essay extension definition

Essay Extender for Students

Have you ever struggled to reach the specific word count while writing an essay? Our online essay extender can help you get the desired word count with just a few simple steps. All you have to do is:

• Copy and paste your essay.
• Choose how many words you need in your paper.
• Click the "Extend" button.

💎 5 Key Advantages of the Essay Extender

🙋 when to use the ai essay extender, 📜 essay extender free examples, 🖇️ essay word extender tips, 🔗 references.

Our essay word extender offers a range of benefits that can enhance your writing experience. Here are some of them:

With its user-friendly interface, our online essay extender can assist you in various ways. Check out these ideas on how you can use the tool.

1. To Increase the Word Count

One of the most common uses of our essay extender is to increase an essay's word count. You add words to the entire text or a specific part, for example, introduction, conclusion, or body paragraphs. This gives you more control over where you want to expand an essay and helps you tailor the extension to the academic requirements .

Our tool adds words without compromising the quality of their writing. Since it uses advanced AI algorithms, it extends the text while maintaining the coherence and flow of the original content.

2. To Add a New Part

AI essay extender can also help you add a new part to your essay. For example, if you have already written the introduction and body paragraphs but are struggling with the conclusion, our tool can generate it.

Similarly, if you need to add a new body paragraph to support your argument , our essay extender can generate a paragraph based on your prompt. This feature is particularly useful when you are short on time and need to complete your essay quickly.

3. To Get New Ideas

Sometimes, you only need a fresh perspective to improve your writing. Our essay extender can generate unique ideas by developing a body paragraph on any topic. This feature is helpful for those who are stuck with their writing and need some inspiration to continue. You can use this generated paragraph as a starting point and further develop it according to your ideas and arguments.

Wanna see how essay extender generator works in practice? Let's try it together. Imagine you're writing an argumentative essay on "Should all internships be paid?" We'll use our tool to add some words to a body paragraph and then develop an effective introduction.

All internships should be paid for the simple fact that interns are providing valuable work and skills to the company. It is unfair to expect young workers, who are often already struggling with student debt, to work for free. Interns are not just shadowing or observing; they actively contribute to the company's operations and success. By not compensating them, companies are perpetuating a cycle of unpaid labor and exploiting the enthusiasm and eagerness of young workers. Furthermore, paying interns shows that their time and contributions are valued, allowing them to gain practical experience without financial strain.

All internships should be paid for the simple fact that interns are providing valuable work and skills to the company. It is unfair to expect young workers, who are often already struggling with student debt, to work for free. Interns are not just shadowing or observing; they actively contribute to the company's operations and success. For example, a student who is completing an unpaid internship at a marketing firm may be responsible for creating social media content, conducting market research, and assisting with client meetings. These tasks require time, effort, and skills, and the intern should be compensated for their contributions. By not compensating them, companies are perpetuating a cycle of unpaid labor and exploiting the enthusiasm and eagerness of young workers. Moreover, unpaid internships often come with hidden costs that can be a significant burden for students. For instance, a student interning in a different city may have to cover transportation, housing, and other expenses on top of working for free. Furthermore, paying interns shows that their time and contributions are valued, allowing them to gain practical experience without financial strain. Companies should recognize the contributions interns bring to their organization and compensate them accordingly for their hard work.

Internships have become a common way for students to gain practical experience and valuable skills in their chosen field. However, the issue of whether these internships should be paid or not has sparked a debate. While some argue that unpaid internships provide valuable learning opportunities, others believe that all internships should be paid to ensure fair treatment of young workers. In this essay, we will explore why all internships should be paid, including the value that interns bring to organizations and the hidden costs of unpaid internships.

Check out these helpful tips to work on your academic writing skills and extend an essay manually.

• Expand your arguments . Instead of simply stating your point, provide more detailed examples to support your ideas.
• Use transitional phrases . Transition phrases such as "in addition," "furthermore," and "moreover" can help you connect your ideas and add more depth to your essay.
• Include relevant statistics and data . Adding statistics and data from reliable sources can boost the credibility of your essay and help you expand your arguments.
• Incorporate quotes . Including quotes from experts or authoritative individuals adds depth and weight to your essay.
• Provide background information . If you feel that certain concepts need more explanation, you can provide background information to help the reader better understand your points.

Remember, when expanding on your arguments, it is essential to do so smartly. This means providing detailed explanations and relevant examples that add length to your essay and strengthen your points.

❓ Essay Extender FAQ

Updated: Dec 11th, 2023

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On this page, you can find a free essay extender for students. With the help of this tool, you can increase the word count of any text – paste it into the related field and add the necessary details. The essay extender can add particular paragraphs or double your words in two clicks! Don’t miss the helpful tips and examples of text expansion.

You can always rewrite, expand, or shorten your essays from here !

What's an AI Essay Exdender

AI Essay Extender is a free online generator tool that uses AI technology to extend essays. Simply paste your essay and get a longer, more comprehensive version in seconds.

The Ultimate GPT & AI Essay Extender Recommendation- Say Goodbye to Short Essays!

Are you tired of struggling to meet the word count requirement for your essays? Say hello to Essay Extender - the best essay extender bot that uses advanced AI technology to translate your writing into longer, more comprehensive essays.

You can then:

• Convert and turn your paragraphs and essay from short to longer.
• Generate and write new essays within no time using AI & GPT technology.

The Most Advanced Essay Extender AI

Our recommendation Essay Extender's GPT AI algorithms analyze your writing and generate additional relevant content, ensuring that your essays are not only longer but also more informative and engaging. It's like having your own personal essay translator, helping you to write better essays in less time.

Effortless Paragraph & Essay Expansion

With an Essay Extender, expanding your essays is a breeze. Simply paste your writing into the tool and let AI algorithms do the rest. In seconds, you'll have a longer, more comprehensive essay that's ready to submit. It's that simple!

Extended Definition Essay Examples and Topics

Whether you're writing an extended definition essay or need inspiration for extended essay examples, Essay Extender has you covered. AI algorithms are designed to work with all writing styles and topics, so you can focus on writing and let us take care of the expansion.

Freemium and Safe to Use Essay Inflator

Essay Extender recommendation is free and has an optional premium version to upgrade your inflate your essays and paragraphs. The too is also safe to use, and we never store or share your personal information. So, you can use our GPT & AI essay extender tool suggestions with confidence, knowing that your data is secure.

Who can use an Essay Extender

An essay extender AI tool can be used by a variety of individuals, including:

Students: Students who need to meet a minimum word count for assignments can use an essay extender to elaborate on their ideas or provide additional details.

Writers and Bloggers: Writers and bloggers might use such tools to expand their articles or posts, especially when they are aiming for a comprehensive coverage of a topic.

Researchers: Researchers who need to provide detailed explanations or extended discussions in their papers might find an essay extender useful.

Content Creators: Content creators looking to produce longer forms of content for websites, social media, or other platforms could use these tools to enhance the length and depth of their work.

Educators: Educators, such as teachers and lecturers, may use it to demonstrate how to expand on topics or ideas in a more detailed way.

Business Professionals: In the corporate world, professionals may use it to elaborate on reports, proposals, or other documents where comprehensive detail is necessary.

It's important to note that while essay extenders can increase the length of a text, the quality and coherence of the output may vary. Users should always review and edit the extended content to ensure it maintains the desired level of quality and relevance to the topic.

Best Essay Extender Generator

Essay Extender is quickly becoming the go-to best essay inflator and expander for thousands of users who want to write better essays in less time. So why wait? Try Essay Extender today and experience the power of AI technology for yourself!

Extend Your Essays Free with Ease

Want to know the best ways to extend your essay? Look no further than Essay Extender. AI algorithms make it easy to expand your writing and add relevant, engaging content. So, why not try Essay Extender suggestions today and take your writing to the next level?

Get the best of our recommendation tools to generate and write longer essays!

How to Extend an Essay Manually

To manually make an essay longer, follow these steps:

1. Elaborate on Key Points : Identify the main points in your essay and expand on them with more details, examples, or illustrations.

2. Add More Examples and Quotations : Support your points with additional examples, case studies, or relevant quotations.

3. Include Counterarguments and Rebuttals : Present opposing viewpoints and then refute them to add significant content.

4. Deepen the Introduction and Conclusion : Revise these sections to be more detailed with background information and implications.

5. Incorporate Related Subtopics : Introduce additional subtopics connected to your main thesis for a broader perspective.

6. Use Descriptive Language : Use descriptive language where appropriate for detailed explanations.

7. Review and Revise for Clarity and Flow : In revision, add content for clarity or to improve the logical flow.

How to Expand an Essay with an AI Extender Tool

To lengthen an essay with an AI extender, follow these steps:

1. Input Your Essay : Input your existing essay into the AI tool.

2. Set Parameters for Extension : Specify how much to extend your essay, by word count or percentage.

3. Use AI Suggestions : The AI tool will generate additional content based on your text.

4. Review AI-Generated Content : Review and edit the AI-generated content to ensure alignment with your essay.

5. Focus on SEO : If intended for online platforms, optimize the content for search engines using relevant keywords.

6. Integrate AI Content with Original Essay : Blend the AI-generated content with your original writing.

7. Final Review and Edit : Perform a final review and edit to ensure the extended essay is polished and coherent.

The Ultimate Guide to Essay Extenders: Maximize Your Word Count

Understanding the Purpose of Essay Extenders

Essay extenders are valuable tools that can help students, writers, and academic professionals meet word count requirements without compromising the quality of their work. These extenders serve the purpose of expanding the content of an essay, allowing for a more comprehensive exploration of ideas and arguments.

Meeting word count requirements is crucial in academic writing as it demonstrates a thorough understanding of the topic and provides ample evidence to support claims. However, many individuals struggle to reach these requirements, resulting in incomplete or insufficient essays.

This is where essay extenders come into play. They enable writers to maximize their word count by providing additional information, examples, and analysis. By utilizing these extenders effectively, writers can enhance their essays with more depth and complexity while maintaining clarity and coherence .

In the following sections, we will explore various techniques for extending your essay effectively and provide tips on using essay extenders without compromising quality. Let's dive in!

Techniques for Effective Essay Extension

When it comes to extending your essay effectively, there are several techniques you can employ. These techniques not only help you meet the word count requirements but also enhance the overall quality of your writing. Let's explore two key strategies: utilizing transitional phrases and words , and expanding on supporting evidence .

1. Utilizing Transitional Phrases and Words

Transitional phrases and words play a crucial role in expanding ideas within your essay. They act as bridges between different paragraphs or sections, allowing for a smooth flow of thoughts and arguments. By incorporating these transitions, you can elaborate on your points and provide additional context.

For instance, phrases like "in addition," "furthermore," and "moreover" can be used to introduce new supporting information or examples. Similarly, words such as "similarly," "likewise," and "comparatively" help draw connections between different ideas or concepts.

To use transitional phrases and words effectively, consider the following tips:

Use them sparingly: While transitions are valuable tools, overusing them can make your writing appear repetitive or forced. Use them strategically where they add value.

Choose appropriate transitions: Select transitions that accurately convey the relationship between ideas. Ensure they fit naturally within the context of your essay.

Maintain coherence: Transitions should contribute to the overall coherence of your essay by guiding readers through your thought process smoothly.

2. Expanding on Supporting Evidence

Providing sufficient evidence is essential for building strong arguments in an essay. To extend your essay effectively, focus on expanding on the supporting evidence you present.

Start by ensuring that you have included enough evidence to support each claim or point you make in your essay. If necessary, conduct further research to find additional sources or examples that strengthen your arguments.

Once you have gathered enough evidence, expand on it by providing detailed explanations, analysis, or relevant anecdotes. This will not only add depth to your essay but also demonstrate a thorough understanding of the topic.

While expanding on supporting evidence, it is crucial to maintain clarity and coherence. Make sure that each piece of evidence directly relates to your main argument and contributes to the overall flow of your essay. Avoid tangents or unrelated information that may confuse or distract your readers.

By utilizing transitional phrases and words effectively and expanding on supporting evidence, you can extend your essay in a meaningful way while maintaining its quality. In the next section, we will explore additional tips for using essay extenders without compromising the clarity and conciseness of your writing.

Tips for Using Essay Extenders Effectively

Using essay extenders effectively requires careful consideration to maintain the quality and coherence of your writing. Here are two key tips to help you make the most out of these tools: avoiding filler words and phrases, and adding relevant examples and case studies.

1. Avoiding Filler Words and Phrases

Filler words and phrases can unnecessarily inflate your essay without adding any meaningful content. They not only waste valuable word count but also dilute the clarity and conciseness of your writing. To use essay extenders effectively, it's important to identify and eliminate these unnecessary elements.

Start by reviewing your essay for words or phrases that do not contribute to the overall message or argument. Common examples of filler words include "very," "really," "basically," and "in my opinion." These words often add little value and can be removed without affecting the meaning of your sentences.

Additionally, watch out for redundant phrases or repetitive statements that can be condensed or eliminated. For example, instead of saying "I personally believe," simply state "I believe."

