research topic about bullying

Preventing Bullying Through Science, Policy, and Practice (2016)

Chapter: 1 introduction, 1 introduction.

Bullying, long tolerated by many as a rite of passage into adulthood, is now recognized as a major and preventable public health problem, one that can have long-lasting consequences ( McDougall and Vaillancourt, 2015 ; Wolke and Lereya, 2015 ). Those consequences—for those who are bullied, for the perpetrators of bullying, and for witnesses who are present during a bullying event—include poor school performance, anxiety, depression, and future delinquent and aggressive behavior. Federal, state, and local governments have responded by adopting laws and implementing programs to prevent bullying and deal with its consequences. However, many of these responses have been undertaken with little attention to what is known about bullying and its effects. Even the definition of bullying varies among both researchers and lawmakers, though it generally includes physical and verbal behavior, behavior leading to social isolation, and behavior that uses digital communications technology (cyberbullying). This report adopts the term “bullying behavior,” which is frequently used in the research field, to cover all of these behaviors.

Bullying behavior is evident as early as preschool, although it peaks during the middle school years ( Currie et al., 2012 ; Vaillancourt et al., 2010 ). It can occur in diverse social settings, including classrooms, school gyms and cafeterias, on school buses, and online. Bullying behavior affects not only the children and youth who are bullied, who bully, and who are both bullied and bully others but also bystanders to bullying incidents. Given the myriad situations in which bullying can occur and the many people who may be involved, identifying effective prevention programs and policies is challenging, and it is unlikely that any one approach will be ap-

propriate in all situations. Commonly used bullying prevention approaches include policies regarding acceptable behavior in schools and behavioral interventions to promote positive cultural norms.

STUDY CHARGE

Recognizing that bullying behavior is a major public health problem that demands the concerted and coordinated time and attention of parents, educators and school administrators, health care providers, policy makers, families, and others concerned with the care of children, a group of federal agencies and private foundations asked the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine to undertake a study of what is known and what needs to be known to further the field of preventing bullying behavior. The Committee on the Biological and Psychosocial Effects of Peer Victimization:

Lessons for Bullying Prevention was created to carry out this task under the Academies’ Board on Children, Youth, and Families and the Committee on Law and Justice. The study received financial support from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), the Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, the Health Resources and Services Administration, the Highmark Foundation, the National Institute of Justice, the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation, Semi J. and Ruth W. Begun Foundation, and the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. The full statement of task for the committee is presented in Box 1-1 .

Although the committee acknowledges the importance of this topic as it pertains to all children in the United States and in U.S. territories, this report focuses on the 50 states and the District of Columbia. Also, while the committee acknowledges that bullying behavior occurs in the school

environment for youth in foster care, in juvenile justice facilities, and in other residential treatment facilities, this report does not address bullying behavior in those environments because it is beyond the study charge.

CONTEXT FOR THE STUDY

This section of the report highlights relevant work in the field and, later in the chapter under “The Committee’s Approach,” presents the conceptual framework and corresponding definitions of terms that the committee has adopted.

Historical Context

Bullying behavior was first characterized in the scientific literature as part of the childhood experience more than 100 years ago in “Teasing and Bullying,” published in the Pedagogical Seminary ( Burk, 1897 ). The author described bullying behavior, attempted to delineate causes and cures for the tormenting of others, and called for additional research ( Koo, 2007 ). Nearly a century later, Dan Olweus, a Swedish research professor of psychology in Norway, conducted an intensive study on bullying ( Olweus, 1978 ). The efforts of Olweus brought awareness to the issue and motivated other professionals to conduct their own research, thereby expanding and contributing to knowledge of bullying behavior. Since Olweus’s early work, research on bullying has steadily increased (see Farrington and Ttofi, 2009 ; Hymel and Swearer, 2015 ).

Over the past few decades, venues where bullying behavior occurs have expanded with the advent of the Internet, chat rooms, instant messaging, social media, and other forms of digital electronic communication. These modes of communication have provided a new communal avenue for bullying. While the media reports linking bullying to suicide suggest a causal relationship, the available research suggests that there are often multiple factors that contribute to a youth’s suicide-related ideology and behavior. Several studies, however, have demonstrated an association between bullying involvement and suicide-related ideology and behavior (see, e.g., Holt et al., 2015 ; Kim and Leventhal, 2008 ; Sourander, 2010 ; van Geel et al., 2014 ).

In 2013, the Health Resources and Services Administration of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services requested that the Institute of Medicine 1 and the National Research Council convene an ad hoc planning committee to plan and conduct a 2-day public workshop to highlight relevant information and knowledge that could inform a multidisciplinary

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1 Prior to 2015, the National Academy of Medicine was known as the Institute of Medicine.

road map on next steps for the field of bullying prevention. Content areas that were explored during the April 2014 workshop included the identification of conceptual models and interventions that have proven effective in decreasing bullying and the antecedents to bullying while increasing protective factors that mitigate the negative health impact of bullying. The discussions highlighted the need for a better understanding of the effectiveness of program interventions in realistic settings; the importance of understanding what works for whom and under what circumstances, as well as the influence of different mediators (i.e., what accounts for associations between variables) and moderators (i.e., what affects the direction or strength of associations between variables) in bullying prevention efforts; and the need for coordination among agencies to prevent and respond to bullying. The workshop summary ( Institute of Medicine and National Research Council, 2014c ) informs this committee’s work.

Federal Efforts to Address Bullying and Related Topics

Currently, there is no comprehensive federal statute that explicitly prohibits bullying among children and adolescents, including cyberbullying. However, in the wake of the growing concerns surrounding the implications of bullying, several federal initiatives do address bullying among children and adolescents, and although some of them do not primarily focus on bullying, they permit some funds to be used for bullying prevention purposes.

The earliest federal initiative was in 1999, when three agencies collaborated to establish the Safe Schools/Healthy Students initiative in response to a series of deadly school shootings in the late 1990s. The program is administered by the U.S. Departments of Education, Health and Human Services, and Justice to prevent youth violence and promote the healthy development of youth. It is jointly funded by the Department of Education and by the Department of Health and Human Services’ Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. The program has provided grantees with both the opportunity to benefit from collaboration and the tools to sustain it through deliberate planning, more cost-effective service delivery, and a broader funding base ( Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, 2015 ).

The next major effort was in 2010, when the Department of Education awarded $38.8 million in grants under the Safe and Supportive Schools (S3) Program to 11 states to support statewide measurement of conditions for learning and targeted programmatic interventions to improve conditions for learning, in order to help schools improve safety and reduce substance use. The S3 Program was administered by the Safe and Supportive Schools Group, which also administered the Safe and Drug-Free Schools and Communities Act State and Local Grants Program, authorized by the

1994 Elementary and Secondary Education Act. 2 It was one of several programs related to developing and maintaining safe, disciplined, and drug-free schools. In addition to the S3 grants program, the group administered a number of interagency agreements with a focus on (but not limited to) bullying, school recovery research, data collection, and drug and violence prevention activities ( U.S. Department of Education, 2015 ).

A collaborative effort among the U.S. Departments of Agriculture, Defense, Education, Health and Human Services, Interior, and Justice; the Federal Trade Commission; and the White House Initiative on Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders created the Federal Partners in Bullying Prevention (FPBP) Steering Committee. Led by the U.S. Department of Education, the FPBP works to coordinate policy, research, and communications on bullying topics. The FPBP Website provides extensive resources on bullying behavior, including information on what bullying is, its risk factors, its warning signs, and its effects. 3 The FPBP Steering Committee also plans to provide details on how to get help for those who have been bullied. It also was involved in creating the “Be More than a Bystander” Public Service Announcement campaign with the Ad Council to engage students in bullying prevention. To improve school climate and reduce rates of bullying nationwide, FPBP has sponsored four bullying prevention summits attended by education practitioners, policy makers, researchers, and federal officials.

In 2014, the National Institute of Justice—the scientific research arm of the U.S. Department of Justice—launched the Comprehensive School Safety Initiative with a congressional appropriation of $75 million. The funds are to be used for rigorous research to produce practical knowledge that can improve the safety of schools and students, including bullying prevention. The initiative is carried out through partnerships among researchers, educators, and other stakeholders, including law enforcement, behavioral and mental health professionals, courts, and other justice system professionals ( National Institute of Justice, 2015 ).

In 2015, the Every Student Succeeds Act was signed by President Obama, reauthorizing the 50-year-old Elementary and Secondary Education Act, which is committed to providing equal opportunities for all students. Although bullying is neither defined nor prohibited in this act, it is explicitly mentioned in regard to applicability of safe school funding, which it had not been in previous iterations of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act.

The above are examples of federal initiatives aimed at promoting the

2 The Safe and Drug-Free Schools and Communities Act was included as Title IV, Part A, of the 1994 Elementary and Secondary Education Act. See http://www.ojjdp.gov/pubs/gun_violence/sect08-i.html [October 2015].

3 For details, see http://www.stopbullying.gov/ [October 2015].

healthy development of youth, improving the safety of schools and students, and reducing rates of bullying behavior. There are several other federal initiatives that address student bullying directly or allow funds to be used for bullying prevention activities.

Definitional Context

The terms “bullying,” “harassment,” and “peer victimization” have been used in the scientific literature to refer to behavior that is aggressive, is carried out repeatedly and over time, and occurs in an interpersonal relationship where a power imbalance exists ( Eisenberg and Aalsma, 2005 ). Although some of these terms have been used interchangeably in the literature, peer victimization is targeted aggressive behavior of one child against another that causes physical, emotional, social, or psychological harm. While conflict and bullying among siblings are important in their own right ( Tanrikulu and Campbell, 2015 ), this area falls outside of the scope of the committee’s charge. Sibling conflict and aggression falls under the broader concept of interpersonal aggression, which includes dating violence, sexual assault, and sibling violence, in addition to bullying as defined for this report. Olweus (1993) noted that bullying, unlike other forms of peer victimization where the children involved are equally matched, involves a power imbalance between the perpetrator and the target, where the target has difficulty defending him or herself and feels helpless against the aggressor. This power imbalance is typically considered a defining feature of bullying, which distinguishes this particular form of aggression from other forms, and is typically repeated in multiple bullying incidents involving the same individuals over time ( Olweus, 1993 ).

Bullying and violence are subcategories of aggressive behavior that overlap ( Olweus, 1996 ). There are situations in which violence is used in the context of bullying. However, not all forms of bullying (e.g., rumor spreading) involve violent behavior. The committee also acknowledges that perspective about intentions can matter and that in many situations, there may be at least two plausible perceptions involved in the bullying behavior.

A number of factors may influence one’s perception of the term “bullying” ( Smith and Monks, 2008 ). Children and adolescents’ understanding of the term “bullying” may be subject to cultural interpretations or translations of the term ( Hopkins et al., 2013 ). Studies have also shown that influences on children’s understanding of bullying include the child’s experiences as he or she matures and whether the child witnesses the bullying behavior of others ( Hellström et al., 2015 ; Monks and Smith, 2006 ; Smith and Monks, 2008 ).

In 2010, the FPBP Steering Committee convened its first summit, which brought together more than 150 nonprofit and corporate leaders,

researchers, practitioners, parents, and youths to identify challenges in bullying prevention. Discussions at the summit revealed inconsistencies in the definition of bullying behavior and the need to create a uniform definition of bullying. Subsequently, a review of the 2011 CDC publication of assessment tools used to measure bullying among youth ( Hamburger et al., 2011 ) revealed inconsistent definitions of bullying and diverse measurement strategies. Those inconsistencies and diverse measurements make it difficult to compare the prevalence of bullying across studies ( Vivolo et al., 2011 ) and complicate the task of distinguishing bullying from other types of aggression between youths. A uniform definition can support the consistent tracking of bullying behavior over time, facilitate the comparison of bullying prevalence rates and associated risk and protective factors across different data collection systems, and enable the collection of comparable information on the performance of bullying intervention and prevention programs across contexts ( Gladden et al., 2014 ). The CDC and U.S. Department of Education collaborated on the creation of the following uniform definition of bullying (quoted in Gladden et al., 2014, p. 7 ):

Bullying is any unwanted aggressive behavior(s) by another youth or group of youths who are not siblings or current dating partners that involves an observed or perceived power imbalance and is repeated multiple times or is highly likely to be repeated. Bullying may inflict harm or distress on the targeted youth including physical, psychological, social, or educational harm.

This report noted that the definition includes school-age individuals ages 5-18 and explicitly excludes sibling violence and violence that occurs in the context of a dating or intimate relationship ( Gladden et al., 2014 ). This definition also highlighted that there are direct and indirect modes of bullying, as well as different types of bullying. Direct bullying involves “aggressive behavior(s) that occur in the presence of the targeted youth”; indirect bullying includes “aggressive behavior(s) that are not directly communicated to the targeted youth” ( Gladden et al., 2014, p. 7 ). The direct forms of violence (e.g., sibling violence, teen dating violence, intimate partner violence) can include aggression that is physical, sexual, or psychological, but the context and uniquely dynamic nature of the relationship between the target and the perpetrator in which these acts occur is different from that of peer bullying. Examples of direct bullying include pushing, hitting, verbal taunting, or direct written communication. A common form of indirect bullying is spreading rumors. Four different types of bullying are commonly identified—physical, verbal, relational, and damage to property. Some observational studies have shown that the different forms of bullying that youths commonly experience may overlap ( Bradshaw et al., 2015 ;

Godleski et al., 2015 ). The four types of bullying are defined as follows ( Gladden et al., 2014 ):

• Physical bullying involves the use of physical force (e.g., shoving, hitting, spitting, pushing, and tripping).
• Verbal bullying involves oral or written communication that causes harm (e.g., taunting, name calling, offensive notes or hand gestures, verbal threats).
• Relational bullying is behavior “designed to harm the reputation and relationships of the targeted youth (e.g., social isolation, rumor spreading, posting derogatory comments or pictures online).”
• Damage to property is “theft, alteration, or damaging of the target youth’s property by the perpetrator to cause harm.”

In recent years, a new form of aggression or bullying has emerged, labeled “cyberbullying,” in which the aggression occurs through modern technological devices, specifically mobile phones or the Internet ( Slonje and Smith, 2008 ). Cyberbullying may take the form of mean or nasty messages or comments, rumor spreading through posts or creation of groups, and exclusion by groups of peers online.

While the CDC definition identifies bullying that occurs using technology as electronic bullying and views that as a context or location where bullying occurs, one of the major challenges in the field is how to conceptualize and define cyberbullying ( Tokunaga, 2010 ). The extent to which the CDC definition can be applied to cyberbullying is unclear, particularly with respect to several key concepts within the CDC definition. First, whether determination of an interaction as “wanted” or “unwanted” or whether communication was intended to be harmful can be challenging to assess in the absence of important in-person socioemotional cues (e.g., vocal tone, facial expressions). Second, assessing “repetition” is challenging in that a single harmful act on the Internet has the potential to be shared or viewed multiple times ( Sticca and Perren, 2013 ). Third, cyberbullying can involve a less powerful peer using technological tools to bully a peer who is perceived to have more power. In this manner, technology may provide the tools that create a power imbalance, in contrast to traditional bullying, which typically involves an existing power imbalance.

A study that used focus groups with college students to discuss whether the CDC definition applied to cyberbullying found that students were wary of applying the definition due to their perception that cyberbullying often involves less emphasis on aggression, intention, and repetition than other forms of bullying ( Kota et al., 2014 ). Many researchers have responded to this lack of conceptual and definitional clarity by creating their own measures to assess cyberbullying. It is noteworthy that very few of these

definitions and measures include the components of traditional bullying—i.e., repetition, power imbalance, and intent ( Berne et al., 2013 ). A more recent study argues that the term “cyberbullying” should be reserved for incidents that involve key aspects of bullying such as repetition and differential power ( Ybarra et al., 2014 ).

Although the formulation of a uniform definition of bullying appears to be a step in the right direction for the field of bullying prevention, there are some limitations of the CDC definition. For example, some researchers find the focus on school-age youth as well as the repeated nature of bullying to be rather limiting; similarly the exclusion of bullying in the context of sibling relationships or dating relationships may preclude full appreciation of the range of aggressive behaviors that may co-occur with or constitute bullying behavior. As noted above, other researchers have raised concerns about whether cyberbullying should be considered a particular form or mode under the broader heading of bullying as suggested in the CDC definition, or whether a separate defintion is needed. Furthermore, the measurement of bullying prevalence using such a definiton of bullying is rather complex and does not lend itself well to large-scale survey research. The CDC definition was intended to inform public health surveillance efforts, rather than to serve as a definition for policy. However, increased alignment between bullying definitions used by policy makers and researchers would greatly advance the field. Much of the extant research on bullying has not applied a consistent definition or one that aligns with the CDC definition. As a result of these and other challenges to the CDC definition, thus far there has been inconsistent adoption of this particular definition by researchers, practitioners, or policy makers; however, as the definition was created in 2014, less than 2 years is not a sufficient amount of time to assess whether it has been successfully adopted or will be in the future.

THE COMMITTEE’S APPROACH

This report builds on the April 2014 workshop, summarized in Building Capacity to Reduce Bullying: Workshop Summary ( Institute of Medicine and National Research Council, 2014c ). The committee’s work was accomplished over an 18-month period that began in October 2014, after the workshop was held and the formal summary of it had been released. The study committee members represented expertise in communication technology, criminology, developmental and clinical psychology, education, mental health, neurobiological development, pediatrics, public health, school administration, school district policy, and state law and policy. (See Appendix E for biographical sketches of the committee members and staff.) The committee met three times in person and conducted other meetings by teleconferences and electronic communication.

Information Gathering

The committee conducted an extensive review of the literature pertaining to peer victimization and bullying. In some instances, the committee drew upon the broader literature on aggression and violence. The review began with an English-language literature search of online databases, including ERIC, Google Scholar, Lexis Law Reviews Database, Medline, PubMed, Scopus, PsycInfo, and Web of Science, and was expanded as literature and resources from other countries were identified by committee members and project staff as relevant. The committee drew upon the early childhood literature since there is substantial evidence indicating that bullying involvement happens as early as preschool (see Vlachou et al., 2011 ). The committee also drew on the literature on late adolescence and looked at related areas of research such as maltreatment for insights into this emerging field.

The committee used a variety of sources to supplement its review of the literature. The committee held two public information-gathering sessions, one with the study sponsors and the second with experts on the neurobiology of bullying; bullying as a group phenomenon and the role of bystanders; the role of media in bullying prevention; and the intersection of social science, the law, and bullying and peer victimization. See Appendix A for the agendas for these two sessions. To explore different facets of bullying and give perspectives from the field, a subgroup of the committee and study staff also conducted a site visit to a northeastern city, where they convened four stakeholder groups comprised, respectively, of local practitioners, school personnel, private foundation representatives, and young adults. The site visit provided the committee with an opportunity for place-based learning about bullying prevention programs and best practices. Each focus group was transcribed and summarized thematically in accordance with this report’s chapter considerations. Themes related to the chapters are displayed throughout the report in boxes titled “Perspectives from the Field”; these boxes reflect responses synthesized from all four focus groups. See Appendix B for the site visit’s agenda and for summaries of the focus groups.

The committee also benefited from earlier reports by the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine through its Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education and the Institute of Medicine, most notably:

• Reducing Risks for Mental Disorders: Frontiers for Preventive Intervention Research ( Institute of Medicine, 1994 )
• Community Programs to Promote Youth Development ( National Research Council and Institute of Medicine, 2002 )
• Deadly Lessons: Understanding Lethal School Violence ( National Research Council and Institute of Medicine, 2003 )
• Preventing Mental, Emotional, and Behavioral Disorders Among Young People: Progress and Possibilities ( National Research Council and Institute of Medicine, 2009 )
• The Science of Adolescent Risk-Taking: Workshop Report ( Institute of Medicine and National Research Council, 2011 )
• Communications and Technology for Violence Prevention: Workshop Summary ( Institute of Medicine and National Research Council, 2012 )
• Building Capacity to Reduce Bullying: Workshop Summary ( Institute of Medicine and National Research Council, 2014c )
• The Evidence for Violence Prevention across the Lifespan and Around the World: Workshop Summary ( Institute of Medicine and National Research Council, 2014a )
• Strategies for Scaling Effective Family-Focused Preventive Interventions to Promote Children’s Cognitive, Affective, and Behavioral Health: Workshop Summary ( Institute of Medicine and National Research Council, 2014b )
• Investing in the Health and Well-Being of Young Adults ( Institute of Medicine and National Research Council, 2015 )

Although these past reports and workshop summaries address various forms of violence and victimization, this report is the first consensus study by the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine on the state of the science on the biological and psychosocial consequences of bullying and the risk and protective factors that either increase or decrease bullying behavior and its consequences.

Terminology

Given the variable use of the terms “bullying” and “peer victimization” in both the research-based and practice-based literature, the committee chose to use the current CDC definition quoted above ( Gladden et al., 2014, p. 7 ). While the committee determined that this was the best definition to use, it acknowledges that this definition is not necessarily the most user-friendly definition for students and has the potential to cause problems for students reporting bullying. Not only does this definition provide detail on the common elements of bullying behavior but it also was developed with input from a panel of researchers and practitioners. The committee also followed the CDC in focusing primarily on individuals between the ages of 5 and 18. The committee recognizes that children’s development occurs on a continuum, and so while it relied primarily on the CDC defini-

tion, its work and this report acknowledge the importance of addressing bullying in both early childhood and emerging adulthood. For purposes of this report, the committee used the terms “early childhood” to refer to ages 1-4, “middle childhood” for ages 5 to 10, “early adolescence” for ages 11-14, “middle adolescence” for ages 15-17, and “late adolescence” for ages 18-21. This terminology and the associated age ranges are consistent with the Bright Futures and American Academy of Pediatrics definition of the stages of development. 4

A given instance of bullying behavior involves at least two unequal roles: one or more individuals who perpetrate the behavior (the perpetrator in this instance) and at least one individual who is bullied (the target in this instance). To avoid labeling and potentially further stigmatizing individuals with the terms “bully” and “victim,” which are sometimes viewed as traits of persons rather than role descriptions in a particular instance of behavior, the committee decided to use “individual who is bullied” to refer to the target of a bullying instance or pattern and “individual who bullies” to refer to the perpetrator of a bullying instance or pattern. Thus, “individual who is bullied and bullies others” can refer to one who is either perpetrating a bullying behavior or a target of bullying behavior, depending on the incident. This terminology is consistent with the approach used by the FPBP (see above). Also, bullying is a dynamic social interaction ( Espelage and Swearer, 2003 ) where individuals can play different roles in bullying interactions based on both individual and contextual factors.

The committee used “cyberbullying” to refer to bullying that takes place using technology or digital electronic means. “Digital electronic forms of contact” comprise a broad category that may include e-mail, blogs, social networking Websites, online games, chat rooms, forums, instant messaging, Skype, text messaging, and mobile phone pictures. The committee uses the term “traditional bullying” to refer to bullying behavior that is not cyberbullying (to aid in comparisons), recognizing that the term has been used at times in slightly different senses in the literature.

Where accurate reporting of study findings requires use of the above terms but with senses different from those specified here, the committee has noted the sense in which the source used the term. Similarly, accurate reporting has at times required use of terms such as “victimization” or “victim” that the committee has chosen to avoid in its own statements.

4 For details on these stages of adolescence, see https://brightfutures.aap.org/Bright%20Futures%20Documents/3-Promoting_Child_Development.pdf [October 2015].

ORGANIZATION OF THE REPORT

This report is organized into seven chapters. After this introductory chapter, Chapter 2 provides a broad overview of the scope of the problem.

Chapter 3 focuses on the conceptual frameworks for the study and the developmental trajectory of the child who is bullied, the child who bullies, and the child who is bullied and also bullies. It explores processes that can explain heterogeneity in bullying outcomes by focusing on contextual processes that moderate the effect of individual characteristics on bullying behavior.

Chapter 4 discusses the cyclical nature of bullying and the consequences of bullying behavior. It summarizes what is known about the psychosocial, physical health, neurobiological, academic-performance, and population-level consequences of bullying.

Chapter 5 provides an overview of the landscape in bullying prevention programming. This chapter describes in detail the context for preventive interventions and the specific actions that various stakeholders can take to achieve a coordinated response to bullying behavior. The chapter uses the Institute of Medicine’s multi-tiered framework ( National Research Council and Institute of Medicine, 2009 ) to present the different levels of approaches to preventing bullying behavior.

Chapter 6 reviews what is known about federal, state, and local laws and policies and their impact on bullying.

After a critical review of the relevant research and practice-based literatures, Chapter 7 discusses the committee conclusions and recommendations and provides a path forward for bullying prevention.

The report includes a number of appendixes. Appendix A includes meeting agendas of the committee’s public information-gathering meetings. Appendix B includes the agenda and summaries of the site visit. Appendix C includes summaries of bullying prevalence data from the national surveys discussed in Chapter 2 . Appendix D provides a list of selected federal resources on bullying for parents and teachers. Appendix E provides biographical sketches of the committee members and project staff.

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Bullying has long been tolerated as a rite of passage among children and adolescents. There is an implication that individuals who are bullied must have "asked for" this type of treatment, or deserved it. Sometimes, even the child who is bullied begins to internalize this idea. For many years, there has been a general acceptance and collective shrug when it comes to a child or adolescent with greater social capital or power pushing around a child perceived as subordinate. But bullying is not developmentally appropriate; it should not be considered a normal part of the typical social grouping that occurs throughout a child's life.

Although bullying behavior endures through generations, the milieu is changing. Historically, bulling has occurred at school, the physical setting in which most of childhood is centered and the primary source for peer group formation. In recent years, however, the physical setting is not the only place bullying is occurring. Technology allows for an entirely new type of digital electronic aggression, cyberbullying, which takes place through chat rooms, instant messaging, social media, and other forms of digital electronic communication.

Composition of peer groups, shifting demographics, changing societal norms, and modern technology are contextual factors that must be considered to understand and effectively react to bullying in the United States. Youth are embedded in multiple contexts and each of these contexts interacts with individual characteristics of youth in ways that either exacerbate or attenuate the association between these individual characteristics and bullying perpetration or victimization. Recognizing that bullying behavior is a major public health problem that demands the concerted and coordinated time and attention of parents, educators and school administrators, health care providers, policy makers, families, and others concerned with the care of children, this report evaluates the state of the science on biological and psychosocial consequences of peer victimization and the risk and protective factors that either increase or decrease peer victimization behavior and consequences.

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• Research article
• Open access
• Published: 14 December 2021

Bullying at school and mental health problems among adolescents: a repeated cross-sectional study

• Håkan Källmén 1 &
• Mats Hallgren   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-0599-2403 2  

Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health volume  15 , Article number:  74 ( 2021 ) Cite this article

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Metrics details

To examine recent trends in bullying and mental health problems among adolescents and the association between them.

A questionnaire measuring mental health problems, bullying at school, socio-economic status, and the school environment was distributed to all secondary school students aged 15 (school-year 9) and 18 (school-year 11) in Stockholm during 2014, 2018, and 2020 (n = 32,722). Associations between bullying and mental health problems were assessed using logistic regression analyses adjusting for relevant demographic, socio-economic, and school-related factors.

The prevalence of bullying remained stable and was highest among girls in year 9; range = 4.9% to 16.9%. Mental health problems increased; range = + 1.2% (year 9 boys) to + 4.6% (year 11 girls) and were consistently higher among girls (17.2% in year 11, 2020). In adjusted models, having been bullied was detrimentally associated with mental health (OR = 2.57 [2.24–2.96]). Reports of mental health problems were four times higher among boys who had been bullied compared to those not bullied. The corresponding figure for girls was 2.4 times higher.

Conclusions

Exposure to bullying at school was associated with higher odds of mental health problems. Boys appear to be more vulnerable to the deleterious effects of bullying than girls.

Introduction

Bullying involves repeated hurtful actions between peers where an imbalance of power exists [ 1 ]. Arseneault et al. [ 2 ] conducted a review of the mental health consequences of bullying for children and adolescents and found that bullying is associated with severe symptoms of mental health problems, including self-harm and suicidality. Bullying was shown to have detrimental effects that persist into late adolescence and contribute independently to mental health problems. Updated reviews have presented evidence indicating that bullying is causative of mental illness in many adolescents [ 3 , 4 ].

There are indications that mental health problems are increasing among adolescents in some Nordic countries. Hagquist et al. [ 5 ] examined trends in mental health among Scandinavian adolescents (n = 116, 531) aged 11–15 years between 1993 and 2014. Mental health problems were operationalized as difficulty concentrating, sleep disorders, headache, stomach pain, feeling tense, sad and/or dizzy. The study revealed increasing rates of adolescent mental health problems in all four counties (Finland, Sweden, Norway, and Denmark), with Sweden experiencing the sharpest increase among older adolescents, particularly girls. Worsening adolescent mental health has also been reported in the United Kingdom. A study of 28,100 school-aged adolescents in England found that two out of five young people scored above thresholds for emotional problems, conduct problems or hyperactivity [ 6 ]. Female gender, deprivation, high needs status (educational/social), ethnic background, and older age were all associated with higher odds of experiencing mental health difficulties.

Bullying is shown to increase the risk of poor mental health and may partly explain these detrimental changes. Le et al. [ 7 ] reported an inverse association between bullying and mental health among 11–16-year-olds in Vietnam. They also found that poor mental health can make some children and adolescents more vulnerable to bullying at school. Bayer et al. [ 8 ] examined links between bullying at school and mental health among 8–9-year-old children in Australia. Those who experienced bullying more than once a week had poorer mental health than children who experienced bullying less frequently. Friendships moderated this association, such that children with more friends experienced fewer mental health problems (protective effect). Hysing et al. [ 9 ] investigated the association between experiences of bullying (as a victim or perpetrator) and mental health, sleep disorders, and school performance among 16–19 year olds from Norway (n = 10,200). Participants were categorized as victims, bullies, or bully-victims (that is, victims who also bullied others). All three categories were associated with worse mental health, school performance, and sleeping difficulties. Those who had been bullied also reported more emotional problems, while those who bullied others reported more conduct disorders [ 9 ].

As most adolescents spend a considerable amount of time at school, the school environment has been a major focus of mental health research [ 10 , 11 ]. In a recent review, Saminathen et al. [ 12 ] concluded that school is a potential protective factor against mental health problems, as it provides a socially supportive context and prepares students for higher education and employment. However, it may also be the primary setting for protracted bullying and stress [ 13 ]. Another factor associated with adolescent mental health is parental socio-economic status (SES) [ 14 ]. A systematic review indicated that lower parental SES is associated with poorer adolescent mental health [ 15 ]. However, no previous studies have examined whether SES modifies or attenuates the association between bullying and mental health. Similarly, it remains unclear whether school related factors, such as school grades and the school environment, influence the relationship between bullying and mental health. This information could help to identify those adolescents most at risk of harm from bullying.

To address these issues, we investigated the prevalence of bullying at school and mental health problems among Swedish adolescents aged 15–18 years between 2014 and 2020 using a population-based school survey. We also examined associations between bullying at school and mental health problems adjusting for relevant demographic, socioeconomic, and school-related factors. We hypothesized that: (1) bullying and adolescent mental health problems have increased over time; (2) There is an association between bullying victimization and mental health, so that mental health problems are more prevalent among those who have been victims of bullying; and (3) that school-related factors would attenuate the association between bullying and mental health.

Participants

The Stockholm school survey is completed every other year by students in lower secondary school (year 9—compulsory) and upper secondary school (year 11). The survey is mandatory for public schools, but voluntary for private schools. The purpose of the survey is to help inform decision making by local authorities that will ultimately improve students’ wellbeing. The questions relate to life circumstances, including SES, schoolwork, bullying, drug use, health, and crime. Non-completers are those who were absent from school when the survey was completed (< 5%). Response rates vary from year to year but are typically around 75%. For the current study data were available for 2014, 2018 and 2020. In 2014; 5235 boys and 5761 girls responded, in 2018; 5017 boys and 5211 girls responded, and in 2020; 5633 boys and 5865 girls responded (total n = 32,722). Data for the exposure variable, bullied at school, were missing for 4159 students, leaving 28,563 participants in the crude model. The fully adjusted model (described below) included 15,985 participants. The mean age in grade 9 was 15.3 years (SD = 0.51) and in grade 11, 17.3 years (SD = 0.61). As the data are completely anonymous, the study was exempt from ethical approval according to an earlier decision from the Ethical Review Board in Stockholm (2010-241 31-5). Details of the survey are available via a website [ 16 ], and are described in a previous paper [ 17 ].

Students completed the questionnaire during a school lesson, placed it in a sealed envelope and handed it to their teacher. Student were permitted the entire lesson (about 40 min) to complete the questionnaire and were informed that participation was voluntary (and that they were free to cancel their participation at any time without consequences). Students were also informed that the Origo Group was responsible for collection of the data on behalf of the City of Stockholm.

Study outcome

Mental health problems were assessed by using a modified version of the Psychosomatic Problem Scale [ 18 ] shown to be appropriate for children and adolescents and invariant across gender and years. The scale was later modified [ 19 ]. In the modified version, items about difficulty concentrating and feeling giddy were deleted and an item about ‘life being great to live’ was added. Seven different symptoms or problems, such as headaches, depression, feeling fear, stomach problems, difficulty sleeping, believing it’s great to live (coded negatively as seldom or rarely) and poor appetite were used. Students who responded (on a 5-point scale) that any of these problems typically occurs ‘at least once a week’ were considered as having indicators of a mental health problem. Cronbach alpha was 0.69 across the whole sample. Adding these problem areas, a total index was created from 0 to 7 mental health symptoms. Those who scored between 0 and 4 points on the total symptoms index were considered to have a low indication of mental health problems (coded as 0); those who scored between 5 and 7 symptoms were considered as likely having mental health problems (coded as 1).

Primary exposure

Experiences of bullying were measured by the following two questions: Have you felt bullied or harassed during the past school year? Have you been involved in bullying or harassing other students during this school year? Alternatives for the first question were: yes or no with several options describing how the bullying had taken place (if yes). Alternatives indicating emotional bullying were feelings of being mocked, ridiculed, socially excluded, or teased. Alternatives indicating physical bullying were being beaten, kicked, forced to do something against their will, robbed, or locked away somewhere. The response alternatives for the second question gave an estimation of how often the respondent had participated in bullying others (from once to several times a week). Combining the answers to these two questions, five different categories of bullying were identified: (1) never been bullied and never bully others; (2) victims of emotional (verbal) bullying who have never bullied others; (3) victims of physical bullying who have never bullied others; (4) victims of bullying who have also bullied others; and (5) perpetrators of bullying, but not victims. As the number of positive cases in the last three categories was low (range = 3–15 cases) bully categories 2–4 were combined into one primary exposure variable: ‘bullied at school’.

Assessment year was operationalized as the year when data was collected: 2014, 2018, and 2020. Age was operationalized as school grade 9 (15–16 years) or 11 (17–18 years). Gender was self-reported (boy or girl). The school situation To assess experiences of the school situation, students responded to 18 statements about well-being in school, participation in important school matters, perceptions of their teachers, and teaching quality. Responses were given on a four-point Likert scale ranging from ‘do not agree at all’ to ‘fully agree’. To reduce the 18-items down to their essential factors, we performed a principal axis factor analysis. Results showed that the 18 statements formed five factors which, according to the Kaiser criterion (eigen values > 1) explained 56% of the covariance in the student’s experience of the school situation. The five factors identified were: (1) Participation in school; (2) Interesting and meaningful work; (3) Feeling well at school; (4) Structured school lessons; and (5) Praise for achievements. For each factor, an index was created that was dichotomised (poor versus good circumstance) using the median-split and dummy coded with ‘good circumstance’ as reference. A description of the items included in each factor is available as Additional file 1 . Socio-economic status (SES) was assessed with three questions about the education level of the student’s mother and father (dichotomized as university degree versus not), and the amount of spending money the student typically received for entertainment each month (> SEK 1000 [approximately $120] versus less). Higher parental education and more spending money were used as reference categories. School grades in Swedish, English, and mathematics were measured separately on a 7-point scale and dichotomized as high (grades A, B, and C) versus low (grades D, E, and F). High school grades were used as the reference category.

Statistical analyses

The prevalence of mental health problems and bullying at school are presented using descriptive statistics, stratified by survey year (2014, 2018, 2020), gender, and school year (9 versus 11). As noted, we reduced the 18-item questionnaire assessing school function down to five essential factors by conducting a principal axis factor analysis (see Additional file 1 ). We then calculated the association between bullying at school (defined above) and mental health problems using multivariable logistic regression. Results are presented as odds ratios (OR) with 95% confidence intervals (Cis). To assess the contribution of SES and school-related factors to this association, three models are presented: Crude, Model 1 adjusted for demographic factors: age, gender, and assessment year; Model 2 adjusted for Model 1 plus SES (parental education and student spending money), and Model 3 adjusted for Model 2 plus school-related factors (school grades and the five factors identified in the principal factor analysis). These covariates were entered into the regression models in three blocks, where the final model represents the fully adjusted analyses. In all models, the category ‘not bullied at school’ was used as the reference. Pseudo R-square was calculated to estimate what proportion of the variance in mental health problems was explained by each model. Unlike the R-square statistic derived from linear regression, the Pseudo R-square statistic derived from logistic regression gives an indicator of the explained variance, as opposed to an exact estimate, and is considered informative in identifying the relative contribution of each model to the outcome [ 20 ]. All analyses were performed using SPSS v. 26.0.

Prevalence of bullying at school and mental health problems

Estimates of the prevalence of bullying at school and mental health problems across the 12 strata of data (3 years × 2 school grades × 2 genders) are shown in Table 1 . The prevalence of bullying at school increased minimally (< 1%) between 2014 and 2020, except among girls in grade 11 (2.5% increase). Mental health problems increased between 2014 and 2020 (range = 1.2% [boys in year 11] to 4.6% [girls in year 11]); were three to four times more prevalent among girls (range = 11.6% to 17.2%) compared to boys (range = 2.6% to 4.9%); and were more prevalent among older adolescents compared to younger adolescents (range = 1% to 3.1% higher). Pooling all data, reports of mental health problems were four times more prevalent among boys who had been victims of bullying compared to those who reported no experiences with bullying. The corresponding figure for girls was two and a half times as prevalent.

Associations between bullying at school and mental health problems

Table 2 shows the association between bullying at school and mental health problems after adjustment for relevant covariates. Demographic factors, including female gender (OR = 3.87; CI 3.48–4.29), older age (OR = 1.38, CI 1.26–1.50), and more recent assessment year (OR = 1.18, CI 1.13–1.25) were associated with higher odds of mental health problems. In Model 2, none of the included SES variables (parental education and student spending money) were associated with mental health problems. In Model 3 (fully adjusted), the following school-related factors were associated with higher odds of mental health problems: lower grades in Swedish (OR = 1.42, CI 1.22–1.67); uninteresting or meaningless schoolwork (OR = 2.44, CI 2.13–2.78); feeling unwell at school (OR = 1.64, CI 1.34–1.85); unstructured school lessons (OR = 1.31, CI = 1.16–1.47); and no praise for achievements (OR = 1.19, CI 1.06–1.34). After adjustment for all covariates, being bullied at school remained associated with higher odds of mental health problems (OR = 2.57; CI 2.24–2.96). Demographic and school-related factors explained 12% and 6% of the variance in mental health problems, respectively (Pseudo R-Square). The inclusion of socioeconomic factors did not alter the variance explained.

Our findings indicate that mental health problems increased among Swedish adolescents between 2014 and 2020, while the prevalence of bullying at school remained stable (< 1% increase), except among girls in year 11, where the prevalence increased by 2.5%. As previously reported [ 5 , 6 ], mental health problems were more common among girls and older adolescents. These findings align with previous studies showing that adolescents who are bullied at school are more likely to experience mental health problems compared to those who are not bullied [ 3 , 4 , 9 ]. This detrimental relationship was observed after adjustment for school-related factors shown to be associated with adolescent mental health [ 10 ].

A novel finding was that boys who had been bullied at school reported a four-times higher prevalence of mental health problems compared to non-bullied boys. The corresponding figure for girls was 2.5 times higher for those who were bullied compared to non-bullied girls, which could indicate that boys are more vulnerable to the deleterious effects of bullying than girls. Alternatively, it may indicate that boys are (on average) bullied more frequently or more intensely than girls, leading to worse mental health. Social support could also play a role; adolescent girls often have stronger social networks than boys and could be more inclined to voice concerns about bullying to significant others, who in turn may offer supports which are protective [ 21 ]. Related studies partly confirm this speculative explanation. An Estonian study involving 2048 children and adolescents aged 10–16 years found that, compared to girls, boys who had been bullied were more likely to report severe distress, measured by poor mental health and feelings of hopelessness [ 22 ].

Other studies suggest that heritable traits, such as the tendency to internalize problems and having low self-esteem are associated with being a bully-victim [ 23 ]. Genetics are understood to explain a large proportion of bullying-related behaviors among adolescents. A study from the Netherlands involving 8215 primary school children found that genetics explained approximately 65% of the risk of being a bully-victim [ 24 ]. This proportion was similar for boys and girls. Higher than average body mass index (BMI) is another recognized risk factor [ 25 ]. A recent Australian trial involving 13 schools and 1087 students (mean age = 13 years) targeted adolescents with high-risk personality traits (hopelessness, anxiety sensitivity, impulsivity, sensation seeking) to reduce bullying at school; both as victims and perpetrators [ 26 ]. There was no significant intervention effect for bullying victimization or perpetration in the total sample. In a secondary analysis, compared to the control schools, intervention school students showed greater reductions in victimization, suicidal ideation, and emotional symptoms. These findings potentially support targeting high-risk personality traits in bullying prevention [ 26 ].

