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International Federation of Social Workers

Global Online conference

Global standards

March 3, 2012

The process of developing global standards for the education and training of the social work profession1 is as important as the product; the actual standards that have been developed. In undertaking such an initiative it was also vital that minority opinions were considered and reflected in the development of the document. Thus, Appendix A describes fully the processes that were involved in developing the standards, and it documents the minority views that were expressed. Given the centrality of the process- product dialectic, and the fact that the principles underscoring the standards emerged, to a large extent, out of the processes, it is vital that the standards are read in conjunction with Appendices A and B. Appendix B provides the concluding comments and discusses the kinds of caution that must be exercised in the use of the document. Having duly considered all the concerns expressed in Appendices A and B, and having considered the need to take into account context-specific realities, and the ambiguities surrounding the education and practice of social work professionals, this document details nine sets of standards in respect of: the school’s core purpose or mission statement; programme objectives and outcomes; programme curricula including fieldwork; core curricula; professional staff; social work students; structure, administration, governance and resources; cultural diversity; and social work values and ethics. As a point of departure, the international definition of the social work profession is accepted, and the core purposes and functions of social work are summarised.

International definition of social work

In July 2001, both the IASSW and the IFSW reached agreement on adopting the following international definition of social work:

The social work profession promotes social change, problem solving in human relationships and the empowerment and liberation of people to enhance well-being. Utilising theories of human behaviour and social systems, social work intervenes at the points where people interact with their environments. Principles of human rights and social justice are fundamental to social work.

Both the definition and the commentaries that follow are set within the parameters of broad ethical principles that cannot be refuted on an ideological level. However, the fact that social work is operationalised differently both within nation states and regional boundaries, and across the world, with its control and status-quo maintaining functions being dominant in some contexts, cannot be disputed. Lorenz (2001) considered the ambiguities, tensions and contradictions of the social work profession, which have to be constantly negotiated and re-negotiated, rather than resolved, to constitute its success and challenge. It is, perhaps, these very tensions that lend to the richness of the local- global dialectic, and provide legitimacy for the development of global standards. According to Lorenz (2001:12): “It is its paradigmatic openness that gives this profession the chance to engage with very specific (and constantly changing) historical and political contexts while at the same time striving for a degree of universality, scientific reliability, professional autonomy and moral accountability.”

Core purposes of the social work profession

Social work, in various parts of the world, is targeted at interventions for social support and for developmental, protective, preventive and/or therapeutic purposes. Drawing on available literature, the feedback from colleagues during consultations and the commentary on the international definition of social work, the following core purposes of social work have been identified:

• Facilitate the inclusion of marginalised, socially excluded, dispossessed, vulnerable and at-risk groups of people.
• Address and challenge barriers, inequalities and injustices that exist in society.
• Form short and longer-term working relationships with and mobilise individuals, families, groups, organisations and communities to enhance their well-being and their problem-solving capacities.
• Assist and educate people to obtain services and resources in their communities.
• Formulate and implement policies and programmes that enhance people’s well-being, promote development and human rights, and promote collective social harmony and social stability, insofar as such stability does not violate human rights.
• Encourage people to engage in advocacy with regard to pertinent local, national, regional and/or international concerns.
• Act with and/or for people to advocate the formulation and targeted implementation of policies that are consistent with the ethical principles of the profession.
• Act with and/or for people to advocate changes in those policies and structural conditions that maintain people in marginalised, dispossessed and vulnerable positions, and those that infringe the collective social harmony and stability of various ethnic groups, insofar as such stability does not violate human rights.
• Work towards the protection of people who are not in a position to do so themselves, for example children and youth in need of care and persons experiencing mental illness or mental retardation, within the parameters of accepted and ethically sound legislation.
• Engage in social and political action to impact social policy and economic development, and to effect change by critiquing and eliminating inequalities.
• Enhance stable, harmonious and mutually respectful societies that do not violate people’s human rights. Promote respect for traditions, cultures, ideologies, beliefs and religions amongst different ethnic groups and societies, insofar as these do not conflict with the fundamental human rights of people.
• Plan, organise, administer and manage programmes and organisations dedicated to any of the purposes delineated above.

Global standards for the education and training of the social work profession

1.  standards regarding the school’s core purpose or mission statement.

All schools should aspire toward the development of a core purpose statement or a mission statement which:

1.1 Is clearly articulated so those major stakeholders4 who have an investment in such a core purpose or mission understand it.

1.2 Reflects the values and the ethical principles of social work.

1.3 Reflects aspiration towards equity with regard to the demographic profile of the institution’s locality. The core purpose or mission statement should thus incorporate such issues as ethnic and gender representation on the faculty, as well as in recruitment and admission procedures for students.

1.4 Respects the rights and interests of service users and their participation in all aspects of delivery of programmes.

2. Standards regarding programme objectives and outcomes

In respect of programme objectives and expected outcomes, schools should endeavour to reach the following:

2.1 A specification of its programme objectives and expected higher education outcomes.

2.2 A reflection of the values and ethical principles of the profession in its programme design and implementation.

2.3 Identification of the programme’s instructional methods, to ensure they support the achievement of the cognitive and affective development of social work students.

2.4 An indication of how the programme reflects the core knowledge, processes, values and skills of the social work profession, as applied in context-specific realities.

2.5 An indication of how an initial level of proficiency with regard to self-reflective5 use of social work values, knowledge and skills is to be attained by social work students.

2.6 An indication of how the programme meets the requirements of nationally and/or regionally/internationally defined professional goals, and how the programme addresses local, national and/or regional/international developmental needs and priorities.

2.7 As social work does not operate in a vacuum, the programme should take account of the impact of interacting cultural, economic, communication, social, political and psychological global factors.

2.8 Provision of an educational preparation that is relevant to beginning social work professional practice with individuals, families, groups and/or communities in any given context.

2.9 Self-evaluation to assess the extent to which its programme objectives and expected outcomes are being achieved.

2.10 External peer evaluation as far as is reasonable and financially viable. This may be in the form of external peer moderation of assignments and/or written examinations and dissertations, and external peer review and assessment of curricula.

2.11 The conferring of a distinctive social work qualification at the certificate, diploma, first degree or post-graduate level as approved by national and/or regional qualification authorities, where such authorities exist.