By eliminating filler words and phrases, you can ensure that every word in your essay serves a purpose, allowing you to focus on expanding substantive content.

2. Adding Relevant Examples and Case Studies

One effective way to extend your essay while maintaining its quality is by incorporating relevant examples and case studies. These provide concrete evidence to support your arguments, making them more persuasive and compelling.

When selecting examples or case studies, ensure they directly relate to the topic at hand. Look for real-life scenarios, research findings, historical events, or personal anecdotes that illustrate key points or demonstrate the validity of your claims.

To find relevant examples, consider conducting additional research in reputable sources such as academic journals, books, or credible websites. Make sure the examples align with the overall argument of your essay and contribute to its coherence.

When incorporating examples and case studies, provide sufficient context and analysis to help your readers understand their significance. Explain how each example supports your main argument and strengthens your overall position.

Remember, the goal is not simply to add more content but to enhance the quality and persuasiveness of your essay. By avoiding filler words and phrases and incorporating relevant examples and case studies, you can effectively extend your essay while maintaining its clarity and coherence.

In the next section, we will explore how to maximize word count without compromising the quality of your writing.

Maximizing Word Count without Compromising Quality

When it comes to extending your essay, it's crucial to strike a balance between meeting word count requirements and maintaining the quality of your writing. While essay extenders can help you reach the desired length, it's important not to sacrifice clarity and coherence in the process.

To ensure that your extended essay remains of high quality, be sure to revise and edit your work thoroughly. This includes checking for grammar and spelling errors, refining your arguments, and ensuring a logical flow of ideas.

Additionally, pay attention to the overall coherence and cohesion of your essay. Each paragraph should contribute to the central thesis, and transitions should guide readers smoothly through your thoughts.

By following these tips and techniques throughout the writing process, you can maximize your word count without compromising the quality of your essay. Happy writing!

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UMGC Effective Writing Center How to Write an Extended Definition

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Usually when you hear the word "definition" you think of a dictionary or encyclopedia. For example, a juvenile delinquent is an underage person convicted of crime or antisocial behavior. Likewise, a venture capitalist is a person who provides money for innovative projects.

Perhaps you have written a narrative essay about a personal experience in which you are called upon to classify and to analyze causes and effects. All of these patterns and more can be used in your paragraphs to clarify and extend the term you have chosen.

Example: Single Pattern

Sometimes a single pattern will be sufficient to extend the definition to achieve the effect you want for your audience. For example, let's say in an introductory sociology course, you are introducing the term "juvenile delinquent" to the class. You could use the "classify" pattern to clarify how broadly the term in used in this field:

• Term: juvenile delinquent
• Standard definition: an underage person who has committed a crime.
• Pattern: Classify
• Overall Point: To understand "juvenile delinquent" in this field, it's necessary to know the major types of delinquents.
• The first type of delinquent is . . .
• The second type of delinquent is . . .
• The third type of delinquent is . . .

Example: Multi Pattern

Depending on the term, you may find that using several patterns is the best way to help shape your audience's understanding of a term. For example, let's consider the innocent sounding term "arbitration." Maybe you wish to make the point that sometimes legal terms are used to desensitize us from what is really taking place. Consider this example:

• Term: Arbitration
• Standard definition: legal process of resolving a dispute
• Classify Pattern--list and define types of arbitration, including "forced arbitration"
• Narration Pattern--The FAIR Act seeks to end the use of forced arbitration by U.S. employers
• Cause/Effect pattern: Multiple examples of the victims of forced arbitration have pressured Congress to act through legislation

Your task in writing an extended definition is to add to the standard/notional definition in a way that will allow your audience to gain a deeper and more nuanced understanding of the term in a particular context. Whether you do this by adding facts, telling what a term does not include, or applying any of the many development patterns (classify, illustrate, cause/effect, compare/contrast, narration, description), matters not. Only the development of clear understanding between you and your audience should be the ultimate goal.

Video Tutorial: Writing the Extended Definition Essay

Follow along with UMGC's Effective Writing Center as they walk through the Extended Definition Essay.

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60 Writing Topics for Extended Definitions

These essays go beyond dictionary entries using analysis and examples

• Writing Essays
• Writing Research Papers
• English Grammar
• Ph.D., Rhetoric and English, University of Georgia
• M.A., Modern English and American Literature, University of Leicester
• B.A., English, State University of New York

Simply put, a definition is a statement of the meaning of a word or phrase. An extended definition goes beyond what can be found in a dictionary, offering an expanded analysis and illustration of a concept that might be abstract, controversial, unfamiliar, or frequently misunderstood. Take, for example, writings such as William James' "Pragmatic Theory of Truth" or John Berger's " The Meaning of Home ."

Approaching the Abstract

Abstract concepts, including many of the broad terms in the list that follows, need to be "brought to earth" with an example to relate what they mean to your reader and to get your point or opinion across. You could illustrate the concepts with anecdotes from your personal life or examples from the news or current events, or write an opinion piece. There's no single method for developing and organizing a paragraph or essay by extended definition. The 60 concepts listed here can be defined in various ways and from different points of view.

Brainstorming and Prewriting

Start with brainstorming your topic . If you work well with lists, write the word at the top of the paper and fill the rest of the page with all the things that the word makes you think of, feel, see, or even smell, without stopping. It's OK to go off on tangents, as you might find a surprising connection that could make a powerful, insightful, or even humorous essay. Alternatively, brainstorm by writing the word in the middle of your paper and connect other related words to it and each other.

As you develop your angle, think about the concept's background, features, characteristics, and parts. What is the concept's opposite? What are its effects on you or others? Something in your list or word map will spark a writing idea or theme to use to illustrate the abstract concept, and then it's off to the races. If you run into a dead end the first time, go back to your list and pick another idea. It's possible that your first draft turns out to be prewriting and leads to a better idea that can be developed further and can possibly even incorporate the prewriting exercise. Time spent writing is time spent exploring and is never wasted, as sometimes it takes a bit of pursuit to discover the perfect idea.

If seeing examples will help spark your essay, take a look at "Gifts," by Ralph Waldo Emerson, Gore Vidal's "Definition of Prettiness," or "A Definition of Pantomime," by Julian Barnes.

60 Topic Suggestions

Looking for a place to start? Here are 60 words and phrases so broad that writings on them could be infinite:

• Sportsmanship
• Self-assurance
• Sensitivity
• Peace of mind
• Right to privacy
• Common sense
• Team player
• Healthy appetite
• Frustration
• Sense of humor
• Conservative
• A good (or bad) teacher or professor
• Physical fitness
• A happy marriage
• True friendship
• Citizenship
• A good (or bad) coach
• Intelligence
• Personality
• A good (or bad) roommate
• Political correctness
• Peer pressure
• Persistence
• Responsibility
• Human rights
• Sophistication
• Self-respect
• A good (or bad) boss
• A good (or bad) parent
• Learn How to Use Extended Definitions in Essays and Speeches
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Frequently asked questions

What is an essay.

An essay is a focused piece of writing that explains, argues, describes, or narrates.

In high school, you may have to write many different types of essays to develop your writing skills.

Academic essays at college level are usually argumentative : you develop a clear thesis about your topic and make a case for your position using evidence, analysis and interpretation.

Frequently asked questions: Writing an essay

For a stronger conclusion paragraph, avoid including:

• Important evidence or analysis that wasn’t mentioned in the main body
• Generic concluding phrases (e.g. “In conclusion…”)
• Weak statements that undermine your argument (e.g. “There are good points on both sides of this issue.”)

Your conclusion should leave the reader with a strong, decisive impression of your work.

Your essay’s conclusion should contain:

• A rephrased version of your overall thesis
• A brief review of the key points you made in the main body
• An indication of why your argument matters

The conclusion may also reflect on the broader implications of your argument, showing how your ideas could applied to other contexts or debates.

The conclusion paragraph of an essay is usually shorter than the introduction . As a rule, it shouldn’t take up more than 10–15% of the text.

The “hook” is the first sentence of your essay introduction . It should lead the reader into your essay, giving a sense of why it’s interesting.

To write a good hook, avoid overly broad statements or long, dense sentences. Try to start with something clear, concise and catchy that will spark your reader’s curiosity.

Your essay introduction should include three main things, in this order:

• An opening hook to catch the reader’s attention.
• Relevant background information that the reader needs to know.
• A thesis statement that presents your main point or argument.

The length of each part depends on the length and complexity of your essay .

Let’s say you’re writing a five-paragraph  essay about the environmental impacts of dietary choices. Here are three examples of topic sentences you could use for each of the three body paragraphs :

• Research has shown that the meat industry has severe environmental impacts.
• However, many plant-based foods are also produced in environmentally damaging ways.
• It’s important to consider not only what type of diet we eat, but where our food comes from and how it is produced.

Each of these sentences expresses one main idea – by listing them in order, we can see the overall structure of the essay at a glance. Each paragraph will expand on the topic sentence with relevant detail, evidence, and arguments.

The topic sentence usually comes at the very start of the paragraph .

However, sometimes you might start with a transition sentence to summarize what was discussed in previous paragraphs, followed by the topic sentence that expresses the focus of the current paragraph.

Topic sentences help keep your writing focused and guide the reader through your argument.

In an essay or paper , each paragraph should focus on a single idea. By stating the main idea in the topic sentence, you clarify what the paragraph is about for both yourself and your reader.

A topic sentence is a sentence that expresses the main point of a paragraph . Everything else in the paragraph should relate to the topic sentence.

The thesis statement is essential in any academic essay or research paper for two main reasons:

• It gives your writing direction and focus.
• It gives the reader a concise summary of your main point.

Without a clear thesis statement, an essay can end up rambling and unfocused, leaving your reader unsure of exactly what you want to say.

The thesis statement should be placed at the end of your essay introduction .

Follow these four steps to come up with a thesis statement :

• Ask a question about your topic .
• Write your initial answer.
• Develop your answer by including reasons.
• Refine your answer, adding more detail and nuance.

A thesis statement is a sentence that sums up the central point of your paper or essay . Everything else you write should relate to this key idea.

An essay isn’t just a loose collection of facts and ideas. Instead, it should be centered on an overarching argument (summarized in your thesis statement ) that every part of the essay relates to.

The way you structure your essay is crucial to presenting your argument coherently. A well-structured essay helps your reader follow the logic of your ideas and understand your overall point.

The structure of an essay is divided into an introduction that presents your topic and thesis statement , a body containing your in-depth analysis and arguments, and a conclusion wrapping up your ideas.

The structure of the body is flexible, but you should always spend some time thinking about how you can organize your essay to best serve your ideas.

The vast majority of essays written at university are some sort of argumentative essay . Almost all academic writing involves building up an argument, though other types of essay might be assigned in composition classes.

Essays can present arguments about all kinds of different topics. For example:

• In a literary analysis essay, you might make an argument for a specific interpretation of a text
• In a history essay, you might present an argument for the importance of a particular event
• In a politics essay, you might argue for the validity of a certain political theory

At high school and in composition classes at university, you’ll often be told to write a specific type of essay , but you might also just be given prompts.

Look for keywords in these prompts that suggest a certain approach: The word “explain” suggests you should write an expository essay , while the word “describe” implies a descriptive essay . An argumentative essay might be prompted with the word “assess” or “argue.”

In rhetorical analysis , a claim is something the author wants the audience to believe. A support is the evidence or appeal they use to convince the reader to believe the claim. A warrant is the (often implicit) assumption that links the support with the claim.

Logos appeals to the audience’s reason, building up logical arguments . Ethos appeals to the speaker’s status or authority, making the audience more likely to trust them. Pathos appeals to the emotions, trying to make the audience feel angry or sympathetic, for example.

Collectively, these three appeals are sometimes called the rhetorical triangle . They are central to rhetorical analysis , though a piece of rhetoric might not necessarily use all of them.

The term “text” in a rhetorical analysis essay refers to whatever object you’re analyzing. It’s frequently a piece of writing or a speech, but it doesn’t have to be. For example, you could also treat an advertisement or political cartoon as a text.

The goal of a rhetorical analysis is to explain the effect a piece of writing or oratory has on its audience, how successful it is, and the devices and appeals it uses to achieve its goals.

Unlike a standard argumentative essay , it’s less about taking a position on the arguments presented, and more about exploring how they are constructed.

You should try to follow your outline as you write your essay . However, if your ideas change or it becomes clear that your structure could be better, it’s okay to depart from your essay outline . Just make sure you know why you’re doing so.

If you have to hand in your essay outline , you may be given specific guidelines stating whether you have to use full sentences. If you’re not sure, ask your supervisor.

When writing an essay outline for yourself, the choice is yours. Some students find it helpful to write out their ideas in full sentences, while others prefer to summarize them in short phrases.

You will sometimes be asked to hand in an essay outline before you start writing your essay . Your supervisor wants to see that you have a clear idea of your structure so that writing will go smoothly.

Even when you do not have to hand it in, writing an essay outline is an important part of the writing process . It’s a good idea to write one (as informally as you like) to clarify your structure for yourself whenever you are working on an essay.