The relative stability of bullying at school between 2014 and 2020 suggests that other factors may better explain the increase in mental health problems seen here. Many factors could be contributing to these changes, including the increasingly competitive labour market, higher demands for education, and the rapid expansion of social media [ 19 , 27 , 28 ]. A recent Swedish study involving 29,199 students aged between 11 and 16 years found that the effects of school stress on psychosomatic symptoms have become stronger over time (1993–2017) and have increased more among girls than among boys [ 10 ]. Research is needed examining possible gender differences in perceived school stress and how these differences moderate associations between bullying and mental health.

Strengths and limitations

Strengths of the current study include the large participant sample from diverse schools; public and private, theoretical and practical orientations. The survey included items measuring diverse aspects of the school environment; factors previously linked to adolescent mental health but rarely included as covariates in studies of bullying and mental health. Some limitations are also acknowledged. These data are cross-sectional which means that the direction of the associations cannot be determined. Moreover, all the variables measured were self-reported. Previous studies indicate that students tend to under-report bullying and mental health problems [ 29 ]; thus, our results may underestimate the prevalence of these behaviors.

In conclusion, consistent with our stated hypotheses, we observed an increase in self-reported mental health problems among Swedish adolescents, and a detrimental association between bullying at school and mental health problems. Although bullying at school does not appear to be the primary explanation for these changes, bullying was detrimentally associated with mental health after adjustment for relevant demographic, socio-economic, and school-related factors, confirming our third hypothesis. The finding that boys are potentially more vulnerable than girls to the deleterious effects of bullying should be replicated in future studies, and the mechanisms investigated. Future studies should examine the longitudinal association between bullying and mental health, including which factors mediate/moderate this relationship. Epigenetic studies are also required to better understand the complex interaction between environmental and biological risk factors for adolescent mental health [ 24 ].

Availability of data and materials

Data requests will be considered on a case-by-case basis; please email the corresponding author.

Code availability

Not applicable.

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Källmén, H., Hallgren, M. Bullying at school and mental health problems among adolescents: a repeated cross-sectional study. Child Adolesc Psychiatry Ment Health 15 , 74 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13034-021-00425-y

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EDITORIAL article

Editorial: bullying and cyberbullying: their nature and impact on psychological wellbeing.

• 1 Department of Education, Cultural Heritage and Tourism, University of Macerata, Macerata, Italy
• 2 Department of Education and Social Psychology, University Pablo de Olavide, Seville, Spain

Editorial on the Research Topic Bullying and cyberbullying: their nature and impact on psychological wellbeing

1. Introduction

Bullying and cyberbullying are potent forms of violence repeatedly perpetrated by aggressors against victims. They are similar in many facets as both share the same psychological dynamics, comprise a dominion-submission model between the aggressors and the victims, and always present a spectator, even if virtual, to whom the bullies refer. Stereotypical ideas, violated rules, or any feature of a person or group can be the pretext for (cyber)bullying.

If bullying is a type of anti-social behavior that has been studied for decades, cyberbullying is a growing phenomenon. Due to the widespread use of new technologies and the internet, cyberbullying has become even more frequent, especially among young people, who are prone to mobile phone use ( Lenhart, 2012 ; Görzig and Ólafsson, 2013 ; Shapka et al., 2018 ). In particular, the social isolation adopted to restrain the COVID-19 pandemic intensified certain elements related to digital sociability (e.g., hyperexposure, diluted public-private-intimate borders, self-spectacularisation) that created conditions exacerbating digital violence and cyberbullying ( Hellsten et al., 2021 ; Martínez-Ferrer et al., 2021 ).

Cyberbullying victims with low self-esteem and loneliness suffer disorders such as depression, anxiety, suicide ideation, substance abuse, and poor engagement in prosocial behaviors, among others. The adverse impact on a person's wellbeing is significant ( Schoeps et al., 2018 ), and parental attachment plays a crucial role as well ( Canestrari et al., 2021 ). Evidence show that youth reporting low levels of satisfaction with family relationships, negative feelings about school, and lower acceptance levels by their peers were more likely to participate in bullying and cyberbullying ( Martínez-Ferrer et al., 2019 ). This Research Topic aims to deepen one's awareness of the nature of bullying and cyberbullying, including the prevention tools and coping strategies implemented by the various individuals involved in the phenomenon (e.g., violence and aggression, exclusion and superiority, mockery). Psychology has attempted over time to give greater importance to the context according to holistic theories (e.g., social identity theory, social network analysis, correlates theory, personal reputation theory) ( Emler and Reicher, 1995 ), as suggested by Bronfenbrenner's social ecology model. Throughout this general approach, the Research Topic brought together current perspectives on bullying and cyberbullying at various developmental stages, their causes and consequences on different life domains, new evaluation methods in future studies, and training programmes that combat this negative dynamic from a multidisciplinary perspective.

2. Papers of the Research Topic

There are 10 manuscripts on this Research Topic. Given the prevalence of modern technologies, this topic is expectedly covered in many studies specifically focused on cyberbullying. Bochaver's opinion article and Shi and Wang's and León-Moreno et al.'s research papers highlighted school bullying, defined as a form of bullying perpetrated by (a) student(s) against (an)other student(s). Bochaver reflects on the complexity of the phenomenon, which, on one side, provokes negative outcomes, and on the other side, serves as a coping strategy for a community, given its realization of psychological needs such as establishing a social hierarchy, reducing emotional tension, and controlling members. Shi and Wang's study on 3,363 middle/high school students reveals a positive relationship between school victimization and Internet addiction, mediated by life satisfaction and loneliness. León-Moreno et al. highlighted the guilt and loneliness experienced in adolescent peer victimization. The study, carried out on a sample of students, shows that adolescents with greater propensity for guilt feel responsible for being victims of peer aggression and for feeling lonely.

Sorrentino et al. and Gao et al.'s studies explore risk factors of cyberbullying and cybervictimisation. In particular, Sorrentino et al. analyzed a sample of students in a year-long longitudinal study and found onset risk factors for cyberbullying (i.e., being male, being involved in school bullying, having low levels of awareness of online risks, and having high levels of affective empathy) for cybervictimisation (i.e., being male, being involved in school bullying and victimization, having high levels of affective empathy and moral disengagement). On the other hand, Gao et al. examined how family incivility, defined as problematic family interactions and parental neglect, impacts cyberbullying perpetration in a sample of university students. They found that family incivility is positively correlated with cyberbullying perpetration, which is influenced by negative emotions, particularly for highly neurotic students.

Moral disengagement in cyberbullying has been highlighted in research by Mateus Francisco et al. and Zhu et al. . Mateus Francisco et al. identified the relationship between moral disengagement and empathy in cyberbullying situations among adolescents. They developed and validated the Empathy Quotient in Virtual Contexts for Portuguese adolescents communicating online and the Process Moral Disengagement in Cyberbullying Inventory (PMDCI) to assess moral disengagement in online communication. Zhu et al. explored the use of aggressive humor as a tool for cyberbullying perpetration. The study, conducted on a sample of university students, revealed that moral disengagement mediates the relationship between cyberbullying perpetration and aggressive humor, which positively relates to moral disengagement, and that moral disengagement is positively related to cyberbullying perpetration.

Violence is the main category underpinning bullying and cyberbullying. Reyes-Martínez et al. studied several forms of violence. The study, which involved adult respondents, revealed that victims relying on cultural activities had higher levels of subjective wellbeing, suggesting that such activities help in coping and adapting to stressful and traumatic situations.

The articles summarized so far focus mainly on victimization, whereas Horink et al.'s research emphasizes gluckachmerz , i.e., a feeling of displeasure at others' success, as a potential psychological factor that may trigger aggressive and negative online messages and word of mouth. Finally, Hendry et al. have conducted interviews and focus groups with stakeholders having professional knowledge about cyberbullying to ascertain the principles on which basis cyberbullying prevention and intervention programs can be projected.

Author contributions

AF: Conceptualization, Resources, Supervision, Writing—original draft. GM: Conceptualization, Resources, Supervision, Writing—original draft, Writing—review and editing. CC: Conceptualization, Project administration, Resources, Supervision, Writing—original draft, Writing—review and editing.

Acknowledgments

We would like to thank all the authors who agreed to participate in this Research Topic with their original contributions, and to all the reviewers who promoted the quality of research and manuscripts with their comments.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher's note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

Canestrari, C., Arroyo, G. D. M., Carrieri, A., Muzi, M., and Fermani, A. (2021). Parental attachment and cyberbullying victims: the mediation effect of gelotophobia. Curr. Psychol . 42, 16401–16412. doi: 10.1007/s12144-021-01642-6

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Hellsten, L. M., Crespi, I., Hendry, B., and Fermani, A. (2021). Extending the current theorization on cyberbullying: importance of including socio-psychological perspectives. Ital. J. Sociol. Educ . 13, 85–110. doi: 10.14658/pupj-ijse-2021-3-5

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Martínez-Ferrer, B., León-Moreno, C., Musitu-Ferrer, D., Romero-Abrio, A., Callejas-Jerónimo, J. E., and Musitu-Ochoa, G. (2019). Parental socialization, school adjustment and cyber-aggression among adolescents. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 16, 4005. doi: 10.3390/ijerph16204005

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Schoeps, K., Villanueva, L., Prado-Gascó, V. J., and Montoya-Castilla, I. (2018). Development of emotional skills in adolescents to prevent cyberbullying and improve subjective well-being. Front Psychol. 9, 2050. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02050

Shapka, J. D., Onditi, H. Z., Collie, R. J., and Lapidot-Lefler, N. (2018). Cyberbullying and cybervictimization within a cross-cultural context: a study of Canadian and Tanzanian adolescents. Child Dev . 89, 89–99. doi: 10.1111/cdev.12829

Keywords: cyberbullying, mockery, violence, mental health, wellbeing

Citation: Fermani A, del Moral G and Canestrari C (2023) Editorial: Bullying and cyberbullying: their nature and impact on psychological wellbeing. Front. Psychol. 14:1265031. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1265031

Received: 21 July 2023; Accepted: 01 August 2023; Published: 10 August 2023.

Edited and reviewed by: Gerald Matthews , George Mason University, United States

Copyright © 2023 Fermani, del Moral and Canestrari. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Carla Canestrari, carla.canestrari@unimc.it

Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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Effectiveness of school‐based programs to reduce bullying perpetration and victimization: An updated systematic review and meta‐analysis

Hannah gaffney.

1 Institute of Criminology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge UK

Maria M. Ttofi

David p. farrington, executive summary/abstract.

Bullying first emerged as an important topic of research in the 1980s in Norway (Olweus), and a recent meta‐analysis shows that these forms of aggression remain prevalent among young people globally (Modecki et al.). Prominent researchers in the field have defined bullying as any aggressive behavior that incorporates three key elements, namely: (1) an intention to harm, (2) repetitive in nature, and (3) a clear power imbalance between perpetrator and victim (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; Farrington). There are many negative outcomes associated with bullying perpetration, such as: suicidal ideation (Holt et al.), weapon carrying (Valdebenito et al.), drug use (Ttofi et al.), and violence and offending in later life (Ttofi et al.). Bullying victimization too is associated with negative outcomes such as: suicidal ideation (Holt et al.), anxiety, low self‐esteem and loneliness (Hawker& Boulton). Therefore, school bullying is an important target for effective intervention, and should be considered a matter of public health concern.

The objective of this review is to establish whether or not existing school‐based antibullying programs are effective in reducing school‐bullyng behaviors. This report also updates a previous meta‐analysis conducted by Farrington and Ttofi. This earlier review found that antibullying programs are effective in reducing bullying perpetration and victimization and a primary objective of the current report is to update the earlier analysis of 53 evaluations by conducting new searches for evaluations conducted and published since 2009.

Search Methods

Systematic searches were conducted using Boolean combinations of the following keywords: bully*; victim*; bully‐victim; school; intervention; prevention; program*; evaluation; effect*; and anti‐bullying . Searches were conducted on several online databases including, Web of Science, PscyhINFO, EMBASE, EMBASE, DARE, ERIC, Google Scholar, and Scopus. Databases of unpublished reports, such as masters' and doctoral theses (e.g., Proquest) were also searched.

Selection Criteria

Results from systematic searches were screened thoroughly against the following inclusion criteria. To be included in this review, a study must have: (1) described an evaluation of a school‐based antibullying program implemented with school‐age participants; (2) utilized an operational definition of school‐bullying that coincides with existing definitions; (3) measured school‐bullying perpetration and/or victimization using quantitative measures, such as, self‐, peer‐, or teacher‐report questionnaires; and (4) used an experimental or quasi‐experimental design, with one group receiving the intervention and another not receiving the intervention.

Data Collection and Analysis

Of the 19,877 search results, 474 were retained for further screening. The majority of these were excluded, and after multiple waves of screening, 100 evaluations were included in our meta‐analysis. A total of 103 independent effect sizes were estimated and each effect size was corrected for the impact of including clusters in evaluation designs. Included evaluations were conducted using both randomized ( n  = 45; i.e., randomized controlled trials/RCTs) and nonrandomized ( n  = 44; i.e., quasi‐experimental designs with before/after measures; BA/EC) methodologies. All of these studies included measures of bullying outcomes before and after implementation of an intervention. The remaining 14 effect sizes were estimated from evaluations that used age cohort designs. Two models of meta‐analysis are used to report results in our report. All mean effects computed are presented using both the multivariance adjustment model (MVA) and random effects model (RE). The MVA model assigns weights to primary studies in direct proportion to study level sampling error as with the fixed effects model but adjusts the meta‐analytic standard error and confidence intervals for study heterogeneity. The RE model incorporates between‐study heterogeneity into the formula for assigning weights to primary studies. The differences and strengths/limitations of both approaches are discussed in the context of the present data.

Our meta‐analysis identified that bullying programs significantly reduce bullying perpetration (RE: odds ratio [OR] = 1.309; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.24–1.38; z  = 9.88; p  < .001) and bullying victimization (RE: OR = 1.244; 95% CI: 1.19–1.31; z  = 8.92; p  < .001), under a random effects model of meta‐analysis. Mean effects were similar across both models of meta‐analysis for bullying perpetration (i.e., MVA: OR = 1,324; 95% CI: 1.27–1.38; z  = 13.4; p  < .001) and bullying victimization (i.e., MVA: OR = 1.248; 95% CI: 1.21–1.29; z  = 12.06; p  < .001). Under both computational models, primary studies were more effective in reducing bullying perpetration than victimization overall. Effect sizes varied across studies, with significant heterogeneity between studies for both bullying perpetration ( Q  = 323.392; df  = 85; p  < .001; I 2  = 73.716) and bullying victimization ( Q  = 387.255; df  = 87; p  < .001; I 2  = 77.534) outcomes. Analyses suggest that publication bias is unlikely. Between‐study heterogeneity was expected, given the large number of studies included, and thus, the number of different programs, methods, measures and samples used.

Authors' Conclusions

We conclude that overall, school‐based antibullying programs are effective in reducing bullying perpetration and bullying victimization, although effect sizes are modest. The impact of evaluation methodology on effect size appears to be weak and does not adequately explain the significant heterogeneity between primary studies. Moreover, the issue of the under‐/over‐estimation of the true treatment effect by different experimental designs and use of self‐reported measures is reviewed. The potential explanations for this are discussed, along with recommendations for future primary evaluations. Avenues for future research are discussed, including the need further explain differences across programs by correlating individual effect sizes with varying program components and varying methodological elements available across these 100 evaluations. Initial findings in the variability of effect sizes across different methodological moderators provide some understanding on the issue of heterogeneity, but future analyses based on further moderator variables are needed.

1. PLAIN LANGUAGE SUMMARY

1.1. interventions to reduce school bullying perpetration and victimization are effective.

Bullying is a ubiquitous form of aggression in schools worldwide. Intervention and prevention programs targeting school bullying perpetration and victimization are effective, yet more research is needed to understand variability in effectiveness.

The main findings of our review are that bullying programs were effective in reducing bullying perpetration outcomes by roughly 18–19% and bullying victimization by roughly 15–16%. There are substantial variations in effects, and the reasons for these variations require further research.

1.2. What is this review about?

Bullying is defined as aggressive behaviors that occur repeatedly over time between two or more individuals. Typically, there is a clear power imbalance between victims and bullies, either socially or physically. Furthermore, bullying behaviors are those that are committed intentionally to harm the victim.

What is the aim of this review?

The aim of this review is to summarise findings from studies of the effectiveness of school‐based antibullying programs in reducing both bullying perpetration and victimization will be reported. The review summarizes 100 studies, with the largest number being from the United States.

1.3. What studies are included?

To be included in this review, primary studies must have evaluated a specific intervention program that targeted bullying perpetration and/or victimization outcomes in school‐aged children, that is, typically between four and 18 years old. Studies must have used two experimental groups of children, one that received the intervention, and one that did not, and applied quantitative measures of bullying behavior (perpetration and/or victimization) that coincided with our operational definition of bullying.

Our final meta‐analytic review includes 100 studies of the effectiveness of antibullying programs. The largest number of studies came from the United States, with most other studies from Canada and Europe.

1.4. What are the findings of this review?

Antibullying programs are effective in reducing bullying perpetration outcomes by roughly 18–19% and bullying victimization by roughly 15–16%.

Variability in the effectiveness of antibullying programs was associated with differences in methodological designs, types of programs and geographical regions. Interventions evaluated using age cohort designs collectively gave the largest overall effect for both bullying perpetration and bullying victimization.

Limitations of the results are similar to those of previous reviews; for example, the reliance of self‐reported measurements of bullying may suggest the change is in reports of bullying perpetration/victimization and not behavioral change.

1.5. What do the findings of this review mean?

The findings indicate that school‐based bullying intervention and prevention programs can be effective in reducing both bullying perpetration and victimization, although the effect is, overall, modest.

The effectiveness of antibullying programs is an important finding with implications for public health and educational policy. However, our review did identify that there are variations in the effectiveness of intervention programs. Future research is needed to explore the reasons for these variations.

1.6. How up‐to‐date is this review?

This report forms an update of an earlier review (Farrington & Ttofi,  2009 ). The review authors searched for studies published up to December 2016.

2. BACKGROUND

Bullying first emerged as an important topic of research in the 1980s, following the tragic suicides of young boys in Norway, the reason for which was attributed to bullying victimization (Olweus,  1993 ). Today, this form of aggressive behavior remains a prevalent problem among young people globally. For example, a recent meta‐analysis of 80 international studies discovered prevalence levels of 34.5% and 36% for bullying perpetration and bullying victimization respectively (Modecki et al.,  2014 ).

Notably, bullying is a matter of public health, impacting the life outcomes of both bullies and victims, in varying ways (Arseneault et al.,  2010 ; Masiello & Schroeder,  2014 ; Ttofi et al.,  2012 ). Given its long‐term effects, it is imperative that effective intervention efforts are put in place in order to alleviate this troubling school phenomenon (Ttofi,  2015 ).

2.1. Defining school bullying

In order to adequately determine which interventions will effectively reduce bullying behaviors, it is important that researchers and educators start by accurately assessing the prevalence of involvement in school bullying (Swearer et al.,  2010 ). There remains some degree of disagreement in relation to definitive cut‐off points for involvement in bullying (Solberg & Olweus,  2003 ; Swearer et al.,  2010 ) and methods utilized for the assessment of bullying (Smith et al.,  2002 ; Swearer et al.,  2010 ). However, there is better agreement in regard to the defining criteria for school bullying.

Prominent researchers in the field have defined bullying as any aggressive behavior that incorporates three core elements, namely: (1) an intention to harm, (2) repetitive in nature, and (3) a clear power imbalance between perpetration and victim (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention,  2014 ; Farrington,  1993 ; Olweus,  1993 ). In other words, bullies are individuals who intend to cause harm to their victims through their actions, over a long period of time. Furthermore, victims of bullying are typically less powerful than bullies, or groups of bullies, and feel that they cannot easily defend themselves. This may be due to a physical or social power imbalance.

There are many forms of bullying, for example, school‐bullying, workplace bullying, sibling bullying and, most recently, cyberbullying. The present review is concerned only with face‐to‐face school‐bullying, namely, bullying that occurs in schools between individuals, usually aged between 4 and 18 years old. In the school context, bullying is a complex social phenomenon, that often does not happen between the bully and victim in isolation (Salmivalli,  2010 ). For example, individuals can be involved in bullying, not only as bullies, victims, or bully‐victims, but also as bystanders, defenders, or reinforcers (Zych et al.,  2017 ).

Cyberbullying is another form of aggressive behaviors that may occur within a school community, and previous research has found a significant overlap between offline (i.e., school‐bullying or face‐to‐face bullying) and online bullying (Baldry et al.,  2017 ). There is currently very little information about the effectiveness of intervention programs designed to reduce cyberbullying or whether school‐based programs that also target face‐to‐face bullying can impact online bullying concurrently.

2.2. The importance of addressing school bullying

School‐bullying is a strong risk marker for several negative behavioral, health, social, and/or emotional problems. A recent comprehensive review of systematic reviews highlighted that the impact of school‐bullying can occur concurrently with perpetration and/or victimization, but also later in life (Zych et al.,  2015 ). Previous studies have found that bullying victimization is often followed by negative mental health outcomes such as: increased suicidal ideation (e.g., Holt et al.,  2015 ); generalized or social anxiety, low self‐esteem and loneliness (e.g., Hawker & Boulton,  2000 ); psychotic symptoms (e.g., van Dam et al.,  2012 ); depression (e.g., Ttofi et al.,  2011a ,  2011b ); sleeping problems (Geel et al.,  2016 ); and other psychosomatic symptoms (Gini & Pozzoli,  2013 ).

Bullying perpetration, on the other hand, has been linked to several negative outcomes such as: suicidal ideation and suicidal attempts (Holt et al.,  2015 ); weapon carrying (Valdebenito et al.,  2018 ); drug use (Ttofi et al.,  2016 ); and violence and offending in later life (Ttofi et al.,  2011b ,  2012 ). Although involvement in school bullying is not necessarily a causal factor for undesirable life outcomes, research has found that there is an apparent association. It may be the case that the experience of school bullying functions as a stepping stone toward undesirable life outcomes (Arseneault et al.,  2010 ).

Moreover, involvement in school bullying, as either a bully or a victim, has been found to correlate with factors such as low academic achievement (Strøm et al.,  2013 ), truancy from school (Gastic,  2008 ), and drug use (Valdebenito et al.,  2015 ). Such factors are common risk factors for youth offending and delinquency (Farrington & Welsh,  2008 ). Therefore, a bullying prevention program could serve as a crime prevention program, as well as a form of promoting public health.

3. OBJECTIVES

It is clear that school bullying is an important target for effective intervention and prevention. Bullying is an ethical problem as well as a developmental one: targeting school bullying facilitates the process of optimal psychological development but it also addresses the question of human rights, especially the rights of the child (Sercombe & Donnelly,  2013 ). The aim of this paper is to provide an up‐to‐date systematic and meta‐analytical exploration of the effectiveness of school‐based antibullying programs. As such, the present report updates an earlier systematic and meta‐analytic review (Farrington & Ttofi, 2009 ; Ttofi & Farrington,  2011 ), by including evidence from an earlier report, and all available evaluations of antibullying programs since 2009.

It is hoped that this new evidence base will assist policy‐makers and practitioners working in the field of bullying prevention. Farrington and Ttofi's ( 2009 ) review concluded that school‐based antibullying programs are effective in reducing both bullying perpetration (OR = 1.36; 95% CI: 1.26–1.47; z  = 7.86; p  < .0001) and bullying victimization (OR = 1.29; 95% CI: 1.18–1.42; z  = 5.61; p  < .0001). Their review had a major impact on the field of bullying intervention and prevention, and in the 9 years that have passed since its publication there has been a wealth of new research.

Therefore, the aim of the present report is to conduct systematic searches for new evaluations of antibullying programs, and also update earlier analysis by including their 53 evaluations.

The initial stage of any meta‐analysis involves conducting a thorough and systematic search of all the existing and relevant literature (Lipsey & Wilson,  2001 ; Littell et al.,  2008 ). Using predetermined keywords and strict inclusion/exclusion criteria, a systematic review aims to identify, screen, appraise, and synthesize all relevant empirical studies (Zych et al.,  2017 ). In this way, systematic bias is avoided.

4.1. Inclusion and exclusion criteria

To be included in the present systematic review, a set of strict inclusion and exclusion criteria were employed to guide searches. These criteria were identical to those used in the previous meta‐analysis (Farrington & Ttofi,  2009 ). Specifically, to be included, primary studies must:

• (1) Describe an evaluation of a school‐based antibullying program implemented with school‐age participants (depending on the site of evaluation, ages may vary between 4 and 18 years of age);
• (2) Utilize an operational definition of school‐bullying that coincides with existing definitions (e.g., CDC,  2014 ; Farrington,  1993 ; Olweus,  1993 );
• (3) Measure school‐bullying perpetration and/or victimization using quantitative measures, such as, self‐, peer‐, or teacher‐report questionnaires; and
• (4) Use an experimental or quasi‐experimental design, with one group receiving the intervention and another (control group) not receiving the intervention. Nonrandomized studies had to measure outcomes before and after the intervention.

As a result, the present systematic review excludes studies that evaluate the effectiveness of intervention programs targeting alternative forms of bullying, such as cyber‐bullying (e.g., Del Rey et al.,  2015 ), general aggression (e.g., Leff et al.,  2010 ), and school violence (e.g., Giesbrecht et al.,  2011 ). Other studies were excluded because they measured bullying‐related nonbehavioral outcomes, for example, “attitudes towards bullying” (e.g., Earhart,  2011 ), or coping strategies for dealing with victimization (e.g., Watson et al.,  2010 ).

In addition, studies conducted with special needs, delinquent, or psychiatric populations were excluded (e.g., Espelage et al.,  2015 ), so that results could be generalizable to the wider mainstream school population. Studies using qualitative measures of effectiveness, such as participant perceptions of the effectiveness of the program (e.g., Fletcher et al.,  2015 ), were also excluded.

4.2. Searches 1

In order to identify potentially includable studies, Boolean searches were conducted using multiple combinations of the following keywords: bully*; victim*; bully‐victim; school; intervention; prevention; program*; evaluation; effect*; and anti‐bullying . A full description of the syntax used is provided in Appendix A.

Searches were conducted on several online databases, including, but not limited to: Web of Science, 2 PsychINFO, EMBASE, DARE, ERIC, and Scopus. Google scholar ( www.scholar.google.co.uk ) was also searched. A full list of databases searched is provided in Table  1 . EBSCOhost was used as a platform to search multiple databases concurrently and such databases are indicated in Table  1 .

Online platforms and databases manually searched

Note: EBSCOhost was used as a platform to search multiple databases concurrently. Such databases are marked with an *.

Databases of unpublished reports (e.g., ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Solutions) were also searched to include gray literature in our review. This should help to minimize potential publication bias linked to larger or significant effect sizes (Easterbrook et al.,  1991 ; McAuley et al.,  2000 ). In addition, evaluation studies included by previous systematic reviews were scanned, based on the name of each program, for additional‐updated evaluation results (i.e., Cantone et al.,  2015 ; Chalamandaris & Piette,  2015 ; Evans et al.,  2014 ; Jiménez‐Barbero et al.,  2012 ,  2016 ).

Studies included in the previous review (Farrington & Ttofi,  2009 ; Ttofi & Farrington,  2011 ), were also included in the present systematic review. Searches for the present review were conducted up to the end of December 2016, 3 for empirical studies published during and since 2009.

4.3. Screening

Our searches of the literature produced approximately 19,877 reports that were screened for eligibility. Based on the title and abstract, a total of 474 primary studies were identified as relevant, were obtained and subjected to further screening. Studies were allocated to six categories based on their relevance to the current meta‐analysis. A description of each category is provided in Table  2 . Screening was undertaken by the first author (H. G.), under the supervision of the second author (M. T.), in a collaborative format. H. G. reviewed eligible studies, and any queries were settled in discussion with M. T.

Relevance scale categories used in screening

The initial wave of screening excluded 258 of these primary studies. At this stage, studies were excluded because they: (1) did not evaluate a specific antibullying program (Category 1; n  = 107); (2) reviewed several different antibullying programs (Category 2; n  = 108); or (3) did not report empirical quantitative data from an evaluation of a specific antibullying program (Category 3; n  = 43).

A second wave of screening excluded a further 133 studies (Category 4; see Table  3 ). Primary studies were excluded at this stage because they: (1) reported irrelevant outcomes; (2) did not have an adequate control group; or (3) did not meet specified methodological criteria. The screening process is described in detail in Figure  1 . In total, 83 studies published since 2009 were included in our updated systematic review (Category 5).

Descriptions of category four studies

Screening of studies

In addition, five studies were identified during searches conducted for a meta‐analytical review of cyberbullying prevention programs (Gaffney et al.,  2018 ). These studies were missed during systematic searches for the current review (i.e., Kaljee et al.,  2017 ; Ortega‐Ruiz et al.,  2012 ; Ostrov et al.,  2015 ; Silva et al.,  2016 ; Solomontos‐Kountouri et al.,  2016 ). One of these studies (i.e., Kaljee et al.,  2017 ) has a publication date outside of the range of our searches. However, it was included because it was available online in 2016.

To provide the most up‐to‐date analysis of school‐based bullying prevention and intervention programs, therefore, a total of 88 newly identified studies are included in the present systematic review.

5. DATA EXTRACTION

After identifying studies eligible for inclusion in the present systematic and meta‐analytical review detailed information about the antibullying programs, sample involved, and evaluation design were extracted from primary studies. The following chapter outlines the coding framework applied in greater detail.

Table  4 also outlines each piece of information extracted. Information was extracted from primary studies under four main headings: (1) Descriptives, (2) Design, (3) Program, and (4) Outcomes. Additionally, the following section outlines information extracted from primary studies in order to create a risk of bias index. Table  5 outlines the items utilized to assess risk of bias for each of the methodological designs included in the present report. Details of the risk of bias results for each study is provided in Appendix B.

Coding framework

Abbreviations: BA/EC, quasi‐experiments with before and after measures of bullying (nonrandomized); exp, experimental group; OBPP, Olweus Bullying Prevention Program; RCT, randomized controlled trial.

Risk of bias tool

Abbreviations: AC, age cohort design; BA/EC, quasi‐experimental design with before and after measures of bullying; RCT, randomized controlled trial.

This procedure was carried out by the first author in consultation with the second and third authors. 4 There were a number of studies from the previous Campbell Collaboration report (i.e., Farrington & Ttofi,  2009 ) for which full texts were unavailable and thus, were excluded from several of the moderator analyses.

5.1. Descriptive

Various pieces of descriptive information were extracted from each of the 100 evaluations included in the present report. Information specific to the evaluation, such as the location or the start/end date, were recorded along with detailed information concerning the sample.

The total sample size and also the n of the relevant experimental and control groups were recorded. Age was extracted in two ways. First, where studies reported the mean age, or the age range (i.e., 8–10 years old) of participants this was recorded. Second, some studies did not report the age in years of participants, but we were able to record the school grade of included samples (i.e., Grades 4–6). Where reported, the % of females and males included in the sample was extracted.

We also coded descriptive information about the publication of the evaluation. Specifically, the type of publication and the publication year was recorded. The former represents a categorical moderator reflected whether or not the evaluation was published via the following channels, in order of hypothesized negative correlation with bias: (1) peer‐reviewed journal article; (2) chapter in an edited book/book; (3) governmental report or similar; (4) correspondence; and (5) unpublished masters or doctoral theses.

Correspondence was included to reflect data obtained from multiple evaluations of the Olweus Bullying Prevention Program (OBPP) sent to the second (M. M. T.) and third (D. P. F.) authors in preparation of their earlier Campbell review. Where evaluation data had been published in multiple formats, we favored the category associated with the least potential bias. For example, Domino ( 2011 ) reported the results of an evaluation of Take the LEAD program in a doctoral dissertation, but later published these results in a peer‐reviewed journal (i.e., Domino,  2013 ). In this scenario, the included study was coded as “article.”

5.2. Design

Included studies were further categorized according to several aspects of the research design used. We coded information regarding both the measures (i.e., instruments to measure bullying behaviors) and research design.

In relation to measurements of bullying, we recorded the timeframe (i.e., past 3 months or “ever”) in which participants were asked to report on experiences of bullying, the type of report used (i.e., self‐, peer‐, or teacher‐report), and data collection points (i.e., baseline, postintervention, 3‐month follow‐up, etc.). We also noted whether the measure was a continuous scale or a global item and whether bullying perpetration, victimization, or both, outcomes were measured.

As for the research design, we recorded information regarding the unit of allocation (or unit of randomization for RCTs; see below), the number of “clusters” included, whether groups were matched at baseline, and the number of experimental or control groups. For example, Elledge et al. ( 2010 ) included multiple control groups: matched controls and nonmatched controls.

Information about the evaluation methodology was also extracted from primary reports. The types of evaluation methodologies included in the present report are now described in further detail.

5.2.1. Evaluation methodology

In order to optimize the comparability of effect sizes, primary studies included in a meta‐analysis should use the same, or at least conceptually similar, research designs (Wilson,  2010 ). Following Farrington and Ttofi's ( 2009 ) criteria, we searched for evaluations using any of the following four research designs:

• (1) Randomized controlled trials (RCTs);
• (2) Before‐after/quasi‐experimental‐control designs (BA/EC);
• (3) Other quasi‐experimental designs; and
• (4) Age cohort designs.

Each of these methodologies varied on four key elements: as randomization of participants (or clusters of participants); use of experimental and control groups; and administration of quantitative bullying measures before and after intervention.

For example, all studies coded as RCT had to include random assignment to experimental conditions (i.e., intervention and control groups) but did not have to use before and after measures of bullying outcomes. RCTs are considered to be the “gold standard” of experimental evaluations (Weisburd et al.,  2001 ). Random assignment of a large number of units is used as a way in which evaluators can also randomize possible confounding variables between groups. As a result, we can infer that any observed differences result from the experimental manipulation (Farrington,  1983 ). The assumption is that randomization ensures that both observed and unobserved variables that may impact the results of an evaluation are also randomly distributed between groups. However, problems may arise if the unit‐of‐allocation, the unit‐of‐randomization, and the unit‐of‐analysis do not align.

Before‐after/quasi‐experimental‐control (BA/EC) designs, are conceptually similar to RCTs, but they do not involve random assignment to experimental conditions. Instead, participants or clusters of participants may be assigned to the intervention or control group on a self‐selected basis (e.g., Menesini et al.,  2012 ), for convenience (e.g., Sapouna et al.,  2010 ), or based on a greater need for intervention (e.g., Losey,  2009 ). Thus, BA/EC designs may be subject to selection biases (Farrington & Petrosino,  2001 ) that may reduce the validity of the results. These can be controlled if outcomes are measured before and after the intervention. Studies coded as BA/EC in the present report all used experimental and control groups but did not randomly assign participants to conditions. They also had to measure bullying outcomes before and after implementation of the intervention.

In contrast, studies categorized in the current review as using “other quasi‐experimental” designs utilized experimental and control conditions, without random assignment, but did not measure bullying behaviors before the intervention. Bullying outcomes were only measured after the implementation of an intervention in these studies. Therefore, selection bias is may be a threat to the internal validity of the results in such designs, which could have possibly attributed to pre‐existing differences between the groups (Farrington, 2003 ). For this reason, a decision was made to omit these designs from this updated meta‐analysis. Thus, relevant evaluations identified in the earlier Campbell Review and any new evaluations (since 2009) using this methodological design were excluded from the new meta‐analyses (see later).

In an age cohort design, students of a particular age X are initially assessed in the 1st year and serve as the control group for the evaluation of an intervention. Then, all students receive the intervention, and different students of the same age X (in the same school, in the 2nd year) serve as the experimental group (see Kärnä et al.,  2013 ). This design, which is largely used in evaluations of the OBPP, deals with some selection effects, since it ensures that experimental and control children are matched on age and school, and it deals with some threats to internal validity (e.g., ageing and maturation). However, this design may be influenced by period and testing effects, and the experimental and control groups may differ on other uncontrolled variables.

Studies employing RCTs, BA/EC, and age cohort designs were included in the present systematic and meta‐analytic review. Because of the potential threat to internal validity, we excluded studies ( n  = 9) in the other quasi‐experimental design category because they are poorly controlled and vulnerable to selection effects. Additionally, the four studies included in the earlier review that used an “other quasi‐experimental” design were excluded from the present systematic review.

5.3. Program

Using a socio‐ecological systems theory framework (Bronfenbrenner, 1979 ) and the previous meta‐analysis (i.e., Farrington & Ttofi,  2009 ) as guidelines, information about the specific intervention program was recorded. General details about the intervention, such as the name of the program (where relevant) and the aim of the intervention (e.g., Silva et al.,  2016 ) were noted along with more detailed information about the antibullying programs.

Intervention components at multiple levels of the socio‐ecological model (i.e., individual, peer, parent, and teacher, etc.) were recorded, such as work with peers, parental involvement, teacher training and whole‐school‐approach. Therefore, a brief description of each antibullying program based on this information is provided in Table  6 .

Systematic review results

In addition to specific program elements included in interventions, we also coded for possible sources of bias in evaluations and intervention development. Conflict of interest (COI) has previously been reported to impact evaluation results of many interventions and is a growing area of interest (COI; Eisner & Humphreys,  2012 ) with studies identified as having higher COI associated with larger overall effect sizes. Eisner and Humphreys outline many other possible sources of COI, such as financial gain to the evaluator, but this information was difficult to obtain for antibullying programs. Thus, a simple indication of potential COI was utilized.

We primarily focused on the overlap between individuals included as author/coauthor on the evaluation study, is also included on previous evaluations of the same program (e.g., NoTrap!; Menesini et al.,  2012 ; Palladino et al.,  2012 ,  2016 ), or is in fact referenced as the developer of that particular program (e.g., Tsiantis et al.,  2013 ). If no reference to a publication relating to the specific program was included, we concluded that the author had developed the program, and thus, the evaluation was deemed high risk.

Program specificity refers to whether the intervention program was specifically targeting bullying outcomes, or if many other outcomes were also included. Targeted programs are suggested to be more effective than generalized programs that aim to reduce many different behaviors in one intervention. Highly specific programs (i.e., those that only included bullying outcomes and very few others) were coded as “high.” Thus, programs that were less specific and included many other outcomes in addition to bullying measures were considered “low.” A third category was created (i.e., “medium”) to include studies that did multiple other outcomes in addition to bullying outcomes, but these additional variables were bullying‐related.

5.4. Outcomes

We also extracted several pieces of statistical information from primary studies that was required for the estimation of effect sizes. Statistics for bullying behaviors, for example, means and standard deviations or sample sizes and percentage of bullies and/or victims, were extracted for experimental and control groups at baseline and immediately postintervention timepoints.

We also coded bullying data for additional follow‐up timepoints where this information was reported by primary studies. Data was extracted and recorded separately for independent samples (i.e., female and male, Palladino et al.,  2016 ; older and younger, Baldry & Farrington, 2001) and different measures. For example, data for both self‐ and peer‐report measures were extracted from Beery and Hunt (2009) and for different forms of bullying (e.g., Frey et al.,  2005 ).

5.5. Risk of bias

As per the Campbell Collaboration reporting guidelines, a risk of bias index was created for the purpose of the present report. The EPOC tool was utilized to assess the risk category of each study on several items relating to the methodological quality of evaluations. Following earlier Campbell review (e.g., Valdebenito et al.,  2018 ) this tool was also used for nonrandomized studies as other risk of bias measurement instruments were considered inappropriate for nonscientific or medical trials.

The following section describes the procedure for addressing risk of bias in the present meta‐analysis. Each primary evaluation was measured on the following items: (1) allocation sequence (AS); (2) Allocation concealment (AC); (3) Baseline equivalence on outcomes (BE); (4) Baseline equivalence on participant characteristics (BC); (5) Incomplete outcome data (ID); (6) Contamination protection (CP); and (7) Selective outcome reporting (SOR). The applicability of these categories for each of the methodological designs included in the present report is outlined in Table  5 . Each study was categorized as being high, low, or unclear (if insufficient information was available) risk on each of these EPOC items.

6. INCLUDED INTERVENTIONS

In total, 67 different school‐based antibullying programs were evaluated by primary studies included in our updated meta‐analysis. Descriptions of each of these interventions is provided in the following section of this report. These narrative reviews of included antibullying programs are based on the best available information provided by the primary studies. Twenty‐one of the evaluated antibullying programs were included (only) in the previous meta‐analysis (Farrington & Ttofi,  2009 ). A number of popular school‐based antibullying programs (n = 7; i.e., Bully Proofing Your School [BPYS], Friendly Schools, KiVa, OBPP, Steps to Respect, ViSC, and Youth Matters) had been re‐evaluated or additional publications since 2009. Hence, the majority of programs evaluated in our updated meta‐analysis ( n  = 40) are new bullying prevention and intervention programs.

