 1

In the study there are at least two moderators should present. After the dependent and independent variables, you should also state the definition of the first moderator. Moreover, the moderator shows the strength and the direction of the journal. 

Moderator 2

Moderators modify the relationship between the independent and the dependent variables. Therefore, you will also have to define this variable in your study. It influences the relationship among the variables also. 

You will have to explain what theory supports your study and state the theory definition as well. Also, explain the proposed model based on your approach as well. The theoretical framework helps the investigation identify the real problem and show the impact of variables on each other.

• Research Hypothesis

Afterward, you will have to propose the research hypothesis of your study in the Synopsis. Therefore, Hypothesis 1, Hypothesis 2, Hypothesis 3, and Hypothesis 4 should mention here by looking at the impact of the variables. Well, H1 shows the positive or negative relationship between the independent and dependent variables. And H2 shows the connection between the independent, mediator, and dependent variables. 

Read More: Directional vs. Non-Directional Hypothesis in Research

H3 shows the positive or negative relationship among the independent, moderator, and dependent variables. H4 shows the relationship between the mediator, moderator two, and the dependent variable. Other than that, it shows the independent variable impact positively or negatively on the other variable, and you will prove this through statistics. Moreover, this hypothesis should cover almost one page.

Research Mode l

Here you will show the clear diagram, which is the theoretical image of your research study. 

Chapter: 3 Research Methodology

It is chapter three. This section includes detail on how this study was carried out. It provides research design, sample size, and many others. This ensures the supervisor the reliability and the validity of the study.

Research Design

This covers the techniques chosen by the researcher. For example, the researcher will decide the tome horizon whether this research study will be cross-sectional or longitudinal . 

This is an extensive collection of individuals. Also, you will elaborate on what sector you focus on, like banking, education, textile, etc. 

Sample Size and Technique

There are many types of sampling techniques. Therefore, the researcher uses any of this according to the study’s nature and continence. You will state what sampling technique you use for your research study. 

Read more: T-test | Example, Formula | When to Use a T-test

Data Collection Procedure

In this section, you will decide how you will collect the information and how you will process all the data. Moreover, in this section, you will support your hypothesis based on the facts and the figures. 

It consists of the measurements of all your variables on which scale you are measuring your variables. You will also state which study you will be adopted to describe such variables. First, you will have to measure your independent variable, which was estimated by 14 item scale developed in the past study. So, this variable is measured by 7-point Likert Scale. 

 Mediators should measure by adopting 20 items scale developed in the past study. So, this variable will measure by 7-point Likert Scale (from 1 Strongly Disagree to 7 Strongly Agree). The dependent variable should measure by adopting 20 items scale developed in the past study. So, this variable will measure by 7-point Likert Scale (from 1 Strongly Disagree to 7 Strongly Agree).

 Moderator 1 should measure by adopting three items scale developed in the past study. So, this variable will measure by 7-point Likert Scale (from 1 Strongly Disagree to 7 Strongly Agree). So, Moderator 2 should measure by adopting 28 items scale developed in the past study. So, this variable will measure by 7-point Likert Scale (from 1 Strongly Disagree to 7 Strongly Agree)

You add other previous research contributions to your study, and it is important to mention them or give them credit by adding their journal links here in this category. You will have to add all the journal references from where you got all the data. Sites are in APA style, and the article link should also be authentic. 

• How to Format APA Reference Page? APA Citations | Examples
• What Are MLA Citations? Guidelines & Examples
• Chicago Style Format: Examples | Tips To Avoid Mistakes 
• Top AI Tools for Citation Management

It consists of the Questionnaire, starting with the questions of independent variables, then you will have to add mediators’ questions. Afterward, add questions of the dependent variable, then add moderato 1 and 2 questions. 

Other articles

Please read through some of our other articles with examples and explanations if you’d like to learn more about research methodology.

• PLS-SEM model
• Principal Components Analysis
• Multivariate Analysis
• Friedman Test
• Chi-Square Test (Χ²)
• Effect Size

 Methodology

• Research Methods
• Quantitative Research
• Qualitative Research
• Case Study Research
• Survey Research
• Conclusive Research
• Descriptive Research
• Cross-Sectional Research
• Theoretical Framework
• Conceptual Framework
• Triangulation
• Grounded Theory
• Quasi-Experimental Design
• Mixed Method
• Correlational Research
• Randomized Controlled Trial
• Stratified Sampling
• Ethnography
• Ghost Authorship
• Secondary Data Collection
• Primary Data Collection
• Ex-Post-Facto
•   Dissertation Topic
• Thesis Statement
• Research Proposal
• Types of Research Gaps
• Operationalization of Variables
• Literature Review
• Questionnaire
• Reliability
• Measurement of Scale
• Sampling Techniques
• Acknowledgements

Related Posts

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• Knowledge Base

Methodology

Research Methods | Definitions, Types, Examples

Research methods are specific procedures for collecting and analyzing data. Developing your research methods is an integral part of your research design . When planning your methods, there are two key decisions you will make.

First, decide how you will collect data . Your methods depend on what type of data you need to answer your research question :

• Qualitative vs. quantitative : Will your data take the form of words or numbers?
• Primary vs. secondary : Will you collect original data yourself, or will you use data that has already been collected by someone else?
• Descriptive vs. experimental : Will you take measurements of something as it is, or will you perform an experiment?

Second, decide how you will analyze the data .

• For quantitative data, you can use statistical analysis methods to test relationships between variables.
• For qualitative data, you can use methods such as thematic analysis to interpret patterns and meanings in the data.

Table of contents

Methods for collecting data, examples of data collection methods, methods for analyzing data, examples of data analysis methods, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about research methods.

Data is the information that you collect for the purposes of answering your research question . The type of data you need depends on the aims of your research.

Qualitative vs. quantitative data

Your choice of qualitative or quantitative data collection depends on the type of knowledge you want to develop.

For questions about ideas, experiences and meanings, or to study something that can’t be described numerically, collect qualitative data .

If you want to develop a more mechanistic understanding of a topic, or your research involves hypothesis testing , collect quantitative data .

You can also take a mixed methods approach , where you use both qualitative and quantitative research methods.

Primary vs. secondary research

Primary research is any original data that you collect yourself for the purposes of answering your research question (e.g. through surveys , observations and experiments ). Secondary research is data that has already been collected by other researchers (e.g. in a government census or previous scientific studies).