Comparisons in essays are generally structured in one of two ways:

• The alternating method, where you compare your subjects side by side according to one specific aspect at a time.
• The block method, where you cover each subject separately in its entirety.

It’s also possible to combine both methods, for example by writing a full paragraph on each of your topics and then a final paragraph contrasting the two according to a specific metric.

Your subjects might be very different or quite similar, but it’s important that there be meaningful grounds for comparison . You can probably describe many differences between a cat and a bicycle, but there isn’t really any connection between them to justify the comparison.

You’ll have to write a thesis statement explaining the central point you want to make in your essay , so be sure to know in advance what connects your subjects and makes them worth comparing.

Some essay prompts include the keywords “compare” and/or “contrast.” In these cases, an essay structured around comparing and contrasting is the appropriate response.

Comparing and contrasting is also a useful approach in all kinds of academic writing : You might compare different studies in a literature review , weigh up different arguments in an argumentative essay , or consider different theoretical approaches in a theoretical framework .

The key difference is that a narrative essay is designed to tell a complete story, while a descriptive essay is meant to convey an intense description of a particular place, object, or concept.

Narrative and descriptive essays both allow you to write more personally and creatively than other kinds of essays , and similar writing skills can apply to both.

If you’re not given a specific prompt for your descriptive essay , think about places and objects you know well, that you can think of interesting ways to describe, or that have strong personal significance for you.

The best kind of object for a descriptive essay is one specific enough that you can describe its particular features in detail—don’t choose something too vague or general.

If you’re not given much guidance on what your narrative essay should be about, consider the context and scope of the assignment. What kind of story is relevant, interesting, and possible to tell within the word count?

The best kind of story for a narrative essay is one you can use to reflect on a particular theme or lesson, or that takes a surprising turn somewhere along the way.

Don’t worry too much if your topic seems unoriginal. The point of a narrative essay is how you tell the story and the point you make with it, not the subject of the story itself.

Narrative essays are usually assigned as writing exercises at high school or in university composition classes. They may also form part of a university application.

When you are prompted to tell a story about your own life or experiences, a narrative essay is usually the right response.

The majority of the essays written at university are some sort of argumentative essay . Unless otherwise specified, you can assume that the goal of any essay you’re asked to write is argumentative: To convince the reader of your position using evidence and reasoning.

In composition classes you might be given assignments that specifically test your ability to write an argumentative essay. Look out for prompts including instructions like “argue,” “assess,” or “discuss” to see if this is the goal.

At college level, you must properly cite your sources in all essays , research papers , and other academic texts (except exams and in-class exercises).

Add a citation whenever you quote , paraphrase , or summarize information or ideas from a source. You should also give full source details in a bibliography or reference list at the end of your text.

The exact format of your citations depends on which citation style you are instructed to use. The most common styles are APA , MLA , and Chicago .

An argumentative essay tends to be a longer essay involving independent research, and aims to make an original argument about a topic. Its thesis statement makes a contentious claim that must be supported in an objective, evidence-based way.

An expository essay also aims to be objective, but it doesn’t have to make an original argument. Rather, it aims to explain something (e.g., a process or idea) in a clear, concise way. Expository essays are often shorter assignments and rely less on research.

An expository essay is a common assignment in high-school and university composition classes. It might be assigned as coursework, in class, or as part of an exam.

Sometimes you might not be told explicitly to write an expository essay. Look out for prompts containing keywords like “explain” and “define.” An expository essay is usually the right response to these prompts.

An expository essay is a broad form that varies in length according to the scope of the assignment.

Expository essays are often assigned as a writing exercise or as part of an exam, in which case a five-paragraph essay of around 800 words may be appropriate.

You’ll usually be given guidelines regarding length; if you’re not sure, ask.

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Common Writing Assignments

9 The Extended Definition Essay

The extended definition essay presents a detailed account of a single term or concept that is central to the content of the course for which the essay is written. What is cryptocurrency? What is a black hole? What is an algorithm? What is symbolism? What is deoxyribonucleic acid? What is National Socialism? Every subject has its own special vocabulary, and teachers will often assign an essay requiring students to present a detailed definition of a key term.

Read carefully this extended definition of feminism.

Example: On Feminism

The word “feminism” describes a popular movement for social justice, based on the premise that women have been and continue to be systemically oppressed by men who do not want to share the greater social, political, and economic power they have historically possessed. But the definition of feminism extends beyond raising the status of one gender; feminism recognizes that equal standards for all people regardless of gender will benefit society as a whole (Montgomery). In this respect, feminism can be interpreted as synonymous with egalitarianism.

Feminist scholars divide the movement into three phases or “Waves.”  First-wave feminism emerged in the early twentieth century in the form of a fight for the rights to vote, to own property, and to qualify for work in fields historically reserved for men. Second-wave feminism emerged in the 1960s as baby boomers entered university and demanded admission to programs that traditionally favoured men, such as engineering, medicine, and forestry, as well as “equal pay for work of equal value” (Montgomery).  Third-wave or post-feminism is the movement’s twenty-first century incarnation, devoted essentially to ending all forms of gender discrimination. Some even argue that a fourth wave has recently emerged, one that is concerned with the portrayal of women in social media.

While there is no clear consensus as to when first-wave feminism began, most accept that it emerged as industrialization progressed in the nineteenth century. Martha Lear coined the term in 1968, though the first wave focused on what we now consider basic issues of inequality (“What Was”). One of the earliest feminists was Mary Wollstonecraft, who mostly wrote in the late eighteenth century advocating that societies, and individuals specifically, should have rights that the state provides. Most other philosophers and writers of the time ignored women and Wollstonecraft was among the first to call for gender equality. After the American Civil War, Elizabeth Stanton and Susan Anthony rallied support for what they saw as one of the first great obstacles to greater freedom: the right to vote. Others, such as Barbara Leigh Smith, saw employment and education for women as critical areas to focus on.

Throughout the nineteenth century, Biblical interpretation of women’s role in the house and family prevented their ability to advance feminist ideals. To counteract the power of the church’s sex-based hierarchy, Stanton produced an influential work called The Woman’s Bible , in which she argued for equality using biblical references. This helped to provide religious justification, at least for some, for emerging feminism in the period. Furthermore, the National Woman Suffrage Association became a prominent organization, and in 1869, John Allen Campbell, the governor of Wyoming, became the first governor to grant women the right to vote (“What Was”). And when women replaced men in factories during the First World War, many realized that women did have equal skills to men. In Canada, women won the right to vote in most provinces during the war. In 1921, Agnes Macphail became the first woman in Canada elected to Parliament.

In the US, women had to wait a bit longer. Feminist organizations lobbied indefatigably and eventually convinced Congress that women should have the right to vote. Finally, in 1920, women won the right to vote across the United States. While the process itself was contentious, featuring hunger strikes and even mob violence, the gradual acceptance of women as voters can be considered the culminating success of first-wave feminism.

“The Progressive Era” took place in the 1930s; women’s social and political activism grew, and First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt advocated for the appointment of women to positions within the administration. Her cause was further advanced during the Second World War when, again, women had to take over the work enlisted men were forced to abandon. After the war, however, North America saw a new emphasis on domesticity. When the soldiers returned, women were almost uniformly fired and forced back into their duties of domestic chores and child-raising (Bisignani). Second-wave feminism was a reaction to this post-war obsession with the ideal of the contented housewife and suburban domesticity, a lifestyle that often isolated women and severely limited their choices and opportunities.

Feminism’s second wave truly began in the early 1960s and focused not just on legal barriers to civil equality but also examined social inequalities. Second-wave feminists sought to change discriminatory policies on sexuality and sexual identity; marriage and child-rearing; workplace environment; reproductive rights; and violence against women. They formed local, regional, and federal government groups on behalf of women, resulting in human rights and women’s equality becoming a growing part of the North American political agenda. Finally, they created new, more positive images of women in both pop culture and the media to fight the negative stereotypes commonly in circulation, primarily that of the “happy housewife.”

The second wave of feminism included many landmark moments. In the 1960s, many government health agencies approved the oral contraceptive pill, and in 1963, the Equal Pay Act was passed in the US. In 1968, Coretta Scott King assumed leadership of the African-American civil rights movement and expanded the platform to include women’s rights. This led to Shirley Chisholm becoming the first African-American woman elected to Congress. In 1972, the passage of Title IX ensured equal funding for women’s opportunities in education, and the first women’s studies program in the US opened at San Diego State University. Perhaps the greatest achievement of the second wave came in 1973, when the Roe v. Wade case resulted in women’s access to safe and legal abortion (Bisignani).

Third-wave feminism began in the 1990s and still exists today (Demarco). There are many different outlets and angles of feminism now, but the most important values of the third wave include gender equality, identity, language, sex positivity, breaking the glass ceiling, body positivity, ending violence against women, fixing the media’s image of women, and environmentalism.

Third-wave feminists assert that there is no universal identity for women; women come from every religion, nationality, culture, and sexual preference. Different forms of media such as fashion magazines, newspapers, and television favour white, young, slender women, a fact which negatively impacts all women and results in body anxiety. To combat this anxiety, modern feminists have fought for body positivity, quashing the opinions of those who believe that overweight people are lazy and unhealthy. Feminists want society’s view of women to expand, to recognize, for example, that it is possible to be beautiful enough to be a model, but also smart enough to be an astronaut or a CEO.  But considering that, in 2017, only 18 out of 500 Fortune CEOs and 22 out of 197 global heads of state were women, it is clear that third-wave feminism has not yet removed the glass ceiling (Demarco).

The emerging fourth wavers speak in terms of “intersectionality,” whereby women’s oppression can only fully be understood in the context of marginalization of other groups, who are victims of racism, ageism, classism, and homophobia (Demarco). Among the third wave’s bequests is the importance of inclusion; in the fourth wave, the internet takes inclusion further by levelling hierarchies. The appeal of the fourth wave is that there is a place in it for everyone. The academic and theoretical apparatus are now well-honed and ready to support new broad-based activism in the home, in the workplace, on the streets, and online.

No one is sure how feminism will progress from here. The movement has always included many political, social and intellectual ideologies, each with its own tensions, points and counterpoints. But the fact that each wave has been chaotic, multi-valanced, and disconcerted is cause for optimism; it is a sign that the movement continues to thrive.

Works Cited

Bisignani, Dana. “ Feminism’s Second Wave .” The Gender Press , 27 Jan. 2015, https://genderpressing.wordpress.com/2015/01/27/feminisms-second-wave-2/. Accessed 25 March 2019.

Demarco, April. “ What Is Third Wave Feminist Movement? ” Viva Media , 17 March 2018, https://viva.media/what-is-third-wave-feminist-movement.  Accessed 26 March 2019.

Montgomery, Landon. “ The True Definition Of Feminism .” The Odyssey , 8 March 2016, https://www.theodysseyonline.com/the-true-definition-of-feminism. Accessed 27 March 2019.

“ What Was the First Wave Feminist Movement? ” Daily History , 19 Jan. 2019, https://dailyhistory.org/What_was_the_First_Wave_Feminist_Movement%3F. Accessed 28 March 2019.

On Feminism

Study Questions

Respond to these questions in writing, in small group discussion, or both.

• “On Feminism” is an extended definition essay, but it has qualities of what other rhetorical modes explained in this chapter?
• What are the main differences between first- and second-wave feminism?
• What are the main differences between third- and fourth-wave feminism?
• Respond to the conclusions the author offers in her final paragraph. Do you agree with what she writes?
• In academic writing assignments, paragraphs should be unified, coherent, and well-developed. Analyze two body paragraphs from this essay, commenting on the qualities of effective paragraphs they illustrate.

Writing Assignment

Write an extended definition of approximately 750 words on one of the following terms: Marxism, irony (in literature), recession (in economics), pentathlon (as Olympic sport), dressage, algorithm, neutral zone trap, cryptocurrency. You may also select your own topic or one provided by your teacher.

Composition and Literature Copyright © 2019 by James Sexton and Derek Soles is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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What is an Essay?

10 May, 2020

11 minutes read

Author:  Tomas White

Well, beyond a jumble of words usually around 2,000 words or so - what is an essay, exactly? Whether you’re taking English, sociology, history, biology, art, or a speech class, it’s likely you’ll have to write an essay or two. So how is an essay different than a research paper or a review? Let’s find out!

Defining the Term – What is an Essay?

The essay is a written piece that is designed to present an idea, propose an argument, express the emotion or initiate debate. It is a tool that is used to present writer’s ideas in a non-fictional way. Multiple applications of this type of writing go way beyond, providing political manifestos and art criticism as well as personal observations and reflections of the author.

An essay can be as short as 500 words, it can also be 5000 words or more.  However, most essays fall somewhere around 1000 to 3000 words ; this word range provides the writer enough space to thoroughly develop an argument and work to convince the reader of the author’s perspective regarding a particular issue.  The topics of essays are boundless: they can range from the best form of government to the benefits of eating peppermint leaves daily. As a professional provider of custom writing, our service has helped thousands of customers to turn in essays in various forms and disciplines.