The following sections provides detailed summaries of each antibullying program included in our systematic review. Descriptions marked with an * were taken from the previous review (Farrington & Ttofi,  2009 ). To provide the reader with a detailed overview of existing antibullying programs studies subsequently excluded from the meta‐analysis are also included here.

6.1. *Antibullying intervention in Australian secondary schools

This antibullying intervention consisted of several activities that aimed to increase awareness and identification of bullying, to promote empathy for targets of bullying and to provide students with strategies to cope with bullying (Hunt,  2007 , p. 22). The intervention was based on an educational antibullying program, which was delivered by teachers. There was no specific training for teachers. Information about bullying was provided at parent and teacher meetings. Teacher meetings were held in conjunction with regular staff meetings while parent meetings were held after hours. A summary of the information covered at parent meetings was also published in the school newsletter in an attempt to target the wider parent population. Finally, the program includes a 2‐h classroom‐based discussion of bullying (offered by teachers) using activities from an antibullying workbook written by Murphy and Lewers ( 2000 ).

6.2. Anti‐Bullying Pledge Scheme (ABPS)

The ABPS describes a number of local antibullying schemes implemented in UK schools as a result of government recommendations and guidance (Pryce & Frederickson,  2013 ). Schools adopted a declaration of commitment, and intervention components followed a theoretical framework guided by the Theory of Planned Behavior (Ajzen,  1991 ).

The ABPS is a universal prevention program, that aims to reduce the prevalence of bullying perpetration and victimization in schools and increase students' perceptions of safety and support within the school environment (Pryce & Frederickson,  2013 ). Participating schools were assigned a facilitator, referred to as a “pledge supporter,” and a detailed intervention manual. The manual outlined the stages involved in implementing the ABPS program. The stages are as follows:

• Initial meeting with school management and the pledge supporter
• Intervention planning meeting
• School representatives make a declaration of commitment to the intervention
• Staff, student, and parent surveys are circulated
• Results from the surveys were collated and used to tailor intervention components to the individual schools' needs
• Ongoing visits and support from the pledge supporter throughout implementation.

6.3. *Be‐prox program

The Be‐Prox program was specifically designed to tackle bullying and victimization among kindergarten students. According to Alsaker and Valkanover ( 2001 , pp. 177–178), the somewhat higher adult‐children ratio, the interest of preschool teachers in socialization, the greater flexibility as to scheduling and teaching, and the admiration of many preschoolers for their teachers are ideal conditions for the implementation of preventive programs against bully/victim problems. The basic principle of Be‐Prox was to enhance preschool teachers' capacity to handle bully/victim problems (Alsaker,  2004 , p. 291). The program engaged teachers in an intensive focused supervision for approximately 4 months. Central features of Be‐Prox were the emphasis on group discussions, mutual support and co‐operation between consultants and teachers and between teachers and parents (Alsaker,  2004 , pp. 292–293).

The teacher training was provided in six steps (Alsaker,  2004 ; fig. 15.1, p. 292). Initially, teachers were given information about victimization (step 1) and the implications of this information was discussed (step 2). During the third step, specific implementation tasks were introduced and the teachers worked in groups in preparation for the practical implementation (step 4). After this preparation, teachers implemented specific preventive elements in the classroom (step 5) for a specific period of time. After that, teachers met and discussed their experiences of the implementation of the preventive measures (step 6).

In eight meetings over a 4‐month period, issues related to the prevention of bullying were addressed. The main purpose of the first meeting was sensitization. Teachers were asked to describe any possible bully/victim problems in their schools and were then given information about bullying and other types of aggressive behavior. They were also presented with the main principles of the program. The importance of contact between kindergarten teachers and children's parents was also emphasized and teachers were advised to consider the possibility of organizing a meeting with parents. In the second meeting, the importance of setting limits and rules to preschool children was discussed. Teachers were invited to elaborate some behavior codes in their classroom in collaboration with the children and to be ready to present them during the third meeting. Also, as a second homework task, teachers were asked to organize a parent meeting.

During the third meeting, teachers discussed their experiences of implementing classroom rules against bullying. The main focus of this meeting was the need for consistent teacher behavior, the difference between positive and negative sanctioning and the use of basic learning principles in the classroom. The main focus of the fourth session was on the role and responsibility of children who were not involved in bullying and of bystanders in the prevention of victimization. Teachers were asked to draw some kind of personality profiles of passive and aggressive victims and of bullies and to present them to the rest of the group. After this task, teachers were presented with research findings regarding the characteristics of children who were or were not involved in bullying. As a homework task for the next meeting, teachers were asked to systematically observe noninvolved children and to develop some means of involving them in the prevention of victimization.

During the fifth meeting, research‐based information about motor development and body awareness among preschool children was presented to teachers. A discussion between teachers and program researchers of children's self‐perceptions of strength, of peers' perceptions of strengths of victims of bullies, and other motor characteristics of children, aimed to yield important insights. The overall discussion and exchange of information among teachers aimed to promote teachers' understanding about how to change these perceptions within the classroom setting. Specific goals to be achieved within the classroom were clearly set, such as training in empathy and body awareness among children, participation and involvement of noninvolved children and talks with all the children about the situation in their kindergarten. During the sixth meeting, time was given to reflect on the goals formulated at the beginning of the prevention program. Teachers were also given time to discuss their experiences with implementing the goals of the fifth meeting within the classroom settings. The last two meetings followed a similar format, with time given for reflection on goals achieved, problems dealt with, and an overall evaluation of the program.

6.4. *Befriending intervention

Befriending intervention was an antibullying program that relied mainly on a peer support model. The overall aims of the program were: (a) to reduce bullying episodes through developing in bullies an awareness of their own and others' behavior; (b) to enhance children's capacity to offer support to the victims of bullying; (c) to enhance responsibility and involvement on the part of bystanders; and (d) to improve the quality of interpersonal relationships in the class group (Menesini et al.,  2003 , p. 1).

The antibullying intervention was offered in five steps (Menesini et al.,  2003 , p. 5). During the first phase, which targeted the class level (class intervention), several activities were offered aiming to increase children's awareness of prosocial and helping behaviors and to promote positive attitudes toward others. Through work at the class level, the school authorities sensitized and prepared the whole school population for the new service that the school unit was about to implement. In this way, another goal was achieved, namely developing values and attitudes toward “peer support activities” in the whole school population.

During the second phase of the program, the “peer supporters” were selected. Approximately three to four supporters were allocated in each classroom and were selected based on a combination of techniques, such as self‐ and peer‐nominations. These children were then trained in special full‐day sessions or in regular meetings during school time (phase three) so that they knew how to deal with other children and how to facilitate interactions among other children. Teachers and other professionals (psychologists and social workers) took part in these sessions as well. The overall aim of this phase of the antibullying program was to help peer supporters to enhance their listening and communication skills since they would be the mediators in the interactions among children.

During the fourth phase of the program, peer supporters worked in their classes with the assistance and close monitoring of their teachers. The teachers in each class organized “circle meetings” during which the needs of specific children involved in bullying (target children) were identified. Target children were contacted and, after their consent and cooperation, were offered help by the peer supporters. Peer supporters were not only assigned to specific tasks involving the target children but were also supervised by the teachers so that they were given constant feedback on their on‐going work in the class.

During the final phase of the Befriending Intervention, the leading group of peer supporters were involved in training other children in the class, so that more children could be involved in the program (in the transmission of training and passing on the roles).

6.5. *Behavioral program for bullying boys

This program targeted male youth, from a low socio‐economic area, predominately inhabited by individuals of color, involved in bullying. The program was based on the findings of an in‐depth needs assessment within three schools and targeted a specific number of male students aged sixteen who (based on the results of the questionnaire that had been administered) were “considered to be a serious threat to the harmonious functioning of everyday school life” (Meyer & Lesch,  2000 , p. 59). The theoretical basis of the program could be found in the Social Interactional Model for the development of aggression (Meyer & Lesch,  2000 , p. 61) and involved a behavioral approach for tackling the problem of bullying. The program was implemented by psychology students for ten nonconsecutive weeks, with 20‐h‐long sessions held twice weekly at the school, during school hours.

The components of the 17‐session behavioral program included homework tasks, modeling, self‐observation, role‐plays, and a token economy system for reinforcing positive behaviors. According to the program designers “the chief contingency for behavioral change was the token economy system, using Wonderland Games tokens, chocolates and cinema tickets as reward for non‐bullying behavior” (Meyer & Lesch,  2000 , p. 62). Each participant was monitored by himself and by a “buddy” who was selected in each session prior to the monitoring. Each session included an opportunity for feedback on the students' progress in the week, a discussion of a relevant applied topic, role‐playing, games, and drawing. The program designers pointed out the limitations of the intervention strategy. As they indicate (Meyer & Lesch,  2000 , p. 67) “the program was too short and structured to address the issues that were disclosed in sessions, as the severity of the nature of the aggression in the schools and vast social problems was seriously underestimated.”

6.6. Beyond the Hurt

Sutherland ( 2010 ) implemented the Beyond the Hurt program, a peer‐led school‐based bullying intervention and prevention program, developed by the Red Cross. Beyond the Hurt is a high school program and emphasizes education, prevention and intervention to reduce prevalence of bullying perpetration and victimization. Sutherland ( 2010 , p. 84) describes the four key components of the intervention: (1) education and training of peer facilitators, (2) in‐class presentations given by peer facilitators, (3) teacher workshops, and (4) online training material for teachers and community members.

This peer‐led program trains and educates select peer facilitators, who become the implementers of the intervention program within participating schools. These students are guided by a teacher and Red Cross professional throughout training and implementation of class presentations highlighting several bullying‐related issues. The overarching aim of the Beyond the Hurt program is to create a positive school and class climate in which students are encouraged to develop and maintain healthy prosocial relationships, and bullying perpetration and victimization are not supported. The program aims to promote antibullying attitudes among participants and encourage empathy and prosocial support for victims of bullying.

6.7. *Bulli and Pupe

Bulli and Pupe was an intervention program concerned with bullying and family violence. The program, developed by Baldry (2001), was “directed towards the individual and peer group, and aimed to enhance awareness about violence and its negative effects” (Baldry & Farrington,  2004 , p. 3). The intervention package consisted of three videos and a booklet divided into three parts; each video was linked to one part of the booklet. Each part of the booklet was meant to take the form of an interactive lesson where professionals, experienced in school and juvenile processes, discussed three issues according to the structure of the manual.

The first part of the booklet, entitled “Bullying among peers,” emphasized teen violence among peers. The booklet presented vignettes and graphics that reported research findings on bullying in an attempt to raise students' awareness of this issue. The corresponding video showed teenagers talking about bullying based on their own experiences and judgments. The second part of the booklet, entitled “Children witnessing domestic violence,” analyzed the effects of domestic violence on children and the repercussions for school achievement and peer relations. In the accompanying video, children in a shelter for battered women were presented, talking about their personal experiences and emotions. Finally, the third part of the booklet, entitled “Cycle of violence,” dealt with the long‐term effects of violence on adults who were victims of violence in their childhood. The corresponding video consisted of an interview conducted with a 19‐year old boy who had a violent father.

The program was in the first place delivered in 3 days by experts who, together with teachers, discussed about bullying, read the booklet and analyzed its content. The program was taken over by teachers who once a week created a facilitation group and allowed children to discuss any problems they encountered with their peers. The program was more effective with secondary students because it required its participants to have good interpersonal and cognitive skills (Baldry & Farrington,  2004 , p. 4).

6.8. The Bully Prevention Challenge Course Curriculum (BPCCC)

Battey ( 2009 ) implemented the BPCCC (Haggas,  2006 ) to students over two 45 min classes, on 4 days of one school week. The program was implemented by trained facilitators, whom included the schools' physical education/health teacher. The program commenced by providing participants with name tags and organizing some warm‐up physical activities. Next, the physical education/health teacher provided participants with information about bullying, such as, identifying and addressing bullying, who to talk to and where to seek support. Subsequent group discussions focused on empathy and understanding each other's differences. Audience participation activities also required the students to engage to represent the number of students whom had been a victim or bully.

6.9. Bully Proofing Your School

“Bully‐Proofing Your School” was a comprehensive, school‐based intervention program for the prevention of bullying (Menard & Grotpeter,  2014 ; Menard et al.,  2008 ; Toner,  2010 ). The program involved three major components: (1) heightened awareness of the problem of bullying, involving a questionnaire to measure the extent of bullying and the creation of classroom rules related to zero tolerance for bullying; (2) teaching students protective skills for dealing with bullying, resistance to victimization and providing assistance to potential victims by teaching assertiveness skills; and (3) creation of a positive school climate where students were encouraged to work as positive and supportive bystanders (Menard et al.,  2008 , p. 7).

The primary targets of BPYS were elementary and middle school students. School staff were involved as both secondary targets of intervention (since changes in their behavior was a requirement for the construction of a positive antibullying school environment) and as agents delivering the intervention to students. Teachers were given information and strategies to help them recognize bullying incidents among their students and how to effectively deal with these behaviors (Menard & Grotpeter,  2014 ).

The intervention in the classes consisted of a classroom curriculum, which included seven sessions of approximately 30–40 min. Each session was delivered by a teacher or by mental health staff. After completion of the classroom curriculum materials, teachers were encouraged to hold weekly classroom meetings during which students could be helped to reflect on their behaviors. Parents were offered information through newsletters. Individual parents of students involved in bullying as either perpetrators or victims were given consultation (Menard & Grotpeter,  2014 ).

6.10. Chinese antibullying intervention

Ju et al. ( 2009 ) implemented an antibullying program in a Chinese primary school employing an action research framework. There were two main aims of this intervention program. First, the program aimed to reduce bullying perpetration and victimization both on students' way to, and from, school. Second, the study aimed to investigate practical intervention elements that could be applied nationwide to Chinese primary school children (Ju et al.,  2009 ).

The initial step in this intervention was the training of teachers on the fundamental principles of action research. This training program targeted the following components of educational research: (1) research methodology in education; (2) knowledge of school bullying; (3) components of action research; and (4) intervention skills, such as brainstorming and role‐playing. Second, a 5‐week intervention program was designed and implemented by teachers in classrooms. Components that targeted both victims and bullies specifically were also incorporated into the intervention.

6.11. The Confident Kids program

The Confident Kids program is an antibullying intervention designed for early adolescent males who were experiencing anxiety as a result of being bullied at school (Berry & Hunt,  2009 ). The foundations of the program lie in cognitive‐behavioral therapy, employing both anxiety management techniques and antibullying elements. Based on the “Cool Kids Program” (Lyneham et al., 2003), this intervention program aims to reduce bullying victimization by targeting factors that increase the likelihood of victimization. Therefore, this program focuses primarily on issues such as: self‐esteem, coping strategies; social skills; emotional regulation; and internalizing behaviors.

The program was implemented over a period of 8 weeks, and included student and parent involvement. Students participated in weekly group sessions led by a team of assistant and qualified clinical psychologists. These sessions incorporated a combination of tasks including: skill demonstration; role‐playing; and group discussion. Homework was allocated after each session and participants were encouraged to apply skills acquired in real‐life settings between each session.

Sessions covered a variety of issues, including both cognitive‐behavioral anxiety management techniques and antibullying information. Seven core sessions focused on the following topics: psycho‐education; cognitive restructuring (2 sessions); graded exposure; adaptive coping strategies; improving social skills; and self‐esteem. A final session targeted relapse prevention and provided a general overview of the skills learned throughout the program. Parents participated in sessions that ran parallel to the student program. Group discussions targeted the strategies being taught to student participants and also possible parent factors that could influence effectiveness of intervention for their children, for example, parental anxiety.

6.12. Cyberprogram 2.0

Cyberprogram 2.0 is a cyberbullying intervention program that also incorporates elements on school bullying (Garaigordobil & Martínez‐Valderrey,  2015 ). The intervention is delivered over 19 sessions, and outlines the following four main goals:

• To outline and conceptualize bullying and cyberbullying, including identifying the different roles involved (e.g., bullies, victims, and bystanders).
• To illustrate the consequences of bullying and cyberbullying for all those involved
• To develop coping strategies in order to reduce bullying and cyberbullying behaviors.
• Developing positive social and emotional skills, such as empathy, active listening, anger management, conflict resolution strategies, and diversity tolerance.

A wide range of activities and techniques are used, such as, role‐playing, brainstorming, case studies, and guided discussion. The Cyberprogram 2.0 intervention followed a specific methodological framework, employing four key components for implementation. They are as follows: (1) inter‐session constancy: intervention was delivered in weekly 1‐h sessions; (2) spatial‐temporal constancy: intervention was delivered in the same place and at the same time each week; (3) constancy of adult facilitator: intervention was implemented by the same adult, who same psycho‐pedagogical training, each week; and (4) constancy in the session structure: sessions being with group instruction and activities. There is then a following reflection phase that is led by the adult.

6.13. Daphne III

Daphne III was an international antibullying initiative implemented and developed in association with numerous organizations. In this study (Papacosta et al., 2014), school antibullying programs were coordinated in Cyprus by the Association for the Psychosocial Health of Children and Adolescents (APHCA). Other influential “partners” included the Cyprus Ministry of Health, mental health services, Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Ministry of Education and Culture, and Educational Psychology services. Organizations from other European countries included: Child Line [ Vsi Vaiku Linija ], in Lithuania, and Nicolaus Copericus University, in Poland, were also involved.

The overarching aim of this initiative was to educate 5th and 6th grade primary school students about bullying, and the many different forms it can take (Papacosta et al., 2014). Teachers implemented the program in their classrooms, and were trained by psychology and mental health professionals. There were eleven workshops involved in the program that followed a structured curriculum manual. This manual also provided schools with suggestions and recommendations on ways in with they could prevent, and intervene in, bullying situations.

6.14. *Dare to Care: BPYS program

“Dare to Care; Bully Proofing Your School” was a modification of the “Bully Proofing Your School” program (Beran et al.,  2004 , p. 103), which in turn was modeled on the Olweus Program. This antibullying program placed emphasis on clinical support to victims and perpetrators of bullying in the form of individual and group counseling. It also enabled collaboration with community services. The essence of the program was to encourage accountability for creating solutions among all parties involved in the education system (Beran et al.,  2004 , p. 104).

The program included several steps. Program facilitators provided to school personnel information and training on issues related to bullying in schools (in a full‐day professional development workshop). This workshop aimed to ensure that the program principles would be reflected in the overall curriculum and would be sustained over time. Information was also given to parents. Then, students, parents and school staff collaborated in the development of a school antibullying policy. This policy had the aim of identifying caring and aggressive behaviors and consequences of those behaviors, but with a focus on reparation rather than punishment. The antibullying policy was posted throughout the school. Finally, the program involved the implementation, on behalf of the teachers, of a classroom curriculum that educated children about the nature of bullying and strategies to avoid victimization. The curriculum included discussion, role‐plays, artwork, books, videos and skits presented to school staff, parents, and other children.

6.15. Defeat Bullying

The Defeat Bullying program is a curriculum‐based antibullying program that was published by the National Society for prevention of Cruelty to Children (NSPCC, UK) in 2007 (Herrick,  2012 ). The program materials were available to download online, as part of a nationwide campaign to reduce bullying perpetration and victimization in UK schools. The overarching aim of the Defect Bullying program is to raise awareness and improve attitudes toward bullying, educate about bullying‐related feelings and emotions, and to develop effective intervention and conflict resolution strategies (Herrick,  2012 , p. 85). Based on social identity theory (Tajfel & Turner,  1979 ), the program aims to establish an in‐class antibullying norm, so that students will be encouraged to adopt this norm, and thus, reduce levels of bullying perpetration and victimization.

There are five key lessons implemented throughout the program, and each incorporates a range of individual, class and group activities (Herrick,  2012 ). The lessons cover the following five themes: (1) understanding attitudes and values toward bullying; (2) educating about the feelings that occur as a result of bullying; (3) embracing diversity; (4) safety awareness; and (5) encouraging bystanders to get involved in antibullying strategies. The available intervention materials were also reviewed by groups of teachers, and any necessary amendments were incorporated. For example, Herrick ( 2012 ) describes that following teacher discussion groups, homework assignments relating to each lesson were developed and implemented. Parents of participating students were also invited to attend an antibullying workshop led by the researcher.

6.16. *Dutch antibullying program

The antibullying initiative in the Netherlands was inspired by the Olweus program (Fekkes et al.,  2006 , p. 639). The program was specifically designed to tackle bullying behavior by involving teachers, parents and students. It offered a 2‐day training session for teachers in order to inform them about bullying behavior and to instruct them about how to deal with bullying incidents in schools. During the intervention period, teachers had access to the training staff for additional advice. Intervention schools were supported by an external organization named KPC, which specialized in training school staff and in assisting schools in setting up new curricula and guidelines. The core intervention program included: (1) antibullying training for teachers, (2) a bullying survey, (3) antibullying rules and a written antibullying school policy, (4) increased intensity of surveillance, and (5) information meetings or parents.

During the intervention, there was careful dissemination of the antibullying program to intervention schools. Also, the researchers provided information about the number of intervention and control schools, which have used the above‐mentioned elements of intervention. Finally, intervention schools were supplied with the booklet “Bullying in schools: how to deal with it” and with a “Bullying Test,” a computerized questionnaire that children could complete anonymously in the classroom.

6.17. Dutch Skills for Life

The Skills for Life program is a Dutch universal school‐based behavioral and health prevention program for adolescents aged 13–16 years old (Diekstra,  1996 ; Gravesteijn & Diekstra,  2013 ). The program targets prosocial behavior, self‐awareness, social awareness, self‐control, interpersonal skills, and ethical decision making to reduce behavioral and health problems (Fekkes et al.,  2016 ). The program is based on social learning theory and Rational Emotive Behavioral Therapy. As a result, the program aims to reduce bullying by enabling students to learn from each other in a classroom setting through behavioral modeling.

The program is implemented by teachers, who attend two 3‐day training workshops prior to implementation and receive “booster” training sessions throughout the intervention (Fekkes et al.,  2016 ). The intervention is comprised of 25 lessons that are delivered over the course of two academic years. First, four lessons address awareness and handling of thoughts and feelings. Skills such as interpersonal problem solving, emotional regulation, and critical thinking are targeted. There are twelve additional lessons in the 1st year, and nine more lessons in the 2nd year of implementation. These generally focus on skills that are applicable to particular behavioral or health experiences. For example, lessons are aimed at: dealing with bullying; setting and respecting boundaries; substance use; norms and values; friendships; sexuality; suicidal ideation; and conflicts with peers and/or teachers. Various activities are utilized throughout the program, including, active enactment, DVDs, role play, discussion and feedback.

6.18. Dynamic Approach to School Improvement (DASI)

The DASI (Kyriakides, Creemers, Papastylianou, et al.,  2014 ; Kyriakides, Creemers, Muijs, et al.,  2014 ) was a whole‐school approach to bullying prevention implemented in several European countries, such as: Cyprus, Greece, UK, Belgium and the Netherlands. This approach draws factors from the educational effectiveness model (Creemers & Kyriakides,  2008 ,  2012 ). The intervention targets specific school factors, that is, (1) school teaching policy, (2) school learning environment, and (3) school evaluation. This framework was previously found to improve academic achievement (e.g., Kyriakides,  2008 ).

At the beginning of the intervention, the research team held training for participating school staff. The theoretical framework was introduced, and a detailed manual was provided. The aim of the handbook was to facilitate school stakeholders to develop strategies and action plans that were specific to the schools' needs (Kyriakides, Creemers, Papastylianou, et al.,  2014 ). Support was offered to each school by the research team throughout the process.

Teacher surveys were distributed prior to implementation in order to highlight specific areas that needed improvement. The next phase of the intervention involved school stakeholders coming together to form cooperative committees with representatives of parents, students, and teachers. These committees then collaborated to develop action plans and strategies to address specific problems in their schools. Committees formulated plans to implement particular intervention components that best suited their specific needs. Therefore, the schools participating did not necessarily implement the same intervention components or activities. Schools were required to retain log books of activities undertaken.

Kyriakides, Creemers, and Papastylianou, et al. ( 2014 ) provide an outline of the intervention components implemented in one experimental school involved in their trial. For example, the following are identified as essential elements implemented in order to reduce bullying:

• “Student behavior outside the classroom”—involves developing clear and efficient antibullying policy, increased teacher vigilance in bullying “hot spots” and effective supervision of students.
• Improved school learning environment
• “Rewarding good behavior”—enforcing a system that acts as a nonpunitive approach to antibullying, by motivating students to behave in a prosocial manner.
• “Collaboration and interaction between teachers”—encouraging teachers to work together and communicate effectively about bullying issues in their schools.
• Other intervention components, including, encouraging and supporting peer bystanders; identifying and support “at risk” and vulnerable students; and creating student‐made videos about bullying issues.

6.19. *Ecological antibullying program

The Ecological antibullying program examined peer group and school environment processes “utilizing a systemic interactional model with evaluations at each level of intervention” (Rahey & Craig,  2002 , p. 283). The overall aim of the program was the creation of a supportive and safe school environment in which firm limits against bullying were established. The specific goals of the program included raising awareness of the problem of bullying, increasing empathy, encouraging peers to speak against bullying and formulating clear rules against bullying.

The 12‐week program was based on the “Bully Proofing Your School” program which was designed to increase the understanding of bullying and decrease the incidence of bullying (Rahey & Craig,  2002 , p. 285). The program elements included a psycho‐educational component implemented within each classroom, a peer mediation component and specialized groups for children involved in bullying.

At the school‐wide level, the psycho‐educational program was implemented by psychology students who received training sessions and manuals prior to intervention. Prior to the program, at a school assembly the program was introduced to students. The assembly signaled the formal beginning of the intervention. The classroom programs involved interactive educational approaches such as role playing and puppet techniques. The topics addressed were bullying and victimization, conflict resolution, empathy, listening skills and individual differences (Rahey & Craig,  2002 , p. 286).

Individual programs for children involved in bullying were also part of the intervention. The relevant sessions consisted of social skills, listening, empathy training and supportive counseling. Each weekly session lasted 45 min. The program also included intervention at the teacher level. Teacher programs consisted of meetings with teachers to discuss bullying, intervention approaches, and student support for those directly involved in bullying. During the intervention, the program coordinators met with principals and teachers to offer support.

6.20. Emotional Literacy Intervention

Knowler and Frederickson ( 2013 ) evaluated the effectiveness of an emotional literacy intervention targeted on bullying behaviors to reduce bullying victimization in UK schools. Selected schools were previously implementing the Social and Emotional Aspects of Learning (SEAL; Department for Education and Skills,  2005 ) program. One of the themes included in the SEAL program is “Say no to bullying” (Knowler & Frederickson,  2013 ), however the overall program aims to improve students' social relationships, motivation, learning strategies, and holistic school improvement.

The specific emotional literacy intervention implemented and evaluated by Knowler and Frederickson ( 2013 ) involved teaching emotional literacy skills to small groups of students (Faupel,  2003 ). In the current evaluation, the intervention was delivered to groups of “low emotional literacy” and “high emotional literacy” groups distinguished by scores above, or below, median scores on the Emotional Literacy assessment‐pupil form (ELA‐PF; Faupel,  2003 ). The intervention program employed 12 weekly lessons and was implemented by trained teaching aids (Knowler & Frederickson,  2013 ). The program consisted of four main concepts: (1) self‐awareness, (2) self‐regulation, (3) empathy, and (4) social skills. Lessons employed a variation of behavioral and cognitive‐behavioral elements (Faupel,  2003 ).

6.21. Empathy training program

This intervention program was developed for children identified as bullies and aimed to increase their empathetic skills in order to reduce their bullying behaviors (Şahin,  2012 ). The empathy training program was implemented over eleven 75‐min sessions that were based on a curriculum lesson plan developed by the author. Several cognitive techniques were utilized throughout the program, such as: recognizing, evaluating and naming feelings; diadtic, experimental, modeling and role‐playing, in order to improve the students' cognitive abilities in relation to empathy. Each lesson required the students to work together to develop a slogan that emulated the content of the session. The following is an outline of the first 4 weekly lessons, and the associated slogan developed, (for a full outline see: Şahin,  2012 , p. 1327; Table  2 ).

Slogan: Be kind, loving and forgiving to each other to lead a happy life .

Slogan: Living without the awareness of feelings is like driving a car with its brakes on .

Slogan: One who claims to know everything about the universe but nothing about himself, actually knows nothing .

Slogan: We can look at the same thing but view it differently .

6.22. *Expect respect

Expect Respect was a school‐based program that aimed to promote awareness and effective responses to bullying and sexual harassment. The project was developed by Safe Place, the sole provider of comprehensive sexual and domestic violence prevention and intervention services in Austin, Texas (Rosenbluth et al.,  2004 , p. 211). The program targeted the involvement of all members of the school community in recognizing and responding to bullying and sexual harassment. The overall project design was inspired by the work of Olweus (Rosenbluth et al.,  2004 , p. 212). Expect Respect consisted of five core program components, namely a classroom curriculum, staff training, policy development, parent education and support services.

The classroom curriculum was based on 12 weekly sessions adapted from a specific manual called “Bullyproof: a teachers” guide on teasing and bullying for use with fourth and fifth grade students' (Whitaker et al.,  2004 , p. 330). The Bullyproof curriculum was designed to be taught in conjunction with literature typically read by fourth and fifth graders. Although the antibullying curriculum was designed to be implemented by teachers, within the framework of the Expect Respect program, it was jointly led by Safe Place Staff and teachers or school counselors (Whitaker et al.,  2004 , p. 331). The curriculum aimed to increase the ability and willingness of bystanders to intervene in bullying situations, thus reducing the social acceptability of bullying and sexual harassment. The Bullyproof lessons included writing assignments, role‐plays of how to intervene in bullying situations, class discussions and so on.

With regard to the staff training, a 6‐h training was provided to project staff, counselors, and fifth grade teachers. The training was given by the author of the specific manual and aimed to prepare school personnel to respond effectively to bullying incidents. In addition, 3‐h training sessions were provided once per semester for all personnel, including bus drivers, cafeteria workers, hall monitors and office staff. The training presentation included research on bullying and sexual harassment; strategies to enhance mutual respect among students; practice in using lessons from the curriculum; and methods for integrating the lessons into other subject areas including language arts and health.

School administrators were encouraged to develop an antibullying policy (policy development) in their school to ensure consistent responses by all staff members to incidents of bullying and sexual harassment. Principals were expected to present the policy to school staff, students and parents. In order to facilitate the overall procedure of policy development, Expect Respect staff provided an initial policy template to school administrators (Whitaker et al.,  2004 , p. 332) and each school was encouraged to expand this initial policy in accordance with the specific needs of their unit.

The Expect Respect program also included parent training. Educational presentations were offered to parents, twice a year, providing information about the project. The information given to parents through these meetings (as well as through parent newsletters sent home) was aimed at enhancing parents' strategies to help children involved in bullying as bullies, victims, bully‐victims, or bystanders.

Further support services were provided such as continuous assistance of school counselors by Safe Place staff. School counselors were given a specialized session on how to deal with students who were repeatedly involved in bullying as either perpetrators or victims. They were also provided with a comprehensive resource manual containing reading and resource materials on bullying, sexual harassment and domestic violence.

6.23. fairplayer.manual

The fairplayer.manual is a structured, curriculum‐based antibullying program for Grade 7–9 students (Bull et al.,  2009 ; Wölfer & Scheithauer,  2014 ). The overarching aim of the intervention is to reduce bullying and relational aggression by improving students' social and moral competencies. The program focuses on raising awareness, changing attitudes, and encouraging bystander intervention.

The program is implemented over 15‐weekly 90 min lessons, and can be delivered either by trained teachers (Bull et al.,  2009 ), or psychologists (Wölfer & Scheithauer,  2014 ). Intervention lessons employ cognitive‐behavioral techniques and target nine specific topics. The first introductory lesson introduces the program to students, and class antibullying rules are developed. Two following lessons are concerned with raising awareness about bullying‐related issues, such as, the various forms of bullying and the consequences associated with perpetration and victimization. One lesson subsequently focuses on improving students' understanding of their own and peers' feelings. A further two lessons highlight the numerous participant roles involved in bullying, for example, bullies, victims, outsiders (i.e., noninvolved), assistants, and re‐inforcers (Wölfer & Scheithauer,  2014 ). The latter roles describe different forms of bystanders, those who witness bullying and allow it to happen and those who reinforce bullying behaviors. Social dynamics in the classroom is also addressed in one intervention session. By addressing the different dynamics, networks and norms socially in the class, this lesson aims to improve the classroom climate and encourage co‐operation among students. Another intervention lesson models and promotes bystander intervention in order to encourage noninvolved children to become actively engaged with intervening in bullying situations that they may witness.

Following these core awareness‐raising and knowledge‐improving lessons, participating students undertake five social skill‐training session s. These lessons focus on developing social, emotional, and moral skills of participants, in order to combat bullying. Perspective taking, empathy, and moral dilemmas are just some of the issues that are included. Diversity is the topic addressed in one of the following lessons, where students learn to respect and appreciate diversity. Finally, a concluding lesson brings together all of the issues covered by the intervention and demonstrates ways in which participants can utilize skills and knowledge in their everyday lives.

6.24. FearNot!

The FearNot! (Fun with Empathetic Agents to achieve Novel Outcomes in Teaching; Sapouna et al.,  2010 ) was an immersive learning intervention that aimed to reduce bullying victimization. Students from British and German primary schools participated in the virtual learning program for weekly 30‐min sessions over the course of three consecutive weeks. Participating schools were required to have adequate computer facilities in order to be able to run the program.

During intervention sessions bullying scenarios were enacted by male and female 3D animated characters. The content of these scenarios reflected the characters' genders, for example, scenarios involving male characters included more incidents of physical bullying, whereas female characters demonstrated more relational bullying. Following each of the bullying episodes, participants were asked to interact and provide the animated victim of bullying with a suitable coping strategy to prevent future victimization. The program then enabled students to see the outcomes of their suggested strategy. In some circumstances, the animated victim of bullying responded that they did not feel emotionally adequate enough to carry out the suggested coping strategy (e.g., not strong enough to stand up to the bully).

Based on previous research (e.g., Kochenderfer & Ladd,  2000 ), students were then provided with an indication of how successful their proposed coping mechanism would be in real‐world bullying scenarios. For example, students were provided with a score on a scale of zero (never successful) to ten (always successful; Sapouna et al.,  2010 ). In addition to the computerized program, teachers in intervention schools were provided with a detailed intervention manual. However, during the FearNot! program, teachers were instructed only to assist students with issues of comprehension, and not to guide them on suitable responses to the bullying scenarios.

6.25. Fourth R

The Fourth R: Strategies for Healthy Youth Relationships is a dating violence prevention program that targeted bullying perpetration and victimization as secondary outcomes (Cissner & Ayoub,  2014 ). This curriculum‐based intervention program was based on social learning theory (Bandura,  1978 ), and was implemented in classrooms by trained teachers during health and physical education classes. Participating teachers completed an intensive 1‐day training session that provided them with the skills to implement the program effectively. Detailed manuals and lesson outlines/materials were provided, and the Fourth R curriculum was integrated into existing health and physical education curricula.

The Fourth R was designed as a 21‐lesson curriculum that incorporates a variety of activities and lessons. Role‐playing, individual, pair and group work, and detailed examples/scenarios of conflict are examples of Fourth R‐style tasks. Program lessons were categorized into the following 3 units: (1) Personal Safety and Injury Prevention; (2) Healthy Growth and Sexuality; and (3) Substance Use and Abuse. Each unit consisted of seven 45‐min lessons. The Fourth R was also designed to be implemented in either gender‐segregated or co‐ed classrooms.

6.26. *Friendly Schools Project

“Friendly Schools” was a theoretically grounded program. Its educational techniques (e.g., role modeling, drama activities, skills training, etc.) were based on notions derived from Social Cognitive theory, the Health Belief Model and Problem Behavior theory (Cross et al.,  2004 ,  2011 ). An interesting aspect of this program is that it was based on the results of a systematic review (Cross et al.,  2004 , p. 187), which provided a set of key elements to be included in the final intervention strategy. The program targeted bullying at three levels: (a) the whole‐school community, (b) the students' families, and (c) the fourth and fifth grade students and their teachers.

With regard to the whole‐school intervention component, in each school, a Friendly Schools Committee was organized with key individuals (e.g., a parent representative, a school psychologist, a school nurse, teaching staff) who could co‐ordinate and successfully sustain the antibullying initiative. Each committee was provided with a 4‐h training, designed to build members' capacity to address bullying. Each member was provided with a specific strategy manual. The manual was a step‐by‐step guide on how to implement the antibullying initiative. It included among others the Pikas “Method of Shared Concern” and the “No Blame” approach (Cross et al.,  2011 ; Pikas,  2002 ).

With regard to the family intervention component, this included home activities linked to each classroom‐learning activity. Parents were also provided with 16 skills‐based newsletter items (eight for each year of the intervention) that aimed to provide research information on bullying as well as advice to parents on what to do if their child was a perpetrator or a victim of bullying behavior.

Moving on to the Grade 4 and 5 classroom curricula, the Friendly Schools curriculum consisted of nine learning activities per year. The curriculum was offered by trained teachers in three blocks of three 60‐min lessons, over a three‐school‐term period. The learning activities aimed to promote awareness of what was bullying behavior; to help students to become assertive and talk about bullying with teachers and parents; and to promote peer and adult discouragement of bullying behavior.

Finally, the Friendly Schools program offered manuals to teachers. The teacher manuals were designed to be entirely self‐contained so as to maximize the likelihood of teacher implementation. Friendly Schools project staff also provided teacher training (a 6‐h course) for all intervention teachers.

6.27. *Granada antibullying program

This program was a pilot antibullying program with the following aims: (a) to establish children's involvement in bullying within different participant roles/categories; (b) to reduce the number of students involved in the phenomenon as bullies, victims and bully‐victims; (c) to increase the number of students who are categorized as noninvolved in bullying, through the enhancement of prosocial skills; and (d) to identify the threats to fidelity of the program and establish the validity of the pilot program with the possibility of replicating it in future (Martin et al.,  2005 , p. 376). Forty‐nine sixth graders from one Spanish primary school in Granada participated in the program.

The program designers gathered information about the social, educational and economic background of the school, of the students' families and the community in general. That was done during 3 meetings/seminars of 3 h each. Parents, teachers and members of the educational team attended those meetings. Through these meetings, it was established that the program should target interpersonal relationships of the children. It was decided that the program would be curriculum‐based as part of the normal program of the school. It was decided that the program would be implemented by one of the researchers because the teachers did not have enough qualifications to do it and because of lack of time and resources for teacher training. Parents and teachers were provided with information about bullying (a dossier/file) that they could use to discuss the problem of bullying with children. Also, teachers could attend the intervention program so that later they would be able to implement it by themselves. Parents were invited to attend some talks on bullying that would be given by the implementation team so that the program could be continued outside the school. The program was implemented for 5 months at the classroom level (30 sessions; 3 sessions per week with one tutor, i.e., one of the evaluators).

During the first 5 sessions, the tutor informed the children about peer bullying. Topics covered in the first 5 sessions involved issues such as concept of bullying, types of bullying, how to identify it, individual and group differences in bullying, and classroom rules against bullying. From the 6th to the 21st sessions, the program emphasis was on the emotional and social abilities of the children. Several topics were covered such as: identification and expression of emotions during bullying situations; communication abilities; ability to pose questions; ability of children to give and receive complements and complaints; ability to say no in life; ability to ask for a change of behavior; and ability to solve interpersonal problems. From the 17th to the 21st sessions, the program placed emphasis on mediation.

From the 22nd to the 25th sessions, the program emphasis was on human rights. Several topics were covered such as: freedom and equality, respect of private life, respect for other people's belongings, and respect for others' opinions. Similarly, from the 26th to 30th sessions, the emphasis was on moral education. During the whole program (sessions 1–30), there was also an emphasis on the inhibition of impulsivity and enhancement of reflexivity. For the enhancement of reflexivity, the program designers used a specific program called “Programa de Intervencion para Aumentar la Attention y la Reflixividad” [PIAAR] developed by Gargallo (2000) (see Martin et al.,  2005 , p. 378). This focuses on cognitive techniques that aim to inhibit impulsivity and enhance self‐control. The program also included role‐playing, peer mediation, guided discussion, brainstorming, and drawings.

The authors acknowledge several problems with the implementation of the program such as: little involvement by parents and teachers; implementation of the program lessons during recess time or during the physical education program; lack of time to cover all the topics; no second follow‐up because of difficulties of following the children; problems with the size and selection of the sample; the instrument they used; and possible contamination of results because of the way they categorized the children (Martin et al.,  2005 , p. 382). These pitfalls could easily be spotted. For example, the evaluators indicate that they implemented the program with the most aggressive sixth graders who had the worst interpersonal problems (Martin et al.,  2005 , p. 738). This made it difficult to know whether any changes in bullying in the experimental condition were attributable to the effectiveness of the program or to regression to the mean. Also, even though they distributed a self‐report questionnaire, they categorized children based on those questionnaires only after teachers' suggestions.