If you are exploring a novel research question, you’ll probably need to collect primary data . But if you want to synthesize existing knowledge, analyze historical trends, or identify patterns on a large scale, secondary data might be a better choice.

Descriptive vs. experimental data

In descriptive research , you collect data about your study subject without intervening. The validity of your research will depend on your sampling method .

In experimental research , you systematically intervene in a process and measure the outcome. The validity of your research will depend on your experimental design .

To conduct an experiment, you need to be able to vary your independent variable , precisely measure your dependent variable, and control for confounding variables . If it’s practically and ethically possible, this method is the best choice for answering questions about cause and effect.

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Your data analysis methods will depend on the type of data you collect and how you prepare it for analysis.

Data can often be analyzed both quantitatively and qualitatively. For example, survey responses could be analyzed qualitatively by studying the meanings of responses or quantitatively by studying the frequencies of responses.

Qualitative analysis methods

Qualitative analysis is used to understand words, ideas, and experiences. You can use it to interpret data that was collected:

• From open-ended surveys and interviews , literature reviews , case studies , ethnographies , and other sources that use text rather than numbers.
• Using non-probability sampling methods .

Qualitative analysis tends to be quite flexible and relies on the researcher’s judgement, so you have to reflect carefully on your choices and assumptions and be careful to avoid research bias .

Quantitative analysis methods

Quantitative analysis uses numbers and statistics to understand frequencies, averages and correlations (in descriptive studies) or cause-and-effect relationships (in experiments).

You can use quantitative analysis to interpret data that was collected either:

• During an experiment .
• Using probability sampling methods .

Because the data is collected and analyzed in a statistically valid way, the results of quantitative analysis can be easily standardized and shared among researchers.

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Chi square test of independence
• Statistical power
• Descriptive statistics
• Degrees of freedom
• Pearson correlation
• Null hypothesis
• Double-blind study
• Case-control study
• Research ethics
• Data collection
• Hypothesis testing
• Structured interviews

Research bias

• Hawthorne effect
• Unconscious bias
• Recall bias
• Halo effect
• Self-serving bias
• Information bias

Quantitative research deals with numbers and statistics, while qualitative research deals with words and meanings.

Quantitative methods allow you to systematically measure variables and test hypotheses . Qualitative methods allow you to explore concepts and experiences in more detail.

In mixed methods research , you use both qualitative and quantitative data collection and analysis methods to answer your research question .

A sample is a subset of individuals from a larger population . Sampling means selecting the group that you will actually collect data from in your research. For example, if you are researching the opinions of students in your university, you could survey a sample of 100 students.

In statistics, sampling allows you to test a hypothesis about the characteristics of a population.

The research methods you use depend on the type of data you need to answer your research question .

• If you want to measure something or test a hypothesis , use quantitative methods . If you want to explore ideas, thoughts and meanings, use qualitative methods .
• If you want to analyze a large amount of readily-available data, use secondary data. If you want data specific to your purposes with control over how it is generated, collect primary data.
• If you want to establish cause-and-effect relationships between variables , use experimental methods. If you want to understand the characteristics of a research subject, use descriptive methods.

Methodology refers to the overarching strategy and rationale of your research project . It involves studying the methods used in your field and the theories or principles behind them, in order to develop an approach that matches your objectives.

Methods are the specific tools and procedures you use to collect and analyze data (for example, experiments, surveys , and statistical tests ).

In shorter scientific papers, where the aim is to report the findings of a specific study, you might simply describe what you did in a methods section .

In a longer or more complex research project, such as a thesis or dissertation , you will probably include a methodology section , where you explain your approach to answering the research questions and cite relevant sources to support your choice of methods.

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• Research article
• Open access
• Published: 15 April 2024

Shared genetic architecture between autoimmune disorders and B-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia: insights from large-scale genome-wide cross-trait analysis

• Xinghao Yu 1 , 2   na1 ,
• Yiyin Chen 1 , 2   na1 ,
• Jia Chen 1 ,
• Huimin Lu 3 ,
• Depei Wu 1 , 2 &
• Yang Xu 1 , 2  

BMC Medicine volume  22 , Article number:  161 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

163 Accesses

Metrics details

To study the shared genetic structure between autoimmune diseases and B-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia (B-ALL) and identify the shared risk loci and genes and genetic mechanisms involved.

Based on large-scale genome-wide association study (GWAS) summary-level data sets, we observed genetic overlaps between autoimmune diseases and B-ALL, and cross-trait pleiotropic analysis was performed to detect shared pleiotropic loci and genes. A series of functional annotation and tissue-specific analysis were performed to determine the influence of pleiotropic genes. The heritability enrichment analysis was used to detect crucial immune cells and tissues. Finally, bidirectional Mendelian randomization (MR) methods were utilized to investigate the casual associations.

Our research highlighted shared genetic mechanisms between seven autoimmune disorders and B-ALL. A total of 73 pleiotropic loci were identified at the genome-wide significance level ( P  < 5 × 10 –8 ), 16 of which had strong evidence of colocalization. We demonstrated that several loci have been previously reported (e.g., 17q21) and discovered some novel loci (e.g., 10p12, 5p13). Further gene-level identified 194 unique pleiotropic genes, for example IKZF1 , GATA3 , IKZF3 , GSDMB , and ORMDL3 . Pathway analysis determined the key role of cellular response to cytokine stimulus, B cell activation, and JAK-STAT signaling pathways. SNP-level and gene-level tissue enrichment suggested that crucial role pleiotropic mechanisms involved in the spleen, whole blood, and EBV-transformed lymphocytes. Also, hyprcoloc and stratified LD score regression analyses revealed that B cells at different developmental stages may be involved in mechanisms shared between two different diseases. Finally, two-sample MR analysis determined causal effects of asthma and rheumatoid arthritis on B-ALL.

Conclusions

Our research proved shared genetic architecture between autoimmune disorders and B-ALL and shed light on the potential mechanism that might involve in.