Origins of the Essay

Over the course of more than six centuries essays were used to question assumptions, argue trivial opinions and to initiate global discussions. Let’s have a closer look into historical progress and various applications of this literary phenomenon to find out exactly what it is.

Today’s modern word “essay” can trace its roots back to the French “essayer” which translates closely to mean “to attempt” .  This is an apt name for this writing form because the essay’s ultimate purpose is to attempt to convince the audience of something.  An essay’s topic can range broadly and include everything from the best of Shakespeare’s plays to the joys of April.

The essay comes in many shapes and sizes; it can focus on a personal experience or a purely academic exploration of a topic.  Essays are classified as a subjective writing form because while they include expository elements, they can rely on personal narratives to support the writer’s viewpoint.  The essay genre includes a diverse array of academic writings ranging from literary criticism to meditations on the natural world.  Most typically, the essay exists as a shorter writing form; essays are rarely the length of a novel.  However, several historic examples, such as John Locke’s seminal work “An Essay Concerning Human Understanding” just shows that a well-organized essay can be as long as a novel.

The Essay in Literature

The essay enjoys a long and renowned history in literature.  They first began gaining in popularity in the early 16 th century, and their popularity has continued today both with original writers and ghost writers.  Many readers prefer this short form in which the writer seems to speak directly to the reader, presenting a particular claim and working to defend it through a variety of means.  Not sure if you’ve ever read a great essay? You wouldn’t believe how many pieces of literature are actually nothing less than essays, or evolved into more complex structures from the essay. Check out this list of literary favorites:

• The Book of My Lives by Aleksandar Hemon
• Notes of a Native Son by James Baldwin
• Against Interpretation by Susan Sontag
• High-Tide in Tucson: Essays from Now and Never by Barbara Kingsolver
• Slouching Toward Bethlehem by Joan Didion
• Naked by David Sedaris
• Walden; or, Life in the Woods by Henry David Thoreau

Pretty much as long as writers have had something to say, they’ve created essays to communicate their viewpoint on pretty much any topic you can think of!

The Essay in Academics

Not only are students required to read a variety of essays during their academic education, but they will likely be required to write several different kinds of essays throughout their scholastic career.  Don’t love to write?  Then consider working with a ghost essay writer !  While all essays require an introduction, body paragraphs in support of the argumentative thesis statement, and a conclusion, academic essays can take several different formats in the way they approach a topic.  Common essays required in high school, college, and post-graduate classes include:

Five paragraph essay

This is the most common type of a formal essay. The type of paper that students are usually exposed to when they first hear about the concept of the essay itself. It follows easy outline structure – an opening introduction paragraph; three body paragraphs to expand the thesis; and conclusion to sum it up.

Argumentative essay

These essays are commonly assigned to explore a controversial issue.  The goal is to identify the major positions on either side and work to support the side the writer agrees with while refuting the opposing side’s potential arguments.

Compare and Contrast essay

This essay compares two items, such as two poems, and works to identify similarities and differences, discussing the strength and weaknesses of each.  This essay can focus on more than just two items, however.  The point of this essay is to reveal new connections the reader may not have considered previously.

Definition essay

This essay has a sole purpose – defining a term or a concept in as much detail as possible. Sounds pretty simple, right? Well, not quite. The most important part of the process is picking up the word. Before zooming it up under the microscope, make sure to choose something roomy so you can define it under multiple angles. The definition essay outline will reflect those angles and scopes.

Descriptive essay

Perhaps the most fun to write, this essay focuses on describing its subject using all five of the senses.  The writer aims to fully describe the topic; for example, a descriptive essay could aim to describe the ocean to someone who’s never seen it or the job of a teacher.  Descriptive essays rely heavily on detail and the paragraphs can be organized by sense.

Illustration essay

The purpose of this essay is to describe an idea, occasion or a concept with the help of clear and vocal examples. “Illustration” itself is handled in the body paragraphs section. Each of the statements, presented in the essay needs to be supported with several examples. Illustration essay helps the author to connect with his audience by breaking the barriers with real-life examples – clear and indisputable.

Informative Essay

Being one the basic essay types, the informative essay is as easy as it sounds from a technical standpoint. High school is where students usually encounter with informative essay first time. The purpose of this paper is to describe an idea, concept or any other abstract subject with the help of proper research and a generous amount of storytelling.

Narrative essay

This type of essay focuses on describing a certain event or experience, most often chronologically.  It could be a historic event or an ordinary day or month in a regular person’s life. Narrative essay proclaims a free approach to writing it, therefore it does not always require conventional attributes, like the outline. The narrative itself typically unfolds through a personal lens, and is thus considered to be a subjective form of writing.

Persuasive essay

The purpose of the persuasive essay is to provide the audience with a 360-view on the concept idea or certain topic – to persuade the reader to adopt a certain viewpoint. The viewpoints can range widely from why visiting the dentist is important to why dogs make the best pets to why blue is the best color.  Strong, persuasive language is a defining characteristic of this essay type.

The Essay in Art

Several other artistic mediums have adopted the essay as a means of communicating with their audience.  In the visual arts, such as painting or sculpting, the rough sketches of the final product are sometimes deemed essays.  Likewise, directors may opt to create a film essay which is similar to a documentary in that it offers a personal reflection on a relevant issue.  Finally, photographers often create photographic essays in which they use a series of photographs to tell a story, similar to a narrative or a descriptive essay.

Drawing the line – question answered

“What is an Essay?” is quite a polarizing question. On one hand, it can easily be answered in a couple of words. On the other, it is surely the most profound and self-established type of content there ever was. Going back through the history of the last five-six centuries helps us understand where did it come from and how it is being applied ever since.

If you must write an essay, follow these five important steps to works towards earning the “A” you want:

• Understand and review the kind of essay you must write
• Brainstorm your argument
• Find research from reliable sources to support your perspective
• Cite all sources parenthetically within the paper and on the Works Cited page
• Follow all grammatical rules

Generally speaking, when you must write any type of essay, start sooner rather than later!  Don’t procrastinate – give yourself time to develop your perspective and work on crafting a unique and original approach to the topic.  Remember: it’s always a good idea to have another set of eyes (or three) look over your essay before handing in the final draft to your teacher or professor.  Don’t trust your fellow classmates?  Consider hiring an editor or a ghostwriter to help out!

If you are still unsure on whether you can cope with your task – you are in the right place to get help. HandMadeWriting is the perfect answer to the question “Who can write my essay?”

A life lesson in Romeo and Juliet taught by death

Due to human nature, we draw conclusions only when life gives us a lesson since the experience of others is not so effective and powerful. Therefore, when analyzing and sorting out common problems we face, we may trace a parallel with well-known book characters or real historical figures. Moreover, we often compare our situations with […]

Ethical Research Paper Topics

Writing a research paper on ethics is not an easy task, especially if you do not possess excellent writing skills and do not like to contemplate controversial questions. But an ethics course is obligatory in all higher education institutions, and students have to look for a way out and be creative. When you find an […]

Art Research Paper Topics

Students obtaining degrees in fine art and art & design programs most commonly need to write a paper on art topics. However, this subject is becoming more popular in educational institutions for expanding students’ horizons. Thus, both groups of receivers of education: those who are into arts and those who only get acquainted with art […]

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Article contents

Semantic change.

• Elizabeth Closs Traugott Elizabeth Closs Traugott Stanford University
• https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780199384655.013.323
• Published online: 29 March 2017

Traditional approaches to semantic change typically focus on outcomes of meaning change and list types of change such as metaphoric and metonymic extension, broadening and narrowing, and the development of positive and negative meanings. Examples are usually considered out of context, and are lexical members of nominal and adjectival word classes.

However, language is a communicative activity that is highly dependent on context, whether that of the ongoing discourse or of social and ideological changes. Much recent work on semantic change has focused, not on results of change, but on pragmatic enabling factors for change in the flow of speech. Attention has been paid to the contributions of cognitive processes, such as analogical thinking, production of cues as to how a message is to be interpreted, and perception or interpretation of meaning, especially in grammaticalization. Mechanisms of change such as metaphorization, metonymization, and subjectification have been among topics of special interest and debate. The work has been enabled by the fine-grained approach to contextual data that electronic corpora allow.

• metaphorization
• metonymization
• invited inferencing
• subjectification
• electronic corpora
• semantic space
• grammaticalization
• motivations

1. Foci of Research in the Last One Hundred Years

The main focus of work on semantic change 1 from the early 20th century on has been on changes in “sense,” the concepts associated with expressions. 2 An example of sense change is the shift in the value speakers have attributed to pretty over time (first ‘crafty,’ then ‘well-conceived, clever,’ later ‘attractive,’ and in its adverbial use, ‘somewhat,’ as in that’s pretty ugly). To use a more recent example, epic, meaning “relating to the epic genre” (e.g., epic novel), has been used since the 1980s, especially by younger speakers in the United States, with the new meaning ‘impressive’ (e.g. your haircut is epic ). Linguists distinguish semantic change (sense change) from changes in lexis (vocabulary development, often in cultural contexts), although there is inevitably some overlap between the two, see Nevalainen ( 1999 ). For example, the change impacts the meanings of the words as well as the lexical domains in which the words are used when speakers add new words to the inventory, for instance, by borrowing words like domain or jihad , or cease to use certain words (as when radio came to be preferred over wireless ).

There are two main perspectives on the study of sense change (see Geeraerts, 1997 ; Grondelaers, Speelman, & Geeraerts, 2007 ). One is “semasiological,” a form to function perspective: attention is paid to how meaning changes, while form remains relatively constant (but subject to phonological and sometimes morphosyntactic change). The question is: What meanings are associated with a word, how are the meanings related, and how did they arise over time? The examples of pretty and epic were presented from this perspective, and this is the approach of dictionaries that provide etymologies (e.g., the main entries in the OED). It is also the approach of much work on grammaticalization (see Section 4 ). The other dimension is “onomasiological,” a function to form perspective: attention is paid to sense relations that hold between the items in an inventory, and to which forms come to express a certain concept—for example, what terms are used at a particular period for ‘crafty,’ what terms for ‘attractive,’ or for ‘somewhat.’ Onomasiology intersects with work on changes in lexis. It is the principle behind A Dictionary of Selected Synonyms in the Principal Indo-European Languages (Buck, 1949 ) and the on-line Historical Thesaurus of the Oxford English Dictionary (HTOED, 2009 ) that has made it possible to “navigate around the dictionary by topic, find related terms, and explore the lexical history of a concept or meaning.” Typically, the uses of a word will expand over time leading to polysemy, the coexistence of families of related senses; for example, the term linguist is understood as both ‘polyglot’ and ‘student of language.’

The focus of this contribution is historical work in the last 35 years or so, mostly from a cognitive perspective. Work on semantic change prior to the 1980s is discussed in Blank ( 1997 ) and Traugott and Dasher ( 2002 , pp. 51–75). The main areas of research that have received particular attention are the development of lexical, contentful meaning, and that of grammatical, procedural meaning. Some of the major findings in these two areas are discussed in Sections 3 and 4 , respectively. First, however, it may be useful to consider what constitutes change.

2. Change and How to Recognize It

What is change, and how do we recognize it when it has occurred? Individual speakers innovate when they use language creatively, and hearers innovate when they interpret what a speaker has said in a different way from the speaker or others in their group. Most of these innovations are unintentional (Keller, 1994 ) and ephemeral; some are resisted. The position taken here is that for a change to have occurred, there must be evidence of transmission of innovations to others, in other words, of conventionalization (Milroy, 1992 ; Traugott & Trousdale, 2013 ). 3

In work on change prior to the availability of recordings, evidence for change is that the new use appears in several texts. One or two examples may appear in the data that look with hindsight as if they might be evidence of change, but then there may be a gap of several decades in the data before several uncontroversial examples appear. When a new use emerges, it always coexists with the older use. This is because older generations tend to be more conservative in their use. A recent example is queer . Used from 1500 on, in senses like ‘strange, odd,’ it came to be used in the early 20th century in a derogatory way for homosexuals, but was co-opted in the 1990s in place of homosexual or gay (< ‘flamboyant, cheerful’), as in Queer Nation, queer theory . The older and newer uses persist. At first they are linked polysemously. Sometimes old and new uses persist as polysemies for many centuries, as in the case of since ‘from the time that, because.’ But sometimes speakers in later generations may cease to perceive a connection and may treat them as homonyms (e.g., be going to ‘motion,’ be going to ‘future’). Some methodologies for accounting for semantic change are discussed in Section 5 .

3. Changes in Lexical, Contentful Meaning

3.1. classification of types of change.

In the first half of the 20th century , much work was done on classifying types of semantic change, most of them lexical/contentful and considered in isolation (e.g., Ullmann, 1962 ). These are still the mainstay of textbooks on language change (e.g., Campbell, 2004 ; Hock & Joseph, 2009 ) and are assumed in most recent work. Most important are (with up-dates in definitions):

Metaphorization: conceptualizing one thing in terms of another, as in terms of similarity, for example, the use of Latin ad ‘to’ + mit ‘send’ for locution ( admit ), or of tissue ‘woven cloth’ for ‘aggregation of cells in animals or plants.’