3. Standards with regard to programme curricula including field education

With regard to standards regarding programme curricula, schools should consistently aspire towards the following:

3.1 The curricula and methods of instruction being consistent with the school’s programme objectives, its expected outcomes and its mission statement.

3.2 Clear plans for the organisation, implementation and evaluation of the theory and field education components of the programme.

3.3 Involvement of service users in the planning and delivery of programmes.

3.4 Recognition and development of indigenous or locally specific social work education and practice from the traditions and cultures of different ethnic groups and societies, insofar that such traditions and cultures do not violate human rights.

3.5 Specific attention to the constant review and development of the curricula.

3.6 Ensuring that the curricula help social work students to develop skills of critical thinking and scholarly attitudes of reasoning, openness to new experiences and paradigms, and commitment to life-long learning.

3.7 Field education should be sufficient in duration and complexity of tasks and learning opportunities to ensure that students are prepared for professional practice.

3.8 Planned co-ordination and links between the school and the agency/field placement setting

3.9 Provision of orientation for fieldwork supervisors or instructors.

3.10 Appointment of field supervisors or instructors who are qualified and experienced, as determined by the development status of the social work profession in any given country, and provision of orientation for fieldwork supervisors or instructors. 3.11 Provision for the inclusion and participation of field instructors in curriculum development.

3.12 A partnership between the educational institution and the agency (where applicable) and service users in decision-making regarding field education and the evaluation of student’s fieldwork performance.

3.13 Making available, to fieldwork instructors or supervisors, a field instruction manual that details its fieldwork standards, procedures, assessment standards/criteria and expectations.

3.14 Ensuring that adequate and appropriate resources, to meet the needs of the fieldwork component of the programme, are made available.

4. Standards with regard to core curricula

In respect core curricula, schools should aspire toward the following:

4.1 An identification of and selection for inclusion in the programme curricula, as determined by local, national and/or regional/international needs and priorities.

4.2 Notwithstanding the provision of 4.1 there are certain core curricula that may be seen to be universally applicable. Thus the school should ensure that social work students, by the end of their first Social Work professional qualification, have had exposure to the following core curricula which are organised into four conceptual components:

4.1.1 Domain of the Social Work Profession

• A critical understanding of how socio-structural inadequacies, discrimination, oppression, and social, political and economic injustices impact human functioning and development at all levels, including the global.
• Knowledge of human behaviour and development and of the social environment, with particular emphasis on the person-in-environment transaction, life-span development and the interaction among biological, psychological, socio- structural, economic, political, cultural and spiritual factors in shaping human development and behaviour.
• Knowledge of how traditions, culture, beliefs, religions and customs influence human functioning and development at all levels, including how these might constitute resources and/or obstacles to growth and development.
• A critical understanding of social work’s origins and purposes.
• Understanding of country specific social work origins and development.
• Sufficient knowledge of related occupations and professions to facilitate interprofessional collaboration and teamwork.
• Knowledge of social welfare policies (or lack thereof), services and laws at local, national and/or regional/international levels, and the roles of social work in policy planning, implementation, evaluation and in social change processes.
• A critical understanding of how social stability, harmony, mutual respect and collective solidarity impact human functioning and development at all levels, including the global, insofar as that stability, harmony and solidarity are not used to maintain a status quo with regard to infringement of human rights.

4.2.2 Domain of the Social Work Professional:

• The development of the critically self-reflective practitioner, who is able to practice within the value perspective of the social work profession, and shares responsibility with the employer for their well being and professional development, including the avoidance of ‘burn-out’.
• The recognition of the relationship between personal life experiences and personal value systems and social work practice.
• The appraisal of national, regional and/or international social work codes of ethics and their applicability to context specific realities.
• Preparation of social workers within a holistic framework, with skills to enable practice in a range of contexts with diverse ethnic, cultural, ‘racial’7 and gender groups, and other forms of diversities.
• The development of the social worker who is able to conceptualise social work wisdom derived from different cultures, traditions and customs in various ethnic groups, insofar that culture, tradition, custom and ethnicity are not used to violate human rights.
• The development of the social worker who is able to deal with the complexities, subtleties, multi-dimensional, ethical, legal and dialogical aspects of power.

4.2.3 Methods of Social Work Practice:

• Sufficient practice skills in, and knowledge of, assessment, relationship building and helping processes to achieve the identified goals of the programme for the purposes of social support, and developmental, protective, preventive and/or therapeutic intervention – depending on the particular focus of the programme or professional practice orientation.
• The application of social work values, ethical principles, knowledge and skills to confront inequality, and social, political and economic injustices.
• Knowledge of social work research and skills in the use of research methods, including ethical use of relevant research paradigms, and critical appreciation of the use of research and different sources of knowledge9 about social work practice.
• The application of social work values, ethical principles, knowledge and skills to promote care, mutual respect and mutual responsibility amongst members of a society.

*Supervised fieldwork education, with due consideration to the provisions of Item 3 above.

4.2.4 Paradigm of the Social Work Profession:

• Of particular current salience to professional social work education, training and practice are the following epistemological paradigms (which are not mutually exclusive), that should inform the core curricula:
• An acknowledgement and recognition of the dignity, worth and the uniqueness of all human beings.
• Recognition of the interconnectedness that exists within and across all systems at micro, mezzo and macro levels.
• An emphasis on the importance of advocacy and changes in socio-structural, political and economic conditions that disempower, marginalise and exclude people.
• A focus on capacity-building and empowerment of individuals, families, groups, organisations and communities through a human-centred developmental approach.
• Knowledge about and respect for the rights of service users.
• Problem-solving and anticipatory socialisation through an understanding of the normative developmental life cycle, and expected life tasks and crises in relation to age-related influences, with due consideration to socio-cultural expectations.
• The assumption, identification and recognition of strengths and potential of all human beings.
• An appreciation and respect for diversity in relation to ’race’, culture, religion, ethnicity, linguistic origin, gender, sexual orientation and differential abilities.

5. Standards with regard to professional staff

With regard to professional staff, schools should aspire towards:

5.1 The provision of professional staff, adequate in number and range of expertise, who have appropriate qualifications as determined by the development status of the social work profession in any given country. As far as possible a Masters level qualification in social work, or a related discipline (in countries where social work is an emerging discipline), should be required.

5.2 The provision of opportunities for staff participation in the development of its core purpose or mission, in the formulation of the objectives and expected outcomes of the programme, and in any other initiative that the school might be involved in.

