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Open Access

Peer-reviewed

Research Article

Does time management work? A meta-analysis

Roles Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Methodology, Software, Validation, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

* E-mail: [email protected]

Affiliation Concordia University, Sir George Williams Campus, Montreal, Quebec, Canada

Roles Methodology, Validation

Affiliation FSA Ulaval, Laval University, Quebec City, Quebec, Canada

Roles Validation, Writing – review & editing

• Brad Aeon, 
• Aïda Faber, 
• Alexandra Panaccio

• Published: January 11, 2021
• https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0245066
• Reader Comments

Does time management work? We conducted a meta-analysis to assess the impact of time management on performance and well-being. Results show that time management is moderately related to job performance, academic achievement, and wellbeing. Time management also shows a moderate, negative relationship with distress. Interestingly, individual differences and contextual factors have a much weaker association with time management, with the notable exception of conscientiousness. The extremely weak correlation with gender was unexpected: women seem to manage time better than men, but the difference is very slight. Further, we found that the link between time management and job performance seems to increase over the years: time management is more likely to get people a positive performance review at work today than in the early 1990s. The link between time management and gender, too, seems to intensify: women’s time management scores have been on the rise for the past few decades. We also note that time management seems to enhance wellbeing—in particular, life satisfaction—to a greater extent than it does performance. This challenges the common perception that time management first and foremost enhances work performance, and that wellbeing is simply a byproduct.

Citation: Aeon B, Faber A, Panaccio A (2021) Does time management work? A meta-analysis. PLoS ONE 16(1): e0245066. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0245066

Editor: Juan-Carlos Pérez-González, Universidad Nacional de Educacion a Distancia (UNED), SPAIN

Received: October 27, 2020; Accepted: December 21, 2020; Published: January 11, 2021

Copyright: © 2021 Aeon et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Data Availability: All relevant data are within the manuscript and its Supporting Information files.

Funding: The authors received no specific funding for this work.

Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist

Introduction

Stand-up comedian George Carlin once quipped that in the future a “time machine will be built, but no one will have time to use it” [ 1 ]. Portentously, booksellers now carry one-minute bedtime stories for time-starved parents [ 2 ] and people increasingly speed-watch videos and speed-listen to audio books [ 3 – 5 ]. These behaviors are symptomatic of an increasingly harried society suffering from chronic time poverty [ 6 ]. Work is intensifying—in 1965 about 50% of workers took breaks; in 2003, less than 2% [ 7 ]. Leisure, too, is intensifying: people strive to consume music, social media, vacations, and other leisure activities ever more efficiently [ 8 – 11 ].

In this frantic context, time management is often touted as a panacea for time pressure. Media outlets routinely extol the virtues of time management. Employers, educators, parents, and politicians exhort employees, students, children, and citizens to embrace more efficient ways to use time [ 12 – 16 ]. In light of this, it is not surprising that from 1960 to 2008 the frequency of books mentioning time management shot up by more than 2,700% [ 17 ].

Time management is defined as “a form of decision making used by individuals to structure, protect, and adapt their time to changing conditions” [ 18 ]. This means time management, as it is generally portrayed in the literature, comprises three components: structuring, protecting, and adapting time. Well-established time management measures reflect these concepts. Structuring time, for instance, is captured in such items as “Do you have a daily routine which you follow?” and “Do your main activities during the day fit together in a structured way?” [ 19 ]. Protecting time is reflected in items such as “Do you often find yourself doing things which interfere with your schoolwork simply because you hate to say ‘No’ to people?” [ 20 ]. And adapting time to changing conditions is seen in such items as “Uses waiting time” and “Evaluates daily schedule” [ 21 ].

Research has, furthermore, addressed several important aspects of time management, such as its relationship with work-life balance [ 22 ], whether gender differences in time management ability develop in early childhood [ 23 ], and whether organizations that encourage employees to manage their time experience less stress and turnover [ 24 ]. Despite the phenomenal popularity of this topic, however, academic research has yet to address some fundamental questions [ 25 – 27 ].

A critical gap in time management research is the question of whether time management works [ 28 , 29 ]. For instance, studies on the relationship between time management and job performance reveal mixed findings [ 30 , 31 ]. Furthermore, scholars’ attempts to synthesize the literature have so far been qualitative, precluding a quantitative overall assessment [ 18 , 32 , 33 ]. To tackle this gap in our understanding of time management, we conducted a meta-analysis. In addressing the question of whether time management works, we first clarify the criteria for effectiveness. In line with previous reviews, we find that virtually all studies focus on two broad outcomes: performance and wellbeing [ 32 ].

Overall, results suggest that time management enhances job performance, academic achievement, and wellbeing. Interestingly, individual differences (e.g., gender, age) and contextual factors (e.g., job autonomy, workload) were much less related to time management ability, with the notable exception of personality and, in particular, conscientiousness. Furthermore, the link between time management and job performance seems to grow stronger over the years, perhaps reflecting the growing need to manage time in increasingly autonomous and flexible jobs [ 34 – 37 ].

Overall, our findings provide academics, policymakers, and the general audience with better information to assess the value of time management. This information is all the more useful amid the growing doubts about the effectiveness of time management [ 38 ]. We elaborate on the contributions and implications of our findings in the discussion section.

What does it mean to say that time management works?

In the din of current debates over productivity, reduced workweeks, and flexible hours, time management comes to the fore as a major talking point. Given its popularity, it would seem rather pointless to question its effectiveness. Indeed, time management’s effectiveness is often taken for granted, presumably because time management offers a seemingly logical solution to a lifestyle that increasingly requires coordination and prioritization skills [ 39 , 40 ].

Yet, popular media outlets increasingly voice concern and frustration over time management, reflecting at least part of the population’s growing disenchantment [ 38 ]. This questioning of time management practices is becoming more common among academics as well [ 41 ]. As some have noted, the issue is not just whether time management works. Rather, the question is whether the techniques championed by time management gurus can be actually counterproductive or even harmful [ 26 , 42 ]. Other scholars have raised concerns that time management may foster an individualistic, quantitative, profit-oriented view of time that perpetuates social inequalities [ 43 , 44 ]. For instance, time management manuals beguile readers with promises of boundless productivity that may not be accessible to women, whose disproportionate share in care work, such as tending to young children, may not fit with typically male-oriented time management advice [ 45 ]. Similarly, bestselling time management books at times offer advice that reinforce global inequities. Some manuals, for instance, recommend delegating trivial tasks to private virtual assistants, who often work out of developing countries for measly wages [ 46 ]. Furthermore, time management manuals often ascribe a financial value to time—the most famous time management adage is that time is money. But recent studies show that thinking of time as money leads to a slew of negative outcomes, including time pressure, stress, impatience, inability to enjoy the moment, unwillingness to help others, and less concern with the environment [ 47 – 51 ]. What’s more, the pressure induced by thinking of time as money may ultimately undermine psychological and physical health [ 52 ].

Concerns over ethics and safety notwithstanding, a more prosaic question researchers have grappled with is whether time management works. Countless general-audience books and training programs have claimed that time management improves people’s lives in many ways, such as boosting performance at work [ 53 – 55 ]. Initial academic forays into addressing this question challenged those claims: time management didn’t seem to improve job performance [ 29 , 30 ]. Studies used a variety of research approaches, running the gamut from lab experiments, field experiments, longitudinal studies, and cross-sectional surveys to experience sampling [ 28 , 56 – 58 ]. Such studies occasionally did find an association between time management and performance, but only in highly motivated workers [ 59 ]; instances establishing a more straightforward link with performance were comparatively rare [ 31 ]. Summarizing these insights, reviews of the literature concluded that the link between time management and job performance is unclear; the link with wellbeing, however, seemed more compelling although not conclusive [ 18 , 32 ].