Metonymization: association, usually in terms of contiguity, for instance, board ‘table’ > ‘people sitting around a table, governing body.’ Many traditional examples of metonymic shift involve part for whole (often called “synecdoche”), as in keel for ship . 4

Pejoration: association of a term with negative meaning, such as, Old English stincan , ‘smell (sweet or bad)’ > stink , cnafa ‘boy’ > knave , conceit ‘idea, opinion’ > ‘overestimation of one’s qualities.’

Amelioration: association of a term with positive meaning, such as Middle English nice , ‘foolish, innocent’ > ‘pleasant,’ and examples of preemption of meaning as a symbol of pride (e.g. queer ).

Narrowing: restriction of meaning, as in Old English deor ‘animal’ > deer (a specific kind of animal).

Generalization: extension of meaning, as in Latin armare ‘cover one’s shoulders’ > arm .

Sometimes several of these changes may affect an expression over the centuries seriatim . For example, toilet was borrowed from French, in the 16th century , and meant ‘piece of cloth, often used as a wrapper, especially of clothes.’ In the 17th century , this was narrowed to a particular kind of cloth (‘cloth covering for dressing table’). A metonymic use as ‘dressing-table’ also developed (object ‘dressing-table’ for the object covering it, a subtype of whole for part). A further metonymic use was for washing ( do one’s toilet ), an activity performed in a bowl on the dressing table. In the 19th century , toilet was co-opted in the United States for use in place of ‘lavatory’ (taboo avoidance). This euphemistic use of toilet was further narrowed in the 1890s to ‘bathroom fixture’ (see OED toilet n.).

Pairs of change-types, such as (3) pejoration and (4) amelioration, or (5) narrowing and (6) generalization, appear to be opposites and have suggested to some researchers that semantic change is unpredictable and arbitrary. This is in part because the original expressions cited are referential and subject to various shifts in socio-cultural attitudes and conceptual structures. Changing societal roles may lead to denigration of certain groups of people and their jobs, hence the pejoration of terms like 11th century ceorl ‘man without rank or with low rank’ > 13th century churl ‘base fellow.’ Hence also the preemption of meanings for positive evaluation; for example, Yankee , a nickname for inhabitants of New England, came to be used pejoratively by southern (Confederate) soldiers for northern (Union) soldiers in the U.S. Civil War (pejoration), but was co-opted by the Union soldiers (amelioration).

In synchronic work on lexical expressions, there is extensive discussion of relations, such as the following (see e.g., Cruse, 1986 ):

Synonymy (approximately same meaning, different form, e.g., astute-smart ).

Antonymy (approximately opposite meanings, e.g., fast-slow ).

Enantiosemy (the coexistence of opposite meanings, e.g., sanction ‘penalty’ vs. ‘permission’).

Hyperonymy/hyponymy (superordinate/member relation, e.g., vegetable-lettuce ).

Holonymy/meronymy (whole/part, e.g., foot-toe ).

All of these relations may change over time. Relationship (3), the persistence of opposite meanings, is especially interesting as it demonstrates clearly how context-dependent meaning change and maintenance of polysemies are (Lepschy, 1981 ). Borrowed from French in the 16th century , the noun sanction meant ‘law, decree.’ It was early extended metonymically to penalties enacted by enforcing the decree, and also to the approval required for issuance of the decree. As a result, a potentially dangerous homonymy between polysemies arose (‘approve, penalize’). In many cases, when a homonymy has arisen from separate sources due to phonological changes, one of the forms is lost (Geeraerts, 1997 ); for example, Old English lætan ‘allow’ and lettan ‘prevent’ came to be homonyms in Middle English. Lætan continues to be used as let , but lettan ‘prevent’ was replaced by prevent, forbid . However, in the case of polysemies arising from the same source, this is unusual. Dust can mean ‘remove dust’ ( dust the furniture) or ‘cover lightly with powder susbtance’ ( snow dusted the hills ). In the case of sanction , the two meanings survive and must be resolved in context. The verb sanction is also ambiguous, but interestingly in this case, it was borrowed in the 18th century , according to the Oxford English Dictionary (OED), with the positive sense ‘ratify, confirm,’ and only recently, in the mid- 20th century , it came to be used with a negative meaning of ‘impose penalty,’ presumably on analogy with the negative nominal meaning.

3.2. Change in “Semantic Space”

In the 20th century , the onomasiological concept of “semantic/lexical fields,” consisting of tightly-knit sets of words with similar meaning, was explored, for example, sets of terms for intellectual cleverness, colors, or kinship. The concepts of changing semantic space or lexical fields were the subject of a large number of studies toward the end of the century; see, for example, Kay ( 1975 ) on the cross-linguistic development of color terms, and Viberg ( 1983 ) (based on J. Williams, 1976 ), on extensions of terms for touch, taste, and smell to vision and sound, as in soft sound, warm color, sweet smell . This work laid the foundations for the more systematic study of semantic change, which grew out of research in both cognitive linguistics and grammaticalization.

A fundamental claim in cognitive linguistics is that words do not have fixed meanings. They evoke meanings and are cues to potential meaning, instructions to create meanings, as words are used in context (e.g., Brugman, 1988 , Paradis, 2011 ). These meanings are non-discrete and have prototypical properties, with core and peripheral readings. Linguistic structures are interpreted “as reflections of general conceptual organization, categorization principles, processing mechanisms, and experiential and environmental influences” (Geeraerts & Cuyckens, 2007 , p. 3). One widely used and fairly stable conceptual structure in European societies has been the concept of language as existing in some kind of conduit or pipe-line, along or through which words are expressed, while words themselves are containers into which ideas are deposited from the brain (Reddy, 1993 ). This concept is evidenced by shifts from notions such as admit ‘allow to enter,’ express ‘push out,’ input ‘that which is put in or contributed,’ to meanings associated with communication. The “output” of such shifts appears to be metaphorical (conceptualizing communication in terms of conduits and containers). But historically, the process by which this occurred is, in each case, highly dependent on associated context.

Sweetser ( 1990 ) proposed a theory of metaphor and metaphorical change drawing on theories of embodiment (e.g., Lakoff, 1987 ). She argued, for example, that a metaphor such as KNOWING IS SEEING 5 developed in Indo-European languages from embodied perceptual capacities such as seeing, hearing, and grasping, and that mapping from the socio-physical world of embodiment to the abstract epistemic one of reasoning accounted for the directionality of such cross-linguistically attested meaning changes as Proto Indo-European * weid ‘see’ > wit , and idea (< Greek oida ‘saw,’ perfective of eidon ‘to see ’ ).

Following up on Sweetser’s work, as well as that of Viberg, an extensive body of literature was devoted to cross-linguistic studies of semantic associations among concepts. For example, Vanhove ( 2008 ) shows that cross-linguistically, although vision is the most important of the physical senses, hearing predominates among transfield associations between sensory modalities and mental perception, with vision second, and prehension (touch, grasping), third. The main tendency is for change from concrete to abstract, but there are some exceptions; for instance, dull was used in the abstract mental sense ‘not quick in intelligence’ from about 950 on. The concrete sense ‘not sharp’ is not attested until the mid- 15th century (Allan, 2012 , pp. 32–35). The latter meaning may reflect influence from dol ‘foolish.’

4. The Development of Grammatical Meaning

The kinds of semantic change most extensively studied in the last 40 years are changes leading to grammatical, procedural meaning, 6 typically in the context of work on grammaticalization, the study of work on morphosyntactic change (e.g., Heine, Claudi, & Hünnemeyer, 1991 , Hopper & Traugott, 2003 ). Much of the work has been conducted from typological and cognitive linguistic perspectives. It has revealed that semantic changes correlated with the types of morphosyntactic changes associated with grammaticalization are regular in the sense that they are replicated not only in the same language but cross-linguistically. They are almost exclusively unidirectional in that lexical meaning may become grammatical meaning, but not vice versa (see Norde, 2009 for an account of a few exceptions to unidirectionality, but mainly from the perspective of form rather than meaning).

The changes are conceptualized as on a continuum, from contentful (lexical) to procedural (grammatical) meaning. In most languages, auxiliary verbs derive from lexical sources. Examples in English are must, shall, can, will, may, be going to , have to , etc. With the exception of will and be going to , the sources have obsolesced in Standard English (Bybee, Perkins, & Pagliuca, 1994 ). Another cross-linguistic generalization is that the equivalent of English prepositions for front, back, top, and bottom regions often derive from terms for body parts, as in English back , behind (Svorou, 1993 ). In many languages, the verb for FINISH comes to be used as a marker of completion, compare Chinese – le ‘completive’ < liao ‘finish.’ Heine and Kuteva ( 2002 ) is a major source of information on grammatical concepts and their sources. Because some of the languages cited do not have written histories until recently (e.g., most of the languages of Africa), we can only make hypotheses about their history. Therefore in some cases, sources are reconstructed based on polysemies in present-day languages.

Sequential semantic changes identified in work on grammaticalization are often described in terms of paths of change. Bybee, Perkins, and Pagliuca ( 1994 ) identified several possible cross-linguistic paths for modal meanings, among them (in abbreviated form), this map (Figure 1 ):

Figure 1. Partial path of development from obligation (based on Bybee, Perkins, & Pagliuca, 1994 , p. 240).

An example in English is may . Originally meaning ‘have the power/ability’ (consider the noun might ‘strength’), may came to be used for general enabling conditions, then for the speaker’s assessment of the likelihood of a situation ( Jill may win ‘It’s possible that Jill will win’) and permission ( Jill may leave now ). Heine prefers the metaphor of “chains” (see Heine, Claudi, & Hünnemeyer, 1991 , and elsewhere) since “chain” evokes links and overlaps between earlier and later meanings rather the linearity and abrupt forks invoked by the concept of “path.”

“Bleaching” or loss of contentful meaning is often associated with grammaticalization. Collocations such as pretty ugly , or She has had to have heart surgery would be incoherent if the pretty had retained its contentful meaning ‘good-looking’ or if have had retained the meaning of possession. But grammaticalization does not only lead to loss of lexical meaning. There is also enrichment of grammatical meaning—in these uses, pretty lost the lexical meaning ‘good-looking,’ but gained intensification meaning, and have lost the meaning of possession and gained completive ( has ) and obligation ( had to ) meaning. “Loss-and-gain” models of meaning change in grammaticalization have been discussed since the late 1980s (see, Heine, Claudi, & Hünnemeyer, 1991 , pp. 109–113; Sweetser, 1988 ).

It should be noted that bleaching is not found exclusively in grammaticalization. Occasionally lexical items may also lose substantive content, as in the case of Old English þing ‘law court, assembly’ by metonymy > ‘matter of concern, thing.’

5. Some Methodologies for Accounts of Semantic Change

Particularly valuable in work on semantic change is the notion of “collocation,” the relationship among words or groups of words that go together. In a contextualized approach to the change in the meaning of conceit , we find that, although it was borrowed from French around 1400 , with the neutral meaning ‘concept, idea,’ it was often associated with negative collocates such as wrong (Stubbs, 1995 termed this kind of collocation “negative prosody”). Over time, the negative meaning became codified as part of the meaning of conceit , presumably due to frequency of use in negative contexts. By contrast, the word concept , borrowed in the late 15th century from Latin, was not used so frequently with negative collocates and does not convey negative evaluation.

The field of semantic change underwent a significant change with the growing availability of historical electronic corpora in the late 20th century , notably for English, but also for several European languages, Chinese, and Japanese. A number of new methodologies have been developed for reaching “a greater understanding of changes in meaning as motivated and explicable phenomena” (Allan & Robinson, 2012 , p. 3) and for operationalizing the study of meaning change. These methodologies underscore the fact that most change occurs in tiny steps that are discoverable in “clouds” of textual shifts among collocates. Exceptions are legislated, interventive changes in definition, as for example, the expansion of the legal definition of rape in the United States in the 1970s, without reference to the sex of the victim or the marital relations of perpetrator and victim.

5.1. Computer-Assisted Statistical Approaches

Particularly prominent methodologies are provided by computer-assisted statistical approaches to corpora that access clusters of usage through investigation of collocates and their strength. Hilpert ( 2008 ) developed a methodology called “diachronic collostructional analysis” that assumes that shifting collocational patterns found in balanced corpora reflect changes in meaning. 7 Fine distinctions reveal ways in which will and be going to have been used over time, especially with respect to the verbs with which they have been favored. Abstracting over raw frequencies in the data, a sub-methodology called “distinctive collexemic analysis” allows the researcher to determine whether there are asymmetries in the relative frequencies of co-occurring verbs. For example, say has come to occur significantly more often with be going to than with will (Hilpert, 2012 , pp. 140–141), confirming Gries and Stefanowitsch’s ( 2004 ) finding that in the ICE-GB corpus, be going to is associated more strongly with agentive verbs than is will . This kind of analysis is particularly fruitful for investigating semantic change in progress as attested in large-scale, growing corpora such as COCA (currently 550 million words of American spoken discourse, popular magazines, newspapers, and academic texts from 1990–2015 ). Studies of short-term effects of changes, such as are evidenced by keep V-ing in COCA from 1990–2007 (Hilpert, 2012 ), are suggestive of how context may have affected longer-term changes for which less extensive corpus data is available. Similarly, Kerremans, Stegmayr, and Schmid ( 2010 ) use web-crawling methods to investigate the diffusion and institutionalization of neologisms, such as detweet in Google. They note the emerging development of two uses, one ‘to give up tweeting,’ and the other ‘to be kicked out by Twitter’ (p. 85). Such findings can be tracked in the future to determine whether stable polysemies are conventionalized and in which contexts, or whether an apparently incipient change is ignored, a contribution to the study of short-lived changes attested to in historical texts. Corpus studies can also show how apparent synonyms diverge over time, for example, Glynn ( 2010 ) investigates the changing “meaning space” of lexical bother, annoy, hassle in both their nominal and verbal uses.