5.3 Provision for the continuing professional development of its staff, particularly in areas of emerging knowledge.

5.4 A clear statement, where possible, of its equity-based policies or preferences, with regard to considerations of gender, ethnicity, ‘race’ or any other form of diversity in its recruitment and appointment of staff.

5.5 Sensitivity to languages relevant to the practice of social work in that context.

5.6 In its allocation of teaching, fieldwork instruction, supervision and administrative workloads, making provision for research and publications.

5.7 Making provision for professional staff, as far as is reasonable and possible, to be involved in the formulation, analysis and the evaluation of the impact of social policies, and in community outreach initiatives.

6. Standards with regard to social work students

In respect of social work students, schools should endeavor to reach the following:

6.1 Clear articulation of its admission criteria and procedures.

6.2 Student recruitment, admission and retention policies that reflect the demographic profile of the locality that the institution is based in with active involvement of practitioners and service users in relevant processes. Due recognition should be given to minority groups10 that are under-represented and/or under-served. Relevant criminal convictions, involving abuse of others or human rights violations, must be taken into account given the primary responsibility of protecting and empowering service users.

6.3 Provision for student advising that is directed toward student orientation, assessment of the student’s aptitude and motivation for a career in social work, regular evaluation of the student’s performance and guidance in the selection of courses/modules.

6.4 Ensuring high quality of the educational programme whatever the mode of delivery. In the case of distance, mixed-mode, decentralised and/or internet- based teaching, mechanisms for locally-based instruction and supervision should be put in place, especially with regard to the fieldwork component of the programme.

6.5 Explicit criteria for the evaluation of student’s academic and fieldwork performance.

6.6 Non-discrimination against any student on the basis of ‘race’, colour, culture, ethnicity, linguistic origin, religion, political orientation, gender, sexual orientation, age, marital status, physical status and socio-economic status.

6.7 Grievance and appeals procedures which are accessible, clearly explained to all students and operated without prejudice to the assessment of students.

7. Standards with regard to structure, administration, governance and resources

With regard to structure, administration, governance and resources, the school and/or the educational institution should aspire towards the following:

7.1 Social work programmes are implemented through a distinct unit known as a Faculty, School, Department, Centre or Division, which has a clear identity within the educational institution.

7.2 The school has a designated Head or Director who has demonstrated administrative, scholarly and professional competence, preferably in the profession of social work.

7.3 The Head or Director has primary responsibility for the co-ordination and professional leadership of the school, with sufficient time and resources to fulfil these responsibilities.

7.4 The school’s budgetary allocation is sufficient to achieve its core purpose or mission and the programme objectives. 7.5 The budgetary allocation is stable enough to ensure programme planning and sustainability.

7.6 There are adequate physical facilities, including classroom space, offices for professional and administrative staff and space for student, faculty and field- liaison meetings, and the equipment necessary for the achievement of the school’s core purpose or mission and the programme objectives.

7.7 Library and, where possible, internet resources, necessary to achieve the programme objectives, are made available.

7.8 The necessary clerical and administrative staff are made available for the achievement of the programme objectives.

7.9 Where the school offers distance, mixed-mode, decentralised and/or internet- based education there is provision of adequate infrastructure, including classroom space, computers, texts, audio-visual equipment, community resources for fieldwork education, and on-site instruction and supervision to facilitate the achievement of its core purpose or mission, programme objectives and expected outcomes.

7.10 The school plays a key role with regard to the recruitment, appointment and promotion of staff.

7.11 The school strives toward gender equity in its recruitment, appointment, promotion and tenure policies and practices.

7.12 In its recruitment, appointment, promotion and tenure principles and procedures, the school reflects the diversities of the population that it interacts with and serves.

7.13 The decision-making processes of the school reflect participatory principles and procedures.

7.14 The school promotes the development of a cooperative, supportive and productive working environment to facilitate the achievement of programme objectives.

7.15 The school develops and maintains linkages within the institution, with external organisations, and with service users relevant to its core purpose or mission and its objectives.

8. Standards with regard to cultural and ethnic diversity and gender inclusiveness

With regard to cultural and ethnic diversity schools should aspire towards the following:

8.1 Making concerted and continuous efforts to ensure the enrichment of the educational experience by reflecting cultural and ethnic diversity, and gender analysis in its programme.

8.2 Ensuring that the programme, either through mainstreaming into all courses/modules and/or through a separate course/module, has clearly articulated objectives in respect of cultural and ethnic diversity, and gender analysis.

8.3 Indicating that issues regarding gender analysis and cultural and ethnic diversity, are represented in the fieldwork component of the programme.

8.4 Ensuring that social work students are provided with opportunities to develop self-awareness regarding their personal and cultural values, beliefs, traditions and biases and how these might influence the ability to develop relationships with people, and to work with diverse population groups.

8.5 Promoting sensitivity to, and increasing knowledge about, cultural and ethnic diversity, and gender analysis. 8.6 Minimising group stereotypes and prejudices11 and ensuring that racist behaviours, policies and structures are not reproduced through social work practice.

8.7 Ensuring that social work students are ableto form relationships with, and treat all persons with respect and dignity irrespective of such persons’ cultural and ethnic beliefs and orientations.

8.8 Ensuring that social work students are schooled in a basic human rights approach, as reflected in international instruments such as the Universal Declaration on Human Rights, the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989) and the UN Vienna Declaration (1993).12

8.9 Ensuring that the programme makes provision for social work students to know themselves both as individuals and as members of collective socio-cultural groups in terms of strengths and areas for further development.

9. Standards with regard to values and ethical codes of conduct of the social work profession

In view of the recognition that social work values, ethics and principles are the core components of the profession, schools should consistently aspire towards:

9.1 Focused and meticulous attention to this aspect of the programme in curricula design and implementation.

9.2 Clearly articulated objectives with regard to social work values, principles and ethical conduct.

9.3 Registration of professional staff and social work students (insofar as social work students develop working relationships with people via fieldwork placements) with national and/or regional regulatory (whether statutory or non-statutory) bodies, with defined codes of ethics.13 Members of such bodies are generally bound to the provisions of those codes.