It is interesting to note that scholars often assess the effectiveness time management by its ability to influence some aspect of performance, wellbeing, or both. In other words, the question of whether time management works comes down to asking whether time management influences performance and wellbeing. The link between time management and performance at work can be traced historically to scientific management [ 60 ]. Nevertheless, even though modern time management can be traced to scientific management in male-dominated work settings, a feminist reading of time management history reveals that our modern idea of time management also descends from female time management thinkers of the same era, such as Lillian Gilbreth, who wrote treatises on efficient household management [ 43 , 61 , 62 ]. As the link between work output and time efficiency became clearer, industrialists went to great lengths to encourage workers to use their time more rationally [ 63 – 65 ]. Over time, people have internalized a duty to be productive and now see time management as a personal responsibility at work [ 43 , 66 , 67 ]. The link between time management and academic performance can be traced to schools’ historical emphasis on punctuality and timeliness. In more recent decades, however, homework expectations have soared [ 68 ] and parents, especially well-educated ones, have been spending more time preparing children for increasingly competitive college admissions [ 69 , 70 ]. In this context, time management is seen as a necessary skill for students to thrive in an increasingly cut-throat academic world. Finally, the link between time management and wellbeing harks back to ancient scholars, who emphasized that organizing one’s time was necessary to a life well-lived [ 71 , 72 ]. More recently, empirical studies in the 1980s examined the effect of time management on depressive symptoms that often plague unemployed people [ 19 , 73 ]. Subsequent studies surmised that the effective use of time might prevent a host of ills, such as work-life conflict and job stress [ 22 , 74 ].

Overall, then, various studies have looked into the effectiveness of time management. Yet, individual studies remain narrow in scope and reviews of the literature offer only a qualitative—and often inconclusive—assessment. To provide a more quantifiable answer to the question of whether time management works, we performed a meta-analysis, the methods of which we outline in what follows.

Literature search and inclusion criteria

We performed a comprehensive search using the keywords “time management” across the EBSCO databases Academic Search Complete , Business Source Complete , Computers & Applied Sciences Complete , Gender Studies Database , MEDLINE , Psychology and Behavioral Sciences Collection , PsycINFO , SocINDEX , and Education Source . The search had no restrictions regarding country and year of publication and included peer-reviewed articles up to 2019. To enhance comprehensiveness, we also ran a forward search on the three main time management measures: the Time Management Behavior Scale [ 21 ], the Time Structure Questionnaire [ 19 ], and the Time Management Questionnaire [ 20 ]. (A forward search tracks all the papers that have cited a particular work. In our case the forward search located all the papers citing the three time management scales available on Web of Science .)

Time management measures typically capture three aspects of time management: structuring, protecting, and adapting time to changing conditions. Structuring refers to how people map their activities to time using a schedule, a planner, or other devices that represent time in a systematic way [ 75 – 77 ]. Protecting refers to how people set boundaries around their time to repel intruders [ 78 , 79 ]. Examples include people saying no to time-consuming requests from colleagues or friends as well as turning off one’s work phone during family dinners. Finally, adapting one’s time to changing conditions means, simply put, to be responsive and flexible with one’s time structure [ 80 , 81 ]. Furthermore, time management measures typically probe behaviors related to these three dimensions (e.g., using a schedule to structure one’s day, making use of downtime), although they sometimes also capture people’s attitudes (e.g., whether people feel in control of their time).

As shown in Fig 1 , the initial search yielded 10,933 hits, excluding duplicates.

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https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0245066.g001

The search included no terms other than “time management” to afford the broadest possible coverage of time management correlates. Nevertheless, as shown in Table 1 , we focused exclusively on quantitative, empirical studies of time management in non-clinical samples. Successive rounds of screening, first by assessing paper titles and abstracts and then by perusing full-text articles, whittled down the number of eligible studies to 158 (see Fig 1 ).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0245066.t001

Data extraction and coding

We extracted eligible effect sizes from the final pool of studies; effect sizes were mostly based on means and correlations. In our initial data extraction, we coded time management correlates using the exact variable names found in each paper. For instance, “work-life imbalance” was initially coded in those exact terms, rather than “work-life conflict.” Virtually all time management correlates we extracted fell under the category of performance and/or wellbeing. This pattern tallies with previous reviews of the literature [ 18 , 32 ]. A sizable number of variables also fell under the category of individual differences and contextual factors, such as age, personality, and job autonomy. After careful assessment of the extracted variables, we developed a coding scheme using a nested structure shown in Table 2 .

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0245066.t002

Aeon and Aguinis suggested that time management influences performance, although the strength of that relationship may depend on how performance is defined [ 18 ]. Specifically, they proposed that time management may have a stronger impact on behaviors conducive to performance (e.g., motivation, proactiveness) compared to assessments of performance (e.g., supervisor rankings). For this reason, we distinguish between results- and behavior-based performance in our coding scheme, both in professional and academic settings. Furthermore, wellbeing indicators can be positive (e.g., life satisfaction) or negative (e.g., anxiety). We expect time management to influence these variables in opposite ways; it would thus make little sense to analyze them jointly. Accordingly, we differentiate between wellbeing (positive) and distress (negative).

In our second round of coding, we used the scheme shown in Table 2 to cluster together kindred variables. For instance, we grouped “work-life imbalance,” “work-life conflict” and “work-family conflict” under an overarching “work-life conflict” category. The authors reviewed each variable code and resolved rare discrepancies to ultimately agree on all coded variables. Note that certain variables, such as self-actualization, covered only one study (i.e., one effect size). While one or two effect sizes is not enough to conduct a meta-analysis, they can nonetheless be grouped with other effect sizes belonging to the same category (e.g., self-actualization and sense of purpose belong the broader category of overall wellbeing). For this reason, we included variables with one or two effect sizes for comprehensiveness.

Meta-analytic procedures

We conducted all meta-analyses following the variables and cluster of variables outlined in Table 2 . We opted to run all analyses with a random effects model. The alternative—a fixed effects model—assumes that all studies share a common true effect size (i.e., linking time management and a given outcome) which they approximate. This assumption is unrealistic because it implies that the factors influencing the effect size are the same in all studies [ 83 ]. In other words, a fixed effects model assumes that the factors affecting time management are similar across all studies—the fallacy underlying this assumption was the main theme of Aeon and Aguinis’s review [ 18 ]. To perform our analyses, we used Comprehensive Meta-Analysis v.3 [ 84 ], a program considered highly reliable and valid in various systematic assessments [ 85 , 86 ].

In many cases, studies reported how variables correlated with an overall time management score. In some cases, however, studies reported only correlations with discrete time management subscales (e.g., short-range planning, attitudes toward time, use of time management tools), leaving out the overall effect. In such cases, we averaged out the effect sizes of the subscales to compute a summary effect [ 83 ]. This was necessary not only because meta-analyses admit only one effect size per study, but also because our focus is on time management as a whole rather than on subscales. Similarly, when we analyzed the link between time management and a high-level cluster of variables (e.g., overall wellbeing rather than specific variables such as life satisfaction), there were studies with more than one relevant outcome (e.g., a study that captured both life satisfaction and job satisfaction). Again, because meta-analyses allow for only one effect size (i.e., variable) per study, we used the mean of different variables to compute an overall effect sizes in studies that featured more than one outcome [ 83 ].

Overall description of the literature

We analyzed 158 studies for a total number of 490 effect sizes. 21 studies explored performance in a professional context, 76 performance in an academic context, 30 investigated wellbeing (positive), and 58 distress. Interestingly, studies did not systematically report individual differences, as evidenced by the fact that only 21 studies reported correlations with age, and only between 10 and 15 studies measured personality (depending on the personality trait). Studies that measured contextual factors were fewer still—between 3 and 7 (depending on the contextual factor). These figures fit with Aeon and Aguinis’s observation that the time management literature often overlooks internal and external factors that can influence the way people manage time [ 18 ].

With one exception, we found no papers fitting our inclusion criteria before the mid-1980s. Publication trends also indicate an uptick in time management studies around the turn of the millennium, with an even higher number around the 2010s. This trend is consistent with the one Shipp and Cole identified, revealing a surge in time-related papers in organizational behavior around the end of the 1980s [ 87 ].

It is also interesting to note that the first modern time management books came out in the early 1970s, including the The Time Trap (1972), by Alec MacKenzie and How to Get Control of your Time and your Life (1973), by Alan Lakein. These books inspired early modern time management research [ 21 , 58 , 88 ]. It is thus very likely that the impetus for modern time management research came from popular practitioner manuals.