Peer Review reports

B-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia (B-ALL) is a prevalent subtype of leukemia characterized by its highly malignant nature, primarily originating from the clonal expansion and abnormal proliferation of B lymphocytes within the hematopoietic system [ 1 ]. Autoimmune disorders are characterized by a disruption in self-tolerance, resulting in pathological alterations and clinical symptoms arising from immune responses targeting self-components [ 2 ]. Concurrently, the pathogenesis of several autoimmune disorders is intricately interwoven with the malfunctioning of B cells within the humoral immune system. The excessive activation of self-reactive B cells precipitates an overproduction of autoantibodies and immune complexes, which, in turn inflict damage upon a multitude of tissues and organs, culminating in the emergence of various autoimmune disorders [ 3 ]. To summarize, B cells assume a pivotal role in the orchestration of humoral immune responses, and their deregulation markedly contributes to the onset of autoimmune diseases and B-cell malignancies [ 4 ].

Epidemiological investigations have discovered associations between autoimmune disorders and B-cell malignancies. For example, rheumatoid arthritis (RA) patients exhibit a twofold increased risk of concomitant B-cell lymphomas when compared to their healthy counterparts [ 5 ]. In the case of systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) and Sjögren’s syndrome patients, the risk amplifies significantly to 2.7–7.5 times [ 6 ] and 9–18 times [ 6 ], respectively. Previous studies observed that the standardized incidence ratio of ALL was estimated to be 2.77 after RA onset [ 7 ]. Studies also showed that at the time of diagnosis of malignancy, 15–30% of patients present with many of the typical features of rheumatic diseases [ 8 ]. However, current research focused primarily on the onset of autoimmune diseases on hematological malignancies risk, particularly diffuse large B-cell lymphoma and follicular lymphoma. This leaves a clear gap in understanding the pleiotropic mechanisms and bidirectional causations between B-ALL (a disease also derived from B lymphocytes) and autoimmune diseases. Only Li et al. have reported the shared mechanism between autoimmunity and B-ALL, specifically demonstrating the essential role of DYRK1a in mediating the noncanonical NF-κB activation induced by BAFF [ 9 ]. This underscores the existence of substantial knowledge gaps in this field, highlighting the urgent need to ascertain shared risk loci between these two disorders. It is worth noting that traditional clinical or epidemiological research may encounter challenges in ensuring the statistical effectiveness of such investigations.

Recently, the linkage disequilibrium (LD) score regression (LDSC) approach has been developed to indicate whether there exists a genetic correlation between the two types of disease [ 10 ]. It is unclear whether the overall genetic correlation is attributable to a few loci or the entire genome. Few studies to date have systematically evaluated genetic overlap, shared susceptibility genes, and causality between autoimmune diseases and B-ALL. Cross-trait analyses that utilize the correlation of GWAS signals to study polyvalent genetic variants or loci between multiple traits have been shown to accurately identify shared loci between diseases or traits [ 11 , 12 , 13 ]. These pleiotropic loci can be targeted for intervention to potentially prevent or treat these diseases simultaneously. Recently, a novel method called “PLACO” was developed to identify pleiotropy at the SNP-level based on a level-α intersection–union test (IUT) [ 14 ]. Therefore, it is important to determine specific genetic variants or loci that lead to genome-wide genetic correlations or to delve into the shared genetic etiology of these two types of diseases. Our research flowchart is shown in Fig.  1 .

Study workflow

GWAS summary data source

GWAS summary statistics for 16 autoimmune diseases were all publicly available from large-scale GWAS or GWAS meta-analyses: adult-onset asthma (AOA) [ 15 , 16 ], childhood-onset asthma (COA) [ 15 , 16 ], Graves’ disease (GD) [ 17 , 18 ], Hashimoto’s disease (HD) [ 17 , 18 ], hypothyroidism (HT) [ 17 , 18 ], primary biliary cirrhosis (PBC) [ 19 , 20 ], primary sclerosing cholangitis (PSC) [ 21 , 22 ], inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) [ 23 , 24 ], Crohn’s disease (CD) [ 23 , 24 ], ulcerative colitis (UC) [ 23 , 24 ], RA [ 25 , 26 ], SLE [ 27 , 28 ], multiple sclerosis (MS) [ 29 , 30 ], systemic sclerosis (SS) [ 31 , 32 ], type 1 diabetes (T1D) [ 17 , 18 ], and vitiligo [ 33 , 34 ]. GWAS summary statistics for B-ALL were generated in a meta-analysis of four GWAS including a total of 5321 cases and 16,666 controls of European ancestry [ 35 , 36 ]. The same quality control procedure was followed for each study, the association between ALL status and SNP genotypes in each study was assessed using logistic regression, and genetic principal components were used as covariates in the association analysis. Risk estimates were finally combined by fixed-effects inverse variance weighted (IVW) meta-analysis. The sources and details of these datasets are summarized in Additional file 2 : Table S1.

Genetic overlap at the genome-wide level

We used LDSC to evaluate the genetic structure shared between autoimmune disorders and B-ALL [ 10 ]. The LD scores used in LDSC were calculated based on genotypes of common SNPs from European ancestry samples in the 1000 genomes project [ 37 ]. Standard errors (SE) were estimated by the jackknife method in LDSC which was further used to correct for attenuation bias. Intercept of LDSC was used to evaluate potential population overlaps between studies from different consortiums [ 10 ]. It is worth noting that no actual population overlap between autoimmune disorders and B-ALL studies existed in our analysis. A likelihood-based method, called high-definition likelihood (HDL), can utilize GWAS summary statistics to estimate genetic associations, which could reduce the variance of genetic association estimates by about 60% compared with the LDSC method [ 38 ].

We further investigated whether SNP heritability of autoimmune diseases and B-ALL was enriched in specific cells and tissues using hierarchical LDSC regression. Stratified-LDSC (S-LDSC) was applied to different immune cell data to assess whether specific cell types had significant genetic enrichment in these tissues. We downloaded 54 human tissues datasets from GTEx [ 39 ] and 292 immune cell types from the ImmGen consortium [ 40 ] (including B cells, γ δ T cells, α β T cells, innate lymphocytes, myeloid cells, stromal cells, and stem cells). After adjusting for the baseline model and all gene sets, we assessed the significance of the SNP heritability enrichment estimated in each tissue and cell by using the regression coefficient Z-scores and corresponding P values.