9.4 Ensuring that every social work student involved in fieldwork education, and every professional staff member, is aware of the boundaries of professional practice and what might constitute unprofessional conduct in terms of the code of ethics. Where students violate the code of ethics, programme staff may take necessary and acceptable remedial and/or initial disciplinary measures, or counsel the student out of the programme.

9.5 Taking appropriate action in relation to those social work students and professional staff who fail to comply with the code of ethics, either through an established regulatory social work body, established procedures of the educational institution, and/or through legal mechanisms.

9.6 Ensuring that regulatory social work bodies are broadly representative of the social work profession, including, where applicable, social workers from both the public and private sector, and of the community that it serves, including the direct participation of service users.

9.7 Upholding, as far as is reasonable and possible, the principles of restorative rather than retributive justice14 in disciplining either social work students or professional staff who violate the code of ethics.

Appendix A: the process of and underlying approach to developing global standards for the education and training of the social work profession

The Global Minimum Qualifying Standards15 Committee was formally established as a joint initiative of the International Association of Schools of Social Work (IASSW) and the International Federation of Social Workers (IFSW) at the joint IASSW/IFSW Conference in Montreal, Canada in July 2000 (see Appendix C for a list of the Committee members). This discussion document was put together with the input of various Committee members, a review of relevant documents, e-mail consultations, and personal consultations with colleagues wherever possible

On the whole there was a favourable response to IASSW and IFSW developing a standards setting document that elucidates what social work represents on a global level. This document that identifies certain universals, may be used as a guideline to develop national standards with regard to social work education and training. Such a document should reflect some consensus around key issues, roles and purposes of social work. However, given the profession’s historically fragmented strands; the contemporary debates around social work’s intra-professional identity; its identity vis-à- vis other categories of personnel in the welfare sector such as development workers, child care workers, probation officers, community workers and youth workers (where such categories of personnel are differentiated from social work); and the enormous diversities across nations and regions, there was some scepticism about the possibility of identifying any such ‘universal’. The suggestion was that such a document must be sufficiently flexible to be applicable to any context. Such flexibility should allow for interpretations of locally specific social work education and practice, and take into account each country’s or region’s socio-political, cultural, economic and historical contexts while adhering to international standards.

The main reasons for the development of global standards were to (stated in no particular order of priority):

• Protect the ‘consumers’, ‘clients’ or ‘service users’18 of social work services;
• Take account of the impact of globalisation on social work curricula and social work practice;
• Facilitate articulation across universities on a global level;
• Facilitate the movement of social workers from one country to another;
• Draw a distinction between social workers and non-social workers;
• Benchmark national standards against international standards;
• Facilitate partnerships and international student and staff exchange programmes;
• Enable IASSW and IFSW, in developing such guidelines, to play a facilitative role in helping those faculties, centres, departments or schools of social work that lack resources to meet such guidelines.
• Give practical expression to the aim of IASSW as some saw the formulation of international guidelines for social work education and training to be the core business of IASSW.

Clearly not all of the above expressed purposes are feasible, e.g. it is not feasible via such an endeavour to draw a clear distinction between social workers and non-social workers, neither might we be able to realise the objective of protecting ‘clients’ through the standards. Facilitating the movement of social workers from one country to another is a contentious issue in view of the direct recruitment of social workers from some countries to others, e.g. from South Africa and the Caribbean to the United Kingdom to the disadvantage of South Africa and the Caribbean. However, from an ethical point of view the migration of those social workers that wish to practice in another country should be enabled and not blocked. The retention of social work skills within countries is dependent on such factors as service conditions, salaries and validation of the profession which need to be addressed on national levels.

A few participants expressed the view that the document should go further to include more practical guidelines. These practical guidelines should include: a multi-tiered classification for the basic qualification, e.g. with a range from the number of years of basic schooling, plus at least one year of full time social work education to a degree with 3 or 4 years of social work education (the minimum period of practical training should be specified in such a classification); the acknowledgement and recognition of prior learning experiences; and the identification of core competencies, knowledge and skills as applied to context-specific realities. A very small minority went as fa

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Social Work: A Definition – 2000

The profession of social work.

The International Federation of Social Workers Definition in 2000

In the United States, the profession of social work originated in volunteer experiments in social betterment during the late nineteenth century.  By the turn of the century, charity was rapidly becoming an occupation devoted to individual service and social action.  Social work, as the new profession came to be called, promoted the development of social welfare measures at the state and federal levels during the Progressive Era .  Ironically, social work prospered as social welfare became an accepted part of government during and after the 1930s, but the profession’s influence on the evolving American welfare state waned.

Movements for reforming the poor, rescuing children, restoring community in large cities and restructuring state charitable and correctional agencies resulted in the creation of the profession of social work.  The State Boards of Charities and Correction, child saving organizations, charity organization societies, and settlement houses of the late nineteenth century provided formative experiences for the first generation of social workers.  Initially conceived as philanthropic associations, created, directed, and staffed by volunteers, these organizations attempted to replace presumably haphazard methods of administering assistance to the poor with systematic and organized, but humane, methods.  The early leaders called this rationalized approach scientific philanthropy and consciously imitated the forms and methods of the emerging business corporations.

By the 1890s, many of these organizations began to add paid staff members, reflecting the increasingly technical nature of their work.  As reformers learned more about the problems of the poor, they began to view environmental influences as significant causes of poverty.  Influencing industrial and state policy in the increasingly urban and industrial nation became an important focus of the emerging profession.  The Social Gospel movement in American Protestantism, which emphasized the Christian’s duty to improve the world, combined with the rise of social science and labor and agrarian movements, contributed to this increasing emphasis on the environments of the poor.

During the 1890s, charity organization leaders Anna Dawes and Mary Richmond called for the creation of training schools for philanthropic workers; such schools were established in Chicago and New York by the end of the decade.  Additional schools of social work, as the new profession was called, were created in Boston, Philadelphia, and St. Louis during the first decade of the twentieth century. Charity organization societies established most of the early schools, but training was open to all workers in the diverse charities field.  Aided by philanthropic foundations, such as the Russell Sage Foundation and later the Commonwealth Fund and the Rockefeller philanthropies, and affiliated with the emerging academic social sciences, the schools promoted a scientific, critical approach to social problems.  Research, social action, and individual service provided the focus for the new professional schools.