To assess potential bias in our sample of studies, we computed different estimates of publication bias (see Table 3 ). Overall, publication bias remains relatively low (see funnel plots in S1). Publication bias occurs when there is a bias against nonsignificant or even negative results because such results are seen as unsurprising and not counterintuitive. In this case, however, the fact that time management is generally expected to lead to positive outcomes offers an incentive to publish nonsignificant or negative results, which would be counterintuitive [ 89 ]. By the same token, the fact that some people feel that time management is ineffective [ 38 ] provides an incentive to publish papers that link time management with positive outcomes. In other words, opposite social expectations surrounding time management might reduce publication bias.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0245066.t003

Finally, we note that the link between time management and virtually all outcomes studied is highly heterogeneous (as measured, for instance, by Cochran’s Q and Higgins & Thompson’s I 2 ; see tables below). This high level of heterogeneity suggests that future research should pay more attention to moderating factors (e.g., individual differences).

Time management and performance in professional settings

Overall, time management has a moderate impact on performance at work, with correlations hovering around r = .25. We distinguish between results-based and behavior-based performance. The former measures performance as an outcome (e.g., performance appraisals by supervisors) whereas the latter measures performance as behavioral contributions (e.g., motivation, job involvement). Time management seems related to both types of performance. Although the effect size for results-based performance is lower than that of behavior-based performance, moderation analysis reveals the difference is not significant (p > .05), challenging Aeon and Aguinis’s conclusions [ 18 ].

Interestingly, the link between time management and performance displays much less heterogeneity (see Q and I 2 statistics in Table 4 ) than the link between time management and other outcomes (see tables below). The studies we summarize in Table 4 include both experimental and non-experimental designs; they also use different time management measures. As such, we can discount, to a certain extent, the effect of methodological diversity. We can perhaps explain the lower heterogeneity by the fact that when people hold a full-time job, they usually are at a relatively stable stage in life. In school, by contrast, a constellation of factors (e.g., financial stability and marital status, to name a few) conspire to affect time management outcomes. Furthermore, work contexts are a typically more closed system than life in general. For this reason, fewer factors stand to disrupt the link between time management and job performance than that between time management and, say, life satisfaction. Corroborating this, note how, in Table 6 below, the link between time management and job satisfaction ( I 2 = 58.70) is much less heterogeneous than the one between time management and life satisfaction ( I 2 = 95.45).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0245066.t004

Moreover, we note that the relationship between time management and job performance (see Fig 2 ) significantly increases over the years ( B = .0106, p < .01, Q model = 8.52(1), Q residual = 15.54(9), I 2 = 42.08, R 2 analog = .75).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0245066.g002

Time management and performance in academic settings

Overall, the effect of time management on performance seems to be slightly higher in academic settings compared to work settings, although the magnitude of the effect remains moderate (see Table 5 ). Here again, we distinguish between results- and behavior-based performance. Time management’s impact on behavior-based performance seems much higher than on results-based performance—a much wider difference than the one we observed in professional settings. This suggests than results-based performance in academic settings depends less on time management than results-based performance in professional settings. This means that time management is more likely to get people a good performance review at work than a strong GPA in school.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0245066.t005

In particular, time management seems to be much more negatively related to procrastination in school than at work. Although we cannot establish causation in all studies, we note that some of them featured experimental designs that established a causal effect of time management on reducing procrastination [ 90 ].

Interestingly, time management was linked to all types of results-based performance except for standardized tests. This is perhaps due to the fact that standardized tests tap more into fluid intelligence, a measure of intelligence independent of acquired knowledge [ 91 ]. GPA and regular exam scores, in contrast, tap more into crystallized intelligence, which depends mostly on accumulated knowledge. Time management can thus assist students in organizing their time to acquire the knowledge necessary to ace a regular exam; for standardized exams that depend less on knowledge and more on intelligence, however, time management may be less helpful. Evidence from other studies bears this out: middle school students’ IQ predicts standardized achievement tests scores better than self-control while self-control predicts report card grades better than IQ [ 92 ]. (For our purposes, we can use self-control as a very rough proxy for time management.) Relatedly, we found no significant relationship between time management and cognitive ability in our meta-analysis (see Table 8 ).

Time management and wellbeing

On the whole, time management has a slightly stronger impact on wellbeing than on performance. This is unexpected, considering how the dominant discourse points to time management as a skill for professional career development. Of course, the dominant discourse also frames time management as necessary for wellbeing and stress reduction, but to a much lesser extent. Our finding that time management has a stronger influence on wellbeing in no way negates the importance of time management as a work skill. Rather, this finding challenges the intuitive notion that time management is more effective for work than for other life domains. As further evidence, notice how in Table 6 the effect of time management on life satisfaction is 72% stronger than that on job satisfaction.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0245066.t006

Time management and distress

Time management seems to allay various forms of distress, although to a lesser extent than it enhances wellbeing. The alleviating effect on psychological distress is particularly strong ( r = -0.358; see Table 7 ).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0245066.t007

That time management has a weaker effect on distress should not be surprising. First, wellbeing and distress are not two poles on opposite ends of a spectrum. Although related, wellbeing and distress are distinct [ 93 ]. Thus, there is no reason to expect time management to have a symmetrical effect on wellbeing and distress. Second, and relatedly, the factors that influence wellbeing and distress are also distinct. Specifically, self-efficacy (i.e., seeing oneself as capable) is a distinct predictor of wellbeing while neuroticism and life events in general are distinct predictors of distress [ 94 ]. It stands to reason that time management can enhance self-efficacy. (Or, alternatively, that people high in self-efficacy would be more likely to engage in time management, although experimental evidence suggests that time management training makes people feel more in control of their time [ 89 ]; it is thus plausible that time management may have a causal effect on self-efficacy. Relatedly, note how time management ability is strongly related to internal locus of control in Table 8 ) In contrast, time management can do considerably less in the way of tackling neuroticism and dampening the emotional impact of tragic life events. In other words, the factors that affect wellbeing may be much more within the purview of time management than the factors that affect distress. For this reason, time management may be less effective in alleviating distress than in improving wellbeing.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0245066.t008

Time management and individual differences

Time management is, overall, less related to individual differences than to other variables.

Age, for instance, hardly correlates with time management (with a relatively high consistency between studies, I 2 = 55.79, see Table 8 above).

Similarly, gender only tenuously correlates with time management, although in the expected direction: women seem to have stronger time management abilities than men. The very weak association with gender ( r = -0.087) is particularly surprising given women’s well-documented superior self-regulation skills [ 95 ]. That being said, women’s time management abilities seem to grow stronger over the years ( N = 37, B = -.0049, p < .05, Q model = 3.89(1), Q residual = 218.42(35), I 2 = 83.98, R 2 analog = .03; also see Fig 3 below). More realistically, this increase may not be due to women’s time management abilities getting stronger per se but, rather, to the fact that women now have more freedom to manage their time [ 96 ].

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0245066.g003

Other demographic indicators, such as education and number of children, were nonsignificant. Similarly, the relationships between time management and personal attributes and attitudes were either weak or nonsignificant, save for two notable exceptions. First, the link between time management and internal locus of control (i.e., the extent to which people perceive they’re in control of their lives) is quite substantial. This is not surprising, because time management presupposes that people believe they can change their lives. Alternatively, it may be that time management helps people strengthen their internal locus of control, as experimental evidence suggests [ 89 ]. Second, the link between time management and self-esteem is equally substantial. Here again, one can make the argument either way: people with high self-esteem might be confident enough to manage their time or, conversely, time management may boost self-esteem. The two options are not mutually exclusive: people with internal loci of control and high self-esteem levels can feel even more in control of their lives and better about themselves through time management.

We also note a very weak but statistically significant negative association between time management and multitasking. It has almost become commonsense that multitasking does not lead to performance [ 97 ]. As a result, people with stronger time management skills might deliberately steer clear of this notoriously ineffective strategy.

In addition, time management was mildly related to hours spent studying but not hours spent working. (These variables cover only student samples working part- or full-time and thus do not apply to non-student populations.) This is consistent with time-use studies revealing that teenagers and young adults spend less time working and more time studying [ 98 ]. Students who manage their time likely have well-defined intentions, and trends suggest those intentions will target education over work because, it is hoped, education offers larger payoffs over the long-term [ 99 ].