6.28. *Greek antibullying program (1)

The Greek antibullying initiative was a 4‐week intervention program that aimed to minimize both bullying and victimization. The conceptual framework of the Greek antibullying program was based on the theoretical model proposed by Salmivalli in 1999 (Andreou et al.,  2007 , p. 696), according to which changing an individual's behavior (e.g., the bully's behavior) entailed motivating not only the particular person but also the rest of the group members (participant roles' approach).

The program was embedded within the wider curriculum of the fourth‐, fifth‐, and sixth‐grade classrooms and consisted of eight instructional hours, each hour corresponding to one curricular activity. The curricular activities were presented to students by their classroom teachers who received training beforehand. The teacher training consisted of five 4‐h meetings and aimed to increase awareness of the bullying problem and its seriousness as well as to raise teachers' self‐efficacy in implementing the program (Andreou et al.,  2007 , p. 697).

The Greek antibullying curriculum was divided into three parts in accordance with the three main theoretical axes proposed by Salmivalli in 1999, namely: (1) awareness‐raising; (2) self‐reflection; and (3) commitment to new behaviors (Andreou et al.,  2007 , pp. 697–698).

In line with the first axis (awareness‐raising), small‐group and whole‐class discussions were conducted (over three instructional hours) that aimed to increase students' awareness of the bullying problem. Corresponding materials included a real snap‐shot from the playground, a story entitled “A new friend” and students' own drawings. In line with the second theoretical axis (self‐reflection), two instructional hours involving classroom discussions were conducted. These discussions placed emphasis on the participant roles that students took in the bullying process. Corresponding materials involved each students' completion of open‐ended sentences. Through this activity students were intended to reflect on critical issues around the causes, benefits, feelings, and consequences of adopting different roles. In line with the final axis (commitment to new behaviors), three instructional hours of small‐group and whole‐class discussions were conducted concerning different ways of approaching or solving the peer‐conflict situation and the formulation of class rules. Corresponding materials involved an open‐ended comic‐strip for group completion to find a solution to the bullying situation presented in the relevant story.

6.29. Greek antibullying program (2)

This antibullying program was implemented in Greek elementary schools during the academic year 2011/2012 (Tsiantis et al.,  2013 ). The school‐based program incorporated many elements and was implemented by teachers. Participating teachers attended a 2‐day training seminar before implementation began. A teacher's manual (Tsiantis,  2011 ) was also provided and outlined the detailed and systematic procedures involved in the intervention. Throughout the program teachers were provided with additional support from two mental health professionals whom acted as program co‐ordinators.

The program comprised of 11 weekly workshops that were implemented for two 45‐min class periods (90‐min in total). Class activities included group discussions, games and the formation and signing of class antibullying rules (Tsiantis et al.,  2013 ). Parent meetings were also organized to increase parent participation with the intervention. The first meeting provided parents with information about the intervention program and bullying issues. During the second parent session, students presented the achievements they had made during the intervention.

6.30. Inclusive

The INCLUSIVE program is a whole‐school restorative approach to bullying prevention and intervention (Bonnell et al.,  2015 ). The program involves creating an “action group” within each participating school in order to combat bullying. These groups are comprised of a minimum of six students and six members of staff, with at least one representative from senior management, teaching, support, and pastoral staff. Each action group is appointed an external expert facilitator for the duration of the intervention. It is the facilitators' role to provide ongoing support and training to each member of the action group. Action groups were required to meet regularly throughout the intervention year, approximately once every half term.

The INCLUSIVE intervention was designed to include several core standardized intervention components, including staff training in restorative practices, and a student social and emotional skills curriculum. However, the program also allows for schools to adapt the intervention according to school‐specific needs. These needs were established using a needs assessment survey distributed to year 8 students prior to commencement of the intervention. This survey aimed to establish student views on bullying and aggression in their schools, while providing information regarding school engagement and connectedness, perceptions of safety/risks, social support and social skills, relationships, and teaching in personal, social and health (PSHE) classes. Results of the needs assessment survey were then employed by the action group to tailor the INCLUSIVE intervention to target specific needs. The action groups also utilized this information to review and improve schools' existing policies, procedures and schemes (e.g., peer mediation and “buddying” schemes).

In relation to the core components of the INCLUSIVE intervention, all school staff were provided with introductory training in restorative practices by their affiliated expert facilitator. A minimum of twenty school staff were also required to attend intensive training provided by a specialist training provider. Restorative practices, such as “Circle Time,” were taught to staff to improve school climate and student‐staff communication. This technique involves teachers and staff sitting together in a circle discussing various emotional, social, and curricular issues. Each member of the circle is considered a valued contributor, and all inputs are treated equally. Circle time aims to support student communication and promote positive relationships. Another restorative technique used in the INCLUSIVE program was “formal conferencing,” which aimed to deal with serious bullying and aggressive incidents directly. Formal conferencing involves bringing together teachers, parents and students to establish appropriate punishment and ways in which the harm caused can be repaired. This approach emphasizes a nonjudgmental and inclusive environment so that both victims and perpetrators of bullying and/or aggression are involved.

Year 8 students also completed 5–10 h of social and emotional skills training throughout the process of the INCLUSIVE intervention. These lessons were based on the Gatehouse Project curriculum and could be delivered as either stand‐alone modules or integrated into existing academic curriculums. Modules covered included: (1) Establishing respectful relationships; (2) Emotion management; (3) Understanding and creating trusting relationships; (4) Exploring others' needs and avoiding conflict; and (5) Maintaining and repairing relationships.

6.31. *KiVa

The name of this project is an acronym of the expression “Kiusaamista Vastaan” which means “against bullying.” The word “kiva” in Finnish means “nice” and this is why this acronym was chosen for the specific antibullying initiative in Finland. Regarding the overall perspective of the program, the KiVa project included a universal and an indicated intervention (Kärnä et al.,  2011a ,  2011b ,  2013 ; Nocentini & Menesini, 2016; Salmivalli et al., 2007). The universal intervention referred to efforts made to influence the group norms while the indicated intervention referred to the way in which specific cases were handled in schools through individual and group discussions between the teacher and the students involved (Salmivalli et al., 2007, p. 6).

The KiVa program included a large variety of concrete materials for students, teachers, and parents. It also utilized the Internet and virtual learning environments (e.g., computer games against bullying) aiming in this way to enhance students' attitudes against bullying. Also, students received their own personal user ID, which they could use as a password before the completion of each web‐based questionnaire on bullying. KiVa included 20‐h student lessons, which were carried out by student teachers. The lessons involved discussions, group work, short films about bullying, and role‐playing exercises. After each lesson, a class rule was adopted, based on the central theme of the lesson.

A unique feature of the KiVa program was the use of an antibullying computer game. The game involved five levels and the teacher always activated the next level of the game after the relevant lesson was completed. Students were able to begin using the game after the third lesson; the second level of the program was played after the fifth lesson, and so on until the end of the school year. Each level of the computer game included three components that were named as “I know,” “I can,” and “I do.” In the first component, students were informed about basic facts on bullying. In the second component, the “I can”‐component, students moved around in the virtual school and faced different challenging bullying incidents. Finally, the third component was used to encourage students to make use of their knowledge and skills in real life situations.

Another important element of the KiVa project was the teacher training. Teachers were also provided with vests that they could use during playtime while supervising the school yard. This simple technique aimed to enhance teachers' visibility in the schoolyard and to signal that bullying was taken seriously in the school. Also, all teachers carrying out the KiVa program could seek advice from a web‐based discussion forum, where they could share experiences and ideas about bullying with other colleagues.

Within the school framework, the program also facilitated the use of a peer support group for victims of bullying. The classroom teacher was expected to arrange a group with 2–4 classmates—those who were pro‐social and had high status in the class—who were expected to provide support to victimized students, thus sustaining healthy peer relationships. An interesting element in the KiVa program is that it incorporated both punitive and nonblame approaches when dealing with perpetrators of bullying. Half of the school teams were instructed to use more punitive approaches (e.g., what you have done is wrong and it has to stop right now) while the rest of the school teams were instructed to use no‐blame approaches in their discussions with children (e.g., “your classmate is also having a hard time and this is why he behaves like that; what could we do to help him?”). There was also co‐operative group work among experts when dealing with children involved in bullying.

Finally, the KiVa program involved parents. A parents' guide was sent to the home and provided information about bullying and advice on how parents could be involved to reduce this problem. Information nights for parents were also organized and provided.

6.32. Lead Peace Intervention

The Lead Peace intervention is based on a resiliency conceptual framework (Resnik,  2000 ), thus, aims to reduce youth problem behaviors using an assets‐based approach (Harpin,  2011 ; Sieving & Widome,  2008 ). The intervention was developed as a school‐based “service learning and health education” program to reduce risk of violence and school failure in middle school students (Sieving, 2006). Developed from the Points of Light Youth Leadership curriculum for 9th to 12th grade students (Sieving, 2006), the program was adapted for use with Grade 6–8 students (Harpin,  2011 ).

The core curriculum targets factors on three levels: (1) environmental (e.g., adult resources and supports, family norms and behaviors, peer norms and behaviors, school/community opportunities and social connectedness); (2) personal (e.g., attitudes, beliefs, perceived norms, emotional distress); and (3) behavioral (e.g., social and emotional skills, coping behaviors, school performance). The program aims to reduce risky health and social behaviors (e.g., interpersonal aggression, physical fighting, bullying) in order to promote positive and reduce risky behaviors. The curriculum is implemented for 3 years, and can be delivered in two “doses”: (1) Lead Peace program (basic)—includes 15–20 intervention lessons each year; or (2) Lead Peace plus program—includes 30 intervention lessons, 15–20 additional community service hours, and health education and family outreach activities.

6.33. Lunch Buddy Mentoring program

The Lunch Buddy mentoring program was a school‐based antibullying program that aimed to reduce bullying victimization in elementary school children (Elledge et al.,  2010 ). The program was based on previous research that suggests youth mentoring can be utilized as an effective prevention technique (Dortch, 2000). In comparison to peer‐mentoring antibullying program, the Lunch Buddy program employed college student mentors based on prior success of college student mentoring aggressive children (Cavell & Hughes,  2000 ).

Mentors were provided with training prior to implementation of the program and participated in weekly meetings throughout the program. Children were identified as potential participants using a self‐ and teacher‐report victimization index. The self‐report School Experiences Questionnaire (Kochenderfer & Ladd,  2000 ) and teacher ratings of child victimization due to physical, verbal and relational aggressive were combined to create this index. School principals also collaborated with counselors to identify potentially suitable candidates. Eligible participants were then matched with same‐sex college student mentors, based on the availability of mentors during the mentees scheduled lunchtimes. Mentors visited the mentees twice a week, over the course of 5–6 months. During these visits mentors were required to sit with their mentee and their peers during lunchtime. Each mentor was also required to complete a log sheet after each visit.

6.34. Media Heroes

Chaux et al. ( 2016 ) evaluated the effectiveness of the cyberbullying prevention program “Media Heroes” [ Medienhelden ] on reports of traditional school bullying. The Media Heroes program is based theoretically on the Theory of Planned Behavior (Ajzen,  1991 ) and the social context of participant roles in bullying (Salmivalli,  2010 ). The program aims to reduce cyberbullying perpetration by enhancing empathy, increasing awareness and knowledge about what constitutes cyberbullying, the safety risks associated with Internet activity, and by providing assertive and useful methods in which bystanders can intervene in cyberbullying (Chaux et al.,  2016 ).

There are two versions of Media Heroes: (1) a short version implemented over four 90‐min lessons that take place in one school day; and (2) a long version that is implemented over 15‐weekly 45‐min lessons (Schultze‐Krumbholz et al.,  2012 ). Intervention activities include, role‐playing, class debates, news and film content, group learning and student‐parent presentations (Chaux et al.,  2016 ). Measures of both traditional‐ and cyber‐bullying were implemented in this evaluation, due to the significant overlap in the prevalence of these behaviors.

6.35. NoTrap!

Noncadiamointrappola (Let's Not Fall into a Trap), or NoTrap!, is a web‐based antibullying program that has been developed, implemented and refined over several studies (Menesini et al.,  2012 ; Palladino et al.,  2012 ,  2016 ). Initially implemented in two Italian schools in 2008, the program involves students actively engaging in the development of a website promoting antibullying (Menesini et al.,  2012 ). A selected number of students per school are provided with training and enroll as online peer‐educators. These students acted as online moderators of an antibullying forum, regulating discussion threads and responding to users' questions and concerns (Menesini et al.,  2012 ). In addition, peer‐educators also conducted face‐to‐face awareness raising workshops and meetings with their classmates, to highlight the key issues surrounding traditional‐ and cyber‐bullying (Palladino et al.,  2016 ).

Subsequent editions of the NoTrap! program incorporated additional elements based on findings from previous evaluations. For example, Palladino et al. ( 2012 ) placed more emphasis on: (1) victims' roles and victim support, (2) involving bystanders, (3) greater involvement of teachers in antibullying activities, and (3) creation of a Facebook group to supplement online materials. The third revision of the NoTrap! program incorporated standardization of the face‐to‐face antibullying activities led by peer educators (Palladino et al.,  2016 ). New peer‐led activities involved group work that targeted empathy and problem‐solving skills (Palladino et al.,  2016 ).

6.36. *Olweus Bullying Prevention Program

The OBPP was a multilevel program aiming at targeting the individual, the school, the classroom and the community level. Apart from marked mass‐media publicity, the program started with a 1‐day school conference during which the problem of bullying was addressed between school staff, students, and parents. This signaled the formal commencement of the intervention. Two different types of materials were produced: a handbook or manual for teachers (entitled “Olweus” core program against bullying and antisocial behavior') and a folder with information for parents and families. The program also included: (1) CD‐program that was used for assessing and analyzing the data obtained at the pre‐test period, so that school‐specific interventions could then be implemented; (2) a video on bullying; (3) the Revised Olweus Bully/Victim Questionnaire and (4) the book “Bullying at school: what we know and what we can do.”

The antibullying measures mainly targeted three different levels of intervention: the school, the classroom and the individual. At the school level, the intervention included:

• Meetings among teachers to discuss ways of improving peer‐relations; staff discussion groups.
• Parent/teacher meetings to discuss the issue of bullying.
• Increased supervision during recess and lunchtime.
• Improvement of playground facilities so that children have better places to play during recess time.
• Questionnaire surveys.
• The formation of a coordinating group.

At the classroom level the intervention included:

• Students were given information about the issue of bullying and were actively involved in devising class rules against bullying.
• Classroom activities for students included role‐playing situations that could help students learn how to deal better with bullying.
• Class rules against bullying.
• Class meetings with students.
• Meetings with the parents of the class.

At the individual level the intervention included:

• Talks with bullies and their parents and enforcement of nonhostile, nonphysical sanctions.
• Talks with victims, providing support and providing assertiveness skills training to help them learn how to successfully deal with bullying; also, talks with the parents of victims.
• Talks with children not involved to make them become effective helpers.

An interesting feature of the OBPP is that it offered guided information about what schools should do at both the intervention and the maintenance period. The Olweus program demands significant commitment from the school during the 'introductory period' which covers a period of about 18 months. Later the methodology acquired by the staff and the routines decided by the school may be maintained using less resources … Yet, even for the maintenance period, the program offers a point by point description of what the school should do to continue its work against bullying in accordance with Olweus methodology (Olweus, 2004c, p. 1). Also, at the school level training was offered to the whole school staff, with additional training provided to the coordinators and key personnel. These were responsible for coordinating the overall antibullying initiative in their school. The program also included cooperation among experts and teachers (e.g., psychologists) who worked with children involved in bullying.

6.37. Positive Action program

The Positive Action Program is a generalized school‐based “well‐being” program (Lewis et al.,  2013 ). The program targets both distal (e.g., school climate and teacher classroom management) and proximal (e.g., students' thoughts, feelings, and self‐efficacy) facets are targeted in order to impact a range of health‐ and behavioral‐related outcomes (Li et al.,  2011 ). The program is based on three core elements.

First, the Positive Action philosophy. Based on the theory of self‐concept (Combs,  1962 ; Purkey,  1970 ; Purkey & Novak,  1996 ) and a Positive Psychology (Frederickson, 2000; Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi,  2000 ) approach, the philosophy emphasizes positive feelings about the self, to encourage positive behaviors toward others (Flay & Allerd,  2010 ). Second, the Thoughts‐Actions‐Feelings Circle concept is used throughout the program to illustrate the reinforcing cycle of thoughts, feelings and actions. This is delivered to outline that positive thoughts lead to positive actions, positive actions in turn lead to positive feelings, which then reinforce positive thoughts. Third, a strict six‐unit curriculum that involves daily lessons, interactive learning and social‐emotional skill development.

The PA curriculum is designed to be adapted for kindergarten to Grade 12 students, and is based on six key concepts: (1) self‐concept; (2) social and emotional positive actions for managing oneself responsibly; (3) positive actions relating to a healthy body and mind; (4) honesty with oneself; (5) getting along with others; and (6) continuous self‐improvement (Lewis et al.,  2013 ). The intervention program also involves teacher, parent/family and community training. Schools implementing the PA program receive support from developers throughout implementation by training, manuals, school‐wide climate development, counselors, family classes, and individual consultations for staff with a PA implementation coordinator.

6.38. Preventure and Adventure CBT

The Preventure and Adventure intervention programs were part of two 2 year longitudinal projects that targeted adolescent alcohol use and bullying behaviors (Topper,  2011 ). Intervention components were primarily personality‐targeted cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) for “high risk” students. Participants were screened prior to taking part in the intervention for four individual personality domains: (1) hopelessness; (2) anxiety‐sensitivity; (3) sensation seeking; and (4) impulsivity. Students who were classified as being “high risk” on any of the four domains were invited to participate, and assigned to one of four potential intervention workshops. These intervention sessions were CBT‐based and were aimed at each of the four personality domains. Thus, a student who scored highly on the impulsivity measure was assigned to the impulsivity‐focused CBT session. For participants that scored above the mean on multiple measures, they were assigned to the session that corresponded to the personality domain that they deviated the most from standardized scores.

High risk students in each school were randomly assigned to either the intervention or control condition, as were “low risk” students, for comparison. The Preventure study took place between 2005 and 2007, and either a chartered counseling psychology, an experienced special needs teacher, or a master‐level research assistant implemented intervention workshops. In comparison, the Adventure study took place between 2007 and 2009, and although the intervention sessions followed the same procedure, they were implemented by trained teachers in each school.

6.39. *Pro‐ACT+E program

Pro‐ACT+E was a universal, multidimensional program that aimed to prevent bullying in secondary schools (Sprober et al., 2006). It involved a cognitive‐behavioral approach to the problem of bullying and victimization by building up prosocial behavior. The program was universal: it did not involve specific work with perpetrators or victims of bullying. However, it included both teacher and parent training and a 2‐h classroom discussion with students about violence problems. The program offered curriculum materials that aimed to increase awareness in relation to the problem of bullying and placed emphasis on specific issues such as classroom management and classroom rules against bullying.

6.40. *Progetto Pontassieve

The program was delivered in a period of 3 years, and it consisted of two main parts. During the 1st two years it was delivered more at the school level whereas the 3rd year was more at the class and individual level (Ciucci & Smorti,  1998 ). During the 1st year a training course for teachers took place addressing psychosocial risks for children and bully‐victim problems. At the end of the training, a study was conducted to reveal how serious was the problem of bullying and what were its characteristics. The 2nd year of the intervention included a counseling service for each individual who was affected by bullying.

The intervention took place in the 3rd year and was based on the use of two different methods: Quality Circles, where pupils had to cooperate to find practical solutions to their problems, with the use of the Interpersonal Process Recall which consisted of the recording of one Quality Circle and discussion about it. The other method used was Role Playing conducted in small groups with subsequent class discussions, which helped students to examine possible strategies to face and overtake bullying problems. The aims of both of these methods were to make students aware that they could intervene in an efficient way to reduce bullying.

6.41. *Project Ploughshares for Peace

Project Ploughshares Puppets for Peace (P4 program) was an antibullying program that aimed to educate elementary school students about bullying and conflict resolution (Beran & Shapiro,  2005 , p. 703). The P4 program used puppets and a 30‐min script. Using three‐feet, hand‐and‐rod puppets, two puppeteers enacted a story that involved direct and indirect bullying, as well as a successful resolution to this scenario. These behaviors occurred among two female puppets and a male puppet friend.

After watching the play, students were invited to identify the bullying behaviors. During the discussion, four main strategies—presented as “4 Footsteps”—to deal with bullying were suggested to pupils: (1) ignore, (2) say stop, (3) walk away, and (4) get help. The show took approximately 45 min and aimed to increase children's awareness about which behaviors could be categorized as bullying and to show various strategies that children who were bullied and/or who witnessed bullying could use to discourage it (Beran & Shapiro,  2005 , p. 703).

6.42. Rational Emotive Behavioral Education (REBE) and ViSC

Trip et al. ( 2015 ) implemented a dual program consisting of REBE (Trip & Bora,  2010 ) and ViSC social competence (Strohmeier et al.,  2012 ) elements. These components were combined to address both social and emotional factors involved in bullying and positive youth development (PYD). This program approaches bullying from a sociological perspective, including factors on the individual, family, peer, classroom, and school levels (Espelage & Horne,  2008 ; Swearer & Espelage,  2011 ).

ViSC social competence program is a systemic approach to antibullying that targets students, teachers and parents (Strohmeier et al.,  2012 ). Implemented by teachers in the classroom, the program comprises several intervention units that aim to: (1) foster empathy and perspective training, (2) enhance responsibility, and (3) improve students' behavioral responses to bullying (Trip et al.,  2015 , p. 733).

REBE elements employed by Trip et al. ( 2015 ) on the other hand, target specific elements of aggression that are lacking in the ViSC units. Based on the theory of Rational Emotive Behavioral Therapy (Ellis,  1962 ), the REBE elements of the intervention program target the difference between desire and reality (Trip & Bora,  2010 ) and anger. The REBE program activities target specific elements of anger, specifically, anger triggers, personal experiences of anger and the consequences of anger (Trip et al.,  2015 ).

6.43. Restorative Whole‐school Approach (RWsA)

The RWsA (Hopkins,  2004 ; Morrison,  2002 ) was a school‐based antibullying initiative that employs a restorative justice inspired philosophy. Hence, the program focuses on creating a positive school environment to prevent bullying in the long‐term, rather than a short‐term disciplinary and punishment approach (Wong et al.,  2011 ). The program had three core goals: (1) to create a positive and harmonious school learning environment; (2) implement an interactive classroom curriculum; and (3) encourage an effective partnership between teachers, students, parents and relevant professionals.

A whole‐school antibullying nonpunitive ethos and policy is implemented as the core of the intervention (Wong et al.,  2011 ). This policy aims to establish a positive school environment in order to combat bullying‐related risk factors. The curriculum lessons incorporated elements on various issues, including, empathy, assertiveness, coping, problem‐solving, and conflict resolution.

6.44. Resourceful Adolescent Program (RAP)

The RAP is a classroom‐based CBT intervention designed for adolescents aged 12–15 years of age (Stallard et al.,  2013 ). The program is a depression prevention program, however, bullying problems were included as secondary outcomes. The program incorporates a detailed manual and student workbooks, and was implemented over nine sessions, of approximately 50–60 min each. The core components include: psycho‐education, helpful thinking, identifying personal strengths, keeping calm, problem solving, support networks, and keeping the peace. The program was designed to flexible and adaptable to participating schools' varying busy timetables.

6.45. *S.S. Grin

The Social Skills Group Intervention (S.S. GRIN) was a school‐based program that aimed to help children enhance their social skills. S.S. GRIN was designed as a social‐skills training intervention for peer‐rejected, victimized, and socially anxious children. It could be applied to an array of problems that are social in nature (e.g., aggression, low self‐esteem, depression, social anxiety, social withdrawal) not just bullying (DeRosier & Marcus,  2005 , p. 140). The authors argued that the program went beyond the most common social‐skills training (De Rosier & Marcus, 2005, p. 141) by emphasizing the cognitive aspects of relations and emotions. That is, children were not only taught prosocial skills, but they were also taught, on the cognitive level, how to identify negative perceptions and behaviors in an effort to help children to regulate their own emotions as well as enhance their coping skills.

Overall, the program was a combination of social‐learning and cognitive‐behavioral techniques, used to help children build social skills and positive relationships with peers. It was a highly structured, manualized program (DeRosier,  2004 , p. 197) with a number of sessions containing scripts and activities to undertake. Each session included didactic instruction combined with active practice such as role‐playing, modeling and hands‐on activities (De Rosier, 2004, p. 197). The children participated in group sessions for eight consecutive weeks. Each session lasted approximately an hour. The groups were led by each school's counselor and an intern, who were trained and supervised by one of the program instructors (De Rosier & Marcus, 2005, p. 143).

6.46. School‐based Drama program

This school‐based antibullying program was based on drama (Owens & Barber,  1998 ) and social cognitive theories (Bandura,  1978 ). The main aim of this project was to design and implement a drama‐based program to improve social relationships and social/emotional well‐being in children, which in turn may help to reduce bullying (Joronen et al.,  2011 ). Targeted concepts included: empathy; social competence; student‐teacher interaction; child–parent interaction; and recognition of values/emotions.

This program was developed by the combined efforts of researchers, drama experts and teachers. It was implemented in‐class by trained teachers and school nurses over a period of 6 months. Teachers and school nurses attended a 2‐day seminar and received two drama handbooks, however, there was no manual or fixed program outline provided. Support was provided through email communication between teachers and researchers for the duration of program implementation. Teachers conducted one drama session per month with their class. These sessions covered a variety of topics, including, bullying, friendship, loss of a friend, supporting a bullied peer, tolerance, and child abuse.

6.47. School‐wide Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (SWPBIS)

SWPBIS was a universal behavioral intervention program that targets school‐level factors in order to improve school climate and promote positive student and staff behaviors (Waasdorp et al.,  2012 ). Instead of following a specific antibullying curriculum, SWPBIS aimed to reduce bullying by targeting schools' discipline and behavioral management strategies. A SWPBIS team in each school organized and facilitated the intervention implementation.

These teams were responsible for developing a set of “positive expectations” for the school. These were a number of statements that outlined what the school expected in relation to student and staff behavior, for example, “be responsible, respectful, and ready to learn” (Waasdorp et al.,  2012 , p. 150). Posters highlighting the expectation statements were then displayed all around participating schools, both in classrooms and outside of classrooms, and are positively reinforced using reward systems. Furthermore, data from student surveys and discipline referrals were employed throughout the intervention to inform teachers of potential bullying “hot spots” that require increased supervision and monitoring. School staff also received training on classroom management and how to respond consistently and effectively to bullying. Additionally, students identified as being “high risk” or vulnerable to bullying behaviors or victimization were provided with selective intensive intervention.

6.48. School bus antibullying intervention

This intervention program was a universal antibullying program designed to reduce the prevalence of bullying behaviors on school buses (Krueger,  2010 ). The program was purposefully developed and utilizes materials and content from the “Take a Stand, Lend a Hand, Stop Bullying Now!” tools that are available free of charge.

The intervention was implemented with elementary school children over five consecutive days, during the final 20‐min of the school day. Lessons were delivered by the school's social worker and principal to two groups (kindergarten to 2nd grade students, and 3rd to 5th grade students) of participants. The program followed this format from days 2–5, however, on day 1, all participants completed the introductory lesson together. The school‐bus antibullying program primarily utilized DVD materials from the “Take a Stand” content. These video clips depicted cartoon characters engaging in different bullying scenarios.

On day 1 (i.e., the introductory lesson) an overview of school bullying and related issues, including bystander intervention, was provided to participants. The associated DVD clip depicted a male character physically bullying another child in the playground while other students watched. Participants then discussed the clip in groups, and were introduced to the “Three Steps to Stop Bullying Chart.” This technique involves three steps, Stop, Help , and Tell , that bystanders can take if they witness bullying.

On each subsequent day, a new DVD clip was shown to participants and the Stop, Help , and Tell concepts were revisited. The school's social worker or principal led discussion groups by posing questions to the students concerning the feelings and emotions experienced by the victim of bullying, potential coping strategies that the victim could use, and possible bystander behaviors. Participants also shared their previous experiences with similar situations. Furthermore, using the Stop, Help , and Tell paradigm, participants brainstormed potential ways to tell a bully to stop behaving in a certain manner, ways to help the victim and appropriate trusted adults that they can tell about the situation.

6.49. Second Step

The Second Step: Student Success Through Prevention is a middle school Social‐Emotional Learning (SEL) program that aims to reduce bullying, peer victimization, physical aggression, homophobic name‐calling and sexual violence (Espelage et al.,  2013 ,  2015 ). The intervention curriculum is taught in‐class by trained teachers. Lessons are interactive and engaging, requiring students to take part in whole‐class, small group and individual work. A take home task is also given after each lesson to reinforce skills learned. DVDs are also used to accompany and enrich lesson content.

The 6th grade Second Step curriculum involves 15 weekly lessons on various social and emotional skills and bullying‐related topics. The following outlines the curriculum: (1) empathy and communication—five lessons; (2) bullying—two lessons; (3) emotion regulation (e.g., coping with stress)—three lessons; (4) problem‐solving—two lessons; and (5) substance abuse prevention—four lessons.

Each lesson has clearly outlined learning objectives to reduce problem behaviors and increase prosocial behaviors. For example, lessons on bullying target the peer context by increasing knowledge, improving attitudes, and encouraging bystander intervention in order to reduce bullying perpetration and victimization. Students are educated about the differences between types of bullying, importance and responsibilities of bystanders in preventing bullying and a number of positive bystander behaviors are modeled. The 7th grade Second Step curriculum involves a similar lesson structure, with some slight changes. The intervention is delivered over 13 weekly lessons, and cyber‐bullying and sexual harassment issues are incorporated into bullying modules.

6.50. Shared Concern

Wurf ( 2012 ) assessed the effectiveness of the whole‐school approach to bullying intervention and prevention, with a particular emphasis on Pikas' ( 2002 ) nonpunitive method of shared concern. The Pikas method of Shared Concern is a teacher, or counselor, implemented intervention, that is divided into five key stages. First, the intervener identifies the students involved in bullying and talks with them individually. These discussions aim to provide nonpunitive and constructive options for both bullies and victims (Wurf,  2012 ). The second and third stages involve providing empathy and ongoing support to the victims of bullying. Finally, the fourth stage incorporates a mediation session between bullies and victim(s). A conflict resolution approach to prevent bullying is agreed upon and implemented by all involved. The fifth and final stage occurs during the follow‐up period, whereby the teacher or counselor monitors the involved students to ensure that the bullying has stopped.

6.51. *Short Intensive Intervention in Czechoslovakia

The antibullying intervention in Czechoslovakia was inspired by the OBPP and borrowed elements from it, such as the Olweus videocassette on bullying (Rican et al.,  1996 , p. 399). The Olweus bullying questionnaire was used to measure several aspects of bullying within the schools. A peer nomination technique was also used to identify bully and victim scores. The relevant results from both measurement scales were presented to teachers in the intervention schools to increase awareness of the problem of bullying. The program researchers discussed with the teachers “possibilities of an individual approach to the bullies as well as to the victims” (Rican et al.,  1996 , p. 399).

As another intervention element, teachers were instructed to introduce relevant ethical aspects into the curriculum where possible: the ideal of knighthood was suggested for history classes and the ideal of consideration for the weak was introduced in sentences used for dictation and analysis (Rican et al.,  1996 , p. 400). Another element of the intervention involved the use of a method called “class charter.” Specifically, children were asked to indicate how they would like their teachers and other classmates to behave toward them as well as how students should behave toward teachers and among themselves. The final aim of this classroom activity was the construction of a set of rules and principles, which was then signed by all pupils in the classroom and placed there in a visible position. Finally, the Olweus video‐cassette on bullying was shown to children and was used as a means of promoting the antibullying idea in the school.

6.52. *Short Video Intervention

This antibullying strategy, involved a single viewing of an antibullying video, entitled Sticks and Stones, and aimed to examine its effects on secondary school students' views of, and involvement in, bullying. The program aimed to examine both attitudes toward bullying and the actual behavior since “it would not be unreasonable to propose that these attitudes will influence actual behavior” (Boulton & Flemington,  1996 , p. 334). The program involved only one school that had no prior antibullying policy.

The video presented pupils (either in groups or on their own) talking about bullying, their views about this phenomenon and their personal experiences of bullying. The video also involved a number of bullying scenes (see Boulton & Flemington,  1996 , p. 337 for examples).

6.53. Social and Emotional Training (SET) intervention

This intervention program was a school‐based SET mental health program for Swedish school children (Kimber et al.,  2008 ). The SET program was primarily focused on mental health, but also targeted other aspects of participants' lives, such as bullying. Both internalizing and externalizing aspects of child mental health are addressed.

Trained teachers delivered the program over the course of two academic years. Intensity of program implementation varied according to the age of students. Junior students (i.e., grades 1–5) received the program in 45‐min sessions twice a week, while senior students (i.e., grades 6–9) completed one 45‐min session per week. Program developers provided each participating teacher with detail manuals for implementing the program with each grade and grade‐specific student workbooks. Role‐playing and modeling tasks covered many themes, including: social problem solving; conflict management; dealing with strong emotions; and resisting peer pressure. Teachers were also supervised once a month during the 1st year of implementation, and students were encouraged to practice skills both at school and at home.

6.54. Social Norms Project

Lishak ( 2011 ) implemented an antibullying program based on social norms theory (Perkins,  2003 ) with middle school students. The program was implemented over a period of 12 weeks and was developed based on student responses to an anonymous web‐based survey and student discipline and suspension reports (Lishak,  2011 ). Student surveys collected information regarding perceptions of bullying in the school and results were then relayed to participants via weekly lessons, assemblies, posters, and media content throughout the school. Data from school discipline, suspension and visitation logs were collated to estimate the prevalence of bullying and school violence.

6.55. *Social Skills Training (STT) program

STT was a program specifically designed to support “chronic victims” of bullying (Fox & Boulton,  2003 , p. 237). The general aim of the program was to help children improve their social skills, therefore reducing a child's individual risk of victimization (Fox & Boulton, 2003 , p. 234). The program involved an 8‐week course during which children learnt how to use both problem‐solving and relaxation skills, how to think positively, how to modify their nonverbal behavior and how to use some verbal strategies such as “fogging” and “mirroring” (Fox & Boulton,  2003 , p. 235).

During the program, victims of bullying were gathered in groups of five to ten and were exposed to the aims of the program for 1 h/week. Two trainers delivered the 1‐h sessions throughout the program. The 1st week was dedicated to children introducing each other and listening each other's problem. The next two sessions dealt with issues of friendship and aimed to help children form strong friendships (e.g., having conversations; asking to join in), while the fourth session dealt with issues of body language: teaching children how to modify their nonverbal behavior in a way that would protect them from being victimized. During the fifth session children learned how to be assertive while in the next two sessions children were taught how to deal with the bully. The eighth session signaled the end of the program.

6.56. *SPC and CAPSLE program

This evaluation compared the effects of two intervention packages with a treatment‐as‐usual condition (Fonagy et al.,  2009 ). Nine schools were randomly allocated to the two experimental and one control (treatment‐as‐usual) conditions after a stratified allocation procedure, which was used to stratify schools based on the percentage of low‐income students (indicated by students' free‐ and reduced‐lunch status). In the experimental conditions, the full intervention was offered for 2 years (the efficacy phase) with a limited 3rd year of intervention (the maintenance phase).

The first experimental condition involved a “School Psychiatric Consultation” (SPC), a manualized protocol that aims to address mental health issues of children with disruptive behavioral problems, internalizing problems, or poor academic performance. SPC was a school‐level intervention focused on individual children. Three child psychiatry residents, supervised biweekly by a senior child psychiatrist, delivered mental health consultation following the SPC manual for 4 h/week. The psychiatric residents attended weekly school resource meetings and consulted directly with teachers, parents and other school personnel, through classroom observations and meetings, providing 140 consultations for 65 students in year 1 and 97 consultations for 45 students in year 2.

The second experimental condition involved the implementation of CAPSLE (“Creating a Peaceful School Learning Environment”), a manualized psychodynamic approach addressing the cocreated relationship between bullies, victims and bystanders. In contrast to SPC, CAPSLE represents a whole‐school intervention approach. It aimed to modify the educational and disciplinary school climate. A CAPSLE team drawn from school staff in the pilot project led implementation in the two intervention years using a training manual. In year 1, teachers received a day of group training, students received nine sessions of self‐defense training, and the CAPSLE team consulted with school staff monthly. Year 2 started with a school‐wide half‐day refresher self‐defense course, and consultation continued with counselors, teachers and adult/peer mentor programs. In year 3 (the maintenance phase), self‐defense training continued as in year 2.

CAPSLE includes several antibullying materials that can be used by teachers such as a Teacher Discipline Manual (used in the teacher training), a Student Workbook, Buttons and Magnets and Patches (used as a way of reinforcing of desirable student behavior), Parent Warning Notes (notifying parents about specific problem behavior of the child) as well as antibullying videos that can be used during the physical education lessons (and videos that can be used by parents). CAPSLE also includes the Gentle Warrior Program, a 12‐week curriculum specifically designed for physical education teachers. For CAPSLE, intervention fidelity was assessed using a teacher self‐report measure that required teachers to state the frequency with which various CAPSLE program components were implemented.

6.57. Standard CBT and CBT plus media program

This intervention program combined elements of standardized CBT and DVD bullying‐related materials in order to reduce bullying perpetration and victimization among elementary school children (McLaughlin,  2009 ). The standardized CBT lessons were delivered by a trained counselor, and focused on bullying and aggression relation issues. Two experimental groups were employed, one of which received only the CBT lessons, and the other completed the CBT lessons and were shown the bullying DVDs.

The program was implemented over 4 weekly lessons that followed a strict outline. In week 1, the lesson focused on defining bullying, identifying bullying roles and different forms of bullying, and exploring the possible characteristics of bullies, victims, and bystanders. Week 2's lesson was concerned with establishing the consequences of bullying for all those involved, including the bully, victim and bystanders. Empathy for victims of bullying was also developed. Activities included creating feeling lists, and participating in role plays. Lesson three aimed to promote bystander intervention by developing awareness and knowledge of appropriate responses to bullying, suitable ways to intervene, and promoting assertiveness. Classes are taught using educational and informative posters. The final lesson, in week 4, aimed to outline the gender differences in bullying, why these occur, and ways to combat gender‐specific forms of bullying. In their classes, students establish class antibullying rules and are taught about the support available in school to stop bullying.

In addition, students in the CBT + media experimental group watched three DVDs that highlighted the issues outlined in the weekly lessons. The DVDs that were shown are as follow: (1) Let's Get Real , which shows young people talking about their personal experiences of bullying; (2) The Deepest Hurt , that depicts girls role‐playing various scenarios of relational aggression; and (3) The Broken Toy , a dramatization of the damage bullying can cause. Following the videos, students engaged in group discussions led by the counselor about the issues illustrated in each DVD.

6.58. *Stare bene a scuola: Progetto di prevensione del bullismo

This intervention was based on the curriculum activities and the whole school approach because it tried to involve all people in a school (Gini et al.,  2003 ). The program was delivered to 6 schools and included several activities. Teachers were first trained in 3 days on “cooperative learning” and in particular on the Jigsaw technique. Teachers then had an on‐going supervision once every 15 days. The intervention in the class lasted 4 months with two meetings a week. The intervention was directed toward the following areas: (1) awareness of the body and what it feels; (2) emotional awareness; and (3) bullying awareness. These areas were dealt with in each of the sessions, starting from the first one. For each thematic area, several activities were conducted and several methods were used.

6.59. Start Strong

“Start Strong: Building Healthy Teen Relationships” was a school‐based curriculum focused teen dating‐violence prevention program (Williams et al.,  2015 ). The program was implemented over 2 years in four experimental schools (that implemented the program) and four comparison schools (that did not implement the program). Schools were matched based on: school size, percentage of students eligible for free school lunches, race/ethnicity, and socioeconomic status. The effectiveness of the program was measured for outcomes that included the perpetration and victimization of teen dating‐violence, bullying and sexual harassment.

6.60. *Steps to Respect

The Step to Respect program aimed to tackle bullying by: (1) increasing staff awareness; (2) fostering socially responsible beliefs; and (3) teaching social‐emotional skills so as to promote healthy relationships (Frey et al.,  2005 , p. 481). The program included staff and family training manuals, a program guide and lesson‐based curricula for third‐ through sixth‐grade classrooms (Hirschstein & Frey,  2007 , p. 7).

Components at a whole school level consisted of an antibullying policy and procedures, staff training and parent meetings, all aiming at sharing understanding of bullying and its consequences and increasing adult awareness, monitoring, and involvement. At the classroom level, the proposed activities consisted of teaching friendship skills, emotion regulation skills, identifying types of bullying, teaching prevention strategies and peer group discussion. The aim was to improve peer relations and reduce the risk of victimization, assess level of safety and recognize, report and refuse bullying. At the individual level, students involved in bullying were approached and coached based on the “Four‐A Responses”: affirm behavior, ask questions, assess immediate safety and act.