Identification of pleiotropic loci and genes by using PLACO

A pleiotropic analysis under composite null hypothesis (PLACO) was used to identify pleiotropy among multiple autoimmune diseases and B-ALL at the SNP-level. SNPs reach genome-wide significant level ( P  < 5 × 10 –8 ) and were viewed as pleiotropic variants. The functional mapping and annotation (FUMA) of GWAS was used to determine the genomic regions of these risk variants (i.e., pleiotropic loci) [ 41 ]. Also, a Bayesian colocalization analysis was conducted to determine the pleiotropic loci shared by autoimmune diseases and B-ALL [ 42 ]. To explore the shared mechanisms of the identified loci, nearby genes were mapped based on lead SNPs within each locus. Also, a generalized gene-set analysis of GWAS data (multi-marker analysis of genomic annotation, MAGMA) approach was used to determine the biological function of these pleiotropic loci. Specifically, we performed MAGMA gene analysis to identify pleiotropic genes by properly incorporating LD between markers and to detect multi-marker effects ( P  < 0.05/18,345 = 2.73 × 10 –6 ) [ 43 ]. MAGMA gene-set analysis was performed to investigate the biofunction of lead SNPs [ 43 ], and a total of 10,678 gene sets including curated gene sets (c2.all) and go terms (c5.bp, c5.cc, and c5.mf) from Molecular Signatures Database (MSigDB) were finally tested [ 44 ]. Bonferroni correction was performed for all tested gene sets to avoid false positives ( P  < 0.05/10,678 = 4.68 × 10 –6 ). Metascape webtools (metascape.org) performed a pathway enrichment analysis to determine the function of mapped genes based on MSigDB [ 44 ]. Genome-wide tissue-specific enrichment analysis was conducted based on 54 GTEx tissues [ 45 ] for the genome-wide pleiotropic results generated by PLACO. We also calculated the average expression (log 2 transformed) of all identified pleiotropic genes in all 54 GTEx tissues [ 45 ] and tested tissue specificity by differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in each tissue (up- and down-regulated DEGs were precomputed by the signs of the t-statistics).

Summary-based Mendelian randomization

Summary-based Mendelian randomization (SMR) [ 46 ] method combined summary-level data from GWAS with data from expression quantitative trait loci (eQTL) studies to identify genes whose expression levels are associated with complex traits due to pleiotropy. It employs SMR and HEIDI methods to test pleiotropic associations between gene expression levels and complex traits of interest using summary-level data from GWAS and eQTL studies. This approach could be interpreted as an analysis to test whether the magnitude of SNP effects on phenotype is mediated by gene expression.

Multi-trait colocalization analysis

We utilized hypothesis prioritization for multi-trait colocalization (HyPrColoc) [ 47 ] method to perform multi-trait colocalization analysis to pinpoint the crucial roles that immune traits played in the onset of autoimmune disorders and B-ALL. Immune-wide GWAS data contains a total of 731 immune cells [ 48 ], which could be publicly available from the GWAS catalog (GCST0001391 ~ GCST0002121). Detailed information on the GWAS summary datasets for immune cells was added to Additional file 1 : Supplementary Methods.

Causal association analysis

We performed a one-directional two-sample Mendelian randomization (MR) analysis to assess possible causal effects of autoimmune disorders on B-ALL risk. The “clumping” procedure in PLINK 1.9 software was used to extract independent significance SNPs for all autoimmune diseases ( P  < 5 × 10 –8 ), where r 2 was set to 0.001 and window size was set to a physical distance of 10,000 KB [ 49 ]. Notably, r 2 was calculated based on the 1000 genomes project phase 3 as a reference panel. Proportion of variance explained (PVE) and F statistic ( F  > 10) was used to measure the strength of instrumental variables (IVs) (see Additional File 1 : Supplementary Methods) [ 50 ]. To verify causality among these trait pairs, six MR approaches were performed with each set of IVs, i.e., IVW, Debiased-IVW (DIVW) [ 51 ], weighted median approach [ 52 ], MR pleiotropy residual sum and outlier (MR-PRESSO) [ 53 ], MR-Egger [ 54 ], MR robust adjusted profile score (MR-RAPS) [ 55 ], and mode-based estimate [ 56 ] method. Cochran’s Q statistics was used to examine the effect size heterogeneity across the IVs (see Additional File 1 : Supplementary Methods) [ 57 , 58 ]. Additionally, the intercept of MR-Egger regression and global test of MR-PRSSO were utilized to detect horizontal pleiotropy [ 53 , 54 ]. Detailed information on used MR methods was described in Additional file 1 : Supplementary Method.

Software and packages

The main statistical analysis was performed in R (version 3.5.3). LDSC and S-LDSC analysis were implemented with “LDSC” software (v1.0.1) [ 10 ]. PLACO was performed with “PLACO” package [ 14 ]. Bayesian colocalization analysis was performed with the “coloc” package (version 5.2.1) [ 42 ] and HyPrColoc was performed with the “hyprcoloc” package (version 1.0) [ 47 ]. Function analysis was performed by FUMA web tool [ 41 ]. MAGMA gene and gene-set analysis were performed by MAGMA software [ 43 ]. Two-sample MR analysis was conducted with “MendelianRandomization” (version 0.9.0) [ 59 ], mr.raps (version 0.4.1) [ 55 ], and MRPRESSO (version 1.0) [ 53 ] packages. A copy of the main code used in this research is available at: https://github.com/biostatYu/MRcode-/tree/main/AD_BALL .

Shared genetic architecture between autoimmune disorders and B-ALL

We first evaluated the genetic correlation between autoimmune diseases and B-ALL and results from the LDSC and HDL methods were highly consistent (Table  1 and Additional file 2 : Table S2). Specifically, by using the LDSC method, six traits were identified to be genetically correlated with B-ALL, including AOA, HT, IBD, CD, RA, and MS. While implementing the HDL method, significant genetic correlations were observed among AOA, HT, PBC, RA, MS, and B-ALL, leading to a final union set of seven pairwise traits for further analysis. However, we did not find significant genetic correlation between IBD and CD and HDL results. It was noting that only RA remained significantly genetical correlated with B-ALL risk after applying the Bonferroni correction ( P  = 0.003 < 0.05/16).