In terms of contextual factors, time management does not correlate significantly with job autonomy. This is surprising, as we expected autonomy to be a prerequisite for time management (i.e., you can’t manage time if you don’t have the freedom to). Nevertheless, qualitative studies have shown how even in environments that afford little autonomy (e.g., restaurants), workers can carve out pockets of time freedom to momentarily cut loose [ 100 ]. Thus, time management behaviors may flourish even in the most stymying settings. In addition, the fact that time management is associated with less role overload and previous attendance of time management training programs makes sense: time management can mitigate the effect of heavy workloads and time management training, presumably, improves time management skills.

Finally, time management is linked to all personality traits. Moreover, previous reviews of the literature have commented on the link between time management and conscientiousness in particular [ 32 ]. What our study reveals is the substantial magnitude of the effect ( r = 0.451). The relationship is not surprising: conscientiousness entails orderliness and organization, which overlap significantly with time management. That time management correlates so strongly with personality (and so little with other individual differences) lends credence to the dispositional view of time management [ 101 – 103 ]. However, this finding should not be taken to mean that time management is a highly inheritable, fixed ability. Having a “you either have it or you don’t” view of time management is not only counterproductive [ 104 ] but also runs counter to evidence showing that time management training does, in fact, help people manage their time better.

Does time management work? It seems so. Time management has a moderate influence on job performance, academic achievement, and wellbeing. These three outcomes play an important role in people’s lives. Doing a good job at work, getting top grades in school, and nurturing psychological wellbeing contribute to a life well lived. Widespread exhortations to get better at time management are thus not unfounded: the importance of time management is hard to overstate.

Contributions

Beyond answering the question of whether time management works, this study contributes to the literature in three major ways. First, we quantify the impact of time management on several outcomes. We thus not only address the question of whether time management works, but also, and importantly, gauge to what extent time management works. Indeed, our meta-analysis covers 53,957 participants, which allows for a much more precise, quantified assessment of time management effectiveness compared to qualitative reviews.

Second, this meta-analysis systematically assesses relationships between time management and a host of individual differences and contextual factors. This helps us draw a more accurate portrait of potential antecedents of higher (or lower) scores on time management measures.

Third, our findings challenge intuitive ideas concerning what time management is for. Specifically, we found that time management enhances wellbeing—and in particular life satisfaction—to a greater extent than it does various types of performance. This runs against the popular belief that time management primarily helps people perform better and that wellbeing is simply a byproduct of better performance. Of course, it may be that wellbeing gains, even if higher than performance gains, hinge on performance; that is to say, people may need to perform better as a prerequisite to feeling happier. But this argument doesn’t jibe with experiments showing that even in the absence of performance gains, time management interventions do increase wellbeing [ 89 ]. This argument also founders in the face of evidence linking time management with wellbeing among the unemployed [ 105 ], unemployment being an environment where performance plays a negligible role, if any. As such, this meta-analysis lends support to definitions of time management that are not work- or performance-centric.

Future research and limitations

This meta-analysis questions whether time management should be seen chiefly as a performance device. Our questioning is neither novel nor subversive: historically people have managed time for other reasons than efficiency, such as spiritual devotion and philosophical contemplation [ 72 , 106 , 107 ]. It is only with relatively recent events, such as the Industrial Revolution and waves of corporate downsizing, that time management has become synonymous with productivity [ 43 , 65 ]. We hope future research will widen its scope and look more into outcomes other than performance, such as developing a sense of meaning in life [ 108 ]. One of the earliest time management studies, for instance, explored how time management relates to having a sense of purpose [ 73 ]. However, very few studies followed suit since. Time management thus stands to become a richer, more inclusive research area by investigating a wider array of outcomes.

In addition, despite the encouraging findings of this meta-analysis we must refrain from seeing time management as a panacea. Though time management can make people’s lives better, it is not clear how easy it is for people to learn how to manage their time adequately. More importantly, being “good” at time management is often a function of income, education, and various types of privilege [ 42 , 43 , 46 , 109 ]. The hackneyed maxim that “you have as many hours in a day as Beyoncé,” for instance, blames people for their “poor” time management in pointing out that successful people have just as much time but still manage to get ahead. Yet this ill-conceived maxim glosses over the fact that Beyoncé and her ilk do, in a sense, have more hours in a day than average people who can’t afford a nanny, chauffeur, in-house chefs, and a bevy of personal assistants. Future research should thus look into ways to make time management more accessible.

Furthermore, this meta-analysis rests on the assumption that time management training programs do enhance people’s time management skills. Previous reviews have noted the opacity surrounding time management interventions—studies often don’t explain what, exactly, is taught in time management training seminars [ 18 ]. As a result, comparing the effect of different interventions might come down to comparing apples and oranges. (This might partly account for the high heterogeneity between studies.) We hope that our definition of time management will spur future research into crafting more consistent, valid, and generalizable interventions that will allow for more meaningful comparisons.

Finally, most time management studies are cross-sectional. Yet it is very likely that the effect of time management compounds over time. If time management can help students get better grades, for instance, those grades can lead to better jobs down the line [ 110 ]. Crucially, learning a skill takes time, and if time management helps people make the time to learn a skill, then time management stands to dramatically enrich people’s lives. For this reason, longitudinal studies can track different cohorts to see how time management affects people’s lives over time. We expect that developing time management skills early on in life can create a compound effect whereby people acquire a variety of other skills thanks to their ability to make time.

Overall, this study offers the most comprehensive, precise, and fine-grained assessment of time management to date. We address the longstanding debate over whether time management influences job performance in revealing a positive, albeit moderate effect. Interestingly, we found that time management impacts wellbeing—and in particular life satisfaction—to a greater extent than performance. That means time management may be primarily a wellbeing enhancer, rather than a performance booster. Furthermore, individual and external factors played a minor role in time management, although this does not necessarily mean that time management’s effectiveness is universal. Rather, we need more research that focuses on the internal and external variables that affect time management outcomes. We hope this study will tantalize future research and guide practitioners in their attempt to make better use of their time.

Supporting information

S1 checklist. prisma 2009 checklist..

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0245066.s001

S1 File. Funnel plots.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0245066.s002

S2 File. Dataset.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0245066.s003

Acknowledgments

We would like to take this opportunity to acknowledge our colleagues for their invaluable help: Mengchan Gao, Talha Aziz, Elizabeth Eley, Robert Nason, Andrew Ryder, Tracy Hecht, and Caroline Aubé.

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Time Management Strategies for Research Productivity

• Academic Institute
• Houston Methodist

Research output : Contribution to journal › Article › peer-review

Researchers function in a complex environment and carry multiple role responsibilities. This environment is prone to various distractions that can derail productivity and decrease efficiency. Effective time management allows researchers to maintain focus on their work, contributing to research productivity. Thus, improving time management skills is essential to developing and sustaining a successful program of research. This article presents time management strategies addressing behaviors surrounding time assessment, planning, and monitoring. Herein, the Western Journal of Nursing Research editorial board recommends strategies to enhance time management, including setting realistic goals, prioritizing, and optimizing planning. Involving a team, problem-solving barriers, and early management of potential distractions can facilitate maintaining focus on a research program. Continually evaluating the effectiveness of time management strategies allows researchers to identify areas of improvement and recognize progress.

• Time Management
• research productivity

ASJC Scopus subject areas

• Nursing(all)

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• 10.1177/0193945912451163

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• Time Management Medicine & Life Sciences 100%
• Efficiency Medicine & Life Sciences 79%
• Research Design Medicine & Life Sciences 58%
• Research Personnel Medicine & Life Sciences 30%
• Nursing Research Medicine & Life Sciences 19%

T1 - Time Management Strategies for Research Productivity

AU - Chase, Jo Ana D.

AU - Topp, Robert

AU - Smith, Carol E.

AU - Cohen, Marlene Z.

AU - Fahrenwald, Nancy

AU - Zerwic, Julie J.

AU - Benefield, Lazelle E.

AU - Anderson, Cindy M.

AU - Conn, Vicki S.

N1 - Copyright: Copyright 2013 Elsevier B.V., All rights reserved.