The S to R training manual consisted of an instructional session for all school staff and two in‐depth training sessions for counselors, administrators, and teachers. There were also videos accompanying the program. With regard to staff training, there were two levels of training: all school staff received an overview of the program goals and principal aspects of the program (program guide). Teachers, counselors, and administrators received additional training in how to coach students involved in bullying, based on behavioral skills training, cooperative learning and role‐playing.

The student curriculum comprised skills and literature‐based lessons delivered by third‐ through sixth‐grade teachers during a 12–14‐week period. The intervention consisted of 10 semi‐scripted skills lessons with topics such as joining groups, distinguishing reporting from tattling and being a responsible bystander.

Finally, with regard to the parent intervention, administrators informed parents about the program and the school's antibullying policy and procedures. Parents could also benefit from other resources such as letters provided to them and newsletters describing whole‐school antibullying activities undertaken at school.

6.61. Strengths in Motion (SIM)

The SIM (Rawana et al.,  2011 ) program was a strength‐based whole school antibullying intervention. There were several components involved in the program, all of which centered around a strength‐based approach. This technique involves highlighting and enhancing individuals' strengths in order to develop positive mental health (Duckworth et al.,  2005 ). In the context of the present evaluation, Rawana et al. ( 2011 ) requested that each participating school allocated one room as a designated intervention resource room. In the first instance, this room acted as a “Good Start Centre” (p. 287) where new students to the school were provided with two half‐day orientation sessions prior to starting school. Part of these orientation sessions was individualized strength assessments. It was predicted that by providing new students with guidance on how to best use their strengths to integrate successfully into school life the likelihood of future bullying and victimization would be reduced.

The second use of the intervention room was as a “Cool Down & Prevention,” where students experiencing behavioral or emotional problems could go to calm down. Staff were on hand to prevent the behaviors from escalating and offer helpful advice. The room also acted as an alternative to suspension from school, whereby students could be mandated to spend a certain number of days in the “Good Choices Room.” An ambassador's club for students identified as being at high risk for bullying perpetration or victimization was also held in the resource room. Finally, mental health professionals provided student and parent workshops and staff received tailored training on the strength‐based approach to bullying prevention and intervention.

6.62. Take the LEAD (TTL)

The TTL (Domino,  2011 ,  2013 ) program was designed to increase the social competencies of participants in order to reduce bullying behaviors. The intervention is based on SEL and PYD theories.

Various social and emotional skills are targeted during the 16‐weekly lesson curriculum, including: (1) Self‐awareness; (2) Self‐management; (3) Social‐awareness; (4) Relationship skills; (5) Decision making; (6) Problem solving; and (7) Leadership. Trained teachers taught TTL lessons during normal class periods on a weekly basis. Participating teachers were trained on the skill‐based curriculum by the developers of the TTL program. During training, teachers were taught about specific learning objectives and goals of the intervention program, and also about the lesson plans and activities involved in “Take the LEAD.” Information evenings for parent were also held as part of the TTL intervention and aimed to raise parents' awareness of key social‐emotional issues.

Each of the sixteen TTL lessons involved specific learning objectives and goals. Lessons involved a combination of knowledge and skill development and an application component, so that participants were given the opportunity to apply skills in real‐world settings. For example, the “Communication skills” lesson aimed to “explore elements of communication that enhance interpersonal skills and foster positive relationships (Domino,  2013 , p. 432). During this lesson students brainstormed ideas about effective and positive communication techniques and were then required to practice these skills (e.g., eye contact, active listening and showing empathy) in pairs. Finally, participants were required to practice these techniques in an interview with a classmate, and later with a parent.

6.63. *Toronto antibullying program

The Toronto antibullying program was inspired by the OBPP (Pepler et al.,  2004 , p. 125). It was based on the understanding that bullying is a problem that extends far beyond the individual children; it involved the peer group and the teachers, as well as the parents of children (Pepler et al.,  2004 , p. 127). The program included several preventive elements implemented at the school, parent, and classroom levels, as well as additional work with specific students involved in bullying as perpetrators or victims.

The level of implementation of the program varied across the intervention schools. However, in all intervention schools three critical elements were found: staff training, codes of behavior and improved playground supervision. At the school level an emphasis was placed on developing a positive code of behavior among students, engaging teachers, and promoting positive playground interactions. At the parent level, information nights were held during which parents were informed about the problem of bullying in their school. Also, information about the program and its objectives was sent home. At the classroom level, children were involved in developing classroom rules against bullying. Further classroom activities aimed to change students' attitudes and to promote healthy relationships among peers. At the individual level, children involved in bullying as perpetrators or victims received specialized intervention through consultation and though engaging their parents. Follow‐up monitoring of these cases helped school authorities to establish that bullying incidents were terminated or discontinued.

6.64. *Transtheoretical‐based Tailored antibullying program

This antibullying initiative involved “transtheoretical‐based tailored programs that provided individualized and interactive computer interventions to populations of middle and high school students involved in bullying as bullies, victims and/or passive bystanders” (Evers et al.,  2007 , p. 398). The intervention involved only three 30‐min computer sessions during the school year for the students and a 10‐page manual for staff and parents with optional activities. According to the program designers, the transtheoretical model is “a theory of behavior change that applies particular change processes like decision‐making and reinforcement to help individuals progress at particular stages of change” (Evers et al.,  2007 , p. 398).

Intervention materials included the “Build Respect, Stop Bullying” program, which is a multicomponent, internet‐based computer system (Evers et al.,  2007 , p. 402). Students initiated the program by running a multimedia CD which brought them to the program website. Students could use the program by creating a login name based on personal information and a password. Once the students registered for the program, logged in and consented to be involved in the intervention study, they were given instructions on how to proceed. This multi‐media program also included short movies (videos) of students giving testimonials about bullying (Evers et al.,  2007 , p. 403).

Other elements of the program included: (1) a 10‐page family guide, sent to children's homes, which provided brief information about the multi‐media program and its relation to the antibullying initiative; and (2) a 10‐page staff guide, which included general information about bullying and how to support student change, classroom activities and information on how to work with parents. Teachers were not provided with any training.

6.65. Utrecht Healthy Schools

The Utrecht Healthy Schools program was a comprehensive educational program that targeted adolescent health behaviors (Busch et al.,  2013 ). The integrated program aims to improve various different health‐related behaviors exhibited by Dutch secondary school students, such as, nutrition, exercise, sexual health, substance and alcohol use, smoking behaviors, bullying, and excessive use of television, gaming and Internet use. The program was implemented as a whole‐school approach and consisted of five key components.

First, participating schools implemented a “healthy school” policy outlining a zero‐tolerance attitude toward risky or violent behaviors, such as alcohol use, smoking or bullying. Second, the program aimed to create a healthy school environment by offering healthy options in the canteen, removing vending machines, ensuring proper sports facilities, hosting alcohol‐free school parties and implementing a smoke‐free school yard. In the third instance, the program aimed to involve parents in intervention activities by providing parent workshops and/or take‐home activities for students. Finally, curriculum materials focused on personal skill development and the program aimed to incorporate public health services into the intervention program.

6.66. *Viennese Social Competence Training program (ViSC)

The ViSC aimed to provide students “with systematic theoretically‐based guidance in becoming responsible and competent actors in conflict situations” (Atria & Spiel,  2007 ; Yanagida et al.,  2019 ). It was specifically designed for disadvantaged adolescents aged fifteen to nineteen who were considered at risk for future problems (Atria & Spiel,  2007 , p. 179). The theoretical basis of the programs drew its main ideas from social information processing theory and from research that approached the problem of bullying as a group phenomenon (Gollwitzer et al.,  2006 , p. 126).

The ViSC program consisted of thirteen lessons which were divided into three phases: (1) impulses and group dynamics; (2) reflection; and (3) action. The first phase, entitled “impulses and group dynamics,” consisted of six lessons and the main aim was to enhance students' competence in dealing with critical situations by teaching them how to look at social situations from different perspectives using vignette stories, discussions and role‐plays. The second phase, reflection , involved one lesson during which pupils reflected on what had been learned in the first phase of the program.

The last phase, action , consisted of six lessons during which the trainer asked students to define how they wanted to benefit from the remaining lessons. The trainer collected students' individual ideas, evaluated them and—along with the students—put them in practice in alignment with the global goal of the program: enhancing pupils' social competence. The third phase of the program was flexible and it could involve several projects suggested by pupils such as a movie production, a work of art, the organization of a party, and so on. This flexibility was allowed and was, in fact, a main feature of ViSC because organizing such projects “involves a variety of critical situations, in which alternative, nonaggressive response options can be probed, rehearsed, and evaluated for success” (Gollwitzer et al.,  2006 , p. 126).

Based on the design of the program, the training of students was conducted by specialist trainers, not their teachers. The trainers participated in instruction workshops and were also supervised during the training by the ViSC developers' team at the University of Vienna (Gollwitzer et al.,  2006 , p. 127). According to the principles of the program, it was essential for the trainer to avoid receiving any information about individual students offered by teachers; students' assessments should be based on standardized diagnostic measures (Atria & Spiel,  2007 , p. 184). Moreover, the training was conducted during regular class time and teachers were advised to attend the lessons, so that the program was taken seriously by the students. ViSC has been implemented and evaluated three times: by Gollwitzer (2005), by Atria and Spiel ( 2007 ) and by Gollwitzer et al. ( 2006 ).

6.67. Youth‐led program

The Youth‐led program (YLP; Connolly et al.,  2015 ) was a generalized middle school violence prevention program. This program was developed by a community agency, and involved training high school students to lead violence prevention workshops with middle school students in order to increase the latter's knowledge and attitudes of peer aggression and victimization.

Experienced mental health professionals were employed to select and supervise male and female high school students that would become “youth leaders.” These students received training in afterschool sessions on skills and knowledge of peer aggression. Topics covered included bullying perpetration and victimization, but also peer aggression, violence, and harassment.

The final sessions of this training required the youth leaders to create two individualized presentations; one covering bullying and the other discussing general aggression. Mixed gender pairs of youth leaders then conducted these presentations in middle school classrooms under the supervision of a mental health worker. These presentations lasted for approximately 45 min each.

6.68. *Youth Matters

The Youth Matters program used “a curricular and a modified systemic approach to bullying prevention” (Jenson & Dieterich,  2007 , p. 287). The aim of the curriculum was to strengthen peer and school norms against antisocial behaviors by addressing critical issues (issue modules) such as the difference between teasing and bullying, building empathy, risks and norms surrounding aggression and so on. The curriculum also aimed to promote skills (skill modules; structured skills training sessions) that students could use in order to stay safe at school, cope with bullying, enhance their social skills and improve their peer relationships. To address systemic issues associated with bullying, curriculum modules terminated with the development of classroom or school‐wide projects, which placed emphasis on the negative consequences of bullying for students.

The curriculum consisted of 10‐session modules. Each module included a 30–40‐page story, the content of which was directly linked to the structured skills training sessions. When looking at the implementation of the program, all curriculum materials were “language sensitive”: translated into Spanish for use in the three Spanish‐speaking classrooms included in the evaluation. Youth Matters curriculum modules were offered to fourth and fifth graders. According to Jenson and Dieterich ( 2007 , p. 287), grades 4 and 5 were selected “based on an appropriate fit between developmental ability and curricula.”

The Youth Matters program was based on a theoretically grounded curriculum. The curriculum was based on theoretical constructs derived from the Social Development Model. The latter integrated perspectives from three theories (i.e., social control theory, social learning theory and differential association theory) and proposed that four factors inhibit the development of antisocial development in children. These were: (1) bonding or attachment to family, schools and positive peers; (2) belief in the shared values or norms of the above‐mentioned social units; (3) external constraints or consistent standards against antisocial behavior; and (4) social, cognitive and emotional skills that can be seen as protective tools for children to solve problems and perform adequately in social situations. The Youth Matters curriculum addressed each of these four core areas.

6.69. Zero program

The Zero antibullying program is based on the idea that bullying is predominately a version of proactive aggression (Roland et al.,  2010 ). The program aims to create a school environment that prevents these forms of proactive aggression. The intervention places the majority of responsibility for bullying prevention and intervention with the adults within the school environment (Roland et al.,  2010 ). School staff were required to define clear standards of positive prosocial behavior among the students and to ensure that these standards are met. Thus, the adults within the school context adhere to a “zero tolerance” policy toward bullying. Another key feature of the intervention is that students are instructed to treat all school property appropriately and respectfully and the intervention philosophy is carried into classroom activities and standards also.

During the intervention, class teachers engage their respective classes in active discussions about issues relating to bullying in adherence with the intervention guidelines. The preventative function of the Zero program takes both a direct and indirect approach (Roland & Galloway,  2004 ). Teachers are also expected to be vigilant and visible in school corridors and playgrounds during nonclass time and follow intervention procedures when dealing with specific instances of bullying (Roland et al.,  2010 ). When particular instances of bullying are identified, the victim is first approached and takes part in a few sessions with trained staff being comforted and assured. Parental involvement also occurs at this point. Finally, the perpetrators are invited to attend meetings and conflict resolution occurs under a restorative justice model.

6.70. Zippy's Friends

Zippy's Friends is a universal school‐based program for children aged 6–8 years old (Holen et al.,  2013 ; Mishara & Ystgaard,  2006 ). The overarching aim of the program is to develop and improve participants' coping strategies in order to reduce and prevent psychological problems. Zippy' Friends has been funded by the global suicide prevention organization “Befrienders International,” and is now distributed internationally by the nonprofit group “Partnership for Children.”

The intervention is delivered over the course of 24 weekly lessons, that are implemented by classroom teachers. The program is based around six stories of the imaginary character “Zippy,” three children, and their families and friends. A structured curriculum outline for each lesson allows participants to engage and discuss the various themes that emerge in each of the stories. Themes that are incorporated include: emotions; communication; friendships; conflict resolution; loss and change.

Teachers are provided with a detailed manual for the program and are required to guide their classrooms through the intervention while also encouraging active engagement with the content. Typical activities that are involved in the Zippy's friends program include: drawing, role‐playing, performing exercises, play and dialogue.

7. RESULTS OF SYSTEMATIC REVIEW

In addition to the newly identified studies ( n  = 88), primary evaluations ( n  = 53) discovered by Farrington and Ttofi ( 2009 ) are also included in the present systematic review, giving a total of 141 studies. However, this updated systematic review has excluded evaluations that used an “other” experimental‐control design ( n  = 13). Next, a detailed explanation is provided about studies which were excluded from the current review and justifications for this decision.

7.1. Studies excluded because of missing information

A certain amount of statistical information is needed in order to produce meaningful effect sizes in a meta‐analysis. We estimated an antibullying program's effectiveness as the difference between the experimental and control groups on bullying outcomes, either measured as the percentage of bullies/nonbullies or victims/nonvictims or based on mean scores on measurement instruments before and after implementation of the intervention.

However, 21 studies identified by our systematic review did not present sufficient effect size information, and so the primary authors of these publications were contacted. We were able to obtain relevant information for the majority of these studies, but three authors were unable to provide required statistics and seven did not respond to our email communication.

Thus, 10 studies had to be excluded from our meta‐analysis because of a lack of information regarding quantitative outcomes. These relate to: Gradinger et al. ( 2015 ); Harpin ( 2011 ); Kyriakides et al. ( 2014 ); Lewis et al. ( 2013 ); Lishak ( 2011 ); Low and Van Ryzin ( 2014 ); van der Ploeg et al. ( 2016 ); Sahin (2012); Schroeder et al. ( 2012 ); and Wurf (2010). In the previous review by Farrington and Ttofi ( 2009 ), 44 out of 53 evaluations provided sufficient information on quantitative outcomes.

7.2. Studies excluded because of nonindependent samples

One further stipulation of a meta‐analysis is that the final samples must be independent of one another (Borenstein et al.,  2009 ; Ellis,  2010 ). Overlapping samples are statistically dependent, and thus the variance of the summary effect size produced by the meta‐analysis would be under‐estimated (Wilson,  2010 ). Therefore, before conducting our meta‐analysis we ensured that all samples were independent of one another.

This issue of nonindependent samples was particularly relevant for the multiple evaluations of the KiVa antibullying program. Our thorough systematic searches identified 16 potentially includable studies presenting evaluation data from implementation of the KiVa program (i.e., Ahtola et al.,  2012 ,  2013 ; Garandeau, Lee, et al.,  2014 , Garandeau, Poskiparta, et al.,  2014 ; Haataja et al.,  2014 ; Hutchings & Clarkson,  2015 ; Kärnä et al.,  2011a ,  2011b ,  2013 ; Nocentini & Menesini,  2015 ; Noland,  2011 ; Sainio et al.,  2012 ; Salmivalli et al.,  2012 ; Williford et al.,  2012 ,  2013 ; Yang & Salmivalli,  2015 ). For a description of each of these studies, see Table  7 .

Description of KiVa studies

* Included in meta‐analysis.

However, following further screening, only four of the aforementioned studies were subsequently included in the systematic and meta‐analytic review (i.e., Kärnä et al.,  2011a ,  2011b ,  2013 ; Nocentini & Menesini, 2016). These four studies presented independent results of the KiVa program from the initial nationwide evaluation in Finland. Kärnä et al. ( 2011a ) used an age cohort design with adjacent cohorts and reported the initial results from the nationwide implementation in Finland. Second, Kärnä et al. ( 2011b ) reported the results from the RCT with Finnish students in grades 4–6, and Kärnä et al. ( 2013 ) reported results for students in grades 1–3 and 7–9. In addition, Nocentini and Menesini (2016) reported the results of the implementation and evaluation of KiVa in Italian schools. The remaining 12 publications relating to the KiVa program utilized data from the RCT evaluation in Finland (i.e., Kärnä et al.,  2013 or Kärnä et al.,  2011b ) but explored different facets of the program's effectiveness.

Four studies identified in our systematic searches replaced evaluations included in the earlier review. For example: (1) Menard and Grotpeter ( 2014 ) was a continuation of the Menard et al. ( 2008 ) evaluation; (2) Cross et al. ( 2011 ) was a republication of the Cross et al. ( 2004 ) evaluation included in the previous review; (3) Jenson et al. ( 2013 ) and Jenson et al. ( 2010 ) presented data from additional follow‐up points to the Jenson et al. ( 2007 ) evaluation; and (4) Frey et al. ( 2009 ) used an age cohort design to evaluate follow‐up effects from the earlier Frey et al. ( 2005 ) study. In cases such as these, the most recent publication, or the publication with the most statistical information, was included in the meta‐analysis.

Ten studies (published both before and since 2009) were identified as reporting the effectiveness of an antibullying program from the same sample, or were repeat publications of earlier studies (e.g., DeRosier,  2004 and DeRosier & Marcus,  2005 ; Domino,  2011 and Domino,  2013 ; Espelage et al.,  2013 and Espelage et al.,  2015 ; Jenson et al.,  2013 and Jenson et al.,  2010 ; and Menesini et al.,  2012 ; Study 2 and Palladino et al.,  2012 ). In these instances, the most recent publications were selected, and as a result, five studies were excluded from the meta‐analysis.

7.3. Included studies

Therefore, 128 studies are included. Table  5 summarizes the intervention programs and methodological components of the 79 newly identified studies that are included in the present systematic review. For details of the remaining 49 studies please refer to Farrington and Ttofi ( 2009 ).

7.4. Moderator analysis

The following moderators were selected a priori for further analysis, under the descriptive label (i.e., location of intervention, publication type, publication year), design label (i.e., evaluation method and unit of allocation/randomization), and the program heading (i.e., name of intervention, COI, and program specificity). Results of these moderator analyses analogous to the analysis of variance (ANOVA) are presented in Sections 8.5.1 to 8.5.7 of the present report.

7.4.1. Evaluation method

The primary moderator chosen for further analysis was evaluation method. Specifically, whether the evaluation was conducted using a RCT, quasi‐experimental with before and after measures (BA/EC) or age cohort (AC) design.

Overall, in relation to bullying perpetration outcomes, 36 evaluations used RCT designs, 31 used BA/EC designs and 14 used age cohort designs. However, due to some evaluations reporting data for multiple independent samples, a total of 40 effect sizes were estimated for bullying perpetration outcomes from RCT designs. A further 36 were estimated from BA/EC designs and 14 effect sizes came from evaluations using age cohort designs.

For bullying victimization outcomes, overall, 33 evaluations used RCT designs that gave 37 independent effect sizes for bullying victimization and 37 evaluations used BA/EC designs and gave 42 independent effect sizes. Similar to perpetration outcomes, 14 evaluations used age cohort designs to evaluate the effect of antibullying programs on bullying victimization outcomes.

7.4.2. Location of intervention

Evaluations included in the present analysis were conducted in many different countries around the world. However, there were only a few countries in which multiple evaluations of antibullying programs had been published.

Specifically, in the following countries only one evaluation was included in the present report: Austria (i.e., Yanagida et al.,  2019 ); Brazil (i.e., Silva et al.,  2016 ); China (i.e., Ju et al., 2009); Czechoslovakia (modern day Czech Republic and Solvakia; i.e., Rican et al.,  1996 ); Hong Kong (i.e., Wong et al.,  2011 ); Ireland (O'Moore and Milton,  2004 ); Malaysia (i.e., Yaakub et al.,  2010 ); Romania (i.e., Trip et al.,  2015 ); Sweden (i.e., Kimber et al.,  2008 ); Switzerland (Alsaker & Valkanover,  2001 ); South Africa (Meyer & Lesch,  2000 ); and Zambia (Kaljee et al.,  2017 ).

If these evaluations were to be included in further moderator analysis, we would be examining the differences based on only one sample and effect size. Therefore, moderator analysis was conducted only between locations in which multiple evaluations of antibullying programs had been conducted.

So, of the 100 evaluations included in our meta‐analysis of school‐based antibullying programs, the majority (80 for perpetration, 84 for victimization) were conducted in one of 12 different countries. With respect to bullying perpetration outcomes, these countries were as follows: Australia ( n  = 2); Canada ( n  = 6); Cyprus ( n  = 3); Finland ( n  = 6); Germany ( n  = 5); Greece ( n  = 2); Italy ( n  = 11); Netherlands ( n  = 3); Norway ( n  = 8); Spain ( n  = 3); UK ( n  = 4); and United States ( n  = 26). With respect to bullying victimization outcomes, these countries were as follows: Australia ( n  = 3); Canada ( n  = 7); Cyprus ( n  = 3); Finland ( n  = 6); Germany ( n  = 4); Greece ( n  = 2); Italy ( n  = 10); the Netherlands ( n  = 3); Norway ( n  = 7); Spain ( n  = 3); UK ( n  = 6); and United States ( n  = 28).

7.4.3. Publication type and year

Overall, the majority of evaluations were published in peer‐reviewed journal articles, for both bullying perpetration ( n  = 67) and bullying victimization ( n  = 72) outcomes. Two evaluations were published in chapters of edited books and both reported effects of a program on both bullying victimization and perpetration. No evaluations identified were published as entire books. Moreover, 12 unpublished dissertations were identified that published evaluation data for bullying perpetration and bullying victimization outcomes. Data was also retrieved for both outcomes from three governmental reports. Four of the effect sizes included in the present report were estimated from data emailed to authors (M. M. T. and D. P. F.) in preparation of the previous Campbell report (i.e., Farrington & Ttofi,  2009 ).

We also categorized included evaluations according to whether they were included in the previous report (i.e., “2009” studies), or only included in the present report (i.e., “2016” studies). In relation to bullying perpetration outcomes, 37 studies were coded as 2009 studies and 53 studies were coded as 2016 studies. Similarly, more studies were coded as 2016 ( n  = 54) studies in comparison to 2009 ( n  = 39) studies for bullying victimization outcomes.

7.4.4. Intervention program

We found that very few specific antibullying programs had been implemented and evaluated more than once using independent samples. Sixty‐five different school‐based bullying intervention and prevention programs were included in our meta‐analysis, but only eight were repeatedly evaluated. Moderator analysis with respect to the specific intervention program therefore, focused on programs that had been repeatedly evaluated.

In relation to reducing bullying perpetration outcomes the intervention programs thus included in our moderator analysis were: BPYS ( n  = 3; e.g., Menard & Grotpeter,  2014 ); fairplayer.manual ( n  = 2; e.g., Bull et al.,  2009 ); KiVa ( n  = 6; Kärnä et al.,  2011b ); NoTrap! ( n  = 4; e.g., Menesini et al.,  2012 ); Second Step ( n  = 3; e.g., Espelage et al.,  2015 ); Steps to Respect ( n  = 2; e.g., Frey et al.,  2005 ); ViSC ( n  = 5; e.g., Yanagida et al.,  2019 ).

Similarly, these interventions were included in our moderator analysis in relation to bullying victimization outcomes with the exception of the fairplayer.manual program. This intervention was evaluated twice only in relation to bullying perpetration outcomes.

Additionally, multiple evaluations of the OBPP were included in our meta‐analysis. Overall, 12 independent evaluations of this intervention were included in our analysis in relation to bullying perpetration and victimization outcomes. These are included in our moderator analysis as a collective subgroup and also as further subgroups. Evaluations of the OBPP conducted in the United States (perpetration n  = 6; victimization n  = 7) and those conducted in Norway (perpetration n  = 5; victimization n  = 5) were included in the moderator analysis separately. There was one evaluation of the OBPP conducted in Malaysia is included in the overall category ( n  = 12).

7.4.5. Unit of allocation/randomization

Systematic review findings showed that one consistent issue with included intervention programs was that the unit of allocation of participants, or clusters of participants, was different to the unit of analysis in most evaluations. Age cohort designs were omitted from this moderator analysis as the unit of allocation was largely unclear due to the logistics of this experimental design.

The majority of RCT and BA/EC evaluations assigned schools to experimental conditions (perpetration n  = 44; victimization n  = 47) yet the unit of analysis was individual students. A number of evaluations (perpetration n  = 19; victimization n  = 15) assigned classes to experimental conditions yet the unit of analysis was individual students. Less than 10 evaluations (perpetration n  = 7; victimization n  = 9) included assigned students to experimental and control conditions. One study randomly assigned districts to experimental conditions, and information was not available for five studies in relation to bullying perpetration outcomes and four studies in relation to bullying victimization.

7.4.6. Conflict of interest

In the present report, 40 studies were categorized as high COI. A large number of studies (perpetration n  = 36; victimization n  = 39) were considered low COI, and 14 were categorized as possible COI. Information concerning COI was unavailable for 4 evaluations in relation to bullying perpetration outcomes.

7.4.7. Program specificity

Overall, a small number ( n  = 11) of studies included in our analysis were coded as low on the program specificity variable. The vast majority of evaluations were considered highly specific (i.e., were mostly concerned with only bullying behavioral outcomes; n  = 59). Additionally, 18 studies were categorized as medium in relation to specificity, where extra outcome variables were measured but these variables were related to bullying (e.g., school climate).

7.5. Risk of bias analysis

Figure  2 presents the results of the risk of bias analysis for each of the items on the EPOC tool and the additional items we included. The following section describes each of these categories in more detail, with examples of high‐ and low‐risk studies included. The main limitation in assessing risk of bias was the lack of information reported by primary studies. Thus, while the best effort was made to categorize each primary evaluation as being high or low risk, a large number of studies were recorded as “unclear” risk.

Risk of bias analysis results. AC, allocation concealment; AS, allocation sequence; BC, baseline equivalence on participant characteristics; BE, baseline equivalence on outcomes; BOA, blind outcome assessment; COI, conflict of interest; CP, contamination protection; ID, incomplete outcome data; SOR, selected outcome reporting

As seen in Figure  2 , the fewest studies were considered unclear risk on CP and selected outcome reporting. Furthermore, a large number of studies were considered low risk on these items.

For the purpose of analysis, the categories high, unclear, and low risk were transformed into scores of 3, 2, and 0 respectively. A continuous “risk of bias” variable was then estimated as the sum total of scores on each of the EPOC items. As such, the lowest possible score a study could be given was zero and the maximum score was 24.

Descriptive statistical analysis identified that risk of bias scores ranged from 0 to 17, with a mean score of 9.62. Meta‐regression analysis was conducted to assess the relationship between risk of bias and effect sizes. The result of this analysis is included in Section  7 of this report. The following sections provide more detail about each of the risk categories.

7.5.1. Allocation sequence

AS refers to the way in which participants, or clusters of participants, were assigned to experimental conditions. For example, low‐risk studies were those where a random number generator or another randomization software was used. In total, 30 studies were categorized as high risk on the AS item. Moreover, 29 studies were low risk and 32 were unclear risk.

7.5.2. Allocation concealment

AC item refers to whether the method of allocation was concealed from participants or not. In total, 36 studies were categorized as high risk on the AC item. A further 19 studies were considered low risk, and 34 were unclear risk.

7.5.3. Baseline equivalence: Outcome

Baseline equivalence refers to the comparability of experimental and control participants before the intervention has taken place. This item specifically refers to equivalence on relevant outcomes, in this case, school bullying perpetration and victimization. When experimental and control participants are not statistically significant at baseline then we can be more certain that any changes are a result of the intervention. Overall, 14 studies were categorized as high risk on the baseline equivalence on bullying outcomes item. A total of 54 studies were low risk and 21 were unclear risk.

7.5.4. Baseline equivalence: Characteristics

Similarly, baseline equivalence on participant characteristics increases the chance that any change is a result of the intervention, and not a confounding variable such as differential participant characteristics at baseline. Overall, 15 studies were categorized as high risk on the baseline equivalence in participant characteristics item, 64 studies were low risk, and 11 were unclear risk.

7.5.5. Incomplete outcome data

Included evaluations were required to incorporate pre‐ and post‐intervention measures of bullying (except if randomization was used). However, because of this, it is likely that there will be some attrition in primary studies. The incomplete outcome data item referred to the risk associated with differential attrition between experimental groups and/or ways in which attrition and missing cases were dealt with by primary studies. Twelve studies were categorized as high risk on the incomplete outcome data item. Additionally, 48 studies were low risk and 29 were unclear risk.

7.5.6. Blind outcome assessment

This item assesses the risk associated with any bias which may arise if outcome measurements are not conducted blindly. In other words, if the individual, or individuals, who administer and collect the measurement instruments are aware of the experimental conditions of participants at the time of measurement. Overall, 27 studies were categorized as high risk on the BOA item. Twenty studies were low risk and 43 were unclear risk.

7.5.7. Contamination protection

Risk of contamination occurs when there is a possibility that experimental and control participants may interact or encounter one another during the course of the evaluation. Thus, the effects of the intervention may “spill over” to control students and impact the results of the evaluation. In our analysis, 35 studies were categorized as high risk on the CP item, 47 studies were low risk, and 9 were unclear risk.

7.5.8. Selective outcome reporting

SOR occurs when the outcomes reported in an evaluation study differ from the outcomes of interest proposed originally. For example, if a trial protocol proposed different outcomes than those actually reported in the publication of the trial results. Two studies were categorized as high risk on the SOR item. Eighty‐four studies were low risk, and three were unclear risk.

8. META‐ANALYSIS

After accounting for missing information, studies excluded because of their methodology (i.e., “other experimental‐control” designs), and studies with overlapping samples, a total of 41 studies were excluded from the meta‐analysis. Thus, a total of 100 studies were eligible for inclusion in our meta‐analysis. Table  8 outlines the raw data from these studies used to estimate effect sizes. The Comprehensive Meta‐Analysis (CMA) software was used to estimate all summary effect sizes in the present meta‐analysis.

Raw data from included evaluations

Abbreviations: A, after; B, before; C, control; E, experimental; M , mean; N , sample size; n , group sample size.

8.1. Effect sizes

A meta‐analysis aims to estimate comparable effect sizes from multiple primary studies. The choice of effect size depends on how statistical information is reported by primary studies (Borenstein et al.,  2009 ). In meta‐analyses such as this one, the data is largely presented in continuous (e.g., means, standard deviations, sample sizes) or dichotomous (e.g., prevalence or percentages) forms (Wilson,  2010 ). Thus, primary effect sizes estimated were Cohen's d and Odds Ratios.

As previously mentioned, we aimed to estimate one effect size for each independent sample included in primary studies. Therefore, where studies reported results separately for male and female participants, or primary and secondary school students, one effect size was calculated for each group.

For primary studies that presented results as percentages or frequencies of participants identifying as either bullies or victims, the odds ratio (OR) effect size was estimated. The ORs for before and after intervention time‐points were calculated independently. The CMA™ software that we used to analyze effect sizes in the present report did not allow us to enter raw data for before and after time‐points for primary studies that reported dichotomous outcomes separately. Thus, we were unable to use this software to calculate a pre‐post intervention estimate for these studies. Hence, these calculations were carried out manually, 5 by the first author, using the method outlined by Farrington and Ttofi ( 2009 ).

Cohen's d was estimated for primary studies when results were reported in the form of continuous data. Cohen's d is estimated as the difference between experimental and control means divided by the pooled standard deviation (Wilson,  2010 , p. 184). Effects were assigned a positive direction in cases where bullying was less in the experimental group compared to the control group or where the reduction in bullying outcomes was larger in the experimental group in comparison to the change in the control group. Following this logic, a negative effect was found when there was: (1) a larger reduction in the control group compared to the experimental group; or (2) there was no change or increase in bullying perpetration/victimization in the experimental group but a reduction or smaller increase in the control group.

For comparability, all effect sizes were converted to ODs. Summary mean effects for bullying perpetration, bullying victimization, and for each of the moderator subgroup are thus reported as odds ratios. In the present review, odds ratios greater than one represent a positive, or desirable, intervention effect. Namely, a reduction of bullying in the experimental group, that is comparably larger than the change in bullying in the control group. Therefore, the change is attributed to have occurred because of the intervention program. Similarly, odds ratios less than one represent a negative, or undesirable, intervention effect and odds ratios that equal one represents a null effect.

8.2. Corrections for clustering

As the present review aims to evaluate the effectiveness of school‐based antibullying programs, cluster‐randomized trials were included. Clustering is a common phenomenon in educational evaluations (Donner & Klar,  2002 ), and occurs when “clusters,” not individuals, are randomly assigned to experimental conditions (Higgins et al.,  2011 ). In other words, primary studies sometimes assigned classes or schools to intervention and control conditions, rather than individual students.

Often this approach is utilized in evaluation studies to reduce treatment contamination and increase administrative convenience (Donner et al.,  2001 ). However, one of the main issues with incorporating cluster‐randomized trials in a meta‐analysis is that participants within a cluster are likely to be more homogeneous than participants in another cluster (Higgins et al.,  2011 ). Thus, the variance of estimates of treatment effectiveness will be under‐estimated (Donner & Klar,  2002 , p. 2974). Clustering could occur for several reasons in studies included in the present report. For example: (1) classes of children, not individual children, were e randomized to intervention or control condition; (2) the intervention was implemented at the classroom level (i.e., to a class or group of children at one time); or (3) the intervention was targeted at teachers, who were trained to implement the intervention in their respective classrooms.

Therefore, effect sizes in the present meta‐analysis were corrected for the inclusion of clusters in primary studies. This is achieved by estimating a design effect:

where M represents the mean cluster size in each study (e.g., the mean number of students per classroom 6 ) and the ICC is the intraclass correlation coefficient.

The ICC is rarely reported by primary studies (Higgins et al.,  2011 ; Valdebenito et al.,  2018 ). Based on Murray and Blitse ( 2003 ), and subsequently the strategy followed by Farrington and Ttofi ( 2009 ), an ICC of 0.025 was assumed in the current meta‐analysis. The variances of effect sizes were then multiplied by this design effect estimated for each study. In the present meta‐analysis, there were only four studies where corrections for clustering were not required. Three studies (i.e., Berry & Hunt,  2009 ; Knowler & Frederickson,  2013 ; Meyer & Lesch,  2000 ) randomly assigned participants to experimental conditions, and Elledge et al. ( 2010 ) described an intervention that was not implemented in a classroom (i.e., the intervention occurred in one‐on‐one sessions with victims of bullying).

8.3. Computational models

The results of our meta‐analysis are presented using two different models. First, we will report the results as estimated using a random effects model that weights studies, largely in proportion to the between‐study variance and accounting for sampling error, thus allowing for the natural variation that occurs between primary studies (Borenstein et al.,  2009 ). We also present the results under the MVA model (Jones, 2005; Farrington & Welsh,  2013 ). which uses the same estimation of a mean effect size as the fixed effects model in that it assigns greater weight to larger evaluations, but also accounts for the between‐study heterogeneity. The MVA model takes account of the heterogeneity of effect sizes to fit the data exactly and yields the same mean effect size as a fixed effect model, but with and increased confidence interval. 7

Farrington and Welsh ( 2013 ) have argued that larger evaluations should be given more weight, and that adding to the variance of effect sizes in order to reduce the heterogeneity is not an optimal method of estimating the weighted mean effect size. When there is considerable heterogeneity in effect sizes, all studies tend to be given much the same weighting in a random effects model. Therefore, several effect sizes from independent samples in one study (e.g., a multisite evaluation) will have a greater weight in the random effects model than in the fixed effects model.

Comparing six models of estimating mean effect sizes for the impact on CCTV on crime rate, Farrington and Welsh ( 2013 ) found that five of the six models produced very similar mean odds ratio effect sizes, with the exception of the random effects model. In this case the random effects model estimated a much higher mean odds ratio (Farrington & Welsh,  2013 , p. 11).

The MVA model is suggested as an alternative approach that overcomes the issues of the random effects model. This technique can be seen as an adjustment to the fixed effects model and combines both the strengths of the fixed effects model (i.e., larger studies = larger weights) and the random effects model (i.e., adjusting for highly probable between‐study variance), and has been used in several meta‐analyses from both the behavioral sciences (e.g., Portnoy & Farrington,  2015 ; Ttofi et al.,  2016 ; Zych, Baldry, et al.,  2019 ; Zych, Viejo, et al.,  2019 ) and medical sciences, where this is known as the “Shore adjustment” (e.g., Ayieko et al.,  2014 ; Carlos‐Wallace et al.,  2016 ; Erren et al.,  2009 ; Steinmaus et al.,  2008 ).

A full review of the strengths and limitations of this model is beyond the scope of the current review. Therefore, in our current meta‐analysis we report mean effect sizes for the impact of antibullying programs on bullying perpetration and bullying victimization using both the random effects model and the MVA model. In later sections, we discuss the differences in the weighted mean effect sizes according to the model chosen.

8.4. Moderator analysis

In traditional empirical research when one wishes to compare two mean values to evaluate the difference between two participants, or two groups of participants, a t test is the standard statistical test. In meta‐analysis, we want to compare subgroups of studies rather than sub‐groups of individuals, so the analysis is slightly different. We followed guidelines provided by noted meta‐analysts for this type of analysis (Borenstein et al.,  2009 ; Lipsey & Wilson,  2001 ).

Our approach involved two steps: (1) computing the mean effect and variance for each subgroup; and (2) comparing the mean effects between subgroups (Borenstein et al.,  2009 , p. 152). This approach has been used previously by researchers to conduct similar analyses (e.g., Kaminski et al.,  2008 ; Ttofi & Farrington,  2011 ).

Comparing the mean effect sizes for subgroups involves a method that is analogous to a one‐way ANOVA in primary research (Hedges,  1982 ; Lipsey & Wilson,  2001 ; Wilson, 2002). The meta‐analyst creates mutually exclusive categories of primary studies and then compares the between‐studies ( Q B ) and the within‐studies ( Q W ) variance.

The between‐studies heterogeneity is the value used to evaluate whether the difference between subgroups is statistically significant (i.e., whether the difference in weighted mean effect sizes for subgroups is, at least partially, explained by the relevant intervention component). Similar to a one‐way analysis of variance, this approach partitions the variance and compares the variability between‐groups. The following formula is used to estimate the Q B :

The degrees of freedom for the between‐studies heterogeneity is estimated as j  − 1 and the statistical significance is determined using a χ 2 distribution. As Q B is estimated using the weights assigned to observed effect sizes, the value will vary between the fixed effects model and the random effects model. Q B is not reported for comparisons of subgroups with very unequal numbers of studies (e.g., location of the evaluation). Under the MVA model, the heterogeneity between groups is estimated by dividing the fixed effects Q B by Q/df . The present report presents results from moderator analysis under both the random effects and MVA models.

8.5. Meta‐regression analysis

CMA™ version 3 software was used to conduct meta‐regression analysis to explore the relationship between continuous moderator variables and perpetration and victimization outcomes. Weighted regression analysis (Lipsey & Wilson,  2001 ) were used to explore which moderators were independently related to school bullying perpetration and victimization. Meta‐regression analyses were only conducted for continuous moderator variables.

Meta‐regression analyses were computed under a fixed effects model, and the standard error of regression coefficients were adjusted using the MVA model. The Q and df of Q for the mean summary effect sizes for subgroups were used to adjust the standard error to reflect between‐study variance.

9. RESULTS OF META‐ANALYSIS

In total, 100 studies were included in our meta‐analysis of the effectiveness of school‐based antibullying programs. From these evaluations, we were able to estimate 103 independent effect sizes. These are presented for bullying perpetration and bullying victimization outcomes in Tables  8 and  9 , respectively. The majority of these effect sizes were estimated from studies that used RCT designs ( n  = 45 effect sizes) or BA/EC designs ( n  = 44 effect sizes). We estimated the remaining 14 effect sizes from age cohort designs.