Pleiotropic loci and genes identified for multiple autoimmune disorders and B-ALL

Given the shared genetic mechanisms between autoimmune diseases and B-ALL identified by LDSC and HDL, we used novel pleiotropy analyses (PLACO) to identify potential pleiotropic loci for both diseases (Additional file 1 : Fig. S1). The QQ plots demonstrated no premature divergence between observed and expected values, ruling out the possibility of group stratification (Additional file 1 : Fig. S2). Based on PLACO results, we identified a total of 73 pleiotropic genomic risk loci associated with both autoimmune disorders and B-ALL using FUMA ( P  < 5 × 10 –8 ) (Fig.  2 , Additional file 1 : Fig. S1, and Additional file 2 : Table S3). Colocalization analysis finally identified 16 of 73 (21.9%) potential pleiotropic loci with PP.H4 greater than 0.7 (e.g., 5p13) (Table  2 ). The regional plots for each trait pair are presented in Additional file 1 : Fig. S3 ~ S8. Notably, some pleiotropic regions were shared between different pairs, for example, genome regions 7p12.2, 10p14, 6q27, and 10p12.31 were identified in four pairs (Additional file 2 : Table S4). The MAGMA analysis of gene sets suggested that the identified pleiotropic loci may participate in the control of the immune system, hematopoiesis, and various other processes (Fig.  3 A and Additional file 2 : Table S5). Notably, significant monocyte differentiation pathway was found for all trait pairs, and significant leukocyte differentiation was found for all five trait pairs. Further tissue-specific analysis found these risk loci were enriched in several immune-related tissues (e.g., spleen, whole blood, Epstein–Barr virus (EBV)-transformed lymphocytes) (Fig.  3 B and Additional file 2 : Table S6). ANNOVAR category annotation showed that 28 of 73 lead SNPs (38.4%) were intronic variants and 30 of 73 (41.1%) were intergenic variants. Only 2 of 73 (3%) lead SNPs were exonic variants (Additional file 2 : Table S3).

The circular diagram presents pleiotropic loci and genes identified by PLACO among seven trait pairs. Note: Shared loci identified by colocalization analysis are highlighted in orange; shared genes identified by MAGMA analysis are highlighted in blue. B-ALL B-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia, AOA adult-onset asthma, HT hypothyroidism, PBC primary biliary cirrhosis, IBD inflammatory bowel disease, CD Crohn’s disease, RA rheumatoid arthritis, MS multiple sclerosis

Bar plot of MAGMA gene-set ( A ) and tissue-specific ( B ) analysis for genome-wide pleiotropic results. Note: The red dotted line represents the significance of 0.05 after multiple corrections, and the blue represents the significance of 0.05. B-ALL B-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia, AOA adult-onset asthma, HT hypothyroidism, PBC primary biliary cirrhosis, IBD inflammatory bowel disease, CD Crohn’s disease, RA rheumatoid arthritis, MS multiple sclerosis

Pleiotropic genes identified and enrichment analysis

We used different methods to map the identified SNP-level signals into the gene-level signals. By using MAGMA gene analysis, a total of 341 significant pleiotropic genes were determined as pleiotropic genes between multiple autoimmune diseases and B-ALL (194 unique) (Additional file 2 : Table S7 and Additional file 1 : Fig. S9). Additional file 2 : Table S8 lists the details of these genes. MAGMA gene analysis detected 92 repeated pleiotropic genes across different trait pairs, with IKZF1 identified as a pleiotropic gene for six pairs, followed by MLLT10 , FIGNL1 , RNASET2 , CCR6 , GATA3 , CLN3 , PIP4K2A , DDC , RP11-514O12.4 , FGFR1OP , and GRB10 in four trait pairs. eQTL analysis identified multiple hits of IKZF1 in blood- and immune-related tissues (e.g., naïve B cell, CD19 B-cell, EBV-transformed lymphocytes cells, cis-eQTLs, trans-eQTLs, spleen, whole blood). Five genes (i.e., TUFM , ZC2HC1A , RNASET2 , GSDMB, and ORMDL3 ) were observed to be significant in five different tissues. We summarized the landscape of pleiotropic genes identified in different methods and tissues in Fig.  4 . We observed several genes ( RNASET2 and FIGNL1 ) were significantly mapped in different tissues with different methods. The IKZF1 gene was also highlighted in whole blood tissues (Fig.  4 ).

Overview of pleiotropic genes (highlighted in all three signals) for the autoimmune disorders and B-ALL. Note: The signals represent hits of genes across different trait pairs. eQTL expression quantitative trait loci, SMR summary-based Mendelian randomization, AD autoimmune disorders, B-ALL B-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia, AOA adult-onset asthma, HT hypothyroidism, PBC primary biliary cirrhosis, IBD inflammatory bowel disease, CD Crohn’s disease, RA rheumatoid arthritis, MS multiple sclerosis

The shared mechanism between autoimmune diseases and B-ALL may involve specific organs or tissues involvement. Numerous genes (e.g., TOP2A , IKZF3 , MYB, and CD80 ) showed significant differential expression in EBV-transformed lymphocytes, and APOBR , IKZF1, and IL7R showed significant differential expression in spleen and whole blood tissues (Additional file 1 : Fig. S10 and Additional file 2 : Table S9). Tissue enrichment analysis showed that these genes were also enriched into the spleen and EBV-transformed lymphocytes (Additional file 1 : Fig. S11 and Additional file 2 : Table S10). Additional S-LDSC based on multiple tissues identified significant SNP heritability enrichment for all autoimmune diseases (except AOA) in each of the monocytes, blood cells, and spleen, after adjusting for the baseline model (Additional file 1 : Fig. S12 and Additional file 2 : Table S11). Further enrichment analysis of the GO biological processes associated with these genes indicated higher enrichment in the cellular response to cytokine stimulation, B cell activation, response to tumor necrosis factor, inflammatory response, and receptor signaling pathway via JAK-STAT (Fig.  5 A). These pathways play important roles in immune regulation and leukemogenesis. Cell type enrichment analysis showed the highest significance for bone marrow naïve T cells (Fig.  5 B). Furthermore, we found that these genes were numerically enriched in several immunologic signatures (e.g., MEMORY VS CD21HIGH TRANSITIONAL BCELL DN) (Fig.  5 C). The PPI analysis showed that five PPI networks were constructed, including the JAK-STAT signaling pathway and multiple pathways related to DNA damage were involved. And 22 proteins (e.g., STAT, NFKB1, and GATA3) could participate in these pathways (Fig.  5 D). Also, the results suggest that heritability is enriched in the blood, EBV-transformed lymphocytes, whole blood, and palatine tonsil tissues among five or more autoimmune diseases and B-ALL.