PY - 2013/2

Y1 - 2013/2

N2 - Researchers function in a complex environment and carry multiple role responsibilities. This environment is prone to various distractions that can derail productivity and decrease efficiency. Effective time management allows researchers to maintain focus on their work, contributing to research productivity. Thus, improving time management skills is essential to developing and sustaining a successful program of research. This article presents time management strategies addressing behaviors surrounding time assessment, planning, and monitoring. Herein, the Western Journal of Nursing Research editorial board recommends strategies to enhance time management, including setting realistic goals, prioritizing, and optimizing planning. Involving a team, problem-solving barriers, and early management of potential distractions can facilitate maintaining focus on a research program. Continually evaluating the effectiveness of time management strategies allows researchers to identify areas of improvement and recognize progress.

AB - Researchers function in a complex environment and carry multiple role responsibilities. This environment is prone to various distractions that can derail productivity and decrease efficiency. Effective time management allows researchers to maintain focus on their work, contributing to research productivity. Thus, improving time management skills is essential to developing and sustaining a successful program of research. This article presents time management strategies addressing behaviors surrounding time assessment, planning, and monitoring. Herein, the Western Journal of Nursing Research editorial board recommends strategies to enhance time management, including setting realistic goals, prioritizing, and optimizing planning. Involving a team, problem-solving barriers, and early management of potential distractions can facilitate maintaining focus on a research program. Continually evaluating the effectiveness of time management strategies allows researchers to identify areas of improvement and recognize progress.

KW - Time Management

KW - efficiency

KW - research productivity

UR - http://www.scopus.com/inward/record.url?scp=84872550728&partnerID=8YFLogxK

UR - http://www.scopus.com/inward/citedby.url?scp=84872550728&partnerID=8YFLogxK

U2 - 10.1177/0193945912451163

DO - 10.1177/0193945912451163

M3 - Article

C2 - 22868990

AN - SCOPUS:84872550728

SN - 0193-9459

JO - Western Journal of Nursing Research

JF - Western Journal of Nursing Research

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Time management for STEMM students during the continuing pandemic

Sandra a. murray.

1 Department of Cell Biology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15261, USA

7 First author.

Jamaine Davis

2 Department of Biological Sciences, Winston-Salem State University, Winston-Salem, NC 27110, USA

Haysetta D. Shuler

3 Department of Biochemistry, Cancer Biology, Neuroscience and Pharmacology, Meharry Medical College, Nashville, TN 37208, USA

Elsie C. Spencer

4 Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, NY 10027, USA

8 Co–senior authors.

Antentor Hinton, Jr.

5 Department of Molecular Physiology and Biophysics, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37232, USA

6 Hinton and Garza Lopez Family Consulting Company, Iowa City, IA 52246, USA

One of the biggest obstacles to success is a lack of practical time management skills. Here, we provide suggestions on how to optimize time management.

Introduction

Many factors contribute to the academic success of students in science, technology, engineering, math, and medicine (STEMM). One important factor is time management, and lack of time management is a major impediment to student success [ 1 , 2 ]. Multiple articles discuss effective time management. However, here we focus on the skills that students, particularly those in STEMM, need to successfully employ to manage their time. STEMM students must develop skills that enable them to solve problems, such as the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic and the response of those in STEMM research to address this pandemic and its subsequent vaccine development. For STEMM students to enter, thrive, and be innovative in their future careers, they must possess excellent time management skills. We provide methods, resources, and strategies to help students better manage their time, which requires clear goal setting and proper time allocation to complete tasks. We begin by discussing goal setting followed by time management. Offering our combined experience in mentoring and training STEMM students and our time management skills, we direct our comments to students.

Goal setting

Goals are blueprints for your future that impact success and life satisfaction. To be successful, setting long-term goals such as career goals (e.g., What do I want to do with my life?) and short-term goals (e.g., What do I want to do today?) are important steppingstones to achieving long-term aspirations ( Table 1 ). A career goal should be your own rather than a path guided by another person’s hopes for you. While this may seem obvious, students often select goals based on other people’s suggestions. For instance, your mother may want you to be a physician, or your teacher may see a PhD in your future, while your friends may want you to join their career path. They all may have your best interests in mind; however, if these are not your aspirations, you will be unhappily working toward a dream that isn’t yours until you finally admit that this is not the career you want to pursue. It is important to recognize what you want, which requires you to be honest and commit to your future. Thinking about who you are, what you like, and what makes you happy will help to clarify your goals. Also, identify careers that you will enjoy that will also provide sufficient income and opportunities to live well and contribute to society. Introspective goal choices will help focus your priorities, leading to better time management and success reaching and succeeding in your future career goals.

Goal-setting resources

Manage your time

Many students struggle to balance time between academics, work, and other obligations, which may reflect poor planning and an inability to effectively prioritize time [ 3 , 4 ]. Categorizing tasks and establishing priorities will improve your planning and project management success and contribute to effective time management.

Often, you are too busy studying and taking care of outside commitments to accomplish every task on your endless to-do list. At the end of a day, we tend to focus on uncompleted tasks rather than on completed tasks, which leads to feeling overwhelmed and anxious. If this occurs daily, it can increase stress and decrease academic and work performance [ 1 ]. Stress creates an unproductive cycle that saps your energy and time and compromises your mental acuity. You can break this cycle by learning to properly manage time instead of allowing time to manage you. One effective method for managing tasks is the Eisenhower Matrix ( Table 1 ) [ 5 ].

The Eisenhower Matrix

Successfully managing multiple tasks requires prioritization. The Eisenhower Matrix prioritizes tasks by categorizing them based on urgency and importance ( Figure 1A ). Tasks that are both urgent and important are completed first, while nonurgent and unimportant tasks are last. As a deadline approaches, a task in one matrix box may need to be moved to another. For example, washing underwear may be considered neither urgent nor important if you have a drawer filled with clean underwear. However, in time, this task becomes both urgent and important as you run out of clean underwear.

(A) To prioritize the tasks using the matrix, each task should be categorized based on its urgency and importance. Tasks that are both urgent and important will need to be done first. However, try to work on tasks before they are in the urgent and important box. The use of a calendar will help you keep track of deadlines so that tasks do not become urgent. (B) Examples of scheduling (yellow timeslots) and unscheduling (red timeslots) are demonstrated on a calendar that has been set up by graying out slots for times during the day when you will be unavailable to work on tasks because of other obligations. A line has been drawn to indicate the time when work will stop every day, and fun activities (green timeslots) have been added to increase the probability that you will complete important tasks while enjoying a well-balanced life. Use of a calendar to allocate your time can increase your productivity and the probability of completing tasks and help you to use time rather than lose time.

While some things may be dropped from the matrix, you typically need to work on tasks in all four matrix boxes. When your energy is low, work on nonurgent or unimportant things. However, when energy is high, tackle urgent and important tasks. Ideally, work on the nonurgent but important box, especially if you have many obligations to juggle. One benefit of completing an important task before it becomes urgent is that there is time to get feedback from peers and instructors before the deadline. Accomplishing a task and meeting deadlines requires that you understand what must be done and allocate sufficient time to complete it.

Time allocation and deadlines

Effective time allocation requires that you know when tasks are due. Deadlines serve as a checkpoint and an effective tool to stay on task, thus preventing you from falling behind in project planning and execution. As a deadline approaches, tasks become daunting, and anxiety may take over. With limited time, planning stops; you rush to complete the task, cut corners, and overlook details; and inevitably this leads to suboptimal performance and unsatisfactory results. As the due date approaches, an important/urgent task demands your attention regardless of your energy or stress level. Ideally, allocate time in advance to ensure that tasks are completed before becoming urgent. A calendar indicating deadlines and a to-do list are valuable tools to help allocate time and complete tasks.

Making the to-do list

The common time management to-do list [ 6 ] may seem unnecessary when important tasks are looming as you know they will be easy to remember. However, a to-do list is more than just a reminder of upcoming events; it also helps you examine and prioritize activities to be accomplished before beginning an upcoming task. For example, you may consider whether to prioritize an extremely important project due in a few weeks or a less important task due in a few days. Awareness of your tasks also encourages you to categorize them, such as those necessary for your coursework or job versus those necessary for upkeep of your house or social life. Such priorities also help you to say no [ 7 ] before placing a task on your to-do list or into a matrix box (see Table 1 for organizational apps and artificial intelligence).