Meta‐analysis results: School‐bullying perpetration outcomes

Abbreviations: BA/EC, before‐after/experimental control designs; CI, confidence intervals; MVA, multiplicative variance adjustment; OR, odds ratio; RCT, randomized controlled trial; Sig, statistically significant.

9.1. School‐bullying perpetration outcomes

Overall, we found that antibullying programs significantly reduced bullying perpetration under both computational models of meta‐analysis. The effect sizes for each evaluation are presented in Table  9 . The mean summary effect sizes were similar under both the multivariance adjustment model (MVA: OR = 1.324; 95% CI 1.27–1.38; z  = 13.4; p  < .001; I 2  = 81.42) and the random effects model (RE: OR = 1.309; 95% CI: 1.24–1.38; z  = 9.88; p  < 0.001; τ 2  = 0.044).

This result indicates that participants in primary studies who received an antibullying intervention were less likely to report engaging in bullying others after completing the program in comparison to control students who did not partake in the program.

Analysis of the funnel plot (Figure  3 ) suggests that publication bias is not present, as studies are symmetrically distributed around the mean effect size. In addition, point estimates did not vary using Duval and Tweedie's trim and fill procedure under a random effects model (in both cases: OR = 1.308; 95% CI 1.240–1.380). Based on these results, it was reasonable to assume that publication bias was not likely.

Publication bias analysis: school‐bullying perpetration

9.2. School‐bullying victimization outcomes

Overall, we found that antibullying programs significantly reduced bullying victimization under both computational models of meta‐analysis. The effect sizes for each evaluation are presented in Table  10 . The mean summary effect sizes were very similar under both the multivariance adjustment model (MVA: OR = 1.248; 95% CI 1.21–1.29; z  = 12.06; p  < .001; I 2  = 78.327) and the random effects model (RE: OR = 1.244; 95% CI: 1.19–1.31; z  = 8.92; p  < 0.001; τ 2  = 0.032).

Meta‐analysis results: School‐bullying victimization outcomes

This result suggests that students who participated in an antibullying program were significantly less likely to report being bullied by others after receiving the intervention in comparison to students who did not receive the intervention.

The funnel plot in Figure  4 indicates that no publication bias is present in analysis of bullying victimization effect sizes, as the studies fall symmetrically around the mean effect size. Duval and Tweedie's trim and fill procedure highlighted some minor differences between observed effect sizes (OR = 1.245; 95% CI 1.186–1.306; Q  = 460.97) and adjusted effect sizes (OR = 1.241; 95% CI 1.182–1.303; Q  = 473.43). However, this difference is negligible. Based on these results, it was reasonable to assume that publication bias was not likely.

Publication bias analysis: school‐bullying victimization

9.3. Analysis of heterogeneity

In a meta‐analysis, heterogeneity ( Q ) is the between‐study spurious variance that occurs partly because of true variation in effect sizes, but also as a result of random error (Borenstein et al.,  2009 ). Heterogeneity is estimated as the excess variation that exists when we compare the total amount of between‐study variance and within‐study random error.

In the present meta‐analysis, there was significant heterogeneity between studies for both bullying perpetration ( Q  = 323.392; df  = 85; p  < 0.001; I 2  = 73.716) and bullying victimization ( Q  = 387.255; df  = 87; p  < 0.001; I 2  = 77.534) outcomes. Multiple moderator analyses were conducted to explore possible explanations for this heterogeneity.

9.4. Risk of bias analysis

Scores on each of the risk of bias items were summed to estimate a total risk of bias score. This continuous variable was then used to examine the relationship between effectiveness and risk of bias in meta‐regression models.

For perpetration outcomes, risk of bias was not associated with effect size under a random effects model of meta‐regression ( b  = 0.003; SE  = 0.006; z  = 0.50; p  = .621) or under the MVA model ( b  = 0.014; SE  = 0.014; z  = 1.01; p  = .156). Similarly, risk of bias scores did not significantly predict bullying victimization effect sizes under a random effects meta‐regression ( b  = 0.007; SE  = 0.005; z  = 1.30; p  = .195) or the MVA model ( b  = 0.012; SE  = 0.012; z  = 1.006; p  = .157).

9.5. Moderator analyses 8

9.5.1. evaluation method.

Our meta‐analysis further investigated the effectiveness of antibullying programs in relation to the methodological designs used by evaluation studies. The breakdown of results by methodological design is also shown in Tables  9 and  10 for bullying perpetration and victimization outcomes respectively.

Primary studies employing age cohort designs associated with the largest effect sizes for both bullying perpetration (OR = 1.474; 95% CI, 1.39–1.56; p  < .001) and bullying victimization (OR = 1.302; 95% CI, 1.230–1.378; p  < .001) under a random effects model. Similarly, AC studies were associated with the largest effect sizes under the MVA model also (perpetration OR = 1.422; 95% CI, 1.36–1.46; p  < .001) and victimization OR = 1.289; 95% CI, 1.29–1.35; p  < .001).

Under the MVA model of meta‐analysis, mean effect sizes were the same for RCT evaluations (OR = 1.171; 95% CI, 1.08–1.27; p  < .001) and BA/EC evaluations (OR = 1.170; 95% CI, 1.05–1.31; p  = .005) for bullying perpetration outcomes. Moreover, the differences between RCT evaluations (OR = 1.117; 95% CI, 1.03–1.22; p  = .01) and BA/EC evaluations (OR = 1.188; 95% CI, 1.07–1.33; p  = .002) were marginal for bullying victimization outcomes under the MVA model.

In relation to bullying victimization outcomes, before‐after/experimental‐control designs gave the second largest mean effect size (OR = 1.225; 95% CI, 1.085–1.383; p  = 0.001), followed by RCTs (OR = 1.210; 95% CI, 1.091–1.342; p  < .001) under a random effects model. However, the result was the opposite for bullying perpetration outcomes under a random effects model (RCT: OR = 1.244; 95% CI, 1.123–1.379; p  < .001; BA/EC: OR = 1.187; 95% CI, 1.044–1.350; p  = 0.009).

Due to the marginal differences and lack of clear pattern in which method was associated with the largest effect sizes (between RCT and BA/EC) further moderator analysis was not conducted.

9.5.2. Location of intervention

Mean effects for bullying perpetration and bullying victimization outcomes are presented graphically in Figures  5 and  6 , respectively. Table  11 outlines the mean effects for each of the 12 countries for both bullying perpetration and victimization outcomes under both the MVA model and the random effects model.

Forest plot of effect size by location: school‐bullying perpetration

Forest plot of effect sizes by location: school‐bullying victimization

Moderator analyses results: Location of evaluation

Evaluations conducted in Greece were associated with the largest effect sizes for bullying perpetration outcomes, followed by Norway, Italy, United States, and Finland under the MVA model of meta‐analysis. Evaluations conducted in Italy were associated with the largest mean effect sizes in relation to bullying victimization, followed by Spain, Norway, United States, and Finland under the MVA model of meta‐analysis. Additionally, evaluations conducted in Germany and the UK gave significant mean effects when computed using the MVA model.

Under the random effects model, Greek evaluations were similarly associated with the largest effect sizes for bullying perpetration, followed by Spanish and Norwegian evaluations. Evaluations conducted in Italy and the United States were also associated with significant mean effects for reductions in bullying perpetration. In relation to bullying victimization, evaluations conducted in Spain and Italy were associated with very similar mean effect sizes and were the largest of the 12 effect sizes, followed by evaluations conducted in Norway. Evaluations conducted in Australia were also associated with significant mean effects in reducing bullying victimization ( p  < .05) and evaluations conducted in Finland and the United States were nearly statistically significant ( p  = .05 and p  = .06, respectively) under the random effects model.

Due to the large number of different countries and the unequal number of studies in each location, further subgroup analyses were not conducted.

9.5.3. Publication type and year

Table  12 outlines the mean summary effect sizes for each of the publication type moderators for bullying perpetration and victimization outcomes. Evaluations for which data was received via email correspondence from evaluators gave the largest mean effect sizes for both bullying perpetration and bullying victimization. Differences in the mean effect sizes for evaluations reported via unpublished dissertations, either masters or doctoral theses, gave the smallest mean effect sizes for both bullying perpetration and victimization outcomes. Subgroup analysis was not conducted further using these categorizations due to the imbalance in numbers of evaluations in each category (i.e., evaluations were overwhelmingly published in peer‐reviewed journal article format).

Moderator analyses results: Publication type

However, additional analysis was conducted to examine any potential differences between peer reviewed and nonpeer reviewed evaluations. Therefore, the above categories were collapsed, and evaluations reported by dissertation, chapter, correspondence and governmental reports (perpetration n  = 23; victimization n  = 21) were compared to evaluations published via peer‐reviewed journal article.

Under the MVA model, non‐peer‐reviewed evaluations gave a larger (OR = 1.493; 95% CI, 1.266–1.761; p  < .001) mean effect size than peer‐reviewed evaluations (see Table  11 ). Moreover, moderator analysis indicated that the difference was statistically significant ( Q B  = 12.861; df  = 1; p  < .001). However, under the random effects model, both groups gave similar effect sizes for bullying perpetration outcomes, and the difference between peer‐reviewed (see Table  11 ) and non‐peer‐reviewed (OR = 1.309; 95% CI, 1.137–1.508; p  < .001) was not statistically significant ( Q B  = 0.595; df  = 1; p  = .441).

For bullying victimization outcomes, similar results were obtained. Under the MVA model, non‐peer‐reviewed evaluations gave statistically significant larger mean effect sizes (OR = 1.403; 95% CI, 1.262 1.560; p  < .001) than peer‐reviewed evaluations (see Table  11 ; Q B  = 27.197; df  = 1; p  < .001). Yet, there was a marginal difference under the random effects model between peer‐reviewed (see Table  11 ) and non‐peer‐reviewed (OR = 1.231; 95% CI, 1.059–1.431; p  = .007) and the difference was not statistically significant ( Q B  = 0.048; df  = 1; p  = .827).

The mean summary effect size for “2009” studies on the year of publication moderator was OR = 1.487 (95% CI, 1.430–1.546; p  < .001) under the MVA model and OR = 1.411 (95% CI, 1.315–1.513; p  < .001) under the random effects model for bullying perpetration outcomes. Across both computational models these summary effects were larger than those for studies labeled “2016” on bullying perpetration for the MVA model (OR = 1.243; 95% CI, 1.667–1.324; p  < .001) and the RE model (OR = 1.184; 95% CI, 1.087–1.289; p  < .001). Moderator analysis analogous to the ANOVA showed that this difference was statistically significant ( Q B  = 76.412; df  = 1; p  < .001) under fixed effects and mixed effects analysis ( Q B  = 9.676; df  = 1; p  = .002).

In relation to bullying victimization, the mean summary effect size for studies labeled “2009” was larger (OR = 1.322; 95% CI, 1.220–1.432; p  < .001) under the MVA model than the mean summary effect size for studies labeled “2016” (OR = 1.229; 95% CI, 1.175–1.285; p  < .001). Moderator analysis analogous to the ANOVA found that this difference was statistically significant ( Q B  = 10.115; df  = 1; p  = .001) but the difference between odds ratios was marginal. However, under the random effects model the minimal difference between the “2009” studies (OR = 1.215; 95% CI, 1.094–1.350; p  < .001) was not statistically different to the mean summary effect size for “2019” studies (OR = 1.223; 95% CI, 1.139–1.313; p  < .001; Q B  = 0.010; df  = 1; p  = .920).

9.5.4. Intervention program

The mean summary effect sizes for 10 different intervention programs in relation to reducing bullying perpetration behaviors and 9 different intervention programs in relation to reducing bullying victimization behaviors. Table  13 outlines the effectiveness of specific antibullying programs in reducing both school‐bullying perpetration and victimization. The effectiveness of these programs varied greatly.

Moderator analyses results: Intervention program

In relation to school‐bullying perpetration outcomes, the OBPP was associated with the largest mean effect sizes. In addition, evaluations of the OBPP in Norway were associated with larger summary effect sizes than evaluations of OBPP conducted in the United States. However, the difference was not statistically significant for school‐bullying perpetration outcomes when moderator analysis analogous to the ANOVA was conducted ( Q b  = 3.65; df  = 1; p  = 0.06).

Other programs were significantly effective in reducing school‐bullying perpetration behaviors, for example KiVa, Second Step, and Steps to Respect. Positive effect sizes (i.e., OR > 1) were also observed for the BPYS and NoTrap! programs but these effects were not statistically significant in relation to reduction in bullying perpetration outcomes. Negative effects were found for two antibullying programs, the fairplayer manual and ViSC, although these effects were not statistically significant.

In relation to school‐bullying victimization outcomes, NoTrap! was associated with the largest mean effect size, followed by the BPYS Program, and then the OBPP. Our analysis identified that other antibullying programs were also significantly effective in reducing school‐bullying victimization, for example, Steps to Respect and KiVa.

Again, effect sizes for the OBPP varied between evaluations conducted in Norway and evaluations conducted in the United States for bullying victimization outcomes. Moreover, our analysis found that the difference in the magnitude of these effect sizes was statistically significant ( Q b   =  74.95; df  = 1; p  < 0.001). Our analysis also identified negative effects of the Second Step program in relation to bullying victimization outcomes. Evaluations of the ViSC program also had a negative effect on bullying victimization, although this effect was not statistically significant.

9.5.5. Unit of allocation/randomization

Table  14 outlines the mean effects for subgroups of studies according to how participants were allocated to experimental or control groups. Results are presented for bullying perpetration and victimization outcomes for all studies that allocated studies in classes, schools, or individual students. The mean effects for RCT and BAEC for each allocation unit are also presented separately.

Moderator analyses results: Unit of allocation/randomization

In relation to bullying perpetration outcomes, under the MVA model, studies that assigned participants in classes were associated with the largest effect sizes. However, the difference between the mean effect for all evaluations that used classes or schools as the unit of allocation were verging on statistically significance ( Q b   =  3.705, df  = 1, p  = .054). Under the random effects model, evaluations that assigned students to experimental conditions were associated with the largest effect size for bullying perpetration outcomes when all designs were included, and for RCT evaluations and BA/EC evaluations individually. However, the mean effect size for many of the subgroups were not collectively statistically significant overall under the random effects model.

Similarly, under the MVA model, evaluations conducted using a RCT design, and assigned classes to conditions, were associated with the largest effect size for bullying perpetration, although the mean group for this subgroup was not statistically significant. Moreover, moderator analysis analogous to the ANOVA found that the difference in the mean effect size for RCT designs that assigned classes to experimental and control conditions were not statistically different to RCT designs that assigned schools to experimental and control conditions ( Q b   =  1.140, df  = 1, p  = .286 ) .

In relation to BAEC designs, evaluations that assigned students to experimental conditions were associated with the largest mean effect size, although the effect was not statistically significant. However, the difference between the mean effect for BAEC evaluations that assigned classes and those that assigned schools to conditions was statistically significant under the MVA model ( Q b   =  4.551, df  = 1, p  = .033).

For bullying victimization outcomes, studies where the unit of allocation was classes of participants were associated with the largest effect sizes, followed by schools and individual students under the MVA model. The difference between studies that allocated classes and studies that allocated schools was statistically significant ( Q b   =  12.450, df  = 1, p  < .001). This pattern was observed when all designs were included, and for the subgroup of RCT evaluations and the subgroup of BA/EC evaluations. Thus, when participants were assigned in classes the mean effect size for these RCT evaluations were significantly associated with larger effect sizes ( Q b   =  13.590, df  = 1, p  < .001) for reductions in bullying victimization than RCT evaluations that assigned schools. Yet the difference between the mean effect sizes for BA/EC evaluations that assigned classes were not statistically significant ( Q b   =  3.359, df  = 1, p  = .067) than BA/EC evaluations that assigned schools to experimental conditions.

9.5.6. Conflict of interest

COI was a categorical moderator variable with three levels: high‐risk (H), low‐risk (L), and possible‐risk (P). Moderator analysis analogous to the ANOVA was conducted so as to assess the differences between evaluations on each level. Studies categorized as possible‐risk on COI variable were excluded from subgroup comparisons to establish the differences between evaluations that were clearly high‐risk and evaluations that were clearly low‐risk. Table  15 outlines the mean summary effects for each group for both bullying perpetration and bullying victimization outcomes.

Moderator analyses results: Conflict of interest

Note : Four studies and six studies were excluded from the present moderator analysis for perpetration and victimization outcome respectively as not enough information was available.

Moderator analyses found that the difference between high‐risk and low‐risk studies on COI variable was statistically significant for bullying perpetration outcomes under both the MVA model ( Q B  = 50.129; df  = 1; p  < .001) and the random effects model ( Q B  = 4.900; df  = 1; p  = .027). This suggests that evaluations considered to have high COI were associated with larger overall effect sizes for bullying perpetration. Similarly, high‐risk COI studies were significantly associated with slightly larger effect sizes for bullying victimization in comparison to low‐risk COI studies when compared under both the MVA model ( Q B  = 16.127; df  = 1; p  < .001) and the random effects model ( Q B  = 4.449; df  = 1; p  = .035).

9.5.7. Program specificity

The majority of evaluations included in our meta‐analysis were of highly specific intervention programs, that is, those that targeted bullying behaviors and no other outcomes. Consistently across computational model and both perpetration and victimization outcomes these subgroups were associated with the largest mean effect sizes. These results are presented in Table  16 . Additionally, highly specific programs were the only subgroup of evaluations that gave a statistically significant mean summary effect under both the MVA model and the random effects model for bullying victimization outcomes. In relation to bullying perpetration outcomes, the subgroup of evaluations that were coded as “medium” on the program specificity moderator were associated with a statistically significant mean effect size under the MVA model ( p  < .001) and the random effects model ( p  = .036).

Moderator analyses results: Program specificity

10. DISCUSSION

10.1. summary of main findings.

Overall, our updated meta‐analysis found that school‐based antibullying programs are effective in reducing both school‐bullying perpetration and victimization. For school‐bullying perpetration the weighted mean OR = 1.324 under the MVA model, or OR = 1.309 under a random‐effects model (RE) were associated with reductions of approximately 19–20%. 9 In comparison, the weighted mean ORs for bullying victimization outcomes were 1.248 and 1.242 under the MVA model and the random effects model respectively. These mean effect sizes correspond to an approximate reduction in bullying victimization of 15–16%. These results suggest that the included interventions were slightly more effective at reducing school‐bullying perpetration than school‐bullying victimization.

The results of this meta‐analysis are consistent with findings from most of previous reviews that indicate that antibullying programs have a small but significant effect, with some variations in overall results being attributable to methodological differences in inclusion and exclusion criteria (Ttofi et al.,  2014 ). Our mean effect sizes are also consistent with the earlier review (Farrington & Ttofi, 2009 ; Ttofi & Farrington,  2011 ), although the differences further outline that moderator variables such as methodological design may be responsible for variability. For example, the weighted mean effect sizes for both bullying perpetration and bullying victimization outcomes estimated in the earlier Campbell report were larger than those estimated in the present report.

Yet, we included publication year as a categorical moderator variable in the present analysis. We found that more recent studies (i.e., those that were not included by Farrington & Ttofi,  2009 ) were significantly different to studies that were included in the earlier review. Namely, recent studies were actually associated with significantly larger effect sizes for both bullying perpetration and victimization outcomes (see Section 8.5.3).

Therefore, as we excluded studies considered to have utilized less scientifically rigorous methodological designs this may explain the differences in the weighted mean effect sizes. Specifically, we excluded evaluations conducted using “other experimental‐control designs,” described in the earlier review as evaluations in which participants were assigned to experimental and control conditions but bullying outcomes were only measured after implementation of the intervention. Thus, attributing any change in behaviors to the intervention is potentially risky because there may be other reasons why a positive effect of the intervention was observed. For example, the experimental and control groups were not comparable at baseline, but this remains unknown as no measure of bullying was obtained.

Thus, the inclusion of these less methodologically rigorous evaluations may explain why the weighted mean effects sizes reported in the earlier review were larger than those reported in the current report, but our moderator analysis found a contradictory pattern. The following sections of this report will aim to discuss the findings obtained by our moderator analyses and also the strengths and limitations of the current analysis and potential avenues for future research. The heterogeneity in this meta‐analysis was very large for both bullying perpetration and victimization outcomes. This may suggest that there was a wide range of effects across programs and we may not be able to explain differences using moderator analysis.

10.2. Moderator analyses

10.2.1. evaluation method.

Under both the MVA and random effects models, evaluations conducted using age cohort designs were identified to be, collectively, the most effective, or at least associated with the largest mean effect sizes. This is consistent with Farrington and Ttofi's ( 2009 ) review. This methodological design was first introduced as an evaluation design for the OBPP (Olweus,  1991 ). This approach has been criticized for the potential threats to internal validity, history and testing effects (Farrington & Ttofi,  2009 , p. 15). It has been suggested that this design avoids the threats of aging and maturation effects, as individuals within the same school act as a control group for same‐aged experimental participants (Olweus,  2005a ). However, this design is vulnerable to cross‐contamination between experimental and control participants which would impact the overall effectiveness. Notably, intervention researchers have tested the OBPP with other methodological designs (e.g., Bauer et al.,  2007 ) which resulted in smaller effects.

Interestingly, the pattern between RCTs and BA/EC designs was less clear. In relation to bullying victimization outcomes, evaluations using BA/EC designs appear to be more effective than evaluations using RCT designs. However, for bullying perpetration outcomes, evaluations using RCT designs appear to be more effective than evaluations that utilized BA/EC designs. Further research is needed to understand these effects. However, the nature of these analyses is correlational and the differences between effect sizes are marginal. Thus, no concrete conclusion can be drawn in relation to the association between randomized and nonrandomized quasi experimental designs and effect size in the present context.

10.2.2. Unit of allocation/randomization

In theory, RCTs are the best method of evaluation of interventions because random allocation ensures that any observed differences between experimental and control groups occurs as a result of experimental manipulation, thus giving the best possible internal validity (Farrington,  1983 ,  2003 ). However, the unit of random allocation can have an impact on internal validity. For example, we assume that individuals are randomly assigned to experimental and control conditions, so that RCT designs adequately account for the random variation that occurs in real‐world research (Weisburd,  2003 ).

However, in practice, evaluations of antibullying programs may be more likely to assign groups of individuals, for example in terms of classrooms or schools, to experimental conditions rather than individual students. This is true for both randomized (e.g., classrooms, Chaux et al.,  2016 ; or schools, Espelage et al.,  2015 ) and nonrandomized (e.g., classrooms, Ortega‐Ruiz et al.,  2012 ; or schools, Rawana et al.,  2011 ) methodologies. When this is the case, we need larger numbers to ensure adequate statistical conclusion validity and avoid issues of selection effects and differential attrition (Farrington & Ttofi,  2009 ; Ttofi & Farrington,  2011 ). There was a lot of variation in the unit of allocation in our primary studies, which may explain why we did not find that one methodological design was more effective than another.

Moreover, the majority of included evaluations did not use the same unit for allocation and analysis, thus, posing a threat to our results. We approach the results therefore with caution, favouring more conservative estimates. Furthermore, the relationship between the unit of randomization/allocation moderator variable and the effect sizes for bullying perpetration and victimization outcomes was unclear. Whether or not the differences between subgroups of evaluations that assigned classes or schools to experimental conditions were statistically significant or not depended on the computational model used and the bullying outcome in question. For bullying perpetration, the differences between studies based on unit of allocation were not statistically significant for randomized and nonrandomized studies. For bullying victimization outcomes, studies where classes were the unit of allocation were associated with the largest effect sizes when all designs where included and for randomized evaluations, but not for nonrandomized evaluations, separately.

Risk of bias analysis also found that a large number of RCT studies were categorized as being high risk for allocation‐related items on the EPOC tool. Therefore, the differences observed between primary evaluations in our meta‐analysis may be due to the observation that largely the unit of allocation and the unit of analysis were not the same in primary studies. However, further analysis and investigation is needed to better understand these results.

10.2.3. Location of intervention

Overall, the results of our meta‐analysis are consistent with previous findings and show that school‐based antibullying programs have a modest but significant effect in reducing bullying behaviors. However, our meta‐analysis included evaluations of antibullying programs from a wide range of countries and specific intervention programs, far more than previous meta‐analyses (e.g., Cantone et al.,  2015 ; Chalamandaris & Piette,  2015 ; Evans et al.,  2014 ; Jiménez‐Barbero et al.,  2012 ,  2016 ). As a result, the results of this meta‐analysis are robust and have implications for bullying research globally.

Our analysis identifies that antibullying programs worldwide are effective in reducing school‐bullying perpetration and victimization by significant amounts. Moreover, evaluations in different countries appear to vary in effectiveness. In Greece, where evaluations included in our meta‐analysis were associated with the largest effect sizes, school‐bullying perpetration behaviors were reduced by approximately 40%. Evaluations conducted in the Norway, Italy and the United States were also effective in reducing bullying perpetration by approximately 21–25%.

Antibullying programs implemented and evaluated in Italy were associated with the largest reduction in school‐bullying victimization in our meta‐analysis, with the odds ratio effect size corresponding to an approximate reduction of 31%. Moreover, evaluations conducted in Spain and Norway reduced school‐bullying victimization by approximately 28% and 23%, respectively. Evaluations conducted in Finland, Germany and the UK were also significantly effective, although less so, reducing school‐bullying victimization by approximately 8–12%.

There are many potential explanations for the differences in effectiveness observed between countries. For example, definitions of school‐bullying, and behaviors that constitute bullying, differ between countries. Previous research conducted by Smith et al. (2000) showed that school‐bullying is perceived differently across different countries and cultures and this may explain variability in bullying reporting. Definitions of school bullying, and behaviors that constitute bullying, differ between countries. For example, Smith et al. ( 2016 ) showed that school bullying in Eastern cultures manifests more often as exclusion or isolation of an individual victim. In comparison, school bullying in Western cultures comprises a wider range of physical, verbal and relational forms of aggression.

Our meta‐analysis included several examples of cases where the same intervention program was evaluated in different countries (e.g., KiVa program in Finland (Kärnä et al.,  2013 ) and in Italy (Nocentini & Menesini, 2016)). While societal practices, educational systems, and individual lifestyles may differ greatly, some argue that there may be some support for the cross‐national applicability of specific intervention programs. However, there is a current lack of existing research comparing the effectiveness of specific interventions in specific countries.

Previous research has indicated that are also cultural differences in bullying behaviors among adolescents (e.g., Smith et al.,  2016 ). As such, an antibullying program to reduce these behaviors may be impacted by these differences. This is particularly evident when we observe the variations in effect sizes for the OBPP (Olweus,  1993 ) and the KiVa antibullying program. These programs may be the most well‐known antibullying programs that are commercially available, and as such as the only examples in our review of interventions evaluated in completely different locations.

The OBPP program was originally designed and implemented in Norway, and it is therefore not surprising that the OBPP program appears to be effective in reducing both school‐bullying perpetration and victimization when evaluated in Norway, compared to evaluations in the United States (see Table  13 ). While the program was still significantly effective in the United States, the percentage decrease in school‐bullying perpetration was roughly 25% and in school‐bullying victimization was roughly 11%. These figures are lesser in comparison to the decreases in bullying behaviors seen in Norwegian evaluations (35% perpetration; 29% victimization). These differences could be attributed to different evaluation methodologies (see Gaffney et al., 2019), however, they most likely reflect cultural and societal differences between youth in Norway and youth in the United States.

Interestingly, the opposite is observed with the KiVa program. When KiVa was evaluated in Finnish samples, the program was effective in reducing school‐bullying perpetration by approximately 4–5% and school‐bullying victimization by approximately 6% (Kärnä et al.,  2011a ,  2011b ,  2013 ). However, when evaluated in Italian primary and secondary schools, the effect sizes were much larger. Nocentini and Mensini (2016) found that KiVa was effective in reducing school‐bullying perpetration by approximately 15–20% and school‐bullying victimization by approximately 25%.

In the case of KiVa, each of the evaluations used the same methodology (i.e., RCT), but varied greatly in the sample size. Thus, further research is needed to explain why some interventions (e.g., OBPP or KiVa) appear to be more effective in some samples compared to others. The programs are still effective, but the variation in effect size could be attributable to a number of different methodological and implementation factors that warrant further exploration.

10.2.4. Intervention program

Following this logic, we also explored the effectiveness of the specific antibullying programs. Out of the four most widely disseminated antibullying programs included in our review (i.e., KiVA, NoTrap!, OBPP, ViSC), the OBPP was collectively the most effective in reducing school bullying perpetration of these. Across 11 evaluations, the OBPP reduced bullying perpetration by approximately 26%, which was larger than any other widely disseminated program.

In relation to school‐bullying victimization outcomes, the NoTrap! program was the most effective, reducing victimization by around 37%. NoTrap! also reduced bullying perpetration by a considerable amount, approximately 22%, but this effect was not statistically significant. The KiVA program, significantly reduced school bullying perpetration by approximately 9% and school bullying victimization by approximately 11%. The ViSC program was the only program to increase bullying perpetration (by roughly 4%) and bullying victimization (by roughly 4%) although these effects were not statistically significant.

Another moderator we used to code differences between included evaluations was the specificity of the intervention program. In other words, we evaluated each intervention program on how specific it related to bullying behaviors. Unsurprisingly, our findings suggest that antibullying programs gave the largest overall effect sizes. While the significance of the differences between subgroups was not computed due to the large discrepancies between the numbers of evaluations included in each subgroup.

However, our inclusion criteria for the current report was strictly concerned with school‐bullying intervention programs and behavioral outcomes of bullying. As such, we may have overlooked effective programs that only included nonbehavioral outcomes of bullying (e.g., attitudes toward bullying, awareness of bullying) or other problem behaviors (e.g., peer aggression or victimization, mental health issues, juvenile delinquency, etc.) that occur among young people in schools. Changes in these behaviors may also impact bullying, either directly or indirectly, yet, more research is needed to understand this potential effect. Most obvious in the present report is how programs that target specifically school‐bullying may impact cyber‐bullying, and vice versa, given the significant overlap in the prevalence of these behaviors (Baldry et al.,  2017 ).

Further research is also needed to better understand specifically “what works” in these “specific interventions.” In the previous review, (Farrington and Ttofi  2009 ; Ttofi & Farrington,  2011 ) conducted detailed coding of interventions and evaluations and analyzed how effect sizes varied between components and features of primary studies. For example, parent training, playground supervision, and more intense and longer programs were significantly correlated with larger reductions in bullying perpetration (Ttofi & Farrington,  2011 ). Moreover, several intervention components were associated with larger reductions in bullying victimization (e.g., videos, disciplinary methods, co‐operative group work and more intense and longer programs). Therefore, an important avenue for future research is to assess the differences in effectiveness of antibullying programs according to specific intervention components across the 100 evaluations included in our meta‐analysis. Such research would have important implications for policy and the development of future antibullying programs.

Additionally, it appears that since 2009 several large‐scale antibullying programs have been implemented and evaluated (e.g., KiVa; Kärnä et al.,  2013 ; NoTrap!; Menesini et al.,  2012 ; Palladino et al.,  2016 ). Because there is typically more information available on the specific components of these programs, we may be able to code more specific details in future analyses. For example, many studies may fit the criteria for “parent training,” but there is a significant difference between the intensity of parental involvement. For example, some studies may include parents merely by sending letters home with participant children (e.g., Brown et al.,  2011 ), while others include parents more actively by holding information evenings or requiring children to complete take‐home tasks with parental involvement (e.g., Berry & Hunt,  2009 ; Domino,  2013 ).

Earlier research highlighted how varying levels of implementation of each intervention component may explain variability in intervention outcomes (Bloom et al.,  2003 ). Interestingly, a narrative review by Smith et al. ( 2003 ) reported that although 14 whole‐school antibullying programs obtained modest effects overall, those that monitored implementation obtained twice the mean effects on self‐reported rates of bullying and victimization than those that did not monitor implementation. Thus, additional analyses are required to better understand specifically what works in existing antibullying programs and the underlying mechanisms of behavioral change

10.2.5. COI and publication type

Possibly the most conclusive results from our moderator analyses were observed in relation to COI and publication type. First, across both computational models and outcomes, studies that were categorized as being high‐risk for COI were associated with significantly larger reductions in bullying perpetration and victimization. Second, under the MVA model of meta‐analysis, non‐peer‐reviewed evaluations were associated with significantly larger reductions in both bullying perpetration and victimization outcomes. However, the same results were not observed under the random effects.

We examined COI in terms of the involvement of the program developer in the evaluation. Our results may indicate possible sources of biases. For example, it may be that when the individual, or team, that are credited with developing an antibullying program are also involved in the evaluation of said intervention, biases such as confirmation bias may impact the results. However, it may not be a perceivably “negative” source of bias. Perhaps, when the program developer is involved in the implementation of the program, the intervention is simply delivered better and more effectively. There are a number of other factors that could also be affected and in turn impact the effect size, such as teacher and staff efficacy and motivation to participate the in the program.

There are more sophisticated measures of COI (e.g., Eisner et al.,  2012 ) that include elements such as whether or not the evaluator could potentially benefit financially from the intervention program. Further indicators of COI are thus needed to better understand the impact on evaluation results. For example, our findings in relation to COI and larger effect sizes may be explained as: evaluations in which the program developer was included appear to be more effective because of the expertise and intricate knowledge of the developer. Therefore, the results may reflect differences in the quality of program implementation rather than troublesome biases. Additional research is needed.

10.3. Limitations and avenues for future research

Like most meta‐analyses, the current report is largely limited by the lack of understanding as to what is the “true effect.” When comparing mean effect sizes between moderators for example, it is difficult to determine the validity of the result. Throughout our discussion of result we discuss that one subgroup of studies was associated with larger or smaller effect sizes than another, and the statistical significance of these differences. Thus, we avoid saying studies in subgroup A (e.g., evaluations conducted in Greece) are more effective than studies in subgroup B (e.g., evaluations conducted in Italy). Due to the correlational nature of our moderator analyses we cannot make causal inferences. In addition to this limitation, and those previously discussed (Section  9.2 ), the following section of this report discusses some further limitations.

10.3.1. Measurement of bullying

Experts in the area of school‐bullying research have outlined how there still remain issues of comparability in the assessment of school‐bullying perpetration and victimization (Volk et al.,  2017 ). Studies included in the present meta‐analysis used a wide variety of quantitative measures of school‐bullying behaviors, including self‐report measures (e.g., the Revised Olweus Bully/Victim Questionnaire—Olweus,  1986 ,  1996 ), or peer‐report measures (e.g., the Participant Role Questionnaire—Salmivalli et al.,  1996 ). One issue that arises is that the timeframe within which participants are required to indicate the frequency of bullying can vary greatly. One scale may ask about bullying experiences within the last 3 months, while another may ask about ever having experienced, or participated in, school‐bullying. Moreover, included studies utilized a mixture of continuous or dichotomous measures of school‐bullying, and the cut‐off points used to categorize someone as either a bully, victim, or not‐involved also varied.

Furthermore, the majority of evaluations included in our analysis reported bullying outcomes at different time points, largely, before implementation, after implementation, with a possible additional follow‐up time point. However, we computed effect sizes using measures of bullying taken before implementation and immediately post implementation of the intervention. Therefore, we cannot generalize results to the long‐term effectiveness of antibullying programs, or any potential influence of dose‐response effect. Future research should aim to examine the longitudinal effectiveness of interventions to reduce bullying perpetration and victimization in the long‐term.

When conducting our systematic searches for the present review, we did not set restrictions based on measurement issues, other than including quantitative measures of school‐bullying behaviors. However, types of reports, for example, could influence the overall effectiveness effect size. This may possibly explain why our meta‐analysis found that programs are more effective in reducing bullying perpetration outcomes. For example, if programs are concerned with raising awareness about bullying and the associated negative impact on victims, participants who reported bullying perpetration before the intervention may be less likely to self‐report bullying behaviors after completing the program. As a result, the intervention may be perceived as being effective, but the change in reports of bullying may have been a result of social desirability responding (He et al.,  2015 ; Rigby & Johnson,  2006 ). Conversely, raising awareness on the negative impact of school bullying may lead to increased reporting of victimization due to sensitization effects (Stevens et al.,  2000 ). Notably, sensitization effects due to raised awareness may affect not only self‐report data but also peer nomination data and teacher reports (Smith et al.,  2003 , p. 597). Therefore, future research could aim to examine whether the style of report used, differing cut‐off points and varying timeframes affect estimations of intervention effectiveness.

10.3.2. Cyberbullying behaviors

Another key limitation of the present review is the omission of cyberbullying behaviors. Prominent researchers in the area have argued that cyberbullying behaviors do not warrant a completely separate line of study, because of the significant overlap between offline and online bullying (Olweus & Limber,  2017 ). A recent meta‐analysis of cyberbullying intervention and prevention programs found that, out of studies assessing various facets of cyberbullying, a large number were concerned with this overlap (Gaffney et al., 2019). The Gaffney et al. (2019) meta‐analysis concluded that anticyberbullying programs were effective in reducing cyberbullying perpetration by roughly 9–15% and cyberbullying victimization by roughly 14–15%. As illustrated in that other review, there is a need for future research to assess the effectiveness of intervention programs that target both online and offline bullying concurrently. As a result of the significant overlap (e.g., Waasdorp & Bradshaw, 2015), it is important for policy makers, researchers, and program developers to know whether or not these forms of aggressive behaviors should be targeted together or individually. Future research should aim to examine the effectiveness of programs designed to reduce school‐bullying on cyberbullying outcomes, and vice versa. Additional analysis to examine the differences between programs that target offline and online behaviors concurrently in terms of effectiveness to reduce both school‐ and cyber‐bullying is also needed.

10.3.3. Models of meta‐analyses

The current report presents findings using two computational models of meta‐analyses: the random effects model and the multiplicative variance adjustment model. While, the random effects model is often suggested as the preferred model for meta‐analyses in social sciences, for reasons already discussed (Section  7.3 ), this approach is also limited. However, even though many meta‐analyses in medical sciences (e.g., Ayieko et al.,  2014 ; Dorjee et al.,  2018 ; Woolf‐King et al.,  2013 ) have used the MVA model as an alternative method of accounting for between‐study heterogeneity in weighted mean effect sizes, this model is yet to be widely accepted in behavioral sciences. A number of recent publications (e.g., Portnoy & Farrington,  2015 ; Zych et al.,  2019 ) have begun to use the MVA model.

It is evident in the current report that the results are influenced by the computational model used. The overall mean effect sizes for bullying perpetration and victimization were not that different under both models but the results of moderator analyses were greatly influenced by how we accounted for the between‐study heterogeneity. Further research is needed in order to examine the reasons for this and also evaluate how best to choose an appropriate computational model when conducting a meta‐analysis.

10.4. Concluding remarks

This report presents an updated systematic and meta‐analytical review of the effectiveness of school‐bullying intervention and prevention programs. Overall, our review found that school‐based antibullying programs are effective in reducing both bullying perpetration and bullying victimization, and that effect sizes can vary according to several moderator variables. However, further research is needed to better understand the reasons for variation in observed effect sizes. Research is needed to investigate the specific components of antibullying programs that work best to reduce bullying behaviors. The results of our meta‐analysis have important implications for policy and the development of future antibullying programs, but future research should aim to better understand the effective mechanisms in bullying intervention and prevention.

11. TECHNICAL APPENDICES

11.1. calculating the before‐after intervention effect.

Williams et al. ( 2015 ) evaluated the effectiveness of the Start Strong program based on students' self‐reported experiences of bullying victimization. The primary study found that, at baseline, 23% of participants in the experimental group ( N  = 717) reported bullying victimization, while 23% of participants in the control group ( N  = 800) also reported bullying victimization at baseline. Hence, the baseline OR was calculated as follows (Table  17 ):

Data used to estimate baseline odds ratio

Thus, the OR before  = 0.999, Ln OR before  = −0.002, and var Ln OR before  = 0.015. Williams et al. ( 2015 ) report that after implementation of the Start Strong program, bullying victimization was reported by 28% of experimental participants and 34% of control participants. Accordingly, the posttest OR was calculated as follows (Table  18 ):

Data used to estimate postintervention odds ratio

Thus, the OR after  = 1.323; Ln OR after  = 0.28; and var Ln OR after  = 0.013. Employing these figures, the ln OR for the intervention effect of the Start Strong program was calculated as:

The ln OR change is computed as the difference between the before and after effect size and the variance of this new estimate is adjusted by multiplying the sum of the variances of before and after variances by 0.75. This is an approximation of the assumed correlation between before and after effect sizes. The ln OR change and the SE of ln OR change were then entered into CMA as an estimation of the intervention effect.

11.2. Multiplicative variance adjustment

In the present meta‐analysis, the summary effect size estimated for bullying perpetration was OR = 1.324 with 95% confidence intervals of 1.298–1.351 under a fixed effects model. The effect size in the MVA model is the same as the effect size in the fixed effects model. The variance of the effect size in the MVA model is calculated as follows:

Therefore, in the above example of the summary effect size for bullying perpetration outcomes, the FE var is 0.000104. Therefore, with Q  = 458.555 and df  = 109, the MVA adjustment for fixed effects is 0.02098, calculated as:

Therefore, the adjusted standard error is 0.0209. In this example thus, the MVA fixed effect is OR = 1.324, and the 95% confidence intervals are 1.271–1.380.