Along with individual service, social workers in training learned how to analyze social policies and frame social legislation, how to work with community groups, how to conduct social research, and how to establish community services such as savings banks.  Individual service remained at the core of the new profession, however, and new social work specializations of medical, psychiatric and school social work incorporated the methods of individual service being used in the charity organization and child saving fields.

Social workers promoted new services, such as juvenile courts and mother’s pensions, at the state level and new agencies, such as the Childrens Bureau and the Womens Bureau, at the federal level.  Social workers like Jeanette Rankin were active in campaigns for women suffrage and other electoral reforms during the Progressive Era.  Social workers also attempted to influence industrial organizations, by attempting to mediate labor disputes and by promulgating standards for the treatment of workers.

During the 1910s and 1920s, the emerging social case work method began to dominate social work education as well as practice.  Fueled by the publication of Mary Richmond’s Social Diagnosis (1917) and wartime experiments with psychiatric social work and family case work, by the 1920s case work, increasingly devoted to the resolution of personal problems, was at the core of the emerging social work profession.  Work with groups, the drafting of legislation, and the building of community organizations became marginalized as social work, in Porter Lee’s words, “once a cause” became “a function of a well-regulated community.”

The Great Depression of the 1930s led to an expansion of public social services and employment in public agencies.  Social work, once mostly practiced in voluntary agencies, increasingly became a government service.  The Social Security Act (1935) established a national Old Age Insurance Program and federally assisted state programs of Unemployment Insurance, public assistance, and social services.  At the same time, voluntary social service agencies began to focus on problems of personal adjustment, leaving work with the very poor to the public agencies.  The American Association of Social Workers made professional education the minimum qualification for membership early in the decade; by 1939, the American Association of Schools of Social Work (AASSW) made graduate education the criterion for recognition.  Educators at state universities in the South and Midwest created the National Association of Schools of Social Administration (NASSA) to promote undergraduate education for social work.  Social workers had always practiced with community groups and organizations; the new practice methods of group work and community organization were first officially identified and defined in sessions of the National Conference of Social Work in 1935 and 1940-41.

As had the First World War, World War II expanded opportunities for social workers in the health and psychiatric fields.  Postwar public mental health programs at the state and federal levels, especially attempts to reduce public mental hospital populations, provided enhanced employment opportunities for therapeutically oriented social workers.  By the 1960s, social workers provided the bulk of public mental health services in the United States.  Federal public housing programs emphasized community participation, providing opportunities for community oriented social workers.  The merger of AASSW and NASSA in 1952 resulted in the creation of the Council on Social Work Education (CSWE); seven professional social work organizations merged to form the National Association of Social Workers (NASW) in 1955.

By the 1960s, the social work profession seemed to be in a secure position.  The election of a sympathetic president, John F. Kennedy, portended changes in public welfare, mental health services, and community action.  Social workers embraced the new administration’s initiatives, but had a more ambivalent response to Lyndon Johnson’s Great Society Programs, some of which seemed to be intended to replace professional expertise with grass-roots action.  While some social workers embraced the new initiatives, in particular the Community Action Program, others looked askance. As the federal government replaced private philanthropic foundations as a major source of external support, social workers again became interested in empirical research.  NASW promoted state regulation of social workers, advocating licensure as a consumer protection measure.

Hard times in the 1970s, combined with national administrations hostile to social work and “soft” services, resulted in retreats from community action and a turn to technical concerns and individually oriented social work.  NASW recognized the baccalaureate degree in 1969, followed by the promulgation of standards for baccalaureate education by CSWE in 1971.  Undergraduate education expanded during the 1970s.  Educators continued to emphasize research in social work education, although some were concerned that there seemed to be little use of research by practitioners. The doctorate in social work, offered at only a few institutions before the 1960s, became an increasingly popular degree.

The unevenly distributed prosperity of the 1980s and ’90s did little to change these trends, even as publicly supported social services deteriorated.   Many social workers worked as private practitioners or in proprietary agencies; others were in private agencies that contracted with government to provide specified services to an identified clientele.  By the 1980s, all states regulated social work practice, most by licensing social workers.  Social work education experienced another period of expansion during the 1990s as many baccalaureate programs added masters programs and some MSW programs offered the doctorate.  Still others began to offer an accredited online degree of social work. In spite of its growth, Congress and the administration ignored the social work profession in 1996 as they reformed the federal-state public assistance program by imposing work requirements and time limits.  By the end of the twentieth century, social work in the United States was secure, but uncertain about its mission and its relationship to the welfare state.

____________________

The International Federation of Social Worker’s definition of social work adopted in 2000 is:

The social work profession promotes social change, problem solving in human relationships and the empowerment and liberation of people to enhance well-being. Utilising theories of human behaviour and social systems, social work intervenes at the points where people interact with their environments. Principles of human rights and social justice are fundamental to social work.

Social work in its various forms addresses the multiple, complex transactions between people and their environments. Its mission is to enable all people to develop their full potential, enrich their lives, and prevent dysfunction. Professional social work is focused on problem solving and change. As such, social workers are change agents in society and in the lives of the individuals, families and communities they serve. Social work is an interrelated system of values, theory and practice.

Social work grew out of humanitarian and democratic ideals, and its values are based on respect for the equality, worth, and dignity of all people. Since its beginnings over a century ago, social work practice has focused on meeting human needs and developing human potential. Human rights and social justice serve as the motivation and justification for social work action. In solidarity with those who are disadvantaged, the profession strives to alleviate poverty and to liberate vulnerable and oppressed people in order to promote social inclusion. Social work values are embodied in the profession’s national and international codes of ethics.

Social work bases its methodology on a systematic body of evidence-based knowledge derived from research and practice evaluation, including local and indigenous knowledge specific to its context. It recognizes the complexity of interactions between human beings and their environment, and the capacity of people both to be affected by and to alter the multiple influences upon them including bio-psychosocial factors. The social work profession draws on theories of human development and behaviour and social systems to analyze complex situations and to facilitate individual, organizational, social and cultural changes.

Social work addresses the barriers, inequities and injustices that exist in society. It responds to crises and emergencies as well as to everyday personal and social problems. Social work utilizes a variety of skills, techniques, and activities consistent with its holistic focus on persons and their environments. Social work interventions range from primarily person-focused psychosocial processes to involvement in social policy, planning and development. These include counseling, clinical social work, group work, social pedagogical work, and family treatment and therapy as well as efforts to help people obtain services and resources in the community. Interventions also include agency administration, community organization and engaging in social and political action to impact social policy and economic development. The holistic focus of social work is universal, but the priorities of social work practice will vary from country to country and from time to time depending on cultural, historical, and socio-economic conditions.