To-do lists allow you to integrate your home, school, and work lives, which will help you to retain a sense of identity and balance. A to-do list should be specific, defining every task, and should be reviewed and edited every morning or evening [ 6 ]. Breaking to-do list tasks into smaller subtasks will make it easier to start and complete these projects. Mentors can be particularly helpful when learning to identify roadblocks to success [ 8 ].

The calendar as a tool

Here we describe tips on calendar use, based on Fiore’s (1980) concept of ‘time mapping’ ( Figure 1B ) [ 9 ]. We suggest using a calendar with 7 days of the week, each day divided into 60-minute time slots. Seeing the entire week and 4 weeks in the month can help you manage activities and complete assignments with less stress. A feeling that there is infinite time to complete a task causes procrastination. Therefore, draw a line on the calendar indicating the time that you will stop working every day. Sometimes, you will need to work past the marked time, but do not make that a habit. Cross out times on the calendar when you will be unavailable to work on tasks (e.g., class, gym, and mealtimes). Just seeing how much or little time is available to complete tasks will significantly improve your time management. Also, add deadlines to your calendar and allow sufficient time to complete important tasks before they become urgent.

Now that you have the calendar set, add your tasks. But first add some fun stuff! Adding nonwork personal recreation and social activities to the calendar will encourage you to complete your important tasks ( Figure 1B , green). We suggest three calendar methods that can be used alone or together to complete tasks: (i) scheduling, (ii) ‘unscheduling,’ and (iii) logging. For scheduling, identify one to three tasks you want to complete, and add them to open slots on your calendar (e.g., writing a term paper introduction; Figure 1B , yellow). Scheduling tasks increases the probability that you will work on them, keep that time slot reserved to complete the tasks, and decline other obligations. Unscheduling is the process of rewarding yourself for completing a task by adding a bright color ( Figure 1B , red) on your calendar. For example, when you write the term paper introduction, add a bright color to your calendar. Psychologists have shown that seeing a bright color that you like on your calendar is an incentive that increases the will to continue working. In the third method, logging, you keep a log of your time to analyze time usage. You might be surprised how much time you spend chatting, texting, or emailing rather than working. You also might identify times of the day when you are most productive, which can be used to match tasks to your energy levels.

Concluding remarks

Effective time management requires you to identify and analyze your goals, effectively plan and manage projects, and properly allocate time. Ineffective time management not only hampers productivity, making it difficult to meet deadlines, but also disrupts your work–life balance. Work–life balance issues can disrupt your research and cause some trainees to leave the pipeline [ 10 ]. Work–life imbalance can also damage your professional reputation and increase stress [ 11 ]. In contrast, effective time management leads to efficiency and productivity. The strategies discussed here will help you achieve better planning and organization, resulting in reduced stress [ 11 ], improved judgment, and a better professional reputation. Being organized, efficient, and meeting deadlines will establish your reputation as a competent and dependable professional and lead to exciting career opportunities and advancement.

Acknowledgments

We thank Heather Beasley for helping make the figure in BioRender. We also thank Kit Neikirk for assistance with editing and formatting of the paper. This work was supported by the UNCF/BMS EE Just Grant Faculty Fund, Burroughs Wellcome Fund CASI Award, Burroughs Welcome Fund Ad-hoc Award, NIH SRP Subaward to 5R25HL106365-12 from the NIH PRIDE Program, DK020593, Vanderbilt Diabetes and Research Training Center for DRTC Alzheimer’s Disease Pilot & Feasibility Program and A.H.J. NSF grant MCB 2011577I and NIH T32 5T32GM133353 to S.A.M.

Declaration of interests

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

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22 Time Management

Stress is induced by the time-crunch, the nearing of some inevitable reveal that you feel hopelessly unready for. Recounting his honours journey, Alexander notes:

If it were not for that nervous feeling that my time was coming I would not have felt nearly motivated enough to work regularly on a thesis due in a year. One of such ‘friendly’ reminders that my judgement day was nearing was the schedule I created for myself in September… and again in November … and once more in February (after the RQDA ‘catastrophe’). The schedule was an initially naive draft of when I would complete each section of my thesis: starting with refining the research question, then conducting the literature review, then assembling data, analyzing data, writing about said data, and finally the discussion and conclusion. My initial schedule was broad, and rarely noted the specific days that I would work on these sections. It was, however, later complemented by a weekly agenda, where I noted the readings I needed to do (for all my classes) and the particular sections of my thesis that I wanted to get done.

Time management involves the process of determining needs, setting goals to achieve these needs, and prioritizing and planning tasks required to achieve these goals (Claessens, van Eerde, Rutte, & Roe, 2007). In setting your goals, it might be helpful to adopt the SMART-ER principles (Macleod, 2012):

• Specific (clear, simple, significant)
• Measurable (the ability to track progress )
• Achievable (attainable)
• Relevant (reasonable, realistic, results-based)
• Timebound (time sensitive)
• Engaging (be involved)
• Rewarding (incentivize yourself)

There is of course no uniform way to do this, precisely because these tasks must be sensitive to the very non-conformist entity that is your reality. This flexibility, however, must be tempered with a good-natured rigidity. Think of the schedule as a loving but stern parent… which you gave birth to. The schedule plays a disciplinary and nurturing role. The goal is to make you aware of the steps that need to be taken in order to mitigate the scenario in which you must take on all or a lot of the stress at once. A good schedule, like any regulator, ought to protect you from that scenario by creating small, clear, realistic steps towards your goal. See Table 4.2 for a sample macro outline of how you could set targets for your thesis completion. Adapt it as necessary to suit your working habit, lifestyle and goals.

An important way to balance rigidity and flexibility is to divide your scheduling into a micro and a macro model. The macro model can be the shallow but effective overarching goals you want to achieve (likely by the month). Common macro goals could include “finishing the literature review,” or “read all your media articles and create the first set of codes.” The macro model will serve as the basis of reflection when asking: “Am I fulfilling the larger purpose of my thesis”? This model can likewise be reassurance that all the little micro stuff will add up to something.

The micro-models will be the small, tangible tasks that can be achieved weekly in order to meet your macro goals. The capitalists know this process fairly well. As Henry Ford famously put it: “Nothing is particularly hard if you divide it into small jobs.” This means thinking carefully about the short-term goals involved in creating your broader goal (the thesis or research project) and setting aside times (which you trust to get work done in) to complete that task. With this in mind, it is important that your schedule does not stay broad. It must specify parts of your thesis which can be realistically completed early on.

A way to facilitate conversation between our micro and macro-scheduling is through research journaling. Many undergraduate researchers use journaling to regularly keep track of their progress and the new obstacles which arose.

UBC Sociology Honours Student (2021), Alexander explains:

[Journaling] for me, since a lot of new obstacles that I could not have predicted got in the way of my ridiculously broad schedules. Whenever I came to a crossroads in my research, be it for my own ethical considerations, a problem in my methods or data analysis, seeking to answer a different gap in the field, I would note it down in my green five-star note-book. (It was often merely a scribble with the date above; sometimes, especially when I was tired, it would be reduced to mere acronyms or half-gibberish: “Remem Avg Uber Driv Income”). I suggest you try to do the same, as it will enliven your schedule to be sensitive to every twist in the research process (and there are many).

On a final note, remember to account for plenty of rest. A schedule which exhausts and causes excessive stress/burnout is defeating the very purpose that it was created for. Instead, make sure to account for your own feelings of exhaustion and consider times of rest and recuperation when drafting your schedule. This might include, I don’t know… weekends?

Claessens, B.J.C., van Eerde, W., Rutte, C.G. and Roe, R.A. (2007). A review of the time management literature.  Personnel Review , 36(2), 255-276.  https://doi.org/10.1108/00483480710726136

The process of determining needs, setting goals to achieve these needs, and prioritizing and planning tasks required to achieve these goals

Goal setting technique to ensure that your plans are specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, time-bound, engaging and rewarding (see MacLeod, 2012).

Identifying and making plans to address goals that address milestone components in a project, usually over a relatively longer time horizon (e.g. monthly).

Identifying and making plans to address goals that address small tasks in a project, usually over a relatively shorter time horizon (e.g. weekly or daily).

Practicing and Presenting Social Research Copyright © 2022 by Oral Robinson and Alexander Wilson is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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• Student Support Services
• Subject Guides

Essential Study Skills

Introduction to time management.