5.2. Semantic Maps

Another tool for analysis of semantic change is use of “semantic maps.” These are generalizations about attested and unattested paths of multifunctional change. They were developed as visual representations of connected regions in conceptual/semantic space (Croft, 2001 , p. 96), originally in connection with cross-linguistic relations among grammatical items and how these change over time during the course of grammaticalization (see e.g., Anderson, 1982 on the perfect; Haspelmath, 2003 on “the geometry of grammatical meaning”; van der Auwera & Plungian, 1998 on modals). Abstract maps can show which meanings are connected and in what order and what degree of similarity they have (van der Auwera, 2013 ). In addition they can show links to related domains.

Recently, semantic maps have been extended to changes in contentful expressions. They have been found to be useful in establishing the degree to which polysemies are replicated cross-linguistically in lexical sets such as breathe, life, soul (François, 2008 ). For example, in English, breathe is related to take a breather (a short period of rest). The verb -pumula in Makonde, a Bantu language of Africa, is used for both these senses and also for a third, ‘take a vacation’ (‘extended period of rest’). Such extensions are not available in, for example, Latin anima or Chinese qi . Semantic maps for individual words for breathe in different languages show that different regions of semantic space are covered in different languages.

6. Motivations for Semantic Change

Most historical linguists distinguish motivations for and mechanisms of change. Motivations concern reasons why change occurs. Mechanisms concern how change occurs. They will be discussed in the next section.

Motivations for semantic change, like motivations for language change in general, are often not directly discoverable from the historical record. They may or may not lead to change.

6.1. Changes in Cultural Discourse Practices

Motivations that are discoverable tend to be the result of linguistic legislation (e.g., changes in the meaning of rape, harrass ), cooptation by a group (e.g., queer , Yankee ). As these examples suggest, they are deeply embedded in cultural values and changes in discourse practices, and “external” factors. Work on key words (e.g., Wierzbicka, 2006 ; R. Williams, 1976 ) highlights not only how vocabulary shifts as cultural scripts shift, but also how meanings of words themselves may change, reflecting and/or promoting cultural change. Arguing that there was a shift in the 17th century , from valuing faith to valuing knowledge, from certainty to search for empirical evidence, Wierzbicka ( 2010 ) discusses how use of the word evidence shifted from ‘clarity, evidentness, knowledge based on sight’ > ‘possible grounds for belief’ > ‘support for a hypothesis.’

6.2. The Role of Pragmatic Inferencing

More strictly linguistic, “internal” motivations for semantic change include the kinds of non-literal meanings that arise in the production and perception of speech and negotiation of meaning among interlocutors. Such non-literal meanings are considered to be pragmatic “implicatures” (see Grice, 1989 ; Horn, 1984 ; Levinson, 2000 ), on the assumption that there is a distinction between pragmatics (meaning beyond what is said) and semantics (coded meaning). It is often supposed that change is the result of mismatch in perception between what is said and what is understood. In other words, hearers reinterpret in context (see Heine, Claudi, & Hünnemeyer, 1991 , pp. 70–97) on “context-induced reinterpretation,” and, from a formal perspective, Eckardt, 2009 ). On this view, a language learner hearing all but ‘all except’ in a context like All but the sickest children ran the race might infer that ‘almost all children ran the race.’ 8 If this misinterpretation was replicated often enough, the new meaning ‘almost’ as in The jaguars have all but disappeared could be enabled by (mis)perception alone.

An alternative model that focuses on production is known as the Invited Inferencing Theory of Semantic Change (IITSC) (Traugott & Dasher, 2002 ; Traugott & König, 1991 ). Speakers are assumed to engage in negotiated interaction and to invite addressees to interpret what is said. Since much of what is said or written conveys implicatures beyond the literal meaning, addressees may (or may not) interpret precisely what is meant. If an implicature becomes salient in a community (a social factor), such implicatures may become conventionalized (coded or semanticized) via semantic reanalysis (a linguistic mechanism). While the end result may be the same in both models, the researchers’ assumptions are different. In the perception model, the language acquirer is passive and “misinterprets,” in the production-perception model, the language users are actively engaged and may simply “interpret differently.”

Evans and Wilkins ( 2000 , p. 55) call a regularly occurring context that “supports an inference-driven contextual enrichment” of one meaning to another a “bridging context” (a term adopted for grammaticalization in Heine, 2002 ). Bridging contexts are ones where hearers may interpret either an innovative or an old meaning. Sometimes inferences may be absorbed into the meaning of an expression with which they were formerly only pragmatically associated, a process known as “context-absorption” (Kuteva, 2001 , p. 151). What was once a cancelable inference comes to be uncancelable, or cancelable only with difficulty. In this case, semantic reanalysis has occurred (Eckardt, 2006 ), and a new coding has become available, as evidenced by the use of an old form with the new meaning in a context that was not available before. For example, in Old English, siþþan meant temporal later time (‘after’). Like after , it could be used in certain contexts with a causal implicature, and later since came to be used with a coded causal meaning. In other words, semanticization of a formerly pragmatic meaning occurred, resulting in polysemy (unlike in the case of after , which still implies but does not code cause).

Although originally discussed mainly with reference to grammaticalization, invited inferencing is conceived as a major motivation for semantic change in general (Traugott & Dasher, 2002 ). It encompasses the changes associated with metonymy and metaphor, and also pejoration and amelioration.

7. Mechanisms for Semantic Change

Mechanisms for change are hypotheses about the mental processes leading to an observed change.

7.1. Metaphorization

Seeking to differentiate metaphorical and metonymic change, Koch ( 2012 ) builds on prior synchronic work such as is represented in Barcelona ( 2000a ) and proposes that metaphor is based on similarity, metonymy on contiguity and taxonomic hierarchization. Drawing on Anttila ( 1989 , p. 142), we may say that:

Metaphor arises from perception of similarity. There are links with analogy, iconicity, paradigmaticity, and onomasiological perspectives.

Metonymy arises from perception of association and contiguity (Piersman & Geeraerts, 2006 ). There are links with indexicality, linear production, perception, and semasiological perspectives.

Examples that Koch ( 2012 , p. 278) gives of the difference between metaphorization and metonymization are belly and bar . The word belly derives from Old English bælg ‘bag, purse.’ Koch proposes that belly (body-part) belongs to a different conceptual frame from bag ; it has been metaphorized. By contrast, bar ‘public house,’ is derived from bar ‘counter in a public house’ within a single conceptual frame; bar has been metonymized.

Heine, Claudi, and Hünnemeyer ( 1991 ) privilege a specific kind of metaphorization in grammaticalization that is:

“Based on a structure of conceptual chaining that is metonymic in nature” (p. 50), in other words, there are overlaps in meaning.

“Structure-changing” (p. 44), for example when a body part term is grammaticalized, it ceases to be a nominal contentful item and is used as an adposition (as a body part, back can be used freely as a noun, but as a grammatical marker of location it can be used only as a complex preposition as in back of the house ).

Based in experience (p. 50), such as body shape and posture (in several languages head is a source for ‘in front,’ cf. ahead ).

Unidirectional (p. 51), the resulting meaning is more abstract (the concept ‘completive’ is more abstract than the verb for ‘finish’).

In cognitive linguistics much of the literature on lexical semantic change conceptualizes it as “mapping” (projecting) and metaphorical change; for example, Sweetser ( 1990 ) suggested that the kind of mapping from the socio-physical world to that of reasoning such as was illustrated in Section 3.2 above, with wit and idea , also occurs in the grammatical domain. Drawing on Talmy’s ( 1988 ) theory of image-schematic structure and force-dynamics, including exertion of force and blockage by barriers, she suggested that must in its deontic sense ‘be required’ signals ‘compelled by socio-physical force,’ while in its epistemic ‘can be inferred’ sense, it signals ‘compelled by reasoning’ (compare You must go , with You must be crazy! ). While must involves force and barriers, may represents a potential barrier that is not yet in place, again in two worlds: the sense ‘be permitted’ in the socio-physical world, and the sense ‘possibly’ in the world of reasoning (compare You may go, You may be crazy, but … ). 9

7.2. Metonymization

Despite the privileging of metaphor in cognitive linguistics, metonymy has sometimes been seen to be more basic, indeed the “cornerstone of human cognition and ordinary language use” (Nerlich & Clarke, 1999 , p. 197). Barcelona ( 2000b , p. 13) hypothesizes that “the target and/or source must be understood or perspectivized metonymically for the metaphor to be possible.”

There has, therefore, been extensive discussion of the role of metonymy as well as of metaphor in semantic change, and many putative cases of metaphorization have been rethought as the result of metonymic processes. For example, the be going to future was initially thought to be the result of metaphorical mapping of motion go onto time; later it was understood to result from association of motion-with-a-purpose contexts, as in I am going to visit my aunt , since purpose implicates later time. While grammaticalization was initially conceptualized mainly in terms of metaphor, metonymy was also recognized as an important factor in Heine, Claudi, and Hünnemeyer ( 1991 ) and in Hopper and Traugott ( 2003 ). Focusing on syntagmatic production and semasiological perspectives on semantic change in grammaticalization, Traugott ( 1989 ) privileged conceptual metonymy as the main mechanism of change in grammaticalization. She proposed that the metaphorical mapping from the socio-physical world to that of reasoning, which Sweetser hypothesizes for the development from deontic to epistemic must , is actually the outcome of small local changes in inferencing suggested by the historical textual data, that is, one can infer that if someone is obligated to do something then the state of affairs will be (epistemically) true. Arising in context as they do, and being associative, such invited inferences can be considered to be a conceptual metonymy to the act of speaking or writing. Bybee ( 2007 , p. 979) concludes that “the most powerful force in creating semantic change in grammaticalization is the conventionalization of implicature, or pragmatic strengthening.” However, Heine, Claudi, and Hünnemeyer ( 1991 , p. 75) provide a counter argument for the primacy of metonymy in some cases by suggesting that conceptual metaphors such as TIME-to-CAUSE provide frames for particular instances of metonymic change, such as since underwent.

7.3. Subjectification

A mechanism of semantic change that can be considered to be a kind of conceptual metonymization motivated by invited inferences is “subjectification.” Broadly speaking, this is a shift toward meanings that are based more in the speaker’s perspective than earlier ones. For example, during Middle English, þa hwile þe ‘at the time that’ came to be used with the concessive meaning ‘although.’ ‘At the time that’ can refer to an identifiable reference time, whereas ‘although’ is non-referential and a matter of speaker’s perspective. Subjectification encompasses shifts from the perspective of the sujet d’énoncé ‘syntactic subject’ to the sujet d’énonciation ‘speaking subject’ (Benveniste, 1971 ; Langacker, 1990 , 2006 ). 10 For example, a crucial step in the development of future be going to was use in the early 18th century , with inanimate, non-agentive subjects, as in There is going to be a storm . But in Traugott’s view, it encompasses much more as well (Davidse, Vandelanotte, & Cuyckens, 2010 ; Traugott, 1989 , 2010 ), since it is “a process of change giving rise to expressions of the Speaker’s beliefs, and stance toward what is said” (Traugott, 2014 , p. 9). Examples include the development of:

Uses of be going to from relative future ‘be about to,’ based in event time, to a deictic future based in speaker time.

Phrases like after all, anyway as discourse markers; for example, after all originated in ‘after everything’ and came to be used as a concessive ( it wasn’t a movie after all [‘despite what we thought’], it was real ) and as the speaker’s justification for what is said or done ( Their values and interests are, after all, opposed to ours ).

Adjectives as scalar modifiers, like pretty, very ‘true’ > ‘to a high extent,’ pure ‘unadulterated’ > ‘utter’ ( that’s pure nonsense ) (see Vandewinkel & Davidse, 2008 , for a detailed history of pure ).

These are examples of grammaticalization as well as subjectification.

Subjectification is also evidenced in the contentful domain by such developments as the use of verbs of locution as speech act verbs. Many of the latter derive ultimately from past participles of Latin verbs, such as promise (< Latin pro + miss- ‘forward sent’), suggest (< Latin sub + gest- ‘under carried’). As a performative speech act, promise requires a subject, I (and ability to carry out the promise, etc.). Note that the sources of promise and suggest originate in conduit metaphors, such as are mentioned in Section 3.2 .