A Pathway enrichments for identified pleiotropic genes (KEGG, GO, Wiki pathways). B Cell-type enrichments for identified pleiotropic genes. C Immune signatures enrichments for identified pleiotropic genes. D Protein–protein interaction analysis based on identified pleiotropic genes

Immune-related mechanisms shared between autoimmune disorders and B-ALL

The shared mechanism involving affected tissues such as the spleen, lymphocytes, and whole blood, suggested an important involvement of immune mechanisms in the inter-disease. We used the S-LDSC method to determine the heritability enrichment of pleiotropy in immune cells and the HyPrColoc method to identify immune cells with co-localization signals with pleiotropic motifs. S-LDSC observed heritability enrichment of B cells in both autoimmune diseases and B-ALL. When analyzing the enrichment of immune traits from ImmGen, we also observed that two cell traits in the B cell panel were enriched: B.FrE.BM (CD19 + IgM + AA4.1 + HSA + ) and preB.FrD.BM (CD19 + IgM − CD45R + CD43 − ). Additionally, numerous cell traits in the T cell panel were also identified, implying the potential immune mechanisms shared (Additional file 1 : Fig. S12 and Additional file 2 : Table S11). Then multi-trait colocalization analysis by using HyPrColoc was performed to pinpoint key immune cells (Additional file 2 : Table S12). Results highlight 59 pleiotropic loci, of which 19 were unique, and these loci support the important role of 42 unique immune cells in autoimmune diseases and B-ALL by sharing causal variants. Our results support the critical influence of BAFF-R, CD4, CD45, and CD28 on different cells. Notably, a total of six BAFF-R-related immune traits were observed, including BAFF-R on B cell, BAFF-R on CD20 − , BAFF-R on CD24 + CD27 + , BAFF-R on IgD + CD24 − , BAFF-R on IgD + CD24 + , and BAFF-R on IgD + CD38 − . Interestingly, BAFF-R on B cell and BAFF-R on CD24 + CD27 + were both shared among three trait pairs (i.e., B-ALL&IBD, B-ALL&PBC, B-ALL&RA).

The causal relationship between autoimmune diseases and B-ALL estimated by MR

MR analyses using the IVW method showed significant positive associations between two autoimmune diseases (AOA and RA) and B-ALL risk (Fig.  6 A and Additional file 2 : Table S13). The risk of B-ALL was found to be able to be increased as the risk of AOA increases, the effect size was estimated by using the IVW method (OR = 1.223, 95%CI = 1.048 ~ 1.426, P  = 0.010). Another four methods (DIVW, MR-RAPS, MR-PRESSO, and slope of MR-Egger) are consistent with the results of the IVW method. Although a significant intercept of MR-Egger might indicate the existence of potential horizontal pleiotropy, the global test of MR-PRESSO ruled out this possibility ( P  = 0.632). We also observed significant causal effects of RA onset on B-ALL risk by using the IVW method (OR = 1.117, 95%CI = 1.033 ~ 1.208, P  = 0.005). DIVW, MR-RAPS, and MR-PRESSO support this association (Fig.  6 B), where the intercept of MR-Egger and the global test of MR-PRESSO ruled out the possibility of horizontal pleiotropy (Additional file 2 : Table S14). Additional scatter and funnel plots eliminate the possibility of potential outliers (Fig.  6 C–D). However, after the Bonferroni adjustment, no causal associations between autoimmune disorders and B-ALL remained statistically significant ( P  = 0.003 < 0.05/16). Finally, reverse MR analysis ruled out the possibility of reverse-directional causality.

A The forest plot shows causal associations between autoimmune disorders and B-ALL by using one-directional MR analysis. Note: Causal effects were estimated by using IVW method. B Forest plot shows causal effects of AOA and RA on B-ALL risk estimated by using different methods. C Scatter plot shows significant causal association between AOA and B-ALL risk. D Funnel plot shows significant causal association between AOA and B-ALL risk. E Scatter plot shows significant causal association between RA and B-ALL risk. F Funnel plot shows significant causal association between RA and B-ALL risk. Associations highlighted with red represent that associations were significant in more than three main MR methods

Given the critical contribution of B cells to autoimmune disorders and B-ALL, there may be a complex relationship between them [ 60 ]. The study employed comprehensive genetic methodologies to investigate the genetic correlation between autoimmune disorders and B-ALL. The study determined pleiotropic loci using cross-trait PLACO analysis and identified pleiotropic genes through the MAGMA method. Then the key pathways and immunological mechanisms involved were identified. Finally, comprehensive MR analysis and sensitive analysis established the causal relationships between autoimmune diseases and B-ALL.

Through genetic correlation analysis, we observed significant genetic overlap between B-ALL and seven autoimmune disorders, including AOA, HT, IBD, CD, PBC, RA, and MS. We provide strong evidence for a shared genetic mechanism between RA and B-ALL, as well as MR evidence suggesting that patients with RA symptoms should be alerted to the risk of progression to ALL, which is consistent with previous studies [ 7 , 8 ]. Additionally, study have shown that 34 of 699 ALL patients diagnosed and followed had previously received varying doses of steroids for aplastic events or arthritis-based rheumatic diseases [ 61 ]. By using genetic variables, MR methods could well avoid the influence of possible confounding factors. Therefore, we believe that in addition to the effect of immunosuppressants, RA itself will also play an important role in the risk of B-ALL. We also observed significantly causal effects of AOA on B-ALL risk, which was ambiguous in previous studies: a systematic review supported the protective effect of asthma on ALL [ 62 ], two types of research included showed significant high risks of ALL in patients with a history of asthma [ 63 , 64 ].