—————————————————–

Primary sources on the social work profession include the records of the Council on Social Work Education and its predecessors, the National Association of Social Workers and its predecessors, and the National Conference of Social Welfare (formerly the National Conference of Social Work), all held by the Social Welfare History Archives, University of Minnesota Libraries, Minneapolis.   The papers of Mary Richmond are in the Special Collections Department, Butler Library, Columbia University.  The Social Work Archives at Smith College Library, Northfield, Massachusetts, hold the papers of a number of leaders of individually oriented social work, including Bertha Reynolds.

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very eye opening about the foundation of social work practice.

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Changing Lives: Report of the 21st Century Social Work Review

Report of the recommendations made by the 21st Century Social Work Review Group for the future of social services in Scotland.

Chapter 4: The role of the social worker

Introduction

A central part of the work of the review has been to define and clarify the distinctive contribution of the social worker in an environment increasingly focused on integrated teamwork. This work has been taken forward by a specialist sub group informed by a number of significant pieces of research and evidence gathered throughout the review. Although some functions of the social worker are derived explicitly from the duties of local authorities, social work is not defined by its organisational setting. Social workers can and do work across a wide range of settings within public, voluntary and private sector organisations, with a small but growing number working independently. This chapter describes the role of the social worker in all these settings.

What is social work?

The social work profession promotes social change, problem solving in human relationships and the empowerment and liberation of people to enhance well-being. Utilising theories of human behaviour and social systems, social work intervenes at the points where people interact with their environments. Principles of human rights and social justice are fundamental to social work. (International Association of Schools of Social Work (2001)).

Taking this definition as a starting point, the social worker's task is to work alongside people to help them build resilience, maintain hope and optimism and develop their strengths and abilities. Social workers must meet people on their own terms, in their own environment whilst retaining the professional detachment needed to help people who use services to understand, come to terms with or change their behaviour.

Social workers also have a role as agents of social control. They must confront and challenge behaviour and manage situations of danger and uncertainty. In this role they have statutory powers to act to protect individuals or communities. They are closely associated with the management of risk and with the distressing consequences of things going wrong in people's lives. This balance between care and control is perhaps the defining feature of social work and provides a dynamic tension which influences workload, priorities and public perceptions of the role.

A single profession

A key question that the review was asked to address is whether social work is in fact a single profession, or has it become so specialised that it forms a number of similar but distinctive professions. We concluded that it is and should remain a single generic profession, underpinned by a common body of knowledge, skills and values, set out in the Framework for Social Work Education in Scotland (2003). Despite this, social workers increasingly work in specialist settings. The challenge is to ensure that they are able to build up the knowledge, skills and competence relevant to their own field, work within the boundaries of their competence and strive to extend their knowledge and skills. In some areas, particularly remote and rural communities, generic social work roles will be the best, or indeed the only, solution. The particular challenge here is to make sure that they maintain a broad range of expertise, backed up by access to specialist expertise or consultancy, either locally or nationally.

Developing therapeutic relationships

Work done for the review, specifically McNeill et al (2005) and Kerr et al (2005) on the skills required in criminal justice social work and with older people respectively, both concluded that the quality of the therapeutic relationship between social worker and individual or family is critical to achieving successful outcomes. The findings of these pieces of research apply equally well to all areas of social work. The therapeutic approach and the working alliance that goes with it are key elements in developing a personalised approach to helping those with the most complex needs gain control of their lives and find acceptable solutions to their problems. Crucially, this is as important in compulsory aspects of services as it is in those actively sought by service users.

McNeill et al (2005) found three consistently identified common elements in successful interventions which lead to behaviour change or reduction in problem behaviours:

• accurate empathy, respect or warmth and therapeutic genuineness;
• establishing a therapeutic relationship or working alliance (mutual understanding and agreement about the nature and purpose of intervention); and
• an approach that is person centred, or collaborative and client driven (taking the client's perspective and using the client's concepts).

Figure 1 Effective relationships (McNeill et al 2005)

Working to achieve change is at the heart of what social workers do. Identifying needs and risks through assessment and developing and implementing action plans to address these will achieve nothing without an effective therapeutic relationship between worker and client. Although the diagram opposite relates to the supervision of offenders (McNeill et al 2005), it clearly illustrates the centrality of the therapeutic relationship. The principles it describes are equally applicable to all areas of social work practice.

Yet social workers consistently told us that it is this very aspect of their work which has been eroded and devalued in recent years under the pressures of workloads, increased bureaucracy and a more mechanistic and technical approach to delivering services. We must now legitimise and restore the centrality of working for change through therapeutic relationships as the basis of strengthening the profession for the 21st Century.

What do social workers do?

Statham et al (2005) identified three main functions that define what social workers do. They:

• intervene between the state and the citizen - assessing and determining eligibility for publicly funded services and assessing risks which determine the need for statutory intervention;
• maximise the capacity of people using services - enabling individuals as far as possible to become 'expert clients' or informed clients'; and
• contribute to policies and practice that support social and personal well-being - building the platforms from which personalised services can be developed and through which individuals can promote their own well-being or manage long term conditions.

In addition they consider that there are public benefits for local communities and wider society from social work intervention which they identify as:

• building on the capacity of individuals and networks to increase their independence and use mainstream rather than specialist services;
• maximising parents' and their children's life opportunities;
• reducing community tensions through promoting mutual understanding; and
• using innovative approaches to reducing socially disruptive behaviour.

They deliver these functions through fulfiling six core roles, identified by Clark et al (2005):

• case worker working with individuals to help them address personal issues;
• advocate on behalf of the poor and socially excluded;
• partner working together with disadvantaged or disempowered individuals and groups;
• assessor of risk or need for a number of client groups; also associated with surveillance;
• care manager who arranges services for users in a mixed economy of care, but may have little direct client contact; and
• agent of social control who helps to maintain the social system against the demands of individuals whose behaviour is problematic.

The combination and priority of these roles will vary, depending on the setting and the needs of the particular individual, family or community worked with. Social workers will also need to adapt in response to the evolution of more personalised services, requiring different roles and skills.