7.4. Intersubjectification

A mechanism of semantic change that occurs to different degrees in different cultures is intersubjectification, “the development of markers that encode the Speaker’s (or Writer’s) attention to the cognitive stances and social identities of the Addressee” (Traugott, 2014 , p. 9). It is found in the development of politeness markers such as please (< ‘if it please you’), of discourse markers like surely (< ‘securely’) that anticipate a response ( Surely you’ll agree ), and use of euphemisms for taboo avoidance (e.g., use of toilet , discussed in Section 3.1 ).

In considering both subjectification and intersubjectification, it is important to distinguish them as mechanisms of change from synchronic subjectivity and intersubjectivity, which are ambient in all language use and arise out of coordination between speaker and hearer. For a detailed account of work on both subjectification and intersubjectification, see López-Couso ( 2010 ).

8. New Directions

Over the last 30 years or so, it has become widely accepted that pragmatic shifts in meaning that arise in context are “the necessary basis of semantic change” (Fitzmaurice, 2016 , p. 260). Why this is the case and how some pragmatic inferences that arise on the fly may give rise to new coded semantics has been a major concern of scholars of semantic change during this time. There are two areas in which new synergies are currently developing, both involving the mutual influence and enhancement of synchronic and diachronic work.

As studies of variation and discourse have expanded, a far closer link between synchronic and diachronic semantic theory has become possible and indeed promises to be characteristic of work in the future. An example is the way in which synchronic subjectivity and intersubjectivity are being rethought. For example, De Smet and Verstraete ( 2006 ) propose that subjectivity is a gradient phenomenon and that a distinction be made, among other things, between:

“Ideational” subjectivity that denotes attitudes to content (e.g., in English, dumb ‘unintelligent’).

“Rhetorical” subjectivity. The latter is intersubjective as it marks speech acts, for example, causal conjunctions like as, since, because, after .

Focusing only on intersubjectivity, Ghesquière, Brems, and Van de Velde ( 2014 ) propose that it is of three types:

Attitudinal (coding the speaker’s image of his or her relation to the hearer, expressed by hedges such as well , and T/V pronouns).

Responsive (eliciting certain speech behavior on the part of the addressee, expressed by turn-taking tags and response-eliciting markers, such as surely ).

Textual (including focus and backgrounding devices that steer the hearer’s interpretation).

These suggestions about synchronic (inter)subjectivity build, in part, on work on gradual semantic and pragmatic change in language use.

An important line of synchronic research in semantics that has until recently barely been addressed from a historical viewpoint is formal semantics. Some exploratory steps were taken in von Fintel ( 1995 ), but Eckardt ( 2006 ) is the only monograph, to date, that investigates how truth-conditional semantics can help understand the types of reanalysis typical of grammaticalization, as exemplified by the development of future be going to , French negative polarity items like ne pas (< ‘not a step’), and the German focus marker selbst (< intensifier < ‘self’). Deo ( 2015a ) presents a detailed formal account of the shift from progressive to imperfective in Indo-Aryan, with focus on grammaticalization and evolutionary game theory. In a review article, Deo ( 2015b ) briefly summarizes several threads of research on semantic-pragmatic change. She concludes that “The recent development of techniques/applications that are suited to modeling context, gradualness, and frequency effects—all essential elements of a usage-based theory of change” are crystallizing into a robust program within semantics-pragmatics that accounts “for how meaning, use, and change are tied together” (Deo, 2015b , p. 194).

Videos on Semantic Change

• Etymology .
• Handke, J. (2013). Semantics & Pragmatics: Historical Semantics . The Virtual Linguistics Campus.

Further Reading

• Allan, K. , & Robinson, J. A. (Eds.). (2012). Current methods in historical semantics . Berlin, Germany: De Gruyter Mouton.
• Blank, A. , & Koch, P. (Eds.). (1999). Historical semantics and cognition . Berlin, Germany: Mouton de Gruyter.
• Deo, A. (2015). Formal semantics/pragmatics and language change. In C. Bowern & B. Evans (Eds.), Routledge handbook of historical linguistics (pp. 393–409). London, U.K.: Routledge.
• Detges, U. , & Waltereit, R. (2011). Turn-taking as a trigger for language change. In S. D. Schmid , U. Detges , P. Gévaudan , W. Mihatsch , & R. Waltereit (Eds.), Rahmen des Sprechens: Beiträge zu Valenztheorie, Varietätenlinguistik, Kreolistik, Kognitiver und Historischer Semantik (pp. 175–189). Tübingen, Germany: Narr.
• Fitzmaurice, S. M. (2016). Semantic and pragmatic change. In M. Kytö & P. Pahta (Eds.), The Cambridge handbook of English historical linguistics (pp. 256–270). Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press.
• Hansen, M.-B. , Mosegaard, J. , & Visconti, J. (Eds.). (2009). Current trends in diachronic semantics and pragmatics . Bingley, U.K.: Emerald Group.
• Heine, B. , Claudi, U. , & Hünnemeyer, F. (1991). From cognition to grammar: Evidence from African Languages. In E. C. Traugott & B. Heine (Eds.), Approaches to grammaticalization (Vol. 1, pp.149–187). Amsterdam, Netherlands: Benjamins.
• López-Couso, M. J. (2010). Subjectification and intersubjectification. In A. H. Jucker & I. Taavitsainen , (Eds.), Historical pragmatics (pp. 127–163). Berlin, Germany: de Gruyter Mouton.
• Traugott, E. C. (2010). Grammaticalization. In S. Luraghi & V. Bubenik (Eds.), Continuum companion to historical linguistics (pp. 269–283). London: Continuum.
• Vandewinkel, S. , & Davidse, K. (2008). The interlocking paths of development of emphasizer adjective pure . Journal of Historical Pragmatics , 9, 255–287.
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1. This article draws in part on Traugott ( 2012 ).

2. A more restricted domain of study has been how meanings change as referents change (see Brown, 1958 ), for example, the meaning of phone clearly changed referentially as rotary phones began to be replaced by digital phones and desk phones by cell phones.

3. Croft ( 2000 , p. 4) stresses that innovation and propagation are both equally essential for change.

4. Synecdoche has been regarded as one of three figures of speech from Aristotle’s time on (the other two are metaphor and metonymy). However, Nerlich & Clarke ( 1999 ) and Koch ( 2012 ) regard it as ordinary categorization, not a figure of speech.

5. Capital letters are used by convention for abstract cross-linguistic concepts.

6. The term procedural is adopted from Blakemore ( 1987 ).

7. A balanced corpus is equally divided among different genres, varieties, etc. It should be noted that although the Oxford English Dictionary (OED) on-line is a very important data source for the history of English, it is not a corpus, because it does not provide full contexts (many are abbreviated), and several examples are repeated (Mair, 2004 ). Allan ( 2012 ) discusses some problems in using the OED for researching semantic change.

8. De Smet ( 2012 ) gives an account of the history of all but .

9. Sweetser’s cognitive, image-schematic interpretation of modality may be contrasted with that of formal semanticists, who interpret modality in terms of quantification over possible worlds, not metaphor. In formal semantics, deontic modality quantifies over worlds that satisfy relevant laws, epistemic modality quantifies over what is known (e.g., ought to and have to differ in strength; see van Fintel, 2006 for an overview). There is little work on semantic change from this formal perspective.

10. Langacker’s view of subjectification is largely synchronic and associates it with changes in the cognitive construal of vantage-point (see Athanasiadou, Canakis, & Cornillie, 2006 ).

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Definition of essay

 (Entry 1 of 2)

Definition of essay  (Entry 2 of 2)

transitive verb

• composition

attempt , try , endeavor , essay , strive mean to make an effort to accomplish an end.

attempt stresses the initiation or beginning of an effort.

try is often close to attempt but may stress effort or experiment made in the hope of testing or proving something.

endeavor heightens the implications of exertion and difficulty.

essay implies difficulty but also suggests tentative trying or experimenting.

strive implies great exertion against great difficulty and specifically suggests persistent effort.

Examples of essay in a Sentence

These examples are programmatically compiled from various online sources to illustrate current usage of the word 'essay.' Any opinions expressed in the examples do not represent those of Merriam-Webster or its editors. Send us feedback about these examples.

Word History

Middle French essai , ultimately from Late Latin exagium act of weighing, from Latin ex- + agere to drive — more at agent

14th century, in the meaning defined at sense 4

14th century, in the meaning defined at sense 2

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Definition Essay

Definition Essay - Writing Guide, Examples and Tips

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Published on: Oct 9, 2020

Last updated on: Jan 31, 2024

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Many students struggle with writing definition essays due to a lack of clarity and precision in their explanations.

This obstructs them from effectively conveying the essence of the terms or concepts they are tasked with defining. Consequently, the essays may lack coherence, leaving readers confused and preventing them from grasping the intended meaning.

But don’t worry!

In this guide, we will delve into effective techniques and step-by-step approaches to help students craft an engaging definition essay.

Continue reading to learn the correct formation of a definition essay. 

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What is a Definition Essay?

Just as the name suggests, a definition essay defines and explains a term or a concept. Unlike a narrative essay, the purpose of writing this essay is only to inform the readers.

Writing this essay type can be deceivingly tricky. Some terms, concepts, and objects have concrete definitions when explained. In contrast others are solely based on the writer’s understanding and point of view.

A definition essay requires a writer to use different approaches when discussing a term. These approaches are the following:

• Denotation - It is when you provide a literal or academic definition of the term.
• Connotation - It is when the writer provides an implied meaning or definition of the term.
• Enumeration - For this approach, a list is employed to define a term or a concept.
• Analogy - It is a technique in which something is defined by implementing a comparison.
• Negation - It is when you define a term by stating what it is not.

A single or combination of approaches can be used in the essay. 

Definition Essay Types

There are several types of definition essays that you may be asked to write, depending on the purpose and scope of the assignment. 

In this section, we will discuss some of the most common types of definition essays.

Descriptive Definition Essay 

This type of essay provides a detailed description of a term or concept, emphasizing its key features and characteristics. 

The goal of a descriptive definition essay is to help readers understand the term or concept in a more profound way.

Stipulative Definition Essay 

In a stipulative definition essay, the writer provides a unique definition of a term or concept. This type of essay is often used in academic settings to define a term in a particular field of study. 

The goal of a stipulative definition essay is to provide a precise and clear definition that is specific to the context of the essay.

Analytical Definition Essay 

This compare and contrast essay type involves analyzing a term or concept in-depth. Breaking it down into its component parts, and examining how they relate to each other. 

The goal of an analytical definition essay is to provide a more nuanced and detailed understanding of the term or concept being discussed.

Persuasive Definition Essay 

A persuasive definition essay is an argumentative essay that aims to persuade readers to accept a particular definition of a term or concept.

The writer presents their argument for the definition and uses evidence and examples to support their position.

Explanatory Definition Essay 

An explanatory definition essay is a type of expository essay . It aims to explain a complex term or concept in a way that is easy to understand for the reader. 

The writer breaks down the term or concept into simpler parts and provides examples and analogies to help readers understand it better.

Extended Definition Essay 

An extended definition essay goes beyond the definition of a word or concept and provides a more in-depth analysis and explanation. 

The goal of an extended definition essay is to provide a comprehensive understanding of a term, concept, or idea. This includes its history, origins, and cultural significance. 

How to Write a Definition Essay?

Writing a definition essay is simple if you know the correct procedure. This essay, like all the other formal pieces of documents, requires substantial planning and effective execution.

The following are the steps involved in writing a definition essay effectively:

Instead of choosing a term that has a concrete definition available, choose a word that is complicated . Complex expressions have abstract concepts that require a writer to explore deeper. Moreover, make sure that different people perceive the term selected differently. 

Once you have a word to draft your definition essay for, read the dictionary. These academic definitions are important as you can use them to compare your understanding with the official concept.

Drafting a definition essay is about stating the dictionary meaning and your explanation of the concept. So the writer needs to have some information about the term.

In addition to this, when exploring the term, make sure to check the term’s origin. The history of the word can make you discuss it in a better way.

Coming up with an exciting title for your essay is important. The essay topic will be the first thing that your readers will witness, so it should be catchy.

Creatively draft an essay topic that reflects meaning. In addition to this, the usage of the term in the title should be correctly done. The readers should get an idea of what the essay is about and what to expect from the document.

Now that you have a topic in hand, it is time to gather some relevant information. A definition essay is more than a mere explanation of the term. It represents the writer’s perception of the chosen term and the topic.

So having only personal opinions will not be enough to defend your point. Deeply research and gather information by consulting credible sources.

The gathered information needs to be organized to be understandable. The raw data needs to be arranged to give a structure to the content.

Here's a generic outline for a definition essay:

Are you searching for an in-depth guide on crafting a well-structured definition essay?Check out this definition essay outline blog!

6. Write the First Draft

Drafting each section correctly is a daunting task. Understanding what or what not to include in these sections requires a writer to choose wisely.