We identified a series of genetically risk loci associated with both autoimmune diseases and B-ALL, and some of which were observed in multiple phenotype pairs (e.g., 7p12.2, 10p14, 6q27, 10p12.31). Previous studies gave the evidence of key role these loci played in the development of autoimmune disorders and B-ALL. For example, loci on 7p12.2 ( IKZF1 ) had been proven to be associated with risk of childhood B-ALL [ 65 ], which was also identified as susceptibility genes for SLE [ 66 ]. After searching for the GWAS catalog, 7p12.2 had been reported to be associated with multiple autoimmune disorders, including CD [ 23 ], IBD [ 23 ], RA [ 25 ], and MS [ 67 ]. GATA3 (10p14) is a key regulator in the immune system, especially in the differentiation and function of type 2 helper (Th2) cells [ 68 ]. Th2 cells have been demonstrated to play a role in various autoimmune diseases, including SLE and IBD [ 69 , 70 ]. Recent research also highlighted the role of noncoding genetic variation (rs3824462) in GATA3 , linking it to an increased risk of Ph-like ALL, a common subtype of B-ALL. The study revealed that rs3824462 induced local and global changes in chromatin conformation, activating JAK-STAT pathway and promoting disease development [ 71 ].

We searched for the identified risk loci in the GWAS catalog (last update in 2023 December 20) [ 72 ] and found that some of the risk loci have been reported to be associated with both B-ALL and autoimmune disorders (Additional file 1 : Fig. S13 and Additional file 2 : Table S15). For instance, the 17q21 locus is implicated in various autoimmune diseases, including asthma [ 73 , 74 ], IBD [ 75 , 76 ], T1D [ 77 ], and SLE [ 78 ]. This locus, housing IKZF3 , GSDMB , and ORMDL3 , involved in lymphocyte development [ 79 ], pyroptosis [ 80 ], and inflammatory response [ 81 ], has been challenging to dissect. GSDMB and ORMDL3 represent the target genes of rs2290400, and its minor allele is associated with a protective effect against ALL [ 82 ]. IKZF3 polymorphism contributes to B-ALL with a 1.5-fold to twofold increase in relative risk [ 83 ]. Genes previously reported to be associated with leukemia have also been observed in our results to be correlated with autoimmune diseases: MLLT10 (10p12) participates in various chromosomal rearrangements associated with ALL and acute myeloid leukemia (AML) [ 84 ]. It is implicated in chromatin structure regulation and DNA damage response, deemed crucial for early development, maintenance, and differentiation of hematopoietic stem cells. While direct evidence for the impact of MLLT10 on autoimmune diseases has not been established, studies indicated a close association with C-reactive protein levels [ 85 ], widely recognized as a valuable indicator of disease activity in various autoimmune rheumatic diseases [ 86 ]. Simultaneously, certain genes previously reported to be associated with autoimmune disorders have also been found in our results to be associated with B-ALL. IRGM (5q33) encodes a member of the immunity-related GTPase family, crucial in innate immunity and inflammatory responses [ 87 ]. Previous studies have linked IRGM to CD [ 88 , 89 , 90 ], UC [ 91 ], and IBD [ 23 ]. CAPSL (5p13) has been reported to be associated with PBC [ 92 ], T1D [ 93 ], asthma [ 94 ], and SLE [ 95 ]. Although direct evidence of its association with ALL is lacking, increased mRNA levels have been observed in AML patients [ 96 ]. Additionally, the long non-coding RNA C5orf56 (5q31) has been identified for its protective role in IBD [ 97 ]. SCHIP1 (3q25) has been associated with SLE [ 98 ], while RNASET2 (6q27) has been identified as a risk gene for both vitiligo [ 99 ] and GD [ 100 ].

Shared genetic structures observed in our research revealed common mechanisms between autoimmune disease and B-ALL. Identified genes were observed to participate in several pathways, like B cell activation, cellular response to cytokine stimulus, and inflammatory response. For each disease pair, we observed a significant enrichment of pleiotropy to the spleen, a critical site for B cell development. Notably, a substantial presence of BAFF-R-associated immune signature, a key regulator of B cell function and survival, was discerned in a multi-trait colocalization analysis. These findings collectively underscored the pivotal role played by B cells in both autoimmune disorders and B-ALL. In autoimmune conditions, B cells are exposed to antigens, undergo activation, and subsequently proliferate and expand clonally, thereby increasing the risk of accumulating genetic mutations, and finally leads to the emergence and progression of B-ALL [ 60 ]. We can think that ORMDL3 and IKZF3 , mentioned earlier, play crucial roles in this context, as evidenced by prior literature reporting ORMDL3’s vital role in B cell survival [ 101 ], and IKZF3 ’s predominant regulation of B cell differentiation, activation response, and proliferation [ 102 ]. Furthermore, malignancies arising from B cells consistently exhibit concurrent autoimmune disorders at any stage, whereas those derived from T cells are less commonly linked to autoimmune phenomena [ 103 ]. Nevertheless, our findings also identified numerous cell traits in the T cell panel, and we speculate that this may be attributed to interactions between B and T cells. The JAK-STAT pathway may represent a crucial mechanism in this context, as it has been targeted in autoimmune diseases [ 104 ] and its role in B-ALL involves the disruption of preleukemic cells differentiation [ 105 ]. Our results highlighted the critical role of EBV infection as a trigger for both autoimmune disorders and B-ALL: tissue-specific analysis revealed enriched risk loci in EBV-transformed lymphocytes, and the central role of IKZF1 in this cell was also identified by gene-level analyses. EBV remains latent in memory B cells after infection, and reactivation can induce B cell clonal immortalization, promoting lymphomagenesis [ 106 ]. Additionally, EBV-induced autoimmunity has been reported to increase the risk of autoimmune diseases [ 107 ].

Limitations

Our study is not without limitations. Firstly, as with other similar studies, the data used in this study was summary-level, and individual-level datasets were not available. Further stratification of the population (e.g., gender, age, etc.) was therefore not possible. Secondly, the sample size of immune cell GWAS used in this study was limited. Therefore, caution should be exercised in interpreting the role of immune cells and drawing conclusions in our studies. Thirdly, it should be noted that our study was limited to European ancestry and may not be generalizable to other ancestries. It is important to be equally cautious in concluding our findings since the relatively small sample size of B-ALL may result in limited statistical power.

Our research has uncovered the intricate connections between autoimmune disorders, especially AOA, HT, IBD, CD, RA, and MS and B-ALL. Identification of pleiotropic risk loci (7p12, 10p14, 6q27, and 10p12) and genes ( IKZF1 , GATA3 , IKZF3 , GSDMB , and ORMDL3 ) shared between diseases suggested shared mechanisms, such as B cell activation and JAK-STAT pathway, common triggers like EBV infection. Additionally, our findings have shed light on and the causal links between autoimmune disorders (AOA and RA) and B-ALL.