What are they specially well equipped to do?

What social workers do inevitably overlaps with what other workers do. This blurring of operational boundaries is a real strength as people's lives cannot be defined within organisational boundaries. Social workers are skilled navigators and co-ordinators of services across these boundaries. They are used to taking a whole system approach on behalf of people who use services, taking decisions in complex cases and collaborating with others in joint work around the needs of an individual or family.

Effective collaborative work requires a good understanding of the roles of different contributors. We concluded that social workers are particularly well equipped to be the lead professional in collaborative work when:

• the individual or family's social situation is unusually complex with a number of interacting factors affecting assessment and decision-making;
• the child or adult is at risk of serious harm from others or themselves and requires skilled risk assessment and protection;
• the child or adult is likely to put others at risk of harm, distress or loss and a response needs to take account of the individual's interests and well-being of others;
• the child's or adult's circumstances, including their health, finances, living conditions or social situation, are likely to cause them or others serious harm, social exclusion or reduction of life-chances;
• the situation requires assessment of, and intervention in unpredictable emotional, psychological, intra-family or social factors and responses;
• relationships, rapport and trust need to be established and maintained with a child, adult or family who find trusting relationships difficult;
• there is a high level of uncertainty about the best form of intervention and/or its likely outcome;
• the circumstances are such that there are significant risks in both intervening and not intervening, when a fine judgement is required;
• the person is facing obstacles, challenges, choices and/or life-changes which they do not have the resources to manage without skilled support;
• prescribed or standard service responses are inadequate, and sensitive, creative and skilled work is needed to find and monitor personalised solutions; and
• the child's or adult's situation is getting worse, either chronically or unpredictably, and is likely to need additions or changes to interventions.

What can only social workers do?

Local authorities have a statutory responsibility for the protection and promotion of the welfare and well being of children, vulnerable adults and communities. This responsibility is usually discharged through social workers and others in the social service workforce, however these services are configured or managed. Other legislation places particular duties on social workers in relation to people with mental illness and people in the criminal justice system as well as children in need. In these instances, the legislation reinforces the social worker's authority to act on behalf of society when people pose a risk to themselves or others or are placed at risk by the actions of others. We have concluded that there are a range of functions that only a social worker should carry out and that these should be set out in regulation (see recommendation 7). The protected functions paper on the CD gives further detail and examples of how these functions apply in different settings.

Making best use of social workers' skills

Social workers are a relatively scarce specialist resource, making up only around 5% of the total social service workforce. It is therefore essential that best use is made of their knowledge and skills. Yet we know that this is not always happening. We observed and heard from social workers who were being expected to routinely undertake tasks which did not require their level of training and expertise and which would be far more appropriately undertaken by others in the workforce including administrative and support staff. We therefore propose a tiered approach to defining how social workers should be deployed. This is further expanded in the report of the role of the social worker sub group (on the CD ).

In line with the reserved functions of the social worker, the tiers of the pyramid represent the distribution of social workers time. Intervention increases between the tiers as need and risk increases. Social workers never work in isolation and are always part of multidisciplinary approaches.

At tier 4 the social worker is lead professional, fulfiling roles that only a social worker can do, negotiating a balance between care and control. This may be where the local authority is under statutory obligation, or the nature of the situation is complex. The focus of social worker's efforts and time should be spent at tiers 3 and 4 which maximise the use of their professional expertise. Other services will focus their efforts primarily at tiers 1 and 2. So a school, for example, is providing education to all children, but will be providing additional targeted support to some, as well as working alongside social work and other services to support those with the most complex needs. All social workers have a significant contribution to make at tiers 1 and 2, supporting and informing the delivery of services both within social work and across partner agencies.

The interconnections between social workers, other social service workers and other agencies across the tiers need to be properly developed and understood. This will need careful management, avoiding the sorts of boundary disputes we have seen in the past and ensuring that effective use is made of the skills of social workers and other workers across the public sector.

Figure 2: The Social workers role - a tiered approach

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• International edition
• Australia edition
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What is social work?

T his week, the two international bodies representing social work will vote on a new global definition of the profession. These are the International Federation of Social Workers and the International Association of Schools of Social Work . With this in mind, it was fascinating to discover, by chance, a forgotten 1957 global definition in the federation archives:

"Social work is a systematic way of helping individuals and groups towards better adaptation to society. The social worker will work together with clients to develop their inner resources and he will mobilise, if necessary, outside facilities for assistance to bring about changes in the environment. Thus, social work tries to contribute towards greater harmony in society. As in other professions social work is based on specialised knowledge, certain principles and skills."

Take away the gender references and you can see some of the DNA of the profession, alongside the evolution. These days the emphasis is not so much on "helping people towards better adaption to society", but rather on the personal and social issues that cause problems and what is needed to sustain solutions in people's lives. One of the contemporary features that makes social work unique is that research shows broader social services can just offer a rotating door: someone comes in stressed, they learn to de-stress, they then return to the same social environment that stressed them in the first place, so they get stressed again. In contrast, good social work looks to assist the person to change themselves, and their environment, to construct a better life for themselves immersed in strong and positive relationships.

The 1957 definition also talks about "specialised knowledge" which could be interpreted as an expert-professional and non-expert-client duality. This is not reflective of today's social work practice, which respects people and co-constructs knowledge and understanding.

We learnt many years ago that our answers for someone's problems frequently don't help. Our role is to support others to find their own resources, strengths and answers. This approach takes considerably more skill from a social worker than trying to impose "answers" on others.

The 1957 definition is now more a signpost in the profession's development, and it was probably a progression on other practices it succeeded. In the last 14 years, though, we have seen and lived with another global definition, agreed by the two international bodies in 2000:

"The social work profession promotes social change, problem-solving in human relationships and the empowerment and liberation of people to enhance well-being. Utilising theories of human behaviour and social systems, social work intervenes at the points where people interact with their environments. Principles of human rights and social justice are fundamental to social work."

The adoption of this global definition by the federation in 2000 and the association in 2001 represented a major development. This definition has been influential and frequently cited in the literature. It highlighted the profession's commitment to social justice and human rights and has acted as an impetus for many frontline social workers to confront and challenge oppression.

Since its adoption, however, the 2000 definition has also come under considerable criticism. This centres on the perceived Western bias, with its emphasis on individual rights, and the lack of recognition of collective rights and the fundamental need for societies to achieve continuity, stability and social cohesion.