11.3. Odds ratio to percentage conversion

The conversion from weighted mean odds ratio to percentage value is also described in the previous Campbell report (see Farrington & Ttofi, 2009 ). The formula involves assuming equal allocation of participants to experimental and control conditions and that the % of bullies and/or victims was lesser in the experimental condition than in the control condition (as supported by our overall positive mean effect size).

For example, if there are 200 participants in each experimental condition and approximately 30% of participants report bullying victimization in the control condition and 25% victims in the experimental condition, the numbers of victims and nonvictims would be as follows: (Table  19 ).

Data used to convert odds ratio to percentage

Therefore using the previously described formula for estimating an odds ratio, the following data would correspond to an odds ratio of 1.286 (i.e., [150 × 60]/[140 × 50]). Moreover, the percentage decrease would be approximately 16.67% (i.e., (10/60) × 100).

Using this basic formula, we can manipulate the % and number of victims in each experimental condition in order to achieve a odds ratio that corresponds to our weighted mean effect size (i.e., MVA: OR = 1.324 and RE: OR = 1.309 for bullying perpetration; MVA: OR = 1.248 and RE: OR = 1.242 for bullying victimization). Using the n values that give the closest possible mean effect size we can thus estimate the corresponding percentage reduction in either bullying perpetration or victimization outcomes.

APPENDIX A. 

Appendix: full search syntax, database: web of science.

Bully* AND Intervention AND Evaluation

Anti‐Bullying AND School AND Program* AND Evaluation

Anti‐Bully* AND Program* AND Outcome

Bully‐victim AND Prevention AND Evaluation

Bully* AND School AND Intervention

Bully* AND School AND Prevention

Database: Scopus

Bully* AND School AND Program*

Bully* AND School AND Evaluation

Bully* AND School AND Intervention AND Evaluation

Bully* AND School AND Prevention AND Evaluation

Anti‐bullying AND Program* AND Evaluation

Database: National Criminal Justice Reference Service

Bully* AND Prevention AND Evaluation

Anti‐bullying AND Program* AND Effect*

Database: PsycINFO

Bully* AND Intervention AND Program* AND Evaluation

Bully* AND Prevention AND Program* AND Effect*

Database: Cochrane Controlled Trials Register

Bully* AND Intervention AND Program*

Bully* AND Prevention AND Program AND Evaluation

Database: British Education Index

Bully* AND Prevention AND Program* AND Evaluation

Bully* AND Intervention AND Program* AND Effect*

Database: Embase

Database: medline, database: eric & criminal justice abstracts.

www.scholar.google.co.uk

APPENDIX B. 

Appendix: risk of bias results for included studies.

Note : H, hig risk, score 3; L, low risk, score 0; U, unclear risk, score 2. Risk of bias score is estimated as sum of scores on individual risk of bias items.

Abbreviations: AC, Allocation concealment; AS, Allocation sequence; BC, Baseline Equivalence on Characteristics; BE, Baseline Equivalence of Outcome; BOA, Blind Outcome Assessment; CP, Contamination Protection; ID, Incomplete Data; SOR, Selected Outcome Reporting.

Gaffney, H., Ttofi, M. M., & Farrington, D. P. (2021). Effectiveness of school‐based programs to reduce bullying perpetration and victimization: An updated systematic review and meta‐analysis . Campbell Systematic Reviews , 17 , e1143. 10.1002/cl2.1143 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]

Systematic review

Plain language summary on the Campbell website

1 The authors regret that more detailed information concerning specific combinations of keywords and databases searched as per the Campbell MECCIR reporting standards. This information is held on restricted access computers and due to COVID‐19 pandemic, the closure of University buildings, this data could not be retrieved.

2 Web of Science Core Collection database.

3 Unfortunately detailed information about the datas of searches cannot be provided for this review, contrary to MECCIR R35.

4 We were unable to double code in this review. However, as some studies were included in the present review and an earlier review (Farrington & Ttofi,  2009 ), a proportion of the studies were double‐coded.

5 A worked example is provided in Technical Appendix 10.1.

6 Calculated as: total number of students/number of classrooms.

7 A worked example of this adjustment is provided in Technical Appendix 10.2.

8 Moderator analyses under the MVA model will be greatly affected by the presence of very large studies in the meta‐analysis. Unfortunately, we were not able to follow recommendations made by the methods editor to windsorize weights or conduct sensitivity analyses by removing these large studies. Due to the COVID‐19 pandemic the software to carry out these tests was not available to us. Thus, the reader should consider the impact of large studies when interepting the results of moderator analyses under the MVA model.

9 The procedure used to estimate approximate percentage values for weighted mean odds ratios is provided in Technical Appendix 10.3.

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124 Bullying Essay Topics

🏆 best essay topics on bullying, ✍️ bullying essay topics for college, 👍 good bullying research topics & essay examples, 🎓 most interesting bullying research titles, ❓ bullying research questions.

• School Bullying: Causes and Effects
• Bullying in Schools: Essay Example
• The Problem of Bullying in School
• Chronicles of Bullying: An Editorial Article
• Bullying at School and Impact on Mental Health
• School Bullying and Student’s Development
• The Cognitive Behavioural Therapy on Victims of Bullying
• Bullying in Schools: Anti-Bullying Programs Bullying in schools is a growing concern all over the world. Violence and insults cause psychological harm not only to victims but also to bullies
• Bullying: A Serious Social Problem Bullying is undesirable behavior that society must deter at all costs. In schools, teachers, parents, and other stakeholders should have working knowledge on managing the vice.
• Teenagers’ Contemporary Issues: Bullying at School Bullying can be caused by differences between students, and the existing assessment and support options contribute to improving the situation.
• Workplace Bullying and Its Implications on Organizations Discrimination is one of the major challenges that organizational leaders face within the workplace. Workplace bullying refers to any acts intended to intimidate a colleague.
• Online Bullying Takes Over the World In the context of a rapidly and highly digitized global environment, online bullying, otherwise known as cyberbullying, has become a prevalent issue.
• Negative Bullying Outcomes: A Persuasive Speech Bullying has adverse effects on both victims and perpetrators. Bullying should be prevented, or should it occur, reported, and taken care of as soon as possible.
• Bullying Effects on Health and Life Quality When children are subject to bullying by their peers, it affects their feelings and evokes negative emotions in the first place.
• Bullying Behavior and Its Negative Effects on Children Bullying behavior is a severe issue among school-age children. This essay addresses the negative effects of bullying on children and the ways of overcoming the problem.
• Why Bullying Is Wrong and Methods of Resolving Disputes Without Violence Such methods of conflict resolution as mediation, communication, and listening may eliminate the harmful impact of such behavior without violence.
• Bullying in Poverty and Child Development Context The aim of the present paper is to investigate how Bullying, as a factor associated with poverty, affects child development.
• Prevention of Bullying in Schools School bullying is a relevant and critical global issue, and while it affects all children, some groups may experience various disparities and increased exposure to bullying.
• Reducing Bullying in Schools by Involving Stakeholders Schools should raise awareness among educators, instructors, and community members about their roles and responsibilities in the battle against bullying.
• Bullying of Learners with Disabilities The problem of bullying remains one of the predicaments learners with disabilities encounter in their learning environments.
• Fear Appeal in the Stop Bullying Public Campaign In the video “Stop bullying,” the subject matter is presented shockingly. The 47-second clip shows a high school girl receiving an aggressive text message from her peers.
• School Bullying and Problems in Adult Life Bullying is aggressive behavior that can be seen in different children, teenagers, and adults. In this paper, the causes of bullying and the effects of it will be presented and discussed.
• Bullying Problem in School Bullying is caused by genetic predisposition, relations with peers, and as a reaction to the situation in school or at home.
• The Problem of Workplace Bullying: Literature Review The purpose of this paper is to provide a review of the relevant literature on the topic of workplace bullying.
• Anti Bullying Prevention Program The standards for anti-bullying program aims to prevent not only the behavior of bullying but also behavior representing the full spectrum of inter-student cruelty.
• Bullying and Parenting Styles There are many positive and negative outcomes of parenting on children. This paper aims at investigating the connection between several types of parenting and bullying behaviors.
• Cyber-Bullying and Ways to Solve the Problem The primary goal of the given study is the investigation of cyber-bullying, which is nowadays one of the integral parts of social media and the Internet.
• Bullying and Sexual Harassment at Work Place According to Safety and Health Assessment and Research for Prevention, workplace bullying occurs when an individual direct irrational actions repeatedly towards their fellow worker.
• Addressing Bullying in Elementary and Middle School Classrooms The study mainly focuses on teachers’ lack of knowledge on how to deal with the issue of bullying in the classroom in an effective manner.
• The Consequences of High School Bullying This annotated bibliography includes summaries of four academic studies that explore the effects of bullying on high school students.
• Harsher Laws for Cyber Bullying The number of people using social networks is growing but they do not see the danger in remote communication and are subjected to cyberbullying.
• Workplace Bullying and Its Impact on People’s Mental Health Workplace bullying turns out to be a serious theme for discussion because of a variety of reasons, and one of them is its impact on people’s mental health.
• The Meaning of Cyber Bullying The work reveals the meaning and purpose of cyberbullying, what signs characterize it and the solution to cyberbullying.
• The Long-Term Consequences of Being Bullied or Bullying Others in Childhood This study attempts to discuss the main consequences on the mental and physical health of victims, bully-victims, and bullies themselves, and comment on the prevalent patterns.
• Deterring Juvenile Crime. Bullying and Delinquency Delinquency can be defined as a crime committed by a minor; in the recent few years, cases of juvenile delinquency have been on the rise.
• Causes of Bullying in Nursing The relationship between medical staff is an important aspect that determines the quality of work in a particular institution and the healthcare system as a whole.
• Bullying at Pre-School and Preventive Measures This paper provides five tips for pre-school bullying prevention, the first of which is to give opportunities for children to show kindness and respect.
• The Relation Between the Teen Suicide and Bullying During the teenage years, bullying and harassment represent cases of social animosity that make suicide an option.
• Cyber Bullying Messages in Communication Networks Bullying can come in different forms, but it always causes injury or even worse. Bullying victims may carry the psychological wounds of their ordeal for the rest of their life.
• Bullying and Work-Related Stress in the Irish Workplace One of the best analyses of relationships between workplace stress and bullying has been done in the research study called “Bullying and Work-Related Stress in the Irish Workplace.”
• Bullying and School Drop Out Rate Relationship Analysis Bullying is rife in schools where physical and verbal abuse occurs among pupils/students. There is “a close relationship between bullying, school involvement, and literacy”.
• Organization Conflicts and Bullying Workplace bullying is a serious problem with huge costs attached to it in terms of loss of working days. The topic requires academic attention to ascertain the factors that induce such behavior.
• High School Bullying: Psychological Aspects The study discusses the psychology behind bullying, the effects of bullying on all the involved parties, and emergent patterns.
• The Workplace Bullying Prevention Policy The problem of bullying creates a severe issue for the atmosphere of the workplace environment, the mental health of workers, and their performance.
• The Issue of High School Bullying Bullying cases among high school students have been on the rise in modern society. High school bullying is mainly caused by media exposure.
• Bullying and Methods of Solving This Problem The article is devoted to the causes of bullying which develops in almost any closed community among children and adolescents.
• The Social Problem of Bullying and the School System The present paper focuses on the connection between the social problem of bullying and the school system, describing each of these concepts.
• Bullying During Orientations in the Universities In order to address the issue related to bullying during orientations, only the most empathetic senior students should be allowed to participate in orientations.
• Bullying Among Adolescents Problem Studying the problem of bullying, its factors of influence, and the application of developmental theories are critical for finding ways to combat it effectively.
• Bullying: A Guide for the Parents The first way for parents to assist the kid in coming up with bullies is to teach them a set of responses, which they can use in case someone is picking on them.
• Problem Scenario: Workplace Bullying in Teaching When the word “bullying” is used in the context of education, one often presumes the situation in which one student systematically mistreats another.
• Bullying and Patient Safety in Clinical Settings Besides damaging the atmosphere in clinical settings and negatively affecting the personnel, bullying can lower the quality of healthcare services and harm patient safety.
• Bullying as Managerial Issue in Nursing Sector Bullying is a significant nursing issue due to the negative impact caused on the performance level among the employees.
• Problem of Bullying Overview and Analysis Bullying can have harmful impacts on everyone involved, including bullies, the bullied, and bystanders. It can be prevented through the use of selective preventive programs.
• Nurse Bullying: Unprofessional Conduct Bullying can be exhibited in the form of physical and verbal threats, social seclusion, aggressive behaviors, and suppression of applicable care information.
• Bullying: A Concern for Modern Communities and Educational Establishments Parents can educate their children to create safe environment for healthy development, both physical and mental, guaranteeing the absence of abusive behavior or victimization.
• Bullying and Its Impact on My Life In this essay, the author talks about the impact of bullying on his life and how he managed to cope with the problem.
• “Nurse Exposure to Physical and Nonphysical Violence, Bullying…” by Spector This paper is a critique of the article titled “Nurse Exposure to Physical and Nonphysical Violence, Bullying, and Sexual Harassment: A Quantitative Review”.
• Anti-bullying Practices in Criminal Prosecution Anti-bullying practices have proceeded past only encouraging an individual to avoid ill-treatment of their peers to the establishment of laws.
• Workplace Bullying: Dealing With the Office Bully The psychological stress caused by bullying can be so severe that in the worst case, it can lead to depression and quitting.
• Bullying in the Modern Society: Review Bullying is one of the major concerns of modern society. Following the statistics, about 40% of all individuals have experienced being bullied at least once.
• The Dumfries and Galloway Council’s Policy Against Bullying This paper discusses the analysis of the bullying in general and its understanding in the works of Dumfries and Galloway Council.
• Workplace Bullying in the Nursing Areas The paper is aimed to tell about the importance of overcoming workplace bullying in the example of a nursing collective.
• Exploring Workplace Bullying in Nursing This paper critiques Etienne’s 2013 study of workplace bullying in nursing and highlights the strengths and weaknesses of the research.
• Bullying Among Nursing Staff The bullying in health care is still present, and health practitioners’ mental health, motivation, and ability to uphold precision and self-composure are compromised.
• Nurse Bullying and Legal Interventions Nurse bullying has to be addressed by healthcare establishments and national agencies to ensure proper work culture and adequate environment for patient care.
• Horizontal Violence and Bullying in Nursing There is a direct correlation between horizontal violence and job satisfaction among nurses, which affects the efforts of individuals who choose this profession.
• The Issue of Cyber-Bullying in Education Field Bullying has been recognized as a pervasive and a severe problem as well as a significant concern, mostly in the educational field.
• Parenting Style and Bullying Among Children The investigation of parenting styles is highly essential to understand how they affect the bullying behavior of children to prevent it.
• Bullying and Laws in American Schools Researchers distinguish two major kinds of bullying that take place in the academic setting: direct and indirect.
• School Bullying and Legal Responsibility The following paper will discuss and cover the rate of school bullies’ legally unregulated actions and the detriment that they constantly cause to other children who surround them.
• Cyber-Bullying and Cyber-Stalking as Crimes Cyber-bullying and cyber-stalking are relatively close in meaning, but there is a slight difference in the definition of these terms.
• School Bullying and Teacher Professional Development
• Bullying and Its Effect on Our American Society
• Physical, Emotional, and Social Bullying
• The Government Should Put Laws in Place To Prevent Bullying
• Childhood Bullying and Social Relationships
• Bullying and Its Effects on Individual’s Education
• The Emotional and Physical Aspects of Bullying
• Bullying and Its Effects on the Person Who Is Being Hurt
• Childhood Bullying and Its Effects on Children
• Cyber Bullying Affects People‘s Lives More Than One Might Think
• Managing Bullying and Harassment in the Workplace
• Bullying Affects the Social Learning Theory
• How Has Bullying Changed Our Modern World?
• Bullying and the Workplace and Affect Morale
• The Bible Belt and Its Beliefs on the Problem of Bullying
• Cyber-bullying Through Anonymous Social Media
• The Difference Between Bullying and Harassment
• Racial Bullying and Its Effects on the Middle of the Twenty
• Bullying Among Children With Autism Spectrum Disorder
• Social Media Bullying and Cyberbullying
• Bullying Prevention and School Safety
• Physical and Verbal Bullying in Schools
• What Are Schools and Parents Doing for Bullying Prevention?
• What Are the Effects of Bullying in Public Schools?
• What Strategies Might You Employ to Encourage Pupils to Prevent Bullying?
• How to Talk to Your Children About Bullying?
• What Are the Six Types of Bullying Parents Should Know About?
• Which American State Has the Toughest Bullying Laws?
• Who Started and Invented Anti-Bullying Day?
• What Countries Have Anti-Bullying Laws?
• Which American State Is the Only One to Not Have an Anti-Bullying Law?
• What Is the Meaning of Anti-Bullying Law?
• What Is the Number One Determinant of Bullying Will Occur?
• When Was the First Anti-Bullying Law Passed?
• Is Bullying a Social Determinant of Health?
• What Should Be in an Anti-Bullying Policy?
• Why Is the Anti-Bullying Policy Important?
• Why Should We Be Aware of the Anti-Bullying Act of 2013?
• What Is the Meaning of Emotional Bullying?
• What Is the Punishment for Anti-Bullying Act?
• Is Bullying a Social Phenomena?
• Who Is the Father of Bullying Research?
• What Is a Good Slogan for Stop Bullying?
• Why Do the Bullying Programs not Work?
• Why Students Engage in Bullying?
• Why Are Workplace Bullying and Violence Important Issues for Organizations?
• Why Should Bullying Not Be Harsh?
• What Is the Most Important Strategy for Bullying Prevention?
• Why Do We Need to Conduct a Study About Bullying?
• Are Bullying Prevention Programs Effective?
• Who Should Universities Have the Ability to Punish Students for Cyber Bullying?
• Are Neoliberalist Behaviours Reflective of Bullying?

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These essay examples and topics on Bullying were carefully selected by the StudyCorgi editorial team. They meet our highest standards in terms of grammar, punctuation, style, and fact accuracy. Please ensure you properly reference the materials if you’re using them to write your assignment.

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Childhood Bullying Linked to Health Risks in Adulthood

Findings from a longitudinal study suggest that childhood bullying may lead to long-lasting health consequences, impacting psychosocial risk factors for cardiovascular health well into adulthood.

Research Topic: Bullying

A longitudinal twin study suggests that victimization makes general and far-reaching contributions to mental disorders.

Unpacking the Link Between Teen Victimization and Mental Illness

Serious illness, struggling to hold down a regular job, and poor social relationships are just some of the adverse outcomes in adulthood faced by those exposed to bullying in childhood.

Far From Being Harmless, the Effects of Bullying Last Long Into Adulthood

Research in psychological science reveals the causes and consequences of bullying behavior in the office.

Workplace Bullying

Researchers find that teenagers’ online lives closely resemble their offline experiences, but bullying is one area where the digital age may be introducing new risks.

Teens’ Cellphone Use Mirrors Their Offline Lives

Research suggests that there is likely a high degree of overlap between traditional forms of bullying and bullying online.

Are We Overreacting to Cyberbullies?

Data from healthy adolescents indicate that recent exposure to targeted rejection activates the molecular signaling pathways that regulate inflammation.

Immune Response May Link Social Rejection to Later Health Outcomes

Researchers explore the causes and consequences of bullying that occurs through Facebook, text messages, and other digital platforms.

Bullying Goes Digital

Long thought to result from fragile self-esteem, bullying may instead stem from grandiose, inflated, and narcissistic self-assessment, some psychological scientists argue.

Back-to-school dilemma: Why do bullies bully?

While only a minority of toddlers are habitual bullies, this aggressive tendency appears to emerge right along with the motor skills that make it possible.

The Bully in the Baby?

People who score high on a measure of sadism seem to derive pleasure from behaviors that hurt others, and are even willing to expend extra effort to make someone else suffer, a study shows.

Everyday Sadists Take Pleasure In Others’ Pain

People tend to view a social media comment that calls out offensive behavior positively, but not when it's echoed by several other commenters.

When Moral Outrage Goes Viral, It Can Come Across as Bullying

Teaching teens that social and personality traits can change helps them cope with social challenges such as bullying, which can help mitigate stress and improve academic performance.

For Teens, Learning That Personalities Change Buffers Against Stress

A study shows that training adults in compassion can result in greater altruistic behavior.

Brain Can Be Trained in Compassion, Study Shows

Supervisors often resort to bullying to compensate for their own feelings of incompetence. But studies show that bosses lower their aggression when they feel appreciated.

A Simple ‘Thanks’ Can Tame the Barking Boss

While low performers are typically the targets of bullying from co-workers, research suggests that people tagged as aces are also victimized in more discrete ways.

Both Stars and Blunderers Get Bullied at Work

New evidence suggests that thinking about money may help buffer against the emotional toll of ostracism and social exclusion at work.

Can Cash Counter Workplace Ostracism?

Powerful people who engaged in abusive behavior directed at employees paid the price later with lowered well-being.

Mean Bosses Make Themselves Miserable, Too

Victims of workplace bullying often become stressed and anxious, making them easy targets for additional abuse.

The Vicious Cycle of Workplace Bullying

Leaders who view themselves as less competent are much more likely to act out aggressively towards their subordinates.

What To Do When the Boss is a Bully?

A new study links workplace bullying to negative health outcomes for employees, including increases in long-term sick leave and prescriptions for antidepressants.

Workplace Bullying May Be Linked to Long-Term Health Issues

A study shows the role that “plausible deniability" may in discriminatory behavior against marginalized groups.

“But I Didn’t Know!” People Show Prejudice-Based Aggression When It’s Easily Deniable

Conversations about the health disparities facing people with intellectual and developmental disabilities and disorders, and how to combat them, are long overdue.

One of Us: Combating Stigma Against People with Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities

In a guest column, APS Past President Susan T. Fiske calls on psychological scientists to tone down the ad hominem research critiques that are spreading across social media.

A Call to Change Science’s Culture of Shaming

Privacy overview.

Reviewed by Psychology Today Staff

Bullying is a distinctive pattern of repeatedly and deliberately harming and humiliating others, specifically those who are smaller, weaker, younger or in any way more vulnerable than the bully. The deliberate targeting of those of lesser power is what distinguishes bullying from garden-variety aggression .

Bullying can involve verbal attacks (name-calling and making fun of others) as well as physical ones, threats of harm, other forms of intimidation, and deliberate exclusion from activities. Studies indicate that bullying peaks around ages 11 to 13 and decreases as children grow older. Overt physical aggression such as kicking, hitting, and shoving is most common among younger children; relational aggression—damaging or manipulating the relationships of others, such as spreading rumors, and social exclusion—is more common as children mature.

Most bullying occurs in and around school and on playgrounds, although the internet lends itself to particularly distressing forms of bullying. Approximately 20 percent of students report being bullied at school, according to the National Center for Education Statistics. Boys and girls are equally likely to be bullied.

• Why People Bully
• Who Bullies Target
• Why Bullying Is So Harmful
• Cyberbullying
• How to Handle a Bully

People bully because it can be an effective way of getting what they want, at least in the short term, and because they lack the social skills to do so without harming others. Bullying also is a way of establishing social dominance, although over time, as children’s behavioral repertoires generally broaden, it becomes an increasingly dysfunctional way.

Bullies are made, not born, and i t happens at an early age; if the normal aggression of 2-year-olds is not handled with consistency, children fail to acquire internal restraints against such behavior. Bullying remains a very durable behavioral style, largely because bullies get what they want—at least at first.

Research finds that bullies have a distinct psychological makeup . They lack prosocial behavior, are untroubled by anxiety , and do not understand others' feelings. They exhibit a distinctive cognitive feature, a kind of paranoia : They misread the intentions of others, often imputing hostility in neutral situations. Others may not like them, but they typically see themselves quite positively. Those who chronically bully tend to have strained relationships with parents and peers.

Girls are just as likely as boys to be bullies, but they are far less likely to engage in overt aggression. Instead, they tend to hurt others by damaging or manipulating their relationships . They may spread false rumors about someone, tell others to stop liking someone in order to get even with him or her, engage in social exclusion, threaten to withdraw friendship to get their way, or give someone the silent treatment.

Bullies couldn't exist without victims, and they don’t pick on just anyone. Research shows that those singled out for bullying lack assertiveness even in nonthreatening situations and radiate fear long before they ever encounter a bully. These are children who don’t stand up for themselves.

Up to about age 7, bullies pick on almost anyone. After that, they single out kids to prey on. engaging in a "shopping process" to determine which other children would make suitably submissive victims . Bullies like victims who become visibly upset when they are picked on and who do not have friends or allies. Researchers find that those chosen as victims evince insecurity and apprehension.

Studies of children show that victims easily acquiesce to bullies’ demands, handing over bikes, toys, and other playthings. They cry and assume a defensive posture; their highly visible displays of pain and suffering are rewarding to bullies and serve as an important signal of the bully’s dominance. Children who become victims offer no deterrent to aggression, which can make them disliked even by their non-bullying peers.

Bullying causes a great deal of misery to others, and its effects on victims can last for decades, perhaps even a lifetime. The pain of bullying may be felt most acutely around adolescence , a developmental stage where sensitivity to rejection heightens greatly. Victimization is a common source of school avoidance , leads to feelings of shame and self-worthlessness, and may lead to chronic depression and anxiety .

Bullying carries the implicit message that aggression and violence are acceptable solutions to problems when they are not. Cooperation and the peaceful resolution of differences support an increasingly interconnected world. Bullying not only harms its victims but it harms the perpetrators themselves. Most bullies have a downwardly spiraling course through life, as their aggressive behavior interferes with learning, holding a job, and establishing and maintaining intimate relationships.

Some bullies do leave the behavior behind. But many do not; aggression is a very stable social interaction style . Many who were bullies as children turn into antisocial adults, who are far more likely than nonaggressive kids to commit crimes, batter their wives, abuse their children—and produce another generation of bullies.

Bullies frequently carry out their aggression before an audience of peers, and the presence of an audience can boost a bully’s sense of power. But bystanders seldom stop the aggression ; they may in fact enjoy the spectacle. Even if they don’t approve of the situation, they may dislike the victim or fear retaliation by the bully.

Bullying causes a great deal of emotional harm to individuals, and being a victim of bullying is a major reason why many young people drop out of school. Bullying also harms society at large by creating a source of aggression and violence; those who bully are at increased risk of engaging in criminal behavior as adults.

As the social life of young people has moved onto the internet, so has bullying, with electronic bullying becoming a significant new problem in the past decade. Whereas bullying was once largely confined to school, the ubiquity of handheld devices affords bullies constant access to their prey. Cyber harassment can be especially disturbing because it can often be carried out anonymously; victims may have no idea who the perpetrators are.

The anonymity of cyberbullying removes many restraints on meanness and amplifies the ferocity of aggression . It’s easier to inflict pain and suffering on others when you don’t have to look them in the eye. Constantly evolving digital technologies enable new ways of spreading false information about targets.

Both direct harassment and relational aggression thrive on the internet. Cyberbullies can spread false rumors with viral speed on social media . They can falsely impersonate someone and conduct all manner of mischief in someone else’s name. Sexual harassment and cyberstalking particularly target women. And long after the active bullying has stopped, malicious information can linger on the internet and continue to harm.

Cyberbullying is particularly unsettling and extremely difficult to combat because victims often do not know who is behind it. Further there is no opportunity for bystanders to witness incidents and to potentially intervene. But perhaps most distressing of all, it can be inescapable and relentless, affording victims no safe haven.

The best defense against bullying is being socially skilled—teaching all children social skills and allowing them to develop confidence in their own abilities. As social engineers for young children, parents are especially important in bully-proofing their children: They can regularly inquire about social challenges their children face and role-play possible solutions. The second-best defense against bullying is to walk away and not fight back.

Studies show that the most effective way of stopping a bully is to activate bystanders; after all, bystanders reward bullies with attention . Since most children are witnesses to bullying at some point, teaching all children that they have an important role to play in stopping bullying is essential. A bully may make an effort to retaliate against one person who speaks up but is not likely to target several.

During the past decade or so, schools have widely adopted anti-bullying programs. The report card on their effectiveness , however, is mixed. Experts explain that schools are where most bullying takes place but they are not where attitudes about power and aggression, skills of emotion regulation , or social skills—the key influences on bullying—are learned.

Children are deeply ashamed of being bullied and may not let anyone know when they are being victimized. Therefore parents have an obligation to know something about their children’s general competence with peers and how peers treat them—by asking teachers during school conferences and by gently asking their children about their social life. Teaching children to fight back is not effective; helping them gain social skills is.

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Our society seems to believe insulting others gets results. What the research says is just the opposite.

If you're on social media, hostile comments are almost inevitable. Learn how to cope with negativity before it overtakes you.

Schools have been paying settlements in the multimillion-dollar range. Activists believe this will reduce bullying. Here's why they're mistaken.

Your biggest vulnerability to bullying is your active healthy conscience. Here's how to maintain it without being bullied by shameless moralizing scolds.

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Understanding what emotional intelligence looks like and the steps needed to improve it could light a path to a more emotionally adept world.

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165 Bullying Research Topics: Qualitative & Quantitative

Have you ever witnessed someone face unwanted aggressive behavior from classmates? According to the National Center for Educational Statistics, 1 in 5 students says they have experienced bullying at least once in their lifetime. These shocking statistics prove that bullying is a burning topic that deserves detailed research.

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In this article, you will find as many as 165 bullying research paper topics created by our custom-writing experts especially for students. We will also provide actionable writing tips. Check them out!

• 🔝 Top 12 Research Topics
• ❓Top 12 Research Questions

⚠️ Types of Bullying

• 💡 Qualitative Research Topics
• 📊 Quantitative Research Ideas
• 🖥️ Cyberbullying Topics
• 🕵️ Bullying Crime and Law Topics

🚀 Bullying Research Paper Outline

🔗 references, 🔝 top 12 bullying research topics.

• Long-term effects of bullying.
• Bullying as a cause of addiction.
• Workplace harassment prevention.
• Bullying and domestic violence.
• The impact of bullying on society.
• Victimization: how to break the silence.
• Anti-bullying laws and their importance.
• Bullying is the crime of the 21 st century.
• Emotional and physical forms of bullying.
• Are bullying awareness programs efficient?
• Cyberbullying: consequences and solutions.
• The impact of social media on bullying rates.

❓ Top 12 Bullying Research Questions

•  How does aggression affect individual education?
• Is there a correlation between bullying and suicide?
• What is the bystander effect in workplace bullying?
• How does harassment impact job satisfaction and retention?
• How does cyberbullying affect school-aged children?
• Are there any victim selection patterns in school bullies?
• Why do people accept and condone workplace bullying?
• Is there a correlation between bullying and school dropout rates?
• How does maltreatment interfere with children’s emotional development?
• In what ways does interpersonal aggression influence adolescents’ academic performance?
• What is the connection between school bullying and relationship problems in adulthood?
• Should we prosecute cyberbullying and cyberstalking as criminal offenses?

There are several types of bullying, each with their own methods and characteristics:

💡 Qualitative Bullying Topics for Research Papers

• Common characteristics of school bullies.
• The peer victimization selection patterns. 
• How did COVID-19 impact workplace bullying?
• Anti-bullying measures in schools and their effects.
• Analyze the causes of bullying and harassment at work.
• Parental feeling and perceptions of bullying incidence.
• Explain the impact of harassment acts on the perpetrators.
• The psychological effect of the bystander effect on empathy levels.
• Domestic abuse and interparental violence’s impact on bullying.
• Look into the effect of protective factors in victimization experiences.
• The strength of parental relationships and bullying perpetration.
• What are the long-term behavioral effects of school bullying on children?
• Bullying response patterns from parents of victims and perpetrators.
• The impact of bullying on children with developmental disabilities.
• Explain the emotional effects of workplace bullying.
• Personal ways of coping with bullying among adolescents.
• Study the alleviating effect of community on harassment.
• The emotional and mental state of workplace bullies.
• Discuss the impact of ineffective organizational practices on bullying incidence.
• Review the victims’ views on interventional approaches to workplace bullying.
• What are the factors in group bullying participation?
• Provide an overview of key features of adolescent bullying of students with disabilities.
• Organizational factors impacting the solutions to bullying.
• Research the factors of investigating the cases of nurse bullying.
• What is the role of friendship bonds in bullying experiences?
• Provide an insight into the primary causes of bullying.
• The physical health impacts of bullying on adolescents.
• The experiences of teenagers with bullying and suicidal ideation.
• Explore the features of social isolation as a form of bullying.
• Challenges in finding support for aggression experienced by teenagers.
• Study the impact of cyberbullying on the physical health of children.
• Power, control, and purpose as factors in bullying.
• What is the impact of teacher-initiated bullying reduction strategies?

Bullying is a serious issue that has gotten a lot of academic attention. In particular, the need for qualitative research on this topic has significantly grown. Qualitative approaches use methods to identify and evaluate crucial aspects of adolescent bullying and find solutions to decrease this problem. Feel free to use any of our qualitative bullying research topics to kickstart the writing process.

📊 Quantitative Bullying Research Paper Topics

• Bullying of LGBTQ+ adolescents.
• Gender differences in harassment behavior. 
• Depression as a long-term effect of victimization.
• Long-term effects of bullying in adulthood.
• Quantitative research on bullying and mental health.
• Analyze the effects of bullying on victim’s physical health.
• Aggression and substance use : a structural equation modeling study.
• Study the correlation between parental involvement and the frequency of bullying.
• Frequency of victimization depending on ethnicity.
• Conduct quantitative analysis of bullying according to school types.
• Bullying and academic achievement : a longitudinal study.
• Research the prevalence of anxiety among victims of interpersonal aggression.
• Provide a quantitative examination of bullying by country.
• Compare the prevalence of intimidation in urban vs. rural schools.
• Frequency of bullying incidents in relation to school size.
• Quantitative association between intimidation and self-esteem.
• Write a regression analysis of victimization phenomenon.
• Impact of bullying on academic performance of teenagers.
• Bullying prevention programs: a quantitative evaluation.
• Analyze the impact of harassment on anxiety symptoms.
• Evaluate the effectiveness of popular anti-bullying PSAs.
• Write a quantitative study of the median age of cyberbullying victims.
• School strategies for preventing intimidation between students.
• Study the correlation between racial differences in aggression experiences.
• Evaluate the efficiency of legislation to reduce bullying.
• How interpersonal aggression affects peer relationships.
• Harassment in third-world countries’ schools.
• Evaluate the effectiveness of family interventions in addressing bullying.
• Assess the productivity of school-based anti-bullying support programs.
• Aggression and social media use : a quantitative assessment.
• Degree of dependence on bullying and academic outcomes.
• Effects of abuse on body mass index in adolescence.
• Study the frequency of victimization among students with disabilities.
• Review of the association between harassment and physical health.
• Provide a quantitative examination of bullying and peer support.
• What is the impact of intimidation on social adaptation?
• Assess the efficiency of strategies to cope with bullying.
• Provide a quantitative investigation of bullying and school attendance.
• Effects of interpersonal aggression on sleep quality : a longitudinal study.

Quantitative research analyzes the issue based on statistics, percentages, and ratios. This type of research often defines bullying in the context of social behaviors and relationships. Choose any idea from our list of quantitative bullying research topics and study the issue using numerical data. 

🖥️ Bullying Research Topics: Cyberbullying

• Cyberbullying in the form of ghosting.
• Why are online abusers challenging to identify?
• Factors that help identify online abuse.
• Who are the main targets of online harassment?
• Laws and regulations that prevent and penalize cyberbullying .
• Present the reasons behind increasing cases of cyberbullying in modern society.
• Study the facts about cyberbullying issues in the LGBTQ+ community.
• Is age a determinant when it comes to the problem of cyberbullying?
• The effects of cyberbullying and violent behavior on victims.
• Are the ethics of cyberbullying the same as with regular bullying?
• Teenage cyberbullying is a cause of mental disorders.
• Study social media as one of the most common places for online harassment.
• Research computer games as a place of online abuse.
• Explore the reasons why the public is becoming more concerned about cyberbullying of children .
• What is the frequency of cyberbullying vs. traditional bullying?
• Boys and girls: who are more prominent victims of digital harassment?
• Cyberbullying is a manifestation of internal frustration.
• How does anti-social behavior result in online victimization?
• What are the consequences for individuals who cause cyberbullying?
• Explore the connection between juvenile delinquency and cyberbullying.
• Initiatives that can be taken to reduce the occurrence of digital harassment2.
• What is cyberbullying among university students connected to?
• The difference between offline and online bullying.
• How does cyberbullying affect the social lives of the victims?
• Study cyberbullying as one of the reasons behind high school absenteeism.
• Evaluate the organizations that provide support to victims of cyberbullying.
• Discuss cyberstalking as a distinct kind of cyberbullying.
• Education on cyberbullying as one of the measures to prevent it.
• Is there online etiquette to prevent digital harassment?
• Can blocking the cyberbully protect the victim?
• Are nonconsensual sexual messages considered cyberbullying?
• The role of educators in the issue of online abuse.
• Should parents be involved in the resolution of cyberbullying issues?
• Is peer pressure the reason behind digital abuse?
• Anonymity as a facilitator of cyberbullying.
• Ridiculing with insults as a subtype of cyberbullying.
• Case study: celebrities who were affected by online harassment.
• Research the psychology of aggressors who initiate and support cyberbullying.
• Suggest the actions of a parent whose child was subjected to online abuse.

According to statistics, 15% of kids between 12 and 18 who reported being bullied at school said they were harassed online or via text messages. Writing essays on cyberbullying may assist in raising awareness and drawing people’s attention to this issue.

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🕵️ Bullying Research Titles: Crime and Law

• The impact of abuse on troubled adolescents.
• Bullying as a form of relational aggression.
• The social concepts of harassment and its types.
• The “Mean Stinks” program and girl-to-girl bullying.
• Rank American states by their anti-bullying laws.
• Suggest intervention techniques for preventing bullying in elementary and middle schools.
• How can we prevent sexual harassment and aggression in the workplace?
• Consider ways to resolve conflicts and stop bullying within an organization.
• How can we address aggression among children in school settings?
• The Dumfries and Galloway Council’s anti-bullying policy.
• Evaluate the effectiveness of cognitive behavioral therapy to help victims of harassment.
• What is the role of parenting styles in bullying?
• Explore the prevalence of bullying in modern society.
• How can we use anti-bullying measures to deter juvenile crime and delinquency?
• Ways to deal with workplace bullying and the “office bully.”
• Anti-bullying practices in the criminal justice system.
• Research the negative impact of workplace bullying on mental health.
• The persistence of bullying in modern communities : an editorial.
• Nurse bullying as unprofessional conduct.
• Why should we recognize harassment as a serious social problem?
• The physical, emotional, and social aspects of intimidation.
• Do we need government regulations to prevent bullying?
• How does bullying affect the social learning theory?
• Study the changing landscape of aggression in the modern world.
• Research cyberbullying through anonymity on social media.
• Is abuse a social determinant of health?
• Evaluate factors that increase the likelihood of interpersonal aggression.
• Bullying as a form of social and criminal deviance.
• Suggest ways of balancing free speech and anti-bullying laws.
• Study the link between bullying and substance abuse.

Bullying incidents are typically not crimes. Nonetheless, some forms of bullying are prohibited by law and must be reported to the authorities. This includes bullying that involves physical harm or assault, theft, long-term harassment, intimidation, etc. If this interests you, choose any of our bullying topics connected to crime and law and write a paper about it!

Have you been assigned to write an essay about bullying? If you need help with this task, you’re in luck: check out our practical guide with practical tips and examples! 

Bullying Research Paper Introduction

Let’s start from the very beginning. A strong introduction must include the following components: 

• A hook. The opening sentence of an introduction paragraph should contain something attention-grabbing. It can be a piece of statistics, a shocking fact, a quotation, or a powerful statement related to your topic.

The internet has transformed the landscape of human interaction, giving rise to a realm where words can wound or even kill.

You can also check out our free attention grabber generator to help you develop catchy hooks!

• A brief overview . An introduction should provide background information on the paper’s significance within a specific field. 

Teenagers spend more and more time navigating a complex virtual world online via social media sites like Twitter, YouTube, and TikTok. According to recent studies, these hours of increasing online usage may be linked to cyberbullying behaviors.

• An explanation of your position . The introduction needs to transition smoothly from background information to the specific argument of the paper. 
• A thesis statement . Finish your introductory paragraph with a short summary of the paper’s main ideas. Read on to learn how to write it!

Bullying Thesis Statement: How to Write

A thesis statement is a sentence that summarizes the arguments in your essay. Follow these steps to create a compelling and informative thesis statement: 

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• Examine the primary sources.
• Choose the most compelling arguments.
• Formulate your own position based on the information you’ve found.
• Turn it into a short persuasive statement.

Most of the time, cyberbullying goes unreported, but it is still an extremely destructive and, in some cases, fatal phenomenon.

To make the writing process easier, try using our free thesis generator .

Main Body & Topic Sentences for Bullying Research Paper

The main body of your text should contain topic sentences, compelling evidence, and a description of your research and findings. To write a good body paragraph, follow our tips:

📌 Give plenty of detail on the points raised in your introduction.

📌 Gather all the facts you’ve learned from different sources during your investigation.