Availability of data and materials

Data are available in public, open access repositories corresponding to the original studies (e.g., GWAS catalog). Main codes used in our research are available at https://github.com/biostatYu/MRcode/tree/main/AD_BALL .

Abbreviations

Acute myeloid leukemia

Adult-onset asthma

• B-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia

Crohn’s disease

Childhood-onset asthma

Differentially expressed genes

Debiased-inverse variance weighted

Epstein–Barr virus

Expression quantitative trait loci

Functional mapping and annotation

Graves’ disease

Genome-wide association study

Hashimoto's disease

High-definition likelihood

Hypothyroidism

Hypothesis prioritization for multi-trait colocalization

Inflammatory bowel disease

Intersection–union test

Instrumental variables

Inverse variance weighted

Linkage disequilibrium

Linkage disequilibrium score regression

Multi-marker analysis of genomic annotation

• Mendelian randomization

Mendelian randomization pleiotropy residual sum and outlier

Mendelian randomization robust adjusted profile score

Multiple sclerosis

Molecular signatures database

Primary biliary cirrhosis

Pleiotropic analysis under composite null hypothesis

Primary sclerosing cholangitis

Proportion of variance explained

Rheumatoid arthritis

Standard errors

Stratified-linkage disequilibrium score regression

Systemic lupus erythematosus

Systemic sclerosis

Type 1 diabetes

Ulcerative colitis

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Acknowledgements

We thank all the studies for making the summary association statistics data publicly available. We are also very grateful to the editor and two referees for their insightful and constructive comments, which substantially improved our original manuscript.

This work was supported by National Key Research and Development Program (2022YFC2502700) to Y.X. and National Natural Science Foundation of China (82020108003 to D.W., 82070187 to Y.X.). D.W. was supported by Priority Academic Program Development of Jiangsu Higher Education Institutions (PAPD) and Jiangsu Provincial Medical Innovation Center (CXZX202201). Y.C. is also supported by Postgraduate Research and Practice Innovation Program of Jiangsu Province (KYCX23_3270). D.W. was supported by Suzhou Science and Technology Program Project (SLT201911). X.Y. was supported by Boxi Cultivation Program of the First Affiliated Hospital of Suzhou University (BXQN2023032).

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Xinghao Yu and Yiyin Chen contributed equally to this work.

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National Clinical Research Center for Hematologic Diseases, Jiangsu Institute of Hematology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, China

Xinghao Yu, Yiyin Chen, Jia Chen, Yi Fan, Depei Wu & Yang Xu

Collaborative Innovation Center of Hematology, Institute of Blood and Marrow Transplantation, Soochow University, Suzhou, China

Xinghao Yu, Yiyin Chen, Depei Wu & Yang Xu

Department of Outpatient and Emergency, The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, China

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DW and YX designed the study. XY obtained the data. XY and YC cleared up the datasets. XY, HL, and YC mainly performed the data analyses. YX, XY, YC, JC, YF, and HL drafted the manuscript. YX, XY, YC, and DW revised the manuscript, and all authors read and approved the final manuscript.

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Correspondence to Depei Wu or Yang Xu .

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Supplementary Information

Additional file 1:.

Supplementary Methods and Fig. S1-S3. Supplementary Methods - A supplementary document on GWAS quality control, PLACO method, colocalization analysis, MAGMA analysis, HyPrColoc method, immune cell data description, and Mendelian randomization analysis. Fig. S1. Manhattan plot of the PLACO results. Fig. S2. -QQ plots for pleiotropic results performed by PLACO. Fig. S3. Regional plots of each colocalized locus (PP.H4 > 0.7) identified for corresponding trait pair (B-ALL&AOA) by using the PLACO. Fig. S4. Regional plots of each colocalized locus (PP.H4 > 0.7) identified for corresponding trait pair (B- B-ALL&HT) by using the PLACO. Fig. S5. Regional plots of each colocalized locus (PP.H4 > 0.7) identified for corresponding trait pair (B-ALL&PBC) by using the PLACO. Fig. S6. Regional plots of each colocalized locus (PP.H4 > 0.7) identified for corresponding trait pair (B-ALL&IBD) by using the PLACO. Fig. S7. Regional plots of each colocalized locus (PP.H4 > 0.7) identified for corresponding trait pair (B-ALL&MS) by using the PLACO. Fig. S8. Regional plot of each colocalized locus (PP.H4 > 0.7) identified for corresponding trait pair (B- B-ALL&RA) by using the PLACO. Fig. S9. Manhattan plot of MAGMA gene analysis. Fig. S10. Heatmap for expression values of pleiotropic genes in different tissues identified by MAGMA analysis. Fig. S11. Gene-set enrichment for identified pleiotropic genes. Red panels represent significant tissues after Bonferroni adjustment. Fig. S12. Heatmap of tissues and immune traits shared between autoimmune disorders and B-ALL identified by S-LDSC. Fig. S13. Heatmap shows whether the identified risk loci have been reported to be associated with B-ALL and AD in the previous studies after searching the GWAS catalog.

Additional file 2: Table S1.

Data sources. Table S2. Genetic correlation analysis conducted by LDSC and HDL. Table S3. Shared pleiotropic loci identified by PLACO. Table S4. Shared pleiotropic loci among different trait pairs. Table S5. MAGMA Gene-set analysis. Table S6. MAGMA tissue-specific analysis. Table S7. MAGMA gene analysis. Table S8. Information of pleiotropy genes identified by MAGMA. Table S9. Expression value of pleiotropy genes identified by MAGMA in different tissues from GTEx. Table S10. Tissue-specific enrichment of pleiotropy genes identified by MAGMA in different tissues from GTEx. Table S11. S-LDSC cell-type heritability enrichment analysis. Table S12. Multi-trait colocalization analysis highlighted key role of immune cells (PP>0.7). Table S13. Bi-direction MR analysis and sensitive analysis. Table S14. Bi-direction MR analysis and sensitive analysis. Table S15. Identified loci reported in previous GWAS analysis for ALL and AD.

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Yu, X., Chen, Y., Chen, J. et al. Shared genetic architecture between autoimmune disorders and B-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia: insights from large-scale genome-wide cross-trait analysis. BMC Med 22 , 161 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12916-024-03385-0

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