A further concern was that the current definition made no reference to social work theory or indigenous knowledge. The latter was of major concern to indigenous social workers who had experienced the negative impact of western social work models, forced on their communities with horrific consequences. Specifically, this includes the active participation of social workers in removing the stolen generation of aboriginal children in Australia.

Therefore, the two international bodies of social work established a joint taskforce and held consultations in all the countries where we have members. Various drafts were developed and tested. Every single word was heavily scrutinised in all parts of the world.

Submissions were received emphasising the partnership between social workers and the communities we work with, and that social work is transformative at personal, community and societal levels. It was highlighted that social workers often have to navigate competing rights: individual, family, cultural, groups, language. Simply stating human rights does not define the complexity of the task. Feedback also demonstrated that social work stresses interdependence and not independence; much of our work is on encouraging family members, community leaders and governments to take responsibility.

The taskforce carefully wove these submissions into a final draft that has been endorsed by the leadership bodies of both organisations. Next week it will be voted on in the general assemblies.

Here it is:

"Social work is a practice-based profession and an academic discipline that promotes social change and development, social cohesion, and the empowerment and liberation of people. Principles of social justice, human rights, collective responsibility and respect for diversities are central to social work. Underpinned by theories of social work, social sciences, humanities and indigenous knowledges, social work engages people and structures to address life challenges and enhance wellbeing."

Navigating the many passionate voices and perspectives was an extremely complex task. No doubt there will continue to be criticism of the new definition, as there has been of the past versions. I believe this is healthy and shows the maturity of the profession. Indeed, when the 2000 definition was formulated, the International Federation had approximately 63 country members. Now it is over 110 and growing.

The new members in both bodies bring new experiences and practice from Latin America, Asia-Pacific and Africa. To learn from one another and to practise our own principles of inclusiveness, it is critical that their perspectives are woven into one of the most important global statements of the profession.

There are many positive echoes of the 2000 definition in the proposed version that sit alongside a description of a more visionary profession, one that is placed to make major contributions to local, regional and global complexities. The proposed definition focuses on social change, human rights, empowerment and the liberation of peoples. It emphasises collective responsibility. It shows that social work does have its own theoretical base, that we construct knowledge in partnership with the people we work with, and that we also draw on other bodies of learning.

In my view, such changes show a more inclusive and confident profession, one that is more united in its core purpose and able to tackle the global problems we all face.

How would you define social work? Let us know by commenting below, or tweeting us @GdnSocialCare

Rory Truell is secretary-general of the International Federation of Social Workers

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Social Work Education, Research and Practice pp 99–113 Cite as

The Critical Role of Community Development in Social Work Education

• Narayan Gopalkrishnan 3  
• First Online: 14 January 2021

582 Accesses

Social work, and social work education, is increasingly challenged by the changing nature of the globalized environments that it works within. The local and the global are deeply intertwined, leading to complex transnational problems and shared risks that continue to impact heavily on communities. Cultural diversity plays a key role in this, providing a number of opportunities as well as threats to the ways in which people and communities interact. This chapter explores some of the responses of the social work profession in India and Australia to the challenges experienced in the globalized world and discusses these responses in relation to human rights and social justice. The role of community development in this context is then examined, and its relevance to social work education is discussed. We argue that traditional forms of community development have not been very effective at working with diversity and look towards new ways in which professionals can engage with this realm of activity. The chapter closes with an exploration of possible future directions for social work educators to consider.

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Narayan Gopalkrishnan

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Gopalkrishnan, N. (2020). The Critical Role of Community Development in Social Work Education. In: Ponnuswami, I., Francis, A.P. (eds) Social Work Education, Research and Practice . Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-9797-8_8

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1 Key ideas in social work

This section will introduce you to what constitutes good social work practice. You will consider four basic elements of social work, and the values that underpin professional practice. You may be surprised at how much knowledge you already have, and how this can benefit social work practice.

The social work profession promotes social change, problem solving in human relationships and the empowerment and liberation of people to enhance wellbeing. Utilising theories of human behaviour and social systems, social work intervenes at the points where people interact with their environments. Principles of human rights and social justice are fundamental to social work (BASW, 2012).

The model of the four components of good practice shown in Figure 1 acknowledges that learning about social work cannot just be about theoretical knowledge and academic learning, but that it has to be related to the application of this knowledge to the setting where social work is practised, the skills that are used and the value base implicit in direct work with people.

The four components of good practice are:

• values and ethics
• the social work process, including the legal and policy context

At the base of this diagram is a circle which contains the words ‘Good practice’. Coming off this circle are more, overlapping circles with the following text: ‘Process’, ‘Knowledge’, ‘Values and ethics’ and ‘Skills’.

Your practice and your reflections on what you learn about social work will be guided by your understanding and application of these four components of good practice.

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West Liberty University

• Social Work

ENHANCING WELL BEING

SOCIAL WORK is not only a major, but a way of life.

The Social Work program at WLU is based on the “Generalist Practice”.

According to the International Federation of Social Workers “The social work profession promotes social change, problem solving in human relationships and the empowerment and liberation of people to enhance well-being. Utilizing theories of human behavior and social systems, social work intervenes at the points where people interact with their environments.   Principles of human rights and social justice are fundamental to social work.”

Social Work is not only a major, but a way of life.  The Social Work program at West Liberty is based on the concept of “Generalist Practice” of Social Work. Generalist Practice is the professional activity of helping individuals, families, couples, groups, communities and/or organizations improve,strengthen, and enhance functioning; to empower people and the environments and systems with which they interact.

What Careers Exist in Social Work? Individuals who major in Social Work obtain employment in: • administration • child welfare • community organization • criminal justice/corrections • developmental disabilities • gerontology • health care • mental health • research • higher education • school social work

You can find out more about who social workers are here .

Course Offerings: The program is accredited through the Council of Social Work Education (CSWE), and its courses meet the mandated curriculum for a BSW program. Specialized elective topics are also offered on a regular basis. Please see the CURRICULUM menu for a full list of course offerings. West Liberty University also offers a minor in Social Work.

• Academic 4-Year Plan(s)
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• Criminal Justice
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Department of Social Work West Liberty University College of Liberal and Creative Arts 208 University Dr. West Liberty, WV 26074

304.336.8089