The start of your essay matters a lot. If it is on point and attractive, the readers will want to read the text. As the first part of the essay is the introduction , it is considered the first impression of your essay.

To write your definition essay introduction effectively, include the following information:

• Start your essay with a catchy hook statement that is related to the topic and the term chosen.
• State the generally known definition of the term. If the word chosen has multiple interpretations, select the most common one.
• Provide background information precisely. Determine the origin of the term and other relevant information.
• Shed light on the other unconventional concepts and definitions related to the term.
• Decide on the side or stance you want to pick in your essay and develop a thesis statement .

After briefly introducing the topic, fully explain the concept in the body section . Provide all the details and evidence that will support the thesis statement. To draft this section professionally, add the following information:

• A detailed explanation of the history of the term.
• Analysis of the dictionary meaning and usage of the term.
• A comparison and reflection of personal understanding and the researched data on the concept.

Once all the details are shared, give closure to your discussion. The last paragraph of the definition essay is the conclusion . The writer provides insight into the topic as a conclusion.

The concluding paragraphs include the following material:

• Summary of the important points.
• Restated thesis statement.
• A final verdict on the topic.

7. Proofread and Edit

Although the writing process ends with the concluding paragraph, there is an additional step. It is important to proofread the essay once you are done writing. Proofread and revise your document a couple of times to make sure everything is perfect.

Before submitting your assignment, make edits, and fix all mistakes and errors.

If you want to learn more about how to write a definition essay, here is a video guide for you!

Definition Essay Structure 

The structure of a definition essay is similar to that of any other academic essay. It should consist of an introduction, body paragraphs, and a conclusion. 

However, the focus of a definition essay is on defining and explaining a particular term or concept. 

In this section, we will discuss the structure of a definition essay in detail.

Introduction 

Get the idea of writing an introduction for a definition essay with this example:

Body Paragraphs

Here is an example of how to craft your definition essay body paragraph:

Types of the Term/Concept 

If applicable, the writer may want to include a section that discusses the different types or categories of the term or concept being defined. 

This section should explain the similarities and differences between the types, using examples and anecdotes to illustrate the points.

Examples of the Term/Concept in Action 

The writer should also include real-life examples of the term or concept being defined in action. 

This will help the reader better understand the term or concept in context and how it is used in everyday life.

Conclusion 

This example will help you writing a conclusion fo you essay:

Definition Essay Examples

It is important to go through some examples and samples before writing an essay. This is to understand the writing process and structure of the assigned task well.

Following are some examples of definition essays to give our students a better idea of the concept. 

Understanding the Definition Essay

Definition Essay Example

Definition Essay About Friendship

Definition Essay About Love

Family Definition Essay

Success Definition Essay

Beauty Definition Essay

Definition Essay Topics

Selecting the right topic is challenging for other essay types. However, picking a suitable theme for a definition essay is equally tricky yet important. Pick an interesting subject to ensure maximum readership.

If you are facing writer’s block, here is a list of some great definition essay topics for your help. Choose from the list below and draft a compelling essay.

• Authenticity
• Sustainability
• Mindfulness

Here are some more extended definition essay topics:

• Social media addiction
• Ethical implications of gene editing
• Personalized learning in the digital age
• Ecosystem services
• Cultural assimilation versus cultural preservation
• Sustainable fashion
• Gender equality in the workplace
• Financial literacy and its impact on personal finance
• Ethical considerations in artificial intelligence
• Welfare state and social safety nets

Need more topics? Check out this definition essay topics blog!

Definition Essay Writing Tips

Knowing the correct writing procedure is not enough if you are not aware of the essay’s small technicalities. To help students write a definition essay effortlessly, expert writers of CollegeEssay.org have gathered some simple tips.

These easy tips will make your assignment writing phase easy.

• Choose an exciting yet informative topic for your essay.
• When selecting the word, concept, or term for your essay, make sure you have the knowledge.
• When consulting a dictionary for the definition, provide proper referencing as there are many choices available.
• To make the essay informative and credible, always provide the origin and history of the term.
• Highlight different meanings and interpretations of the term.
• Discuss the transitions and evolution in the meaning of the term in any.
• Provide your perspective and point of view on the chosen term.

Following these tips will guarantee you better grades in your academics.

By following the step-by-step approach explained in this guide, you will acquire the skills to craft an outstanding essay. 

Struggling with the thought, " write my college essay for m e"? Look no further.

Our dedicated definition essay writing service is here to craft the perfect essay that meets your academic needs.

For an extra edge, explore our AI essay writer , a tool designed to refine your essays to perfection. 

Barbara P (Literature, Marketing)

Barbara is a highly educated and qualified author with a Ph.D. in public health from an Ivy League university. She has spent a significant amount of time working in the medical field, conducting a thorough study on a variety of health issues. Her work has been published in several major publications.

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2024 NH 4-H Beekeeping Essay Contest

The  2024 New Hampshire Beekeeping Essay Contest  is a chance for any active 4-H member to compete for prizes, and earn the opportunity to advance to the 2024 National 4-H Beekeeping Essay Contest.

Eligibility:  The contest is open to youth between the ages of 8 (as of September 30, 2023) and no older than 18 (as of January 1, 2024. 

Essay Topic:  Varietal Honeys

Prizes will be awarded to top state-level entries in both Junior and Senior divisions. The overall state-level winner will advance to the 2024 National Beekeeping Essay Competition for a chance to win one of three cash prizes, including $750 for first place, $500 for second place, and $250 for third place.

How to Enter:  Submit your registration in 4-H Online . Email your completed essay with the subject line: 4-H Bee Essay Contest   to Karen Deighan ( [email protected] ) by  Monday, April 22, 2024 at 11:59pm . 

For this essay, 4-H Youth should answer these questions:

• What makes a varietal honey?
• What are some unique varietals?
• How are some of the valuable varietals confirmed to be authentic (e.g. Manuka honey, UMF and MGO)?
• What are some culturally or economically important varietals and why are they important?

Essay Requirements for State and National Judging:

• Essays must be typed on single-sided pages.
• Formatted following standard manuscript format using double-spaced type and 12pt font in a legible font face.
• Essays must encompass the designated topic in 750-1,000 words. Word count does not include sources, works cited, or the writer's biographical statement.
• All factual statements and interview references must be cited in a "sources" or "bibliography."
• On a separate page, please include a brief biographical statement of the writer including mailing address, email address, and phone number.

Essays will be judged on (a) a scope of research, 40%; (b) accuracy, 30%; (c) creativity, 10%; (d) conciseness, 10%; and (e) logical development of the topic, 10%.

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Trump’s Bond in Civil Fraud Case Is Reduced to $175 Million

The former president was racing to secure a half-billion-dollar bond, but an appeals court lowered the amount. The surprise decision may help him stave off financial disaster.

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By Ben Protess and William K. Rashbaum

With Donald J. Trump on the clock to secure a nearly half-billion-dollar bond in his civil fraud case, a New York appeals court handed the former president a lifeline on Monday, saying it would accept a far smaller bond of $175 million.

The ruling by a panel of five appellate court judges was a crucial and unexpected victory for Mr. Trump, potentially staving off a looming financial disaster. Had the court denied his request for a smaller bond in the fraud case, which was brought by the New York attorney general, Mr. Trump risked losing control over his bank accounts and even some of his marquee properties.

For now, those dire outcomes might be on hold. If Mr. Trump obtains the smaller bond, it will prevent the attorney general from collecting while he appeals the $454 million judgment against him. The appeal in the case, in which a trial judge found that Mr. Trump fraudulently inflated his net worth, could take months or longer to resolve.

Mr. Trump has 10 days to secure the bond, and two people with knowledge of his finances said he should be able to, though doing so will effectively drain much of his cash. In order to obtain the bond — a promise from an outside company that it will cover his judgment if he ultimately loses the appeal and cannot pay — Mr. Trump will have to pay the company a fee and pledge about $200 million in cash and other investments as collateral.

Read the Ruling Lowering Trump’s Bond in the Civil Fraud Case

In a statement, Mr. Trump said he would “abide by the decision” and either post a bond or put up the money himself. He added that the appellate court’s decision to reduce the bond “shows how ridiculous and outrageous” the $454 million judgment against him is.

While the court, the Appellate Division in Manhattan, did not rule directly on the merits of Mr. Trump’s appeal, its ruling suggests that some of the judges could be sympathetic to Mr. Trump’s case, legal experts said.

But the decision in Mr. Trump’s favor was eclipsed only an hour later by a decision against him in one of his four criminal cases , underscoring the remarkable breadth of his legal problems as he seeks to reclaim the White House. In his Manhattan criminal case, the judge finalized an April 15 trial date, rejecting the former president’s effort to delay.

In the civil fraud case, Mr. Trump’s lawyers had asked the appeals court to either accept a smaller bond or pause the bond requirement altogether. They argued that the court would be likely to overturn the $454 million penalty, contending that it was “grossly disproportionate and unconstitutional.”

A spokeswoman for the attorney general, Letitia James, noted that Mr. Trump was “still facing accountability for his staggering fraud” and that the judgment “still stands.”

But Mr. Trump’s legal team celebrated the ruling. “The ruling today represents a great first step towards the ultimate reversal of a baseless and reckless judgment,” said Christopher M. Kise, one of his lawyers.

Mr. Trump has repeatedly attacked Ms. James and the trial judge, Arthur F. Engoron , as politically biased Democrats leading a witch hunt against him.

After Monday’s hearing, Mr. Trump held a news conference at 40 Wall Street, a crucial property in his portfolio and one that Ms. James signaled her intent to seize if Mr. Trump did not post bond.

Mr. Trump once again made broad assertions that the legal system was being weaponized by his political opponents, accusing Ms. James, Justice Engoron and the prosecutors in his criminal cases of trying to “take as much of his money as possible.”

Justice Engoron found Mr. Trump liable last month for conspiring to inflate his net worth to reap financial benefits, including favorable loans from banks. The $454 million judgment reflected the interest payments Mr. Trump saved by misleading his lenders, as well as profits from the recent sale of two properties.

Justice Engoron imposed several restrictions on Mr. Trump and his family business, barring him from running a New York company and obtaining a loan from a New York bank for three years. The same restrictions apply to his adult sons for two years. The judge also extended the appointment of an independent monitor, a watchful outsider to keep an eye on the family business.

In a surprise move, the appeals court on Monday paused most of those restrictions, save for the monitor.

Mr. Trump is fighting all of the punishments, but it was the financial penalty that he feared the most.

To secure the full $454 million bond, he would have needed to pledge even more than that — about $557 million, his lawyers said — in collateral to a bond company, including as much cash as possible and stocks and bonds he could sell quickly. He would have also owed the bond company a fee that could have amounted to nearly $20 million.

In a recent court filing, Mr. Trump’s lawyers called securing a bond for the full amount a “practical impossibility,” and revealed that he had approached more than 30 bond companies to no avail.

The reason was clear: Much of Mr. Trump’s wealth is tied up in the value of his real estate, which bond companies rarely accept as collateral. A recent New York Times analysis found that Mr. Trump had more than $350 million in cash as well as stocks and bonds, far short of the $557 million he would have needed to post in collateral.

He did, however, have enough collateral to recently post a $91.6 million bond in the defamation case he lost to E. Jean Carroll. And he appears to have enough to secure a $175 million bond in the case brought by Ms. James.

Still, doing so will eat into much of his stockpile of cash and other liquid investments. So long as Mr. Trump has to pledge money as collateral, he cannot use it to fund his family business or presidential campaign.

While the bond does not represent a fatal threat to the Trump Organization, it could curb any hope the company has of growing and effectively reduce Mr. Trump’s net worth.

But it could have been worse. Without a bond, Ms. James could have wielded broad authority to freeze various bank accounts, and she could have begun the long, complicated process of trying to seize some of Mr. Trump’s buildings, including an estate in Westchester County.

This was an alarming prospect for Mr. Trump , whose identity is linked to his properties. In a social media post on Monday, Mr. Trump referred to them as “my babies.”

It is unclear whether these same five judges will also hear Mr. Trump’s appeal, but David B. Saxe, a former judge on the appeals court that ruled on Monday, said that the court’s decision to short-circuit Ms. James’s collection efforts suggests that some of the judges were uncomfortable with Justice Engoron’s ruling.

“My view is that the court indicates it has difficulty with the breadth of the lower court’s decision,” said Mr. Saxe, who retired in 2017 after 36 years on the bench, 19 of them on the appeals court.

“They had other options available to them, and they issued a broad-based stay,” he continued, which he said suggests “that there is a view that they’re going to need to take a hard look at the lower court’s decision.”

Michael Gold contributed reporting.

Ben Protess is an investigative reporter at The Times, writing about public corruption. He has been covering the various criminal investigations into former President Trump and his allies. More about Ben Protess

William K. Rashbaum is a senior writer on the Metro desk, where he covers political and municipal corruption, courts, terrorism and law enforcement. He was a part of the team awarded the 2009 Pulitzer Prize for Breaking News. More about William K. Rashbaum