• Getting Things Done
• Creating a Weekly Schedule
• Creating a Semester Plan
• Planning an Assignment
• Creating a Task List
• Putting it all together
• Additional Resources
• Coping With Stress
• Changing Your Perception of Stress
• Problem Solving To Manage Stress
• Reading with Purpose
• Taking Notes in Class
• Deciding What To Study
• Knowing How to Study
• Memorizing and Understanding Concepts
• Taking Tests & Exams
• Creating and Preparing For a Presentation
• Presentation Anxiety
• Delivering Presentations
• Exploring Career Options
• Identifying Areas of Interest
• Knowing Yourself
• Exploring the Labour Market
• Researching College Programs
• Setting Goals
• Tackling Problems
• Bouncing Back
• Sleep Matters
• Sleep Habits
• Sleep Strategies
• Meeting with Your Group
• Agreeing on Expectations
• Dealing With Problems
• Study in Groups

The idea of time management might be new to you. Basically, time management strategies allow you to plan out your time so that you can get things done and have a more balanced, less stressful life. In this module, we’ll explore why you need time management techniques, how to figure out how much time you actually need to accomplish your tasks.

Time Audit: How much time do you need to get everything done in a week?

Time Audit: How much time do you need to get everything done in a week? Accessible Version - Opens in a new window

Your Time Management Needs

• Your Use of Time
• Being Realistic About Your Time

Below are two videos that describe two types of typical college students: a recent high school graduate and a mature student. In additions, you can complete the Time Audit activity to assess your personal time needs.

How to Be Realistic About Your Time

Based on the earlier activity, you now know how many hours you need in a week to meet your personal and school commitments. Watch this video or read the information below for some tips and tools to help you manage your time and bring some balance to your week.

Questions to assess your time needs

Effective time management means creating a balance that allows you to do the things you need to do without getting completely overwhelmed and stressed. This requires being realistic about how much time you need. Try asking yourself these questions:

How much time do I actually have?

There are 24 hours a day, and 168 hours in a week. It sounds like a lot until you consider that you’ll spend some of that time sleeping, eating, getting from place to place, and other things like that. You may be surprised at how much time some little tasks take!

How much time do I need for school work outside of class?

Depending on your program, you should be spending about an average of 1 hour outside of class for every hour you spend in class. For example, 18 hours of class every week means 18 hours every week working on assignments, studying for tests, doing readings, preparing for labs,etc. Added to class time, that’s 36 hours every week - the equivalent of a full time job!

How can I balance my time?

Think about when you will do your outside-of-class work. Consider the following:.

• Spread it out. If you have six hours of class on Tuesday, you don’t necessarily need to go home and study for another six hours. You could plan that study time for a lighter class day, or on the weekend, when you have more time. When you spread out your study time over 7 days of the week, it will likely take you only 2-3 hours per day outside of class time. Working a little every day will be better for establishing a routine, and it will also improve your learning and memory.
• Plan study time for when you are best able to do your work. For example, how effective are you at 1 o'clock in the morning? Not all hours are created equal. One hour of good quality study time is better than three hours when nothing is sinking in. It’s just as much about quality as quantity.
• Consider how your workload might change throughout the semester. Earlier on in the semester, you likely won’t have a lot of big assignments and tests to worry about; however, as the semester goes on, your workload will increase. You’ll likely have several large assignments and tests due all around the same time. Remember that you can think beyond just one week at a time. If you have several busy weeks later in the semester, it can help to get started in an earlier week, when you have more time.
• Your Workload Tipsheet Check out this tipsheet for an illustration of how your workload will change throughout the semester:
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• Last Updated: Oct 16, 2023 1:33 PM
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Time and Fractals pp 53–78 Cite as

A Theoretical Research on the Effectiveness of Time Management in Dynamics of Employee-Organization Relationship

• Fatemeh Rezazadeh   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-6208-7944 2 ,
• Sima Rezazadeh   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-1968-7204 3 &
• Mina Rezazadeh 4  
• First Online: 06 October 2023

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Part of the book series: Contributions to Management Science ((MANAGEMENT SC.))

Today, the leading concern in managing organizational behavior and human resources is to improve the individuals’ performance working in the organization with the aim of increasing their efficiency. The time dimension of the work has become more critical due to the expansion of global competition and the increased demand for urgent access to products and services. Because in desired time management, determining the goals and priorities, as well as monitoring time used, can provide the effectiveness of occupational processes, maintenance of occupational balance, and success in employee-organization relationships (EOR) by facilitating productivity and reducing stress. This chapter is presented with the aim of theoretical research to identify the effectiveness of time management in EOR dynamics. This research is conducted with a descriptive-analytical method by reviewing literature reviews and library studies. The findings explain and identify the commonalities between time management and EOR, such as manager clarification and foresight in strategic decision-making, manager futurology path, stress management, creativity and innovation, work-family flexibility, job satisfaction, and organizational performance improvement. These commonalities somehow integrate the two areas of employee-organization relationship and time management, and the realization of each can make us experience its synergistic effect in the improvement and dynamics of organizational relationships and the stability of time management.

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Rezazadeh, F., Rezazadeh, S., Rezazadeh, M. (2023). A Theoretical Research on the Effectiveness of Time Management in Dynamics of Employee-Organization Relationship. In: Faghih, N. (eds) Time and Fractals . Contributions to Management Science. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-38188-1_3

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Healthy living is a way to manage diabetes . To have a healthy lifestyle, take steps now to plan healthy meals and snacks, do physical activities, get enough sleep, and quit smoking or using tobacco products.

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Choose healthy foods and drinks

There is no right or wrong way to choose healthy foods and drinks that may help manage your diabetes. Healthy meal plans for people who have diabetes may include

• dairy or plant-based dairy products
• nonstarchy vegetables
• protein foods
• whole grains

Try to choose foods that include nutrients such as vitamins, calcium , fiber , and healthy fats . Also try to choose drinks with little or no added sugar , such as tap or bottled water, low-fat or non-fat milk, and unsweetened tea, coffee, or sparkling water.

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Your body turns carbohydrates , or carbs, from food into glucose, which can raise your blood glucose level. Some fruits, beans, and starchy vegetables—such as potatoes and corn—have more carbs than other foods. Keep carbs in mind when planning your meals.

You should also limit how much alcohol you drink. If you take insulin  or certain diabetes medicines , drinking alcohol can make your blood glucose level drop too low, which is called hypoglycemia . If you do drink alcohol, be sure to eat food when you drink and remember to check your blood glucose level after drinking. Talk with your health care team about your alcohol-drinking habits.

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Talk with your health care professional or health care team about when you should eat or drink. The best time to have meals and snacks may depend on

• what medicines you take for diabetes
• what your level of physical activity or your work schedule is
• whether you have other health conditions or diseases

Ask your health care team if you should eat before, during, or after physical activity. Some diabetes medicines, such as sulfonylureas  or insulin, may make your blood glucose level drop too low during exercise or if you skip or delay a meal.

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For people who have diabetes, carb counting and the plate method are two common ways to plan how much to eat or drink. Talk with your health care professional or health care team to find a method that works for you.

Carb counting

Carbohydrate counting , or carb counting, means planning and keeping track of the amount of carbs you eat and drink in each meal or snack. Not all people with diabetes need to count carbs. However, if you take insulin, counting carbs can help you know how much insulin to take.

Plate method

The plate method helps you control portion sizes  without counting and measuring. This method divides a 9-inch plate into the following three sections to help you choose the types and amounts of foods to eat for each meal.

• Nonstarchy vegetables—such as leafy greens, peppers, carrots, or green beans—should make up half of your plate.
• Carb foods that are high in fiber—such as brown rice, whole grains, beans, or fruits—should make up one-quarter of your plate.
• Protein foods—such as lean meats, fish, dairy, or tofu or other soy products—should make up one quarter of your plate.

If you are not taking insulin, you may not need to count carbs when using the plate method.

Work with your health care team to create a meal plan that works for you. You may want to have a diabetes educator  or a registered dietitian  on your team. A registered dietitian can provide medical nutrition therapy , which includes counseling to help you create and follow a meal plan. Your health care team may be able to recommend other resources, such as a healthy lifestyle coach, to help you with making changes. Ask your health care team or your insurance company if your benefits include medical nutrition therapy or other diabetes care resources.