📌 Create a logical structure for your argument.

Get an originally-written paper according to your instructions!

When adolescents connect with their peers in person, they adopt social norms that differ significantly from those used in online communication. Social media tends to make them more aggressive due to their anonymity and ability to avoid retaliation. Furthermore, because they cannot see the actual consequences of their activities, cyberbullies may feel less remorse or empathy when engaging in bullying behaviors.

Bullying Conclusion Paragraph: Writing Tips

To create an effective research paper conclusion , you will need to rewrite your thesis and summarize your main arguments. But that’s not all of it: it is also necessary to leave a lasting impression on the reader. Here’s how you can do it:

🎯 Finish by connecting the last paragraph to the first.

🎯 Conclude with a statement that is made up of one-syllable words.

🎯 End with a sentence that summarizes your main points.

Cyberbullying is a grave problem that can happen to anyone but is especially widespread among young people. For this reason, schools and parents must be aware of this issue and take appropriate action to avoid negative consequences. But we must also remember that the power to combat cyberbullying lies in our empathy, vigilance, and kindness towards each other.

We hope that our list bullying topics for research papers will be helpful to you! If you haven’t found a suitable topic here, you can also try our free research question generator to help you develop a writing idea. Feel free to comment below or share this article with your friends!

Further reading:

• Research Paper Format Tips for Ultimate Writing Success
• A List of 181 Hot Cyber Security Topics for Research [2023]
• How to Write a Cause & Effect Essay: Examples, Outline, & Tips
• 500 Sociology Questions and Topics [Examples & Tips]
• A List of 580 Interesting Research Topics
• How to Write an Outline: Alphanumeric, Decimal, & Other Formats
• Bullying: Psychology Today
• A Guide to Understanding and Preventing School Bullying: University of Southern California
• Bullying: A Big Problem with Big Consequences: University of Minnesota
• What Are the Best Ways to Prevent Bullying in Schools?: University of California, Berkeley
• Bullying: What Educators Can Do About It: Pennsylvania State University
• Fast Fact: Preventing Bullying: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (.gov)
• Workplace Bullying: University of Mary Washington
• What You Need to Know about School Violence and Bullying: UNESCO
• Bullying: How to Spot It and How to Stop It: University of Utah
• Guide to Preventing Cyberbullying: Ohio University
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About Bullying

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• What excuses do offenders make for bullying someone?
• What are personality factors that contribute to bullying?
• Does bullying differ based on gender?
• What are the various types of bullying?
• Which strategies and resources are used to deal with bullying?
• Can bullying lead to school shootings?
• Can bullying have a lasting effect?
• Do bullies outgrow their behavior?
• Is bullying a problem in the workplace?
• How can cyber bullying be prevented?
• How are schools legally liable, if they fail to protect students from bullying?
• What are the legal consequences of bullying?
• When does bullying become a hate crime?
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• Last Updated: Feb 6, 2024 11:38 AM
• URL: https://libguides.broward.edu/Bullying

154 Bullying Topics & Bullying Essay Examples

Looking for an exciting research topic about bullying? This problem is very controversial, sensitive, and definitely worth studying

🏆 Top 10 Bullying Topics for Research Papers

📃 bullying essay: writing tips, 🏆 best bullying topics to write about, ⚡ most shocking bullying topics to write about, ✅ simple & easy shocking bullying essay titles, ✍️ bullying essay topics for college, ❓ research questions about bullying.

Examples of bullying can be found everywhere: in schools, workplaces, and even on the Internet (in the form of cyberbullying).

In this article, we’ve collected top bullying research paper topics and questions, as well as bullying essay samples and writing tips. Get inspired with us!

• Direct and indirect bullying: compare & contrast
• The causes of bullying
• Classroom bullying and its effects
• Social isolation as a form of bullying
• Bullying and academic performance
• Passive and active victims of bullying: compare and contrast
• The role of social agencies in bullying prevention
• Public policy for bullying and aggression
• Bullying behavior and psychological health
• Aggressive children and their family background

A bullying essay is a popular assignment in various subjects, including psychology, sociology, and education. Writing an excellent paper on the matter requires more than just in-depth research and planning. Don’t worry; there are some tips that will make writing an essay on bullying much easier:

• Choose a topic that allows analyzing and interpreting the problem. Instead of merely describing what bullying is, try to dig deeper into its causes, consequences, and solutions. If your professor didn’t suggest any topics, you may research bullying essay topics online and select one that would be exciting for you to explore.
• Read sample articles and papers online to see how other students approached the subject. Notice the bits that work and don’t work, and write them out to make the process of creating your essay easier. If you’re struggling with finding enough examples online, you may want to expand your search to discrimination essay topics and materials.
• Research what scholars say about bullying. Articles in scholarly journals are an excellent source of information because they are usually trustworthy. If you’re still in school, your ability to navigate the library or online databases will also impress your tutor. As you start researching, you will find that there is a great variety of studies, and it’s challenging to find the relevant ones. Narrowing down your search would help you to do that. For instance, if you are writing a cyber bullying essay, try searching for social media bullying or online anti-bullying services.
• Include real-life experiences where relevant. Unfortunately, bullying is a common problem in many institutions, and if you haven’t experienced it, your friends or family members probably have. If your tutor allows personal input, explore real-life experiences with bullying. Note the effects, preventive measures that worked or didn’t work, and what a person used to cope with bullying. If personal input is not allowed, you could ask your friends or relatives for ideas and then find high-quality sources that discuss similar problems.
• If you can, be creative about it! A powerful bullying essay example draws from a variety of sources to present material in a creative way and engage readers. Hence, this might be an excellent opportunity for you to include images or graphs in your paper. For example, anti-bullying posters could complement the sections of your work that talks about solutions to the problem. Quotes about bullying coming from famous persons would also be influential, especially if you include them at the beginning of your piece. If you like drawing or painting, you could try to put some of your ideas in graphic form – this will definitely earn you some extra marks! Just make sure to check with your tutor to see whether or not creative input is allowed.
• Structure your paper well to avoid gaps or inconsistencies. It would be beneficial to create a detailed bullying essay outline before you start working. A typical essay should include an introduction, two to three main paragraphs, and a conclusion. The first paragraph of your work should consist of some background information, whereas the last one should restate the points and close up the paper. A good bullying essay introduction should also feature a thesis statement that shows what the piece is about.

These tips will help you to write top-notch essays on bullying, as well as on related subjects. Don’t forget to browse our blog some more to find other helpful materials, including essay titles!

• The Problem of Bullying and Possible Solutions In general, bullying is a critical and complex issue prevailing among children; thus, it is essential to adopt different solutions to tackle it.
• Cyber Bullying Issue Therefore, the goal of this paper is to analyse who the victims of cyber bullying are and the influence it has on them.
• Bullying and Child Development Bullying is one of the common vices in schools that influences a lot of growth and development of children. Bullying also affects the ability of children to concentrate in school because they are always on […]
• Bullying and Its Effects in Society Secondary research is critical in the development of a background to the research, which helps in determining the validity of the problem and suggested research methodologies.
• The Impact of Workplace Bullying The negative impacts of bullying in the workplace develop as a result of ignorance among employees regarding the vice, unreported cases, as well as the negligence of organizational leaders.
• Social Influence on Bullying in Schools The theory helps us to understand why the stronger members of the school population are likely to “rule” over the weaker members of the school as described in the social hierarchy concept in the theory.
• Bullying in School Face-to-face bullying is an interesting area of study because it clearly demonstrates bullying in school. Students consider bullying as a school culture even though it is contrary to the school rules and regulations of schools.
• School Bullying and Moral Development The middle childhood is marked by the development of basic literacy skills and understanding of other people’s behavior that would be crucial in creating effective later social cognitions. Therefore, addressing bullying in schools requires strategies […]
• Is Cyber Bullying Against Teenagers More Detrimental Than Face-To-Face Bullying? Social networking has also contributed greatly to the issue of cyber bullying especially in making it more harmful as compared to face-to-face bullying.
• Cyber Bullying and Positivist Theory of Crime Learning theory approaches to the explanation of criminal behavior have been associated with one of the major sociological theories of crime, the differential association theory.
• Social Psychological Concepts of Bullying and Its Types Some of the factors that contribute to bullying include poor parenting, economic challenges, lack of mentorship, and jealousy among others. One of the main concepts used to explain bullying is that of parenting roles and […]
• Bullying and Cyberbullying in Modern Society Cyberbullying among adolescents and teenagers is defined as the purposeful and repetitive harm done by one or more peers in cyberspace as a result of using digital devices and social media platforms.
• The Effects of Cyber-Bullying and Cyber-Stalking on the Society In particular, one should focus on such issues as the disrespect for a person’s autonomy, the growing intensity of domestic violence and deteriorating mental health in the country.
• Character Traits of Bullying Despite the fact that such characteristics may differ from child to child, it is the common feature of difference that makes the target children get noticed by the bullies.
• The Issue of Bullying in the Schools It gives me joy to know that the issue of bullying is now a pubic affair since bullying stories were unheard of when I was growing up.
• The ABC Model of Crisis: Bullying at School The next step is the identification of the nature of the crisis, and thus questions are as follows: Who is bullying you?
• Cyber-Bullying Is a Crime: Discussion It is easy to see the effects of cyber-bullying but it is hard to find out who is the bully making it hard for authorities to pin the blame on the perpetrator of a crime […]
• Workplace Bullying and Its Impact on Performance Workplace bullying refers to a deliberate, repeated, and continuous mistreatment of a worker or a group of workers by one or more colleagues in the workplace.
• School Bullying: Causes and Police Prevention It is for this reason that there has been need for the intervention of the community and the government to address the issue of bullying schools lest the school environment becomes the worst place to […]
• Verbal Bullying at School: How It Should Be Stopped This paper highlights some of the best practices that can be used by teachers in order to address this problem. So, this information can be of great benefit to them.
• Discouraging and Eliminating Cyber Bullying Resources Role of the resource/input Statement forms To facilitate information transfer to the staff Counseling Personnel To arm students against the problem Bullying report system To create efficient internet enhance report system Regulation implementation documents […]
• Bullying as a Relational Aggression This resistance has been one of the obstacles to eliminating the cyber bullying in the schools. Schools and districts have been involved in the Challenge Day activities where children are advised on how to handle […]
• Cyber Bullying as a Virtual Menace The use of information and communication technologies to support a deliberate and most of the time repeated hostile behavior by an individual or groups of people with the sole intention of harming others, one is […]
• Bullying and Harassment in the Healthcare Workplace This paper is written to explore the origins of discrimination and harassment in the healthcare workplace. Bullying begins early in medical college and residencies; it has been referred to as an element of the learning […]
• Bullying, Its Forms, and Counteractions In addition, it is necessary to support those at the center of this bullying, as this can protect them from harmful effects and consequences.
• Incivility, Violence, and Bullying in the Healthcare Workplace The following step is to gather the team and communicate the necessity of change, assigning some individuals for the positions related to the change, in other terms, a support team.
• School Bullying: Methods for Managing the Problem The investigation of relevant studies on the methods for stopping school bullying reveals that the most effective ways of eliminating this type of behavior include providing training for teachers, encouraging students to participate in the […]
• Bullying in the Workplace Organizational leaders have an ethical obligation to ensure that they deal with cases of bullying within the workplace in a professional manner that demonstrates equality, honesty, and high sensitivity to the needs of others.
• Programming for a Year 5 Class on Bullying As a result, in Lesson 6, they will offer their project addressing bullying behaviour and present it to their class, which is the main aim of the Unit Plan.
• The Essence of Bullying: Healthy Societal Relations The aggressor frequently abuses the victim’s lower social standing to gain control of the situation and cause harm, which is another characteristic of the phenomenon.
• Bullying: Violence in Children and Adolescents Bullying is one of the most common manifestations of peer violence in children and adolescents. Prevention of bullying, cyberbullying included, has to occur in accordance with the IBSE Standards of social and emotional learning.
• Effective Ways to Deal With Bullying in US Schools Teachers should ensure the bully is aware of the improper behavior, why it is improper, and the repercussions of the behavior.
• The Gay Teen Suicide & Bullying The article explains that the ones who survive may have access to extensive facilities, support, and status beyond their world of bullies, which sounds reasonable for me.
• Bullying in Nursing: Preventive Measures The prevention of bullying within the workplace is the responsibility of the leaders and managers. One of the significant principles which the leaders can implement is the behavioral code for the employees.
• Network Bullying: School Policy Framework The first step is to have a careful conversation with the student and an assessment by the school psychologist to ensure that there is a fright.
• How to Reduce Bullying in Senior Facilities One of the main reasons an individual may commit suicide due to bullying is because it may make an individual develop a negative self-image after the bullying incident. Some of the major bullying incidences that […]
• Active Shooter and Nursing Bullying Nurses should lock all doors and use tables and other objects to reinforce them to prevent any possibility of the active shooter getting to the patients’ room.
• Racist Bullying Among Black Students in US Universities This research focuses on the impact of bullying and racism among African American students in the country. What are the impacts of bullying and racism among Black students in U.S.universities?
• Bullying and Autism Spectrum Disorder In fact, bullying as a social phenomenon can be characterized as a social and interaction issue; therefore, it is possible to analyze the connection between autism and acts of bullying and inappropriate behavior.
• Eliminating the Problem of Online Bullying Eliminating the problem of online bullying is vital for improving the mental health of adolescents and young adults and allowing them to build their lives free of adverse external influences. It is possible to see […]
• Sexual Bullying in Schools and Its Influence The author states the difference in the mental and physical maturation of girls and boys as one of the core roots of the issue.
• Bullying in Healthcare and Its Consequences Nancy was big and the manager used that to tease her every opportunity she got. It was important to confront the bully and support the victim.
• Queer (LGBT) Teenage Bullying at School The importance of this source to the research is associated with the significant role that youth organizations have to play towards minimizing bullying among LGBT students.
• Bullying of Children: Misconceptions and Preventive Measures As a result, the density of shows and articles devoted to bullying creates an illusion that this event appears more often than it does in reality.
• Bullying Behavior and Impact of Hegemonic Masculinity Rosen and Nofziger applied a quantitative research design to explore the relationships between students’ bullying experiences and race, age, and socioeconomic status and identify the frequency of bullying.
• Bullying and Incivility in Clinical Setting The problem of bullying and incivility in a clinical setting can negatively affect the quality of care provided, so it needs to be managed.
• Bullying and Its Influences on a Person It is common for victims of bullying to develop mental health issues, as they were placed in stressful situations and had a constant fear along with depression in some cases. Making friends is one of […]
• Overview of the Problem of Bullying Undoubtedly, there is no way each person would be able to share and divide their opinion with everyone else because people are not identical, and they tend to have various perspectives.
• Bullying on Social Media Platforms It is consistent and repeating, taking advantage of the Internet’s anonymity with the main goal to anger, scare, or shame a victim.
• “Bullying in Schools”: The Aspects of Bullying In their article, Menesini and Salmivalli examine the current state of knowledge on the topic and thoroughly discuss all of the aspects of bullying.
• Moral Development and Bullying in Children The understanding of moral development following the theories of Kohlberg and Gilligan can provide useful solutions to eliminating bullying in American schools.
• Analysis of Bullying and Parenting Style Since the given topic usually refers to children and adolescents, it is evident that their parents hold a portion of responsibility because the adults affect the growth and development of young individuals.
• Hate Crimes – Bullying More than two-thirds of children and adolescents experience bullying and more than one-fourth of them report extreme forms of coercion.
• Bullying Management: Mass Awareness Program Bulletin.”Teachers, trained to help to rebuild trust, confidence, growth, and commitment through mass awareness to arrest bullying in high schools”. The proposed mass action program is meant to promote awareness on the need to stop […]
• An Anti-Bullying Program Integrated With PRAISE by Ackerman I chose to describe bullying because of the importance of the topic and due to my personal interest in it. Education will eliminate most of the reasons for bullying and provide students with the E […]
• Bullying Through Social Media: Methods An Informed Consent Document will be provided to participants prior to the research, explaining the purpose of the study and promising to protect their identity.
• Bullying Through Social Media: Research Proposal The hypothesis of the study is as follows: the role of adolescents in a cyberbullying situation is interconnected with their psychological characteristics.
• Bullying Through Social Media In particular, inequality in the position of the persecutor and the victim is evident – the aggressor can be anonymous, and there can be many of them.
• Bullying of Nurses During the COVID-19 Pandemic Then, the principles of adult learning will be used to develop and implement an information product to improve the nursing workforce’s bullying awareness and the knowledge of healthy conflict resolution in the workplace.
• Bullying in Healthcare Organizations: Impact on Nursing Practice Bullying in business entities is a common phenomenon, but the extent of its influence on the “production process” in healthcare and medicine institutions is only beginning to be recognized.
• Workplace Bullying Among Nurses in the Acute Setting Since the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic, the frequency of conflicts between nurses and their colleagues and managers has increased significantly in my workplace.
• Bullying Perpetration Among School-Aged Children Mucherah et al.examined how the school climate and teachers’ sanctions against bullying relate to the risk of becoming a victim or perpetrator of bullying.
• Injury and Violence Prevention: – Bullying The aim of preventing injury and violence from bullying is to enable the student to have a healthy social and physical life that will enable them to perform well in their studies and live healthily.
• Cyber-Bullying vs. Traditional Bullying: Its Psychological Effects The researchers presented the recent statistics in order to illustrate the negative social and psychological effects of cyber-bullying in contrast to the traditional bullying in schools.
• Bullying in the Workplace Old Nurse to New Nurse This unvoiced scourge in nursing is characteristically encouraged by the need of bullies to have a total control of a person. Resignation of nurses due to bullying can lead to shortage of nurses in hospitals.
• Bullying and Peer Abuse Especially at work, targets fear coming to work and this will have an adverse result in the efficiency of the staff in the hospital.
• Bullying in the Nursing Workplace Bullying in the nursing workplace, in this case, causes the one bullied to have a feeling of defenselessness and takes away the nurses’ right to dignity at his or her workplace.
• Cyberbullying and Bullying: Similarities While deciding on fitting and balanced sanctions, it is vital to reflect on the ways in which cyberbullying events differ in effect in comparison to other forms of bullying.
• Protection From Bullying: Methods That Work Because of this, it is vital that parents, teachers, and guardians educate themselves on the nature of bullying and work together to develop effective methods and strategies that would help to overcome the problem.
• Psychology: Social Media and Bullying The purpose of this paper is to discuss the issue of social media and bullying and express the author’s opinion on the matter.
• Bullying of LGBTQ Students in American Schools The chosen article focuses on the issue of bullying of LGBTQ students in American schools and its legal repercussions. The author shows that students who are openly gay or bi, as well as those who […]
• Workplace Bullying and Its Impact on People and Society The paper follows a traditional structure with the introduction and body paragraphs that provide essential information devoted to the problem, and improve the understanding of the concept of bullying.
• “Bullying Behavior Among Radiation Therapists” by Johnson and Trad The literature review encompassed a considerable number of sources pertinent to the study and recent enough to be relevant; all the publications were dated within the last fifteen years.
• Human Rights Issues in Australia: Bullying Among School-Going Age and Young People The focus of the topic of the day is on bullying. It is used to prevent or avoid the occurrence of a bullying experience.
• Bullying and Worker’s Harassment in Western Australia In most of the armed services in Australia, new recruits and women are commonly the victims of bullying and harassment despite the fact that it is unacceptable.
• Aggression and Bullying in the Workplace Investigation Aggression, the effects of which are often equated with the death wish, is an instinct like any other and in natural conditions, it helps just as much as any other to ensure the survival of […]
• Bullying: History and Mechanisms for Prevention Students are encouraged to not participate in bullying and to help prevent bullying of others through positive social reactions to incidences of bullying” and Sharing of Scenarios: “Each group will give feedback and share other […]
• Behaviour Management: Bullying The typical behaviors which I saw in the child who got bullied are: The victim of this bullying is physically weak and a soft-natured one.
• Conflict Resolution Tactics and Bullying This study is interesting to the extent that it shows how the social environment impacts the development of a child and how it shapes his or her conflict resolution techniques.
• School Bullying: Case Analysis Even today there is no generally accepted definition of bullying but it is thought that when an individual is for a long period of time is exposed to repeat negative actions and behavior by one […]
• Bullying in the Workplace as a Psychological Harassment Another form of bullying in the workplace is physical assault in the sense that if the workers are not at ease with each other and when the rules and regulations are not at all observed, […]
• “Adolescents’ Perception of Bullying” by Frisen et al. The second and the third aims of the study were “to describe how adolescents perceive bullies” and “to describe what adolescents believe to be important in order to stop bullying”, respectively.
• The Long Term Effects of Bullying in Elementary School Wolke and Lereya argue that the problem is that the majority of studies on bullying are cross-sectional and only use follow-ups after a short period of time.
• Anti-Bullying and Work Quality Improvement Initiative Given the specifics of the work of nurses, conflicts of this kind negatively affect both the whole process of work and the health of patients in particular.
• Workplace Bullying, Salivary Cortisol and Long-Term Sickness Absence The purpose of this cohort-based study was to investigate the extent to which cortisol levels were associated with sickness absence and the relationships between workplace bullying and sickness absence through the prism of cortisol use.
• Workplace Bullying in Australia It is possible to offer several recommendations that can reduce the risk of bullying in organisations. In this case, more attention should be paid to the absence of mechanisms that can protect the victims of […]
• Domestic Violence and Bullying in Schools It also states the major variables related to bullying in schools. They will confirm that social-economic status, gender, and race can contribute to bullying in schools.
• Staff Training as a Solution to Workplace Bullying Furthermore, it has an appeal to logos as the writer has facts about the prevalence of workplace bullying in the USA.
• The “Bully-Free” Initiative: Bullying in Education The students need to have a clear idea that bullying goes against the rules of the school and which actions may be considered bullying.
• Free Speech vs. Bullying Laws One of the topical aspects of modern democracy is the freedom of speech expressed in an ability to come up with personal ideas and the lack of restrictions on the right of expression through publicity.
• Gender and Bullying Issues in Nursing A lack of tolerance for workplace harassment and bullying is likely to lead to the deterioration of the situation and further misunderstanding and tension in an organization.
• Bullying and Cyberbullying Among Peers They are facing the dilemma of how to react, whether they have to fight a superior force of the enemy or to complain to teachers and parents, undermining their reputation.
• Bullying in Schools and Its Major Reasons As of now, the most important goal in research studies covering the topic of bullying in schools is to understand the mechanisms behind bullying promotion and prevention.
• Bullying in Schools: Worldwide Study and Survey The parents were asked to rate the frequency of the bullying that their children experience and to describe the experience of bullying that their children went through.
• Bullying Prevention Programs Some teachers and professors claim that their students cannot show their potential in their hobbies due to the limitations they experience because of bullies around them. As it is mentioned above, educators do not control […]
• Bullying and Its Impact Thus, the current paper is dedicated to the issue of bullying and its effects as well as anti-bullying practices as related to peer victimization.
• Fights and Bullying Among Middle School Learners Alongside the positivist philosophy, the research adopted the survey strategy that involved the use of self-administered questionnaires to collect from the participants.
• Dealing With Workplace Bullying According to the report presented by the University of Louisville, workplace bullying is a repeated action of one employee or a group of employees towards another individual or group. Dealing with bullying in the workplace […]
• Bullying Policies in Walton School District and Georgia University The sample bullying policy language in Walton School District is very similar to the language in the policy of the University of Georgia.
• Amanda Todd’s Bullying and Suicide Story She was fifteen years old, and her story created a major uproar in the press, as it showed the true nature of bullying and the effects it has on the person.
• Bullying in America: Causes and Prevention That is why it is important to pay attention to the reasons why bullying occurs and ways in which it can be reduced.
• Bullying, Facts and Countermeasures Whether it is the bully or the bullied, the parents will need to do a lot to see to it that their children are brought up in the best of the behaviors.
• Bullying as Social and Criminal Deviance The most important step in the student’s guide to research that I would need to analyze bullying is defining the topic.
• Bullying and Legislation in Australian Workplace According to the authors of the article, workplace bullying can be characterized as internal violence. According to the authors of the article, bullying is a widespread phenomenon and is a common attribute of many organizations.
• Bullying at Australian School: Causes and Solution The technological breakthrough that was witnessed in the late 90s and the early 2000s also contributed to the development of the phenomenon, sparking the concepts such as cyberbullying and online bullying.
• Workplace Bullying in The Playground Never Ends The primary reason for becoming a bully is primarily seen in fear to lose authority or formal positions in an organization and have more institutional power than that of the targets.
• Bullying and Suicide in High Schools The main limitation of this research is that the scholars surveyed the victims more often. The victims of cyberbullying also had a tendency to be depressed and contemplate suicide.
• School-Aged Children’ Bullying Behaviors It is due to this that the work of Janssen et al.sought to show just how potentially damaging this behavior could be and the potential psychological repercussions it could have on young children due to […]
• College Students: Suicide and Bullying-Methods The analysts used this tool to report the mood of the participants by posting quizzes, which the students answered while filling the questionnaire.
• Childhood Bullying and Adulthood Suicide Connection In this regard, the seriousness of the issue is depicted in research results that indicate that at least 50% of children and youth in the US have experienced bullying situations as either bullies or victims […]
• Girl-To-Girl Bullying and Mean Stinks Program The positive results can be achieved by the implementation of the multiple educational programs, the increase in public awareness, and promotion of the values of the healthy relationships.”Mean Stinks” is exactly the program with the […]
• Association of Parenting Factors With Bullying The lack of the parental support is the main cause of students’ deviant behaviors at school, including the cases of bullying, and those parents who pay much attention to developing their career cannot provide the […]
• The Problem of Workplace Bullying In particular, this paper will include the discussion of the research articles, reports and case studies that describe the causes of workplace bullying and the strategies used by companies in an effort to overcome it.
• College Students: Suicide and Bullying The misconception that bullying is a minor issue among college students has contributed to the high number of students who suffer because of bullying.
• Homosexual Students and Bullying Specifically, the section addresses the prevalence of bullying in schools and the level of bullying in bisexuals, gay males, and lesbians.
• Social Psychology of Violence and Bullying in Schools Bullying is a common phenomenon in schools and it is reported that it results in violence in learning institutions in the end.
• Bullying and Suicide: The Correlation Between Bullying and Suicide Nonetheless, the extensive research shows that the correlation exists and bullying is one of the risk factors for development of suicidal ideas in adolescents.
• Nature of Bullying In this paper, central focus is going to be on the nature of bullying of children in my hometown, Orlando Florida, how it can be solved, and most importantly; establishing the importance of having knowledge […]
• Cyber Bullying Reduction Program Table of Activities Activity Significance Assembling parents/guardians, students and teachers to announce and explain the program in the institution To enlighten parents/guardians, students and teachers about the rules and regulation enacted due to the threat […]
• Cyber Bullying Prevention in Learning Institutions: Systematic Approach To start with, the students are provided with ways of reporting their concern to the educational institution, and when the staff members of the institution receive the report, they evaluate the information together with the […]
• High School Bullying Effective Responses Emphasis will also be made on the kind of audience to read this article because the contents of this study need to be at par with other similar articles in the journal to be selected.
• Bullying and Suicide Among Teenagers Specific objectives Analyze the causes of bullying among teenagers in the country Analyze the effects of bullying among victims, perpetrators and by-standers Analyze the relationship between bullying in school and suicide among teenagers in the […]
• Social Bullying in Jeff Cohen’s “Monster Culture” It is clear that his part of character is mostly dominant in the childhood stages, as children are not able to develop a sense of morality and predict the consequences of their actions.
• Cyber Bullying and Its Forms The difference between the conventional way of bullying and cyber bullying is that in conventional bullying, there is contact between the bully and the victim.
• Problem of Workplace Bullying Authority intervention should occur when the employees fail to respond to awareness intervention, and thus decide to continue with their behaviors.
• Problem of Childhood Bullying in Modern Society To begin with, the family which is the basic and the most important unit in the society as well as the primary socializing agent plays a major role in shaping behavior of children include bullying.
• Problem of the Managing Bullying and Harassment in the Workplace Employees in an organization have a specific role that they are supposed to play and this means that there might be shortcomings which should not lead to bullying.
• Does Bullying Cause Emotional Problems? However, the current study was relevant because of this design, for the scope of the study covered as well as the results were accurate, and the conclusions drawn were correct.
• Ban High School Bullying A number of stakeholders contribute to the high prevalence of bullying in American schools. Schools that ignore bullying are a big part of the problem and they need to be held accountable.
• The Problem of Bullying While most states in the United States of America have laws to protect people from bullying, the federal government is yet to enact an anti-bullying law.
• Ethical Case: Facebook Gossip or Cyberbullying? The best option to Paige is to apologize publicly and withdraw her comments. The final stage is to act and reflect the outcome of the choice made.
• Bullying on the Rise: Should Federal Government Enact Federal-Bullying Laws? This paper will thus use both primary and secondary data to discuss the prevalence of bullying in schools and whether the federal govern should enact federal laws to curb the social vice at school.
• Bullying in the Schools Furthermore, the law states that training should be done to the teachers as well as the other members of staff on how to deal with bullying and the law also needs the schools to report […]
• Troubled Adolescent due to Bullying His lowered self-esteem would make him to observe the common behaviours of the older boys quietly and accept the situation as a cultural practice.
• Workplace bullying: does it exist?
• What are the three key elements of bullying?
• How does bullying affect those who observe it?
• Direct and indirect bullying: what is the difference?
• What families do bullies typically come from?
• Aggressive children: what is their future?
• How to prevent bullying in schools?
• School bullying and domestic violence: is there a connection?
• Cyberbullying: how to prevent it?
• What can parents do to prevent their children from bullying?
• Chicago (A-D)
• Chicago (N-B)

IvyPanda. (2024, February 22). 154 Bullying Topics & Bullying Essay Examples. https://ivypanda.com/essays/topic/bullying-essay-examples/

"154 Bullying Topics & Bullying Essay Examples." IvyPanda , 22 Feb. 2024, ivypanda.com/essays/topic/bullying-essay-examples/.

IvyPanda . (2024) '154 Bullying Topics & Bullying Essay Examples'. 22 February.

IvyPanda . 2024. "154 Bullying Topics & Bullying Essay Examples." February 22, 2024. https://ivypanda.com/essays/topic/bullying-essay-examples/.

1. IvyPanda . "154 Bullying Topics & Bullying Essay Examples." February 22, 2024. https://ivypanda.com/essays/topic/bullying-essay-examples/.

Bibliography

IvyPanda . "154 Bullying Topics & Bullying Essay Examples." February 22, 2024. https://ivypanda.com/essays/topic/bullying-essay-examples/.

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New study sheds link between childhood bullying and mental health struggles in young adults

Posted: April 11, 2024 | Last updated: April 11, 2024

Research has long linked bullying to mental health issues among youth. However, as Channel 13's Anjali Patel explains, a new study is believed to be the first to confirm how bullying leads to distrust, and in turn, mental health struggles in teens. READ MORE: <a href="https://www.ktnv.com/news/new-study-sheds-light-on-link-between-childhood-bullying-and-mental-health-struggles-in-young-adults">https://www.ktnv.com/news/new-study-sheds-light-on-link-between-childhood-bullying-and-mental-health-struggles-in-young-adults</a>

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What’s it like to be a teacher in america today, public k-12 teachers are stressed about their jobs and few are optimistic about the future of education; many say poverty, absenteeism and mental health are major problems at their school.

Pew Research Center conducted this study to better understand the views and experiences of public K-12 school teachers. The analysis in this report is based on an online survey of 2,531 U.S. public K-12 teachers conducted from Oct. 17 to Nov. 14, 2023. The teachers surveyed are members of RAND’s American Teacher Panel, a nationally representative panel of public K-12 school teachers recruited through MDR Education. Survey data is weighted to state and national teacher characteristics to account for differences in sampling and response to ensure they are representative of the target population.

Here are the questions used for this report , along with responses, and the survey methodology .

Low-poverty , medium-poverty and high-poverty schools are based on the percentage of students eligible for free and reduced-price lunch, as reported by the National Center for Education Statistics (less than 40%, 40%-59% and 60% or more, respectively).

Secondary schools include both middle schools and high schools.

All references to party affiliation include those who lean toward that party. Republicans include those who identify as Republicans and those who say they lean toward the Republican Party. Democrats include those who identify as Democrats and those who say they lean toward the Democratic Party.

Public K-12 schools in the United States face a host of challenges these days – from teacher shortages to the lingering effects of COVID-19 learning loss to political battles over curriculum .

In the midst of all this, teachers express low levels of satisfaction with their jobs. In fact, they’re much less satisfied than U.S. workers overall.

Here’s how public K-12 teachers are feeling about their jobs:

• 77% say their job is frequently stressful.
• 68% say it’s overwhelming.
• 70% say their school is understaffed.
• 52% say they would not advise a young person starting out today to become a teacher.

When it comes to how their students are doing in school, teachers are relatively downbeat about both academic performance and behavior.

Here’s how public K-12 teachers rate academic performance and behavior at their school:

• 48% say the academic performance of most students at their school is fair or poor. A third say it’s good, and only 17% describe it as excellent or very good.
• 49% say the behavior of most students at their school is fair or poor; 35% say it’s good and 13% say it’s excellent or very good.

The COVID-19 pandemic likely compounded these issues. About eight-in-ten teachers (among those who have been teaching for at least a year) say the lasting impact of the pandemic on students’ behavior, academic performance and emotional well-being has been very or somewhat negative.

Assessments of student performance and behavior differ widely by school poverty level. 1 Teachers in high-poverty schools have a much more negative outlook. But feelings of stress and dissatisfaction among teachers are fairly universal, regardless of where they teach.

Related: What Public K-12 Teachers Want Americans To Know About Teaching

As they navigate these challenges, teachers don’t feel they’re getting the support or reinforcement they need from parents.

Majorities of teachers say parents are doing too little when it comes to holding their children accountable if they misbehave in school, helping them with their schoolwork and ensuring their attendance.

Teachers in high- and medium-poverty schools are more likely than those in low-poverty schools to say parents are doing too little in each of these areas.

These findings are based on a survey of 2,531 U.S. public K-12 teachers conducted Oct. 17-Nov. 14, 2023, using the RAND American Teacher Panel. 2 The survey looks at the following aspects of teachers’ experiences:

• Teachers’ job satisfaction (Chapter 1)
• How teachers manage their workload (Chapter 2)
• Problems students are facing at public K-12 schools (Chapter 3)
• Challenges in the classroom (Chapter 4)
• Teachers’ views of parent involvement (Chapter 5)
• Teachers’ views on the state of public K-12 education (Chapter 6)

Problems students are facing

We asked teachers about some of the challenges students at their school are facing. Three problems topped the list:

• Poverty (53% say this is a major problem among students who attend their school)
• Chronic absenteeism (49%)
• Anxiety and depression (48%)

Chronic absenteeism (that is, students missing a substantial number of school days) is a particular challenge at high schools, with 61% of high school teachers saying this is a major problem where they teach. By comparison, 46% of middle school teachers and 43% of elementary school teachers say the same.

Anxiety and depression are viewed as a more serious problem at the secondary school level: 69% of high school teachers and 57% of middle school teachers say this is a major problem among their students, compared with 29% of elementary school teachers.

Fewer teachers (20%) view bullying as a major problem at their school, though the share is significantly higher among middle school teachers (34%).

A look inside the classroom

We also asked teachers how things are going in their classroom and specifically about some of the issues that may get in the way of teaching.

• 47% of teachers say students showing little or no interest in learning is a major problem in their classroom. The share rises to 58% among high school teachers.
• 33% say students being distracted by their cellphones is a major problem. This is particularly an issue for high school teachers, with 72% saying this is a major problem.
• About one-in-five teachers say students getting up and walking around when they’re not supposed to and being disrespectful toward them (21% each) are major problems. Teachers in elementary and middle schools are more likely than those in high schools to see these as challenges.

A majority of teachers (68%) say they’ve experienced verbal abuse from a student – such as being yelled at or threatened. Some 21% say this happens at least a few times a month.

Physical violence is less common. Even so, 40% of teachers say a student has been violent toward them , with 9% saying this happens at least a few times a month.

About two-thirds of teachers (66%) say that the current discipline practices at their school are very or somewhat mild. Only 2% say the discipline practices at their school are very or somewhat harsh, while 31% say they are neither harsh nor mild. Most teachers (67%) say teachers themselves don’t have enough influence in determining discipline practices at their school.

Behavioral issues and mental health challenges

In addition to their teaching duties, a majority of teachers (58%) say they have to address behavioral issues in their classroom every day. About three-in-ten teachers (28%) say they have to help students with mental health challenges daily.

In each of these areas, elementary and middle school teachers are more likely than those at the high school level to say they do these things on a daily basis.

And teachers in high-poverty schools are more likely than those in medium- and low-poverty schools to say they deal with these issues each day.

Cellphone policies and enforcement

Most teachers (82%) say their school or district has policies regarding cellphone use in the classroom.

Of those, 56% say these policies are at least somewhat easy to enforce, 30% say they’re difficult to enforce, and 14% say they’re neither easy nor difficult to enforce.

Experiences with cellphone policies vary widely across school levels. High school teachers (60%) are much more likely than middle school (30%) and elementary school teachers (12%) to say the policies are difficult to enforce (among those who say their school or district has a cellphone policy).

How teachers are experiencing their jobs

Thinking about the various aspects of their jobs, teachers are most satisfied with their relationship with other teachers at their school (71% are extremely or very satisfied).

They’re least satisfied with how much they’re paid – only 15% are extremely or very satisfied with their pay, while 51% are not too or not at all satisfied.

Among teachers who don’t plan to retire or stop working this year, 29% say it’s at least somewhat likely they will look for a new job in the 2023-24 school year. Within that group, 40% say they would look for a job outside of education, 29% say they’d seek a non-teaching job in education, and only 18% say they’d look for a teaching job at another public K-12 school.

Do teachers find their work fulfilling and enjoyable?

Overall, 56% of teachers say they find their job to be fulfilling extremely often or often; 53% say their job is enjoyable. These are significantly lower than the shares who say their job is frequently stressful (77%) or overwhelming (68%).

Positive experiences are more common among newer teachers. Two-thirds of those who’ve been teaching less than six years say their work is fulfilling extremely often or often, and 62% of this group says their work is frequently enjoyable.

Teachers with longer tenures are somewhat less likely to feel this way. For example, 48% of those who’ve been teaching for six to 10 years say their work is frequently enjoyable.

Balancing the workload

Most teachers (84%) say there’s not enough time during their regular work hours to do tasks like grading, lesson planning, paperwork and answering work emails.

Among those who feel this way, 81% say simply having too much work is a major reason.

Many also point to having to spend time helping students outside the classroom, performing non-teaching duties like lunch duty, and covering other teachers’ classrooms as at least minor reasons they don’t have enough time to get all their work done.

A majority of teachers (54%) say it’s very or somewhat difficult for them to balance work and their personal life. About one-in-four (26%) say it’s very or somewhat easy for them to balance these things, and 20% say it’s neither easy nor difficult.

Among teachers, women are more likely than men to say work-life balance is difficult for them (57% vs. 43%). Women teachers are also more likely to say they often find their job stressful or overwhelming.

How teachers view the education system

A large majority of teachers (82%) say the overall state of public K-12 education has gotten worse in the past five years.

And very few are optimistic about the next five years: Only 20% of teachers say public K-12 education will be a lot or somewhat better five years from now. A narrow majority (53%) say it will be worse.

Among teachers who think things have gotten worse in recent years, majorities say the current political climate (60%) and the lasting effects of the COVID-19 pandemic (57%) are major reasons. A sizable share (46%) also point to changes in the availability of funding and resources.

Related:  About half of Americans say public K-12 education is going in the wrong direction

Which political party do teachers trust more to deal with educational challenges?

On balance, more teachers say they trust the Democratic Party than say they trust the Republican Party to do a better job handling key issues facing the K-12 education system. But three-in-ten or more across the following issues say they don’t trust either party:

• Shaping school curriculum (42% say they trust neither party)
• Ensuring teachers have adequate pay and benefits (35%)
• Making schools safer (35%)
• Ensuring adequate funding for schools (33%)
• Ensuring all students have equal access to high-quality K-12 education (31%)

A majority of public K-12 teachers (58%) identify or lean toward the Democratic Party. This is higher than the share among the general public (47%).

• Poverty levels are based on the percentage of students in the school who are eligible for free and reduced-price lunch. ↩
• For details, refer to the Methodology section of the report. ↩
• Urban, suburban and rural schools are based on the location of the school as reported by the National Center for Education Statistics (rural includes town). Definitions match those used by the U.S. Census Bureau. ↩

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Report Materials

Table of contents, ‘back to school’ means anytime from late july to after labor day, depending on where in the u.s. you live, among many u.s. children, reading for fun has become less common, federal data shows, most european students learn english in school, for u.s. teens today, summer means more schooling and less leisure time than in the past, about one-in-six u.s. teachers work second jobs – and not just in the summer, most popular.

About Pew Research Center Pew Research Center is a nonpartisan fact tank that informs the public about the issues, attitudes and trends shaping the world. It conducts public opinion polling, demographic research, media content analysis and other empirical social science research. Pew Research Center does not take policy positions. It is a subsidiary of The Pew Charitable Trusts .