Talk with your health care professional before taking dietary supplements

There is no clear proof that specific foods, herbs, spices, or dietary supplements —such as vitamins or minerals—can help manage diabetes. Your health care professional may ask you to take vitamins or minerals if you can’t get enough from foods. Talk with your health care professional before you take any supplements, because some may cause side effects or affect how well your diabetes medicines work.

Research shows that regular physical activity helps people manage their diabetes and stay healthy. Benefits of physical activity may include

• lower blood glucose, blood pressure, and cholesterol levels
• better heart health
• healthier weight
• better mood and sleep
• better balance and memory

Talk with your health care professional before starting a new physical activity or changing how much physical activity you do. They may suggest types of activities based on your ability, schedule, meal plan, interests, and diabetes medicines. Your health care professional may also tell you the best times of day to be active or what to do if your blood glucose level goes out of the range recommended for you.

Do different types of physical activity

People with diabetes can be active, even if they take insulin or use technology such as insulin pumps .

Try to do different kinds of activities . While being more active may have more health benefits, any physical activity is better than none. Start slowly with activities you enjoy. You may be able to change your level of effort and try other activities over time. Having a friend or family member join you may help you stick to your routine.

The physical activities you do may need to be different if you are age 65 or older , are pregnant , or have a disability or health condition . Physical activities may also need to be different for children and teens . Ask your health care professional or health care team about activities that are safe for you.

Aerobic activities

Aerobic activities make you breathe harder and make your heart beat faster. You can try walking, dancing, wheelchair rolling, or swimming. Most adults should try to get at least 150 minutes of moderate-intensity physical activity each week. Aim to do 30 minutes a day on most days of the week. You don’t have to do all 30 minutes at one time. You can break up physical activity into small amounts during your day and still get the benefit. 1

Strength training or resistance training

Strength training or resistance training may make your muscles and bones stronger. You can try lifting weights or doing other exercises such as wall pushups or arm raises. Try to do this kind of training two times a week. 1

Balance and stretching activities

Balance and stretching activities may help you move better and have stronger muscles and bones. You may want to try standing on one leg or stretching your legs when sitting on the floor. Try to do these kinds of activities two or three times a week. 1

Some activities that need balance may be unsafe for people with nerve damage or vision problems caused by diabetes. Ask your health care professional or health care team about activities that are safe for you.

Stay safe during physical activity

Staying safe during physical activity is important. Here are some tips to keep in mind.

Drink liquids

Drinking liquids helps prevent dehydration , or the loss of too much water in your body. Drinking water is a way to stay hydrated. Sports drinks often have a lot of sugar and calories , and you don’t need them for most moderate physical activities.

Avoid low blood glucose

Check your blood glucose level before, during, and right after physical activity. Physical activity often lowers the level of glucose in your blood. Low blood glucose levels may last for hours or days after physical activity. You are most likely to have low blood glucose if you take insulin or some other diabetes medicines, such as sulfonylureas.

Ask your health care professional if you should take less insulin or eat carbs before, during, or after physical activity. Low blood glucose can be a serious medical emergency that must be treated right away. Take steps to protect yourself. You can learn how to treat low blood glucose , let other people know what to do if you need help, and use a medical alert bracelet.

Avoid high blood glucose and ketoacidosis

Taking less insulin before physical activity may help prevent low blood glucose, but it may also make you more likely to have high blood glucose. If your body does not have enough insulin, it can’t use glucose as a source of energy and will use fat instead. When your body uses fat for energy, your body makes chemicals called ketones .

High levels of ketones in your blood can lead to a condition called diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) . DKA is a medical emergency that should be treated right away. DKA is most common in people with type 1 diabetes . Occasionally, DKA may affect people with type 2 diabetes  who have lost their ability to produce insulin. Ask your health care professional how much insulin you should take before physical activity, whether you need to test your urine for ketones, and what level of ketones is dangerous for you.

Take care of your feet

People with diabetes may have problems with their feet because high blood glucose levels can damage blood vessels and nerves. To help prevent foot problems, wear comfortable and supportive shoes and take care of your feet  before, during, and after physical activity.

If you have diabetes, managing your weight  may bring you several health benefits. Ask your health care professional or health care team if you are at a healthy weight  or if you should try to lose weight.

If you are an adult with overweight or obesity, work with your health care team to create a weight-loss plan. Losing 5% to 7% of your current weight may help you prevent or improve some health problems  and manage your blood glucose, cholesterol, and blood pressure levels. 2 If you are worried about your child’s weight  and they have diabetes, talk with their health care professional before your child starts a new weight-loss plan.

You may be able to reach and maintain a healthy weight by

• following a healthy meal plan
• consuming fewer calories
• being physically active
• getting 7 to 8 hours of sleep each night 3

If you have type 2 diabetes, your health care professional may recommend diabetes medicines that may help you lose weight.

Online tools such as the Body Weight Planner  may help you create eating and physical activity plans. You may want to talk with your health care professional about other options for managing your weight, including joining a weight-loss program  that can provide helpful information, support, and behavioral or lifestyle counseling. These options may have a cost, so make sure to check the details of the programs.

Your health care professional may recommend weight-loss surgery  if you aren’t able to reach a healthy weight with meal planning, physical activity, and taking diabetes medicines that help with weight loss.

If you are pregnant , trying to lose weight may not be healthy. However, you should ask your health care professional whether it makes sense to monitor or limit your weight gain during pregnancy.

Both diabetes and smoking —including using tobacco products and e-cigarettes—cause your blood vessels to narrow. Both diabetes and smoking increase your risk of having a heart attack or stroke , nerve damage , kidney disease , eye disease , or amputation . Secondhand smoke can also affect the health of your family or others who live with you.

If you smoke or use other tobacco products, stop. Ask for help . You don’t have to do it alone.

Feeling stressed, sad, or angry can be common for people with diabetes. Managing diabetes or learning to cope with new information about your health can be hard. People with chronic illnesses such as diabetes may develop anxiety or other mental health conditions .

Learn healthy ways to lower your stress , and ask for help from your health care team or a mental health professional. While it may be uncomfortable to talk about your feelings, finding a health care professional whom you trust and want to talk with may help you

• lower your feelings of stress, depression, or anxiety
• manage problems sleeping or remembering things
• see how diabetes affects your family, school, work, or financial situation

Ask your health care team for mental health resources for people with diabetes.

Sleeping too much or too little may raise your blood glucose levels. Your sleep habits may also affect your mental health and vice versa. People with diabetes and overweight or obesity can also have other health conditions that affect sleep, such as sleep apnea , which can raise your blood pressure and risk of heart disease.

NIDDK conducts and supports clinical trials in many diseases and conditions, including diabetes. The trials look to find new ways to prevent, detect, or treat disease and improve quality of life.

What are clinical trials for healthy living with diabetes?

Clinical trials—and other types of clinical studies —are part of medical research and involve people like you. When you volunteer to take part in a clinical study, you help health care professionals and researchers learn more about disease and improve health care for people in the future.

Researchers are studying many aspects of healthy living for people with diabetes, such as

• how changing when you eat may affect body weight and metabolism
• how less access to healthy foods may affect diabetes management, other health problems, and risk of dying
• whether low-carbohydrate meal plans can help lower blood glucose levels
• which diabetes medicines are more likely to help people lose weight

Find out if clinical trials are right for you .

Watch a video of NIDDK Director Dr. Griffin P. Rodgers explaining the importance of participating in clinical trials.

What clinical trials for healthy living with diabetes are looking for participants?

You can view a filtered list of clinical studies on healthy living with diabetes that are federally funded, open, and recruiting at www.ClinicalTrials.gov . You can expand or narrow the list to include clinical studies from industry, universities, and individuals; however, the National Institutes of Health does not review these studies and cannot ensure they are safe for you. Always talk with your primary health care professional before you participate in a clinical study.

This content is provided as a service of the National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK), part of the National Institutes of Health. NIDDK translates and disseminates research findings to increase knowledge and understanding about health and disease among patients, health professionals, and the public. Content produced by NIDDK is carefully reviewed by NIDDK scientists and other experts.

NIDDK would like to thank: Elizabeth M. Venditti, Ph.D., University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine.