critical and reflective practice in education

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Critical and Reflective Practice in Education

ISSN 2040-4735 (online)

Critical and Reflective Practice in Education is an open-access, peer reviewed, electronic journal produced by Plymouth Marjon University. The aim of the journal is to provide a forum for the dissemination of work by researchers, practitioners and students in all forms of Education, thereby encouraging critical debate among the Education community as a whole.  In particular, the journal aims to be accessible to, and supportive of, those new to research and publication. 

Executive editor: Sean MacBlain . 

Email [email protected]

The journal welcomes the following kinds of contributions:

• Reflective or commentary papers that provide critical literature reviews, discussions of current topics or future directions, opinions, reflections on practice, or comments to published work.
• Curriculum papers that describe new materials developed for different aspects of education or related work.
• Teaching and learning papers, describing new teaching methods or pedagogies developed for courses or other target populations.
• Empirical research papers, presenting and analysing data to answer a specific research question or test a hypothesis.
• Theoretical research papers, describing new theories and philosophies in education, developed to fill a theoretical or philosophical gap. 

Please download the instructions for authors (below) for further guidance.  Authors considering writing for the journal are welcome to contact the editors to discuss their ideas. 

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Reflective Practices in Education: A Primer for Practitioners

Haleigh machost.

1 Department of Chemistry, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia 22903

Marilyne Stains

Associated data.

Reflective practices in education are widely advocated for and have become important components of professional reviews. The advantages of reflective practices are many; however, the literature often focuses on the benefits to students, rather than the benefits for the educators themselves. Additionally, the extant literature concerning reflective practices in education is laden with conflicting terminology and complex studies, which can inhibit educators’ understanding of reflective practices and prevent their adoption. As such, this Essay serves as a primer for educators beginning reflective practices. It briefly describes the benefits to educators and different classifications and modalities of reflection and examines some of the challenges that educators may encounter.

INTRODUCTION

“Reflection” has become a buzzword in academia and has vast array of implications across fields, disciplines, and subdisciplines. When considering reflection about teaching practices, John Dewey, a psychologist and philosopher who was heavily influential in educational reform, provides a relevant description: reflection is ‘‘the active, persistent and careful consideration of any belief or supposed form of knowledge in the light of the grounds that support it and the further conclusions to which it tends” ( Dewey, 1933 , p. 9). The act of reflection in this context is meant to indicate a process , with Dewey highlighting the necessity of active thinking when encountering obstacles and problems. In less philosophical phrasing, reflection entails considering past or present experiences, learning from the outcomes observed, and planning how to better approach similar situations in the future. Consequently, Dewey suggests that educators embark on a journey of continual improvement when engaging in reflective practices. This is in stark contrast to how reflection is used in higher education. For many educators, the only time they engage in reflection is when they are asked to write documents that are used to evaluate whether they should be promoted, receive a raise, or be granted tenure. Reflection, within an evaluation framework, can be counterproductive and prevent meaningful reflections due to perceptions of judgment ( Brookfield, 2017 ).

This gap may result from the particular adaptation of reflections by some academics. The origin of reflective practices lies not in the realm of academia, but rather in professional training. It is often traced back to Donald Schön’s instrumental 1983 work The Reflective Practitioner , which, while aimed at his target audience of nonacademic professionals, has become foundational for reflective practices in teaching ( Munby and Russell, 1989 ).

In the varied topography of professional practice, there is a high, hard ground where practitioners can make effective use of research-based theory and technique, and there is a swampy lowland where situations are confusing “messes” incapable of technical solution. The difficulty is that the problems of the high ground, however great their technical interest, are often relatively unimportant to clients or to the larger society, while in the swamp are the problems of greatest human concern. ( Schön, 1983 , p. 42)

Schön’s work on the education of various professionals gained traction, as he diverged from common norms of the time. In particular, he disagreed with separating knowledge and research from practice, and methods from results ( Schön, 1983 ; Newman, 1999 ). In doing so, he advocated for practical as well as technical knowledge, enabling professionals to develop greater competency in the real-world situations they encounter. Research in the ensuing decades focused on both gaining evidence for the effectiveness of reflective practices ( Dervent, 2015 ; Zahid and Khanam, 2019 ) and understanding the obstacles that can prevent reflective practices from being adopted ( Davis, 2003 ; Sturtevant and Wheeler, 2019 ).

This Essay is not intended to provide a comprehensive review of this work for use by education researchers; rather, the goal of this Essay is to provide a guide, grounded in this literature, to inform beginning reflective practitioners about the benefits of reflections, the different types of reflections that one can engage in, practical advice for engaging in reflective practices, and the potential challenges and corresponding solutions when engaging in reflective practices. It is also intended as a resource for professional development facilitators who are interested in infusing reflective practice within their professional development programs.

WHY SHOULD I ENGAGE IN REFLECTIVE PRACTICES?

Perhaps the best place to begin when discussing reflective practices is with the question “Why do people do it?” It is common to conceptualize reflection about teaching situations as a way to help “fix” any problems or issues that present themselves ( Brookfield, 2017 ). However, this view is counterproductive to the overarching goal of reflective practices—to continually improve one’s own efficacy and abilities as an educator. Similar to how there is always a new, more efficient invention to be made, there is always room for improvement by even the most experienced and well-loved educators. People choose to be educators for any number of personal reasons, but often the grounding desire is to help inform, mentor, or guide the next generation. With such a far-reaching aim, educators face many obstacles, and reflective practices are one tool to help mitigate them.

Classrooms are an ever-changing environment. The students change, and with that comes new generational experiences and viewpoints. Updates to technology provide new opportunities for engaging with students and exploring their understanding. New curricula and pedagogical standards from professional organizations, institutions, or departments can fundamentally alter the modes of instruction and the concepts and skills being taught. As described by Brookfield, reflection can act as a “gyroscope,” helping educators stay balanced amid a changing environment ( 2017 , p. 81). Through the process of reflection, practitioners focus on what drives them to teach and their guiding principles, which define how they interact with both their students and their peers. Furthermore, reflective practitioners are deliberately cognizant of the reasoning behind their actions, enabling them to act with more confidence when faced with a sudden or difficult situation ( Brookfield, 2017 ). In this way, reflection can help guide educators through the challenging times they may experience in their careers.

One such obstacle is imposter syndrome, which is all too familiar for many educators ( Brems et al. , 1994 ; Parkman, 2016 ; Collins et al. , 2020 ). It is a sense that, despite all efforts put in—the knowledge gained, the relationships formed, and the lives changed—what one does is never enough and one does not belong. These feelings often lead to a fear of being “discovered as a fraud or non-deserving professional, despite their demonstrated talent and achievements” ( Chrousos and Mentis, 2020 , p. 749). A part of reflective practices that is often overlooked is the consideration of everything that goes well . While it is true that reflective practitioners are aware of areas for improvement in their teaching, it is also true that they acknowledge, celebrate, and learn from good things that happen in their classrooms and in their interactions with students and peers. As such, they are more consciously aware of their victories, even if those victories happen to be small ( Brookfield, 2017 ). That is not to say that reflective practices are a cure-all for those dealing with imposter syndrome, but reflections can be a reminder that their efforts are paying off and that someone, whether it be students, peers, or even the practitioner themselves, is benefiting from their actions. Furthermore, reflecting on difficult situations has the potential for individuals to realize the extent of their influence ( Brookfield, 2017 ).

In a similar vein, reflective practices can help educators realize when certain expectations or cultural norms are out of their direct ability to address. For example, educators cannot be expected to tackle systemic issues such as racism, sexism, and ableism alone. Institutions must complement educators’ efforts through, for example, establishment of support systems for students excluded because of their ethnicity or race and the implementation of data-driven systems, which can inform the institutions’ and educators’ practices. Thus, through reflections, educators can avoid “self-laceration” ( Brookfield, 2017 , p. 86) and feelings of failure when the problems experienced are multifaceted.

In addition to alleviating “self-laceration,” developing reflective practice and reflective practitioners has been identified as one of four dominant change strategies in the literature ( Henderson et al. , 2011 ). Specifically, developing reflective practitioners is identified as a strategy that empowers individual educators to enact change ( Henderson et al. , 2011 ). One avenue for such change comes with identifying practices that are harmful to students. Reflecting on teaching experiences and student interactions can allow educators to focus on things such as whether an explanatory metaphor is accessible to different types of students in the class (e.g., domestic and international students), if any particular group of students do not work well together, and whether the curriculum is accessible for students from varied educational and cultural backgrounds. Thus, through the process of reflection, educators grow in their ability to help their students on a course level, and they are better positioned to advocate on their students’ behalf when making curricular decisions on a departmental or institutional level.

An additional part of reflection is gathering feedback to enable a holistic view of one’s teaching practices. When feedback is given by a trusted peer, this invaluable information can guide chosen teaching methods and ways of explaining new information. When feedback is given by students and that feedback is then acted upon, it demonstrates to the students that their opinions and experiences are taken seriously and fosters a more trusting environment ( Brookfield, 2017 ). Furthermore, when discrepancies arise between the intention of the teacher and the interpretation of the students, reflection also aids practitioners in verbalizing their reasoning. Through reflection, educators would need to consider past experiences, prior knowledge, and beliefs that led to their actions. As such, reflective practitioners are able to have honest and informed discussions with their students who may be confused or unhappy with a particular decision. Explaining this to students not only models the practice of continuous inquiry and of considering one’s actions, but it also allows students to understand the rationale behind decisions they may not personally agree with, fostering a more productive student–teacher relationship ( Brookfield, 2017 ).

WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF REFLECTION?

This section aims to summarize and clarify the different ways reflection has been conceptualized in the literature ( Table 1 ). Specifically, reflections have been described based on their timing, depth, and content. Notably, practitioners of reflective practices must utilize multiple types of reflection in order to more effectively improve different aspects of their teaching ( Griffiths and Tann, 1992 ).

The various conceptualizations and associated types of reflections along with examples of guiding questions

Time-Dependent

To understand the time-dependent conceptualization of reflection, we return to Schön (1983 ). He defines two particular concepts—“reflection-in-action” and “reflection-on-action”—which are delineated based on the time that the reflection takes place. Reflection-in-action is characterized as practitioners reflecting while simultaneously completing the relevant action. Reflection-on-action encompasses a practitioner reflecting on a past action, analyzing the different influences, and carefully considering the observed or potential outcomes. Reflection-in-action is perceived as more difficult due to the multiple factors that teachers have to consider at once while also ensuring that the lesson carries on.

Later work built on this initial description of time-dependent reflections. In particular, Loughran renamed the original two timings to make them more intuitive and added one time point ( Loughran, 2002a ). The three categories include: “anticipatory,” “contemporaneous,” and “retrospective,” wherein actions taken, or to be taken, are contemplated before, during, and after an educating experience, respectively. It should be noted that both Loughran’s and Schön’s models are able to function in tandem with the depth- or content-based understandings of reflections, which are described in the next sections.

Depth of Reflections

Conceptualizing reflection in terms of depth has a long history in the literature (see Section 5.1 in the Supplemental Material for a historical view of the depth-based model of reflections). Thankfully, Larrivee (2008a) designed a depth-classification system that encompasses an array of terminologies and explanations pre-existing in the literature. This classification includes a progression in reflective practices across four levels: “pre-reflection,” “surface,” “pedagogical,” and “critical reflection.”

During the pre-reflection stage, educators do not engage in reflections. They are functioning in “survival mode” ( Larrivee, 2008a , p. 350; Campoy, 2010 , p. 17), reacting automatically to situations without considering alternatives and the impacts on the students ( Larrivee, 2008a ; Campoy, 2010 ). At this stage, educators may feel little agency, consider themselves the victims of coincidental circumstances, or attribute the ownership of problems to others such as their students, rather than themselves ( Larrivee, 2008a ; Campoy, 2010 ). They are unlikely to question the status quo, thereby failing to consider and adapt to the needs of the various learners in their classrooms ( Larrivee, 2008a ; Campoy, 2010 ). While the description of educators at this level is non-ideal, educators at the pre-reflection level are not ill intended. However, the pre-reflective level is present among practitioners, as evidenced in a 2015 study investigating 140 English as a Foreign Language educators and a 2010 analysis of collected student reflections ( Campoy, 2010 ; Ansarin et al. , 2015 ). The presence of pre-reflective educators is also readily apparent in the authors’ ongoing research. As such, being aware of the pre-reflection stage is necessary for beginning practitioners, and this knowledge is perhaps most useful for designers of professional development programs.

The first true level of reflection is surface reflection. At this level, educators are concerned about achieving a specific goal, such as high scores on standardized tests. However, these goals are only approached through conforming to departmental norms, evidence from their own experiences, or otherwise well-established practices ( Larrivee, 2008a ). In other words, educators at this level question whether the specific pedagogical practices will achieve their goals, but they do not consider any new or nontraditional pedagogical practices or question the current educational policies ( Campoy, 2010 ). Educators’ reflections are grounded in personal assumptions and influenced by individuals’ unexamined beliefs and unconscious biases.

At the pedagogical level, educators “reflect on educational goals, the theories underlying approaches, and the connections between theoretical principles and practice.” ( Larrivee, 2008a , p. 343). At this level, educators also consider their own belief systems and how those systems relate to their practices and explore the problem from different perspectives. A representative scenario at this level includes: teachers contemplating their various teaching methods and considering their observed outcomes in student comprehension, alternative viewpoints, and also the current evidence-based research in education. Subsequently, they alter (or maintain) their previous teaching practices to benefit the students. In doing so, more consideration is given to possible factors than in surface reflection. This category is quite broad due to the various definitions present in the literature ( Larrivee, 2008a ). However, there is a common emphasis on the theory behind teaching practices, ensuring that practice matches theory, and the student outcomes of enacted teaching practices ( Larrivee, 2008a ).

The last level of reflection categorized by Larrivee is critical reflection, wherein educators consider the ethical, moral, and political ramifications of who they are and what they are teaching to their students ( Larrivee, 2008a ). An approachable way of thinking about critical reflection is that the practitioners are challenging their assumptions about what is taught and how students learn. In doing so, educators evaluate their own views, assertions, and assumptions about teaching, with attention paid to how such beliefs impact students both as learners and as individuals ( Larrivee, 2005 , 2008b ). Through practicing critical reflection, societal issues that affect teaching can be uncovered, personal views become evidence based rather than grounded in assumptions, and educators are better able to help a diverse student population.

Larrivee used this classification to create a tool for measuring the reflectivity of teachers (see Section 4.1 of the Supplemental Material).

Content of Reflections

The third type of reflection is one in which what is being reflected on is the defining feature. One such example is Valli’s five types of reflection ( 1997 ): “technical reflection,” “reflection-in and on-action,” “deliberative reflection,” “personalistic reflection,” and “critical reflection.” Note that Valli’s conceptions of the two types of reflection—reflection-in and on-action, and critical reflection—are congruent with the descriptions provided in the Time-Dependent and Depth sections of this Essay , respectively, and will thus not be detailed in this section.

In a technical reflection, educators evaluate their instructional practices in light of the findings from the research on teaching and learning ( Valli, 1997 ). The quality of this type of reflection is based on the educators’ knowledge of this body of work and the extent to which their teaching practices adhere to it. For example, educators would consider whether they are providing enough opportunities for their students to explain their reasoning to one another during class. This type of reflection does not focus on broader topics such as the structure and content of the curriculum or issues of equity.

Deliberative reflection encompasses “a whole range of teaching concerns, including students, the curriculum, instructional strategies, the rules and organization of the classroom” ( Valli, 1997 , p. 75). In this case, “deliberative” comes from the practitioners having to debate various external viewpoints and perspectives or research that maybe be in opposition. As such, they have an internal deliberation when deciding on the best actions for their specific teaching situations. The quality of the reflection is based on the educators’ ability to evaluate the various perspectives and provide sound reasoning for their decisions.

Personalistic reflection involves educators’ personal growth as well as the individual relationships they have with their students. Educators engaged in this type of reflection thoughtfully explore the relationships between their personal and professional goals and consider the various facets of students’ lives with the overarching aim of providing the best experience. The quality of the reflection is based on an educator’s ability to empathize.

To manage the limitations of each type of reflections, Valli recommended that reflective practitioners not focus solely on a specific type of reflection, but rather engage with multiple types of reflections, as each addresses different questions. It is important to note that some types of reflections may be prerequisite to others and that some may be more important than others; for example, Valli stated that critical reflections are more valuable than technical reflections, as they address the important issues of justice. The order of Valli’s types of reflection provided in Table 1 reflects her judgment on the importance of the questions that each type of reflection addresses.

HOW CAN I ENGAGE IN REFLECTION?

Larrivee suggested that there is not a prescribed strategy to becoming a reflective practitioner but that there are three practices that are necessary: 1) carving time out for reflection, 2) constantly problem solving, and 3) questioning the status quo ( Larrivee, 2000 ). This section of the Essay provides a buffet of topics for consideration and methods of organization that support these three practices. This section is intended to assist educators in identifying their preferred mode of reflection and to provide ideas for professional development facilitators to explicitly infuse reflective practices in their programs.

For educators who are new to reflective practices, it is useful to view the methods presented as “transforming what we are already doing, first and foremost by becoming more aware of ourselves, others, and the world within which we live” ( Rodgers and Laboskey, 2016 , p. 101) rather than as a complete reformation of current methods.

Focus of the Reflection: Critical Incident

When practicing reflection, a critical incident may be identified or presented in order to ignite the initial reflection or to foster deeper thought by practitioners ( Tripp, 2011 ). Critical incidents are particular situations that become the focus of reflections. Farrell described critical incidents in education as unplanned events that hold the potential to highlight misconceptions and foster greater and newer understanding about teaching and learning ( 2008 ). These can be situations ranging from students not understanding a foundational concept from a previous course to considering how to navigate the analysis of a data set that includes cultural background and socioeconomic status.

Critical incidents are used, because meaningful reflection is often a result of educators experiencing a problem or some form of cognitive dissonance concerning teaching practices and approaches to their students ( Lee, 2005 ). Therefore, it is most effective to combine techniques, which are outlined later in this section, with a critical incident to force practitioners into a new and difficult positions relating to education. Larrivee details that a sense of “uncertainty, dissonance, dilemma, problem, or conflict” is extremely valuable to personal reflection and growth ( 2008b , p. 93). Thus, unsettling experiences encourage changes to action far more than reflecting on typical teaching/learning interactions. This is an inherently uncomfortable experience for the practitioner, as feelings of self-doubt, uncertainty, anger, and self- or peer-rejection can come to the surface ( Larrivee, 2008b ). Yet, it is when educators are in an uncomfortable position that they are best able to challenge their learned assertions about what they are teaching and how they are supporting their students’ learning. This requires a conscious effort on the part of the educator. Humans tend to function automatically based on their past experiences and ingrained beliefs. This results in certain aspects of events being ignored while others become the driving force behind reactions. In a sense, humans have a “filter system” that can unconsciously eliminate the most effective course of action; this results in humans functioning in a cycle in which current, unquestioned beliefs determine which data and experiences are given attention ( Larrivee, 2000 , p. 295).

Critical incidents highlight any dissonance present in one’s actions, enabling practitioners to tackle social, ethical, political, and pedagogical issues that may be systemic to their departments, their fields, or their cultures. Critical incidents foster critical reflection (under the depth- and content-based models) even in novice teachers ( Pultorak, 1996 ; Griffin, 2003 ). It is because of the difficulty and uncertainty posed by critical incidents that they are widely promoted as an invaluable aspect of reflective practices in education. Therefore, the analysis of critical incidents, whether they are case studies or theoretical examples, has been used in educating both pre-service ( Griffin, 2003 ; Harrison and Lee, 2011 ) and current educators ( Benoit, 2013 ).

Scaffoldings Promoting Reflections

Once a critical incident has been identified, the next step is structuring the reflection itself. Several scaffolding models exist in the literature and are described in Section 3 of the Supplemental Material. As reflections are inherently personal, educators should use the scaffolding that works best for them. Two scaffoldings that have been found to be useful in developing reflective practices are Bain’s 5R and Gibbs’s reflective cycle.

Bain et al. (2002) created the 5R framework to support the development of pre-service teachers into reflective practitioners. The framework includes the following five steps ( Bain et al. , 2002 ):

• Reporting involves considering a particular experience and the contextual factors that surround it.
• Responding is when the individual practitioners verbalize their feelings, thoughts, and other reactions that they had in response to the situation.
• Relating is defined as teachers making connections between what occurred recently and their previously obtained knowledge and skill base.
• Reasoning then encourages the practitioners to consider the foundational concepts and theories, as well as other factors that they believe to be significant, in an effort to understand why a certain outcome was achieved or observed.
• Finally, reconstructing is when the teachers take their explanations and uses them to guide future teaching methods, either to encourage a similar result or to foster a different outcome.

This framework facilitates an understanding of what is meant by and required for reflective practices. For a full explanation of Bain’s scaffolding and associated resources, see Sections 1.2 and 3.3 in the Supplemental Material.

A popular scaffolding for promoting reflective practices is the reflective learning cycle described by Gibbs (1988) . This cycle for reflection has been extensively applied in teacher preparation programs and training of health professionals ( Husebø et al. , 2015 ; Ardian et al. , 2019 ; Markkanen et al. , 2020 ). The cycle consists of six stages:

• Description: The practitioner first describes the situation to be reflected on in detail.
• Feelings: The practitioner then explores their feelings and thoughts processes during the situation.
• Evaluation: The practitioner identifies what went well and what went wrong.
• Analysis: The practitioner makes sense of the situation by exploring why certain things went well while others did not.
• Conclusions: The practitioner summarizes what they learned from their analysis of the situation.
• Personal action plans: The practitioner develops a plan for what they would do in a similar situation in the future and what other steps they need to take based on what they learn (e.g., gain some new skills or knowledge).

For a full explanation of Gibbs’s scaffolding and associated resources, see Sections 1.3 and 3.4 in the Supplemental Material.

We see these two models as complementary and have formulated a proposed scaffolding for reflection by combining the two models. In Table 2 , we provide a short description of each step and examples of reflective statements. The full scaffolding is provided in Section 3.6 of the Supplemental Material.

Proposed scaffolds for engaging in reflective practices a

a An expanded version is provided in Section 3.6 of the Supplemental Material.

Even with the many benefits of these scaffolds, educators must keep in mind the different aspects and levels of reflection that should be considered. Especially when striving for higher levels of reflection, the cultural, historical, and political contexts must be considered in conjunction with teaching practices for such complex topics to affect change ( Campoy, 2010 ). For instance, if equity and effectiveness of methods are not contemplated, there is no direct thought about how to then improve those aspects of practice.

Modalities for Reflections

The different scaffolds can be implemented in a wide variety of practices ( Table 3 ). Of all the various methods of reflection, reflective writing is perhaps the most often taught method, and evidence has shown that it is a deeply personal practice ( Greiman and Covington, 2007 ). Unfortunately, many do not continue with reflective writing after a seminar or course has concluded ( Jindal‐Snape and Holmes, 2009 ). This may be due to the concern of time required for the physical act of writing. In fact, one of the essential practices for engaging in effective reflections is creating a space and time for personal, solitary reflection ( Larrivee, 2000 ); this is partially due to the involvement of “feelings of frustration, insecurity, and rejection” as “taking solitary time helps teachers come to accept that such feelings are a natural part of the change process” while being in a safe environment ( Larrivee, 2000 , p. 297). It is important to note that reflective writing is not limited to physically writing in a journal or typing into a private document; placing such a limitation may contribute to the practice being dropped, whereas a push for different forms of reflection will keep educators in practice ( Dyment and O'Connell, 2014 ). Reflective writings can include documents such as case notes ( Jindal‐Snape and Holmes, 2009 ), reviewing detailed lesson plans ( Posthuma, 2012 ), and even blogging ( Alirio Insuasty and Zambrano Castillo, 2010 ; van Wyk, 2013 ; Garza and Smith, 2015 ).

Common methods to engage in reflective practices

The creation of a blog or other online medium can help foster reflection. In addition to fostering reflection via the act of writing on an individual level, this online form of reflective writing has several advantages. One such benefit is the readily facilitated communication and collaboration between peers, either through directly commenting on a blog post or through blog group discussions ( Alirio Insuasty and Zambrano Castillo, 2010 ; van Wyk, 2013 ; Garza and Smith, 2015 ). “The challenge and support gained through the collaborative process is important for helping clarify beliefs and in gaining the courage to pursue beliefs” ( Larrivee, 2008b , p. 95). By allowing other teachers to comment on published journal entries, a mediator role can be filled by someone who has the desired expertise but may be geographically distant. By this same logic, blogs have the great potential to aid teachers who themselves are geographically isolated.

Verbal reflections through video journaling (vlogs) follows the same general methods as writing. This method has the potential to be less time intensive ( Clarke, 2009 ), which may lower one of the barriers facing practitioners. Greiman and Covington (2007) identified verbal reflection as one of the three preferred modalities of reflection by student teachers. By recording their verbal contemplations and reflections, practitioners can review their old thoughts about different course materials, enabling them to adjust their actions based on reflections made when observations were fresh in their mind. Students learning reflective practices also noted that recorded videos convey people’s emotions and body language—reaching a complexity that is not achievable with plain text or audio ( Clarke, 2009 ).

If writing or video journaling is not appealing, another method to facilitate reflective practices is that of making video recordings of teaching experiences in vivo. This differs from vlogs, which are recorded after the teaching experiences. A small longitudinal qualitative study indicated that the video recordings allowed participants to be less self-critical and to identify effective strategies they were employing ( Jindal‐Snape and Holmes, 2009 ). Additionally, beginning teachers found the most value in videotaping their teaching as compared with electronic portfolios and online discussions ( Romano and Schwartz, 2005 ). By recording their teaching practices, practitioners can use a number of clearly outlined self- and peer-assessments, as detailed in Section 4 of the Supplemental Material. However, it should be noted that all three technology-driven methods used in the study by Romano and Schwartz (2005) were helpful for the participants, and as reflective practices are inherently personal, many methods should be considered by practitioners new to purposeful reflection.

Group efforts, such as group discussions or community meetings, can foster reflective thinking, thereby encouraging reflective practices. “The checks and balances of peers’ and critical friends’ perspectives can help developing teachers recognize when they may be devaluing information or using self-confirming reasoning, weighing evidence with a predisposition to confirm a belief or theory, rather than considering alternative theories that are equally plausible” ( Larrivee, 2008b , p. 94). These benefits are essential to help educators reach the higher levels of reflection (i.e., pedagogical reflection and critical reflection), as it can be difficult to think of completely new viewpoints on one’s own, especially when educators are considering the needs of diverse students yet only have their own experiences to draw upon. Henderson et. al . (2011) review of the literature found that successful reports of developing reflective practitioners as a strategy for change had two commonalities. One of these was the presence of either a community where experiences are shared ( Gess-Newsome et al. , 2003 ; Henderson et al. , 2011 ) or of an additional participant providing feedback to the educator ( Penny and Coe, 2004 ; McShannon and Hynes, 2005 ; Henderson et al. , 2011 ). The second commonality was the presence of support by a change agent ( Hubball et al. , 2005 ; Henderson et al. , 2011 ), which is far more context reliant.

Even in the absence of change agent support, peer observation can be implemented as a tool for establishing sound reflective practices. This can be accomplished through informal observations followed by an honest discussion. It is vital for the correct mindset to be adopted during such a mediation session, as the point of reflection is in assessing the extent to which practitioners’ methods allow them to achieve their goals for student learning. This cannot be done in an environment where constructive feedback is seen as a personal critique. For example, it was found that peers who simply accepted one another’s practices out of fear of damaging their relationships did not benefit from peer observation and feedback ( Manouchehri, 2001 ); however, an initially resistant observer was able to provide valuable feedback after being prompted by the other participant ( Manouchehri, 2001 ). One approach to ensure the feedback promotes reflections is for the observer and participant to meet beforehand and have a conversation about areas on which to focus feedback. The follow-up conversation focuses first on these areas and can be expanded afterward to other aspects of the teaching that the observer noticed. Observation protocols (provided in Section 4.2 in the Supplemental Material) can also be employed in these settings to facilitate the focus of the reflection.

For those interested in assessing their own or another’s reflection, Section 4 in the Supplemental Material will be helpful, as it highlights different tools that have been shown to be effective and are adaptable to different situations.

WHAT BARRIERS MIGHT I FACE?

It is typical for educators who are introducing new practices in their teaching to experience challenges both at the personal and contextual levels ( Sturtevant and Wheeler, 2019 ). In this section, we address the personal and contextual barriers that one may encounter when engaging in reflective practices and provide advice and recommendations to help address these barriers. We also aim to highlight that the difficulties faced are commonly shared by practitioners embarking on the complex journey of becoming reflective educators.

Personal Barriers

Professional development facilitators who are interested in supporting their participants’ growth as reflective practitioners will need to consider: 1) the misunderstandings that practitioners may have about reflections and 2) the need to clearly articulate the purpose and nature of reflective practices. Simply asking practitioners to reflect will not lead to desirable results ( Loughran, 2002b ). Even if the rationale and intent is communicated, there is also the pitfall of oversimplification. Practitioners may stop before the high levels of reflection (e.g., critical reflection) are reached due to a lack of in-depth understanding of reflective practices ( Thompson and Pascal, 2012 ). Even if the goals are understood and practitioners intend to evaluate their teaching practices on the critical level, there can still be confusion about what reflective practices require from practitioners. The theory of reflective practices may be grasped, but it is not adequately integrated into how practitioners approach teaching ( Thompson and Pascal, 2012 ). We hope that this Essay and associated Supplemental Material provide a meaningful resource to help alleviate this challenge.

A concern often raised is that the level of critical reflection is not being reached ( Ostorga, 2006 ; Larrivee, 2008a ). Considering the impacts that student–teacher interactions have on students beyond the classroom is always a crucial part of being an educator. In terms of practicality, situations being considered may not be conducive to this type of reflection. Consider an educator who, after a formative assessment, realizes that students, regardless of ethnicity, nationality, or gender, did not grasp a foundational topic that is required for the rest of the course. In such a case, it is prudent to consider how the information was taught and to change instructional methods to adhere to research-based educational practices. If the information was presented in a lecture-only setting, implementing aspects of engagement, exploration, and elaboration on the subject by the students can increase understanding ( Eisenkraft, 2003 ). If the only interactions were student–teacher based and all work was completed individually, the incorporation of student groups could result in a deeper understanding of the material by having students act as teachers or by presenting students with alternative way of approaching problems (e.g., Michaelsen et al. , 1996 ). Both of these instructional changes are examples that can result from pedagogical reflection and are likely to have a positive impact on the students. As such, educators who practice any level of reflection should be applauded. The perseverance and dedication of practitioners cannot be undervalued, even if their circumstances lead to fewer instances of critical reflection. We suggest that communities of practice such as faculty learning communities, scholarship of teaching and learning organizations, or professional development programs are excellent avenues to support educators ( Baker et al. , 2014 ; Bathgate et al. , 2019 ; Yik et al. , 2022a , b ), including in the development of knowledge and skills required to reach critical reflections. For example, facilitators of these communities and programs can intentionally develop scaffolding and exercises wherein participants consider whether the deadlines and nature of assignments are equitable to all students in their courses. Professional development facilitators are strongly encouraged to be explicit about the benefits to individual practitioners concomitantly with the benefits to students (see Section 2 in the Supplemental Material), as benefits to practitioners are too often ignored yet comprise a large portion of the reasoning behind reflective practices.

At a practitioner’s level, the time requirement for participating in reflective practices is viewed as a major obstacle, and it would be disingenuous to discount this extensive barrier ( Greiman and Covington, 2007 ). Reflective practices do take time, especially when done well and with depth. However, we argue that engagement in reflective practice early on can help educators become more effective with the limited time they do have ( Brookfield, 2017 ). As educators engage in reflective practices, they become more aware of their reasoning, their teaching practices, the effectiveness of said practices, and whether their actions are providing them with the outcomes they desire ( Thompson and Pascal, 2012 ). Therefore, they are able to quickly and effectively troubleshoot challenges they encounter, increasing the learning experiences for their students. Finally, we argue that the consistent engagement in reflective practices can significantly facilitate and expedite the writing of documents necessary for annual evaluations and promotions. These documents often require a statement in which educators must evaluate their instructional strategies and their impact on students. A reflective practitioner would have a trail of documents that can easily be leveraged to write such statement.

Contextual Factors

Environmental influences have the potential to bring reflective practices to a grinding halt. A paradigm shift that must occur to foster reflective teacher: that of changing the teacher’s role from a knowledge expert to a “pedagogic expert” ( Day, 1993 ). As with any change of this magnitude, support is necessary across all levels of implementation and practitioners to facilitate positive change. Cole (1997) made two observations that encapsulate how institutions can prevent the implementation of reflective practices: first, many educators who engage in reflective practices do so secretly. Second, reflections are not valued in academic communities despite surface-level promotions for such teaching practices; institutions promote evidence-based teaching practices, including reflection, yet instructors’ abilities as educators do not largely factor into promotions, raises, and tenure ( Brownell and Tanner, 2012 ; Johnson et al. , 2018 ). The desire for educators to focus on their teaching can become superficial, with grants and publications mattering more than the results of student–teacher interactions ( Cole, 1997 ; Michael, 2007 ).

Even when teaching itself is valued, the act of changing teaching methods can be resisted and have consequences. Larrivee’s (2000) statement exemplifies this persistent issue:

Critically reflective teachers also need to develop measures of tactical astuteness that will enable them to take a contrary stand and not have their voices dismissed. One way to keep from committing cultural suicide is to build prior alliances both within and outside the institution by taking on tasks that demonstrate school loyalty and build a reputation of commitment. Against a history of organizational contributions, a teacher is better positioned to challenge current practices and is less readily discounted. (p. 298)

The notion that damage control must be a part of practicing reflective teaching is indicative of a system that is historically opposed to the implementation of critical reflection ( Larrivee, 2000 ). We view this as disheartening, as the goal of teaching should be to best educate one’s students. Even as reflective practices in teaching are slowly becoming more mainstream, contextual and on-site influences still have a profound impact on how teachers approach their profession ( Smagorinsky, 2015 ). There must be a widespread, internal push for change within departments and institutions for reflective practices to be easily and readily adopted.

The adoption of reflective practices must be done in a way that does not negate its benefits. For example, Galea (2012) highlights the negative effects of routinizing or systematizing this extremely individual and circumstance-based method (e.g., identification of specific areas to focus on, standardized timing and frequency of reflections). In doing so, the systems that purportedly support teachers using reflection remove their ability to think of creative solutions, limit their ability to develop as teachers, and can prevent an adequate response to how the students are functioning in the learning environment ( Tan, 2008 ). Effective reflection can be stifled when reflections are part of educators’ evaluations for contract renewal, funding opportunities, and promotions and tenure. Reflective practices are inherently vulnerable, as they involve both being critical of oneself and taking responsibility for personal actions ( Larrivee, 2008b ). Being open about areas for improvement is extremely difficult when it has such potential negative impacts on one’s career. However, embarking on honest reflection privately, or with trusted peers and mentors, can be done separately from what is presented for evaluation. We argue that reflections can support the writing of documents to be considered for evaluation, as these documents often request the educators to describe the evolution of their teaching and its impact on students. Throughout course terms, reflections conducted privately can provide concreate ideas for how to frame an evaluation document. We argue that administrators, department chairs, and members of tenure committees should be explicit with their educators about the advantages of reflective practices in preparing evaluative documents focused on teaching.

CONCLUDING THOUGHTS

Reflective practices are widely advocated for in academic circles, and many teaching courses and seminars include information regarding different methods of reflection. This short introduction intends to provide interested educators with a platform to begin reflective practices. Common methods presented may appeal to an array of educators, and various self- and peer-assessment tools are highlighted in Section 4 in the Supplemental Material. Reflective practices are a process and a time- and energy-intensive, but extremely valuable tool for educators when implemented with fidelity. Therefore, reflection is vital for efficacy as an educator and a requirement for educators to advance their lifelong journeys as learners.

To conclude, we thought the simple metaphor provided by Thomas Farrell best encapsulates our thoughts on reflective practices within the context of teaching: Reflective practices are “a compass of sorts to guide teachers when they may be seeking direction as to what they are doing in their classrooms. The metaphor of reflection as a compass enables teachers to stop, look, and discover where they are at that moment and then decide where they want to go (professionally) in the future” ( Farrell, 2012 , p. 7).

Supplementary Material

Acknowledgments.

We would like to thank Annika Kraft, Jherian Mitchell-Jones, Emily Kable, Dr. Emily Atieh, Dr. Brandon Yik, Dr. Ying Wang, and Dr. Lu Shi for their constructive feedback on previous versions of this article. This material is based upon work supported by NSF 2142045. Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation.

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{{item.title}}, my essentials, ask for help, contact edconnect, directory a to z, how to guides, teacher standards and accreditation, reflective practice, what does the research say.

Effective teachers continually reflect on and improve, the way they do things, but reflection is not a natural process for all teachers. Some teachers think that the toolkit is enough.

Biggs (2003) eloquently highlights that a toolkit will not necessarily lead to excellence in teaching:

Learning new techniques for teaching is like the fish that provides a meal for today; reflective practice is the net that provides the meal for the rest of one's life.

Reflective practitioners take an inquiry stance in that they actively search for understanding, and are always open to further investigation.

Timperley, Wiseman and Fung reinforced the fact that teachers need to be constantly updating and improving their practice, and engaging in lifelong learning:

It is important, therefore, for teachers to continually update and expand their professional knowledge base and to improve or revise their practices so as to meet the learning needs of their increasingly diverse students… The ever-changing knowledge base in our society means that a teaching force that uses yesterday’s professional knowledge to prepare today’s students for tomorrow’s society can no longer be tolerated.

The advantages of reflective practice

Reflective practice attitudes, reflective practice attributes, the modes of reflection.

Reflective practice provides a means for teachers to improve their practice to effectively meet the learning needs of their students. Brookfield succinctly describes the advantages of reflective practice to teachers as:

• It helps teachers to take informed actions that can be justified and explained to others and that can be used to guide further action.
• It allows teachers to adjust and respond to issues.
• It helps teachers to become aware of their underlying beliefs and assumptions about learning and teaching.
• It helps teachers promote a positive learning environment.
• It allows teachers to consciously develop a repertoire of relevant and context-specific strategies and techniques.
• It helps teachers locate their teaching in the broader institutional, social and political context and to appreciate that many factors influence student learning.

Dewey was the first to describe the 3 attitudes that form the basis of reflective practice, namely:

• open-mindedness - a willingness to consider new evidence as it occurs and to admit the possibility of error. It involves being open to other points of view, appreciating that there are many ways of looking at a particular situation or event and staying open to changing one’s own viewpoint. Part of open-mindedness is being able to let go of needing to be right or wanting to win.
• responsibility - the careful consideration of the consequences of one’s actions, especially as they affect students. It is the willingness to acknowledge that whatever one chooses to do (for example decisions about curriculum, instruction, assessment, organisation, management) will impact the lives of students in both foreseen and unforeseen ways.
• wholeheartedness - a commitment to seek every opportunity to learn and a belief that one can always learn something new.

Larivee further identified the attributes of practitioners who have these attitudes (open-minded, responsible and wholehearted) saying these practitioners:

• reflect on and learn from experience
• engage in ongoing inquiry
• solicit feedback
• remain open to alternative perspectives
• assume responsibility for their own learning
• take action to align with new knowledge and understandings
• observe themselves in the process of thinking
• are committed to continuous improvement in practice
• strive to align behaviour with values and beliefs
• seek to discover what is true.

Essential modes of, and lenses for, reflection.

Reflective practice is undertaken not just to revisit the past but to guide future action. Reflective practitioners use all 4 of the essential modes of reflection:

• Reflection-in-action is taking note of thinking and actions as they are occurring and making immediate adjustments as events unfold. Re-evaluation occurs on the spot.
• Reflection-on-action is looking back on and learning from experience or action in order to affect future action. Reflecting after an event is probably the most frequently used form of reflection.
• Reflection-for-action involves analysing practices with the purpose of taking action to change (Killion and Todnem). It includes reflection-in-action and reflection-on-action. This type of reflection is proactive in nature. Often called 'closing the gap' reflection, it focuses on closing the gap between what is and what might be.
• Reflection-within is inquiring about personal purposes, intentions and feelings. Teachers might question what is working well, what's keeping them from taking action, what's keeping their perspective limited, or why they reacted in a particular way. This is very similar to self-reflection.

The lenses for reflection

Additionally, within each mode of reflection, it's useful to reflect through various lenses. Brookfield suggests using the following 4 lenses for reflection.

The autobiographical lens (self)

The autobiographical lens, or self-reflection, is the foundation of critical reflection. It requires teachers to stand back from an experience and view it more objectively. This lens allows teachers to become aware of aspects of their pedagogy that are effective or that may need adjustment or strengthening.

The student lens

This lens allows teachers to view their practice from students’ perspectives and is often a consistently surprising element for teachers. Both self-reflection and engaging with student feedback may reveal aspects of teaching practice that need adjustment.

The colleague lens

While good teachers will engage with the first two lenses, excellent teachers may also look to peers for mentoring, advice and feedback. Engaging with colleagues and hearing their perspectives allows teachers to check, reframe, and broaden theories of practice, and to consider new ideas and approaches. It also makes teachers aware that many of the challenges in teaching are common, which can be profoundly reassuring.

The theoretical lens (literature and research)

The fourth lens found in theoretical literature fosters critically reflective teaching. An engagement with both colleagues and scholarly literature supports teachers and also clarifies the contexts in which they teach. The theoretical literature extends understanding and appreciation of learning and teaching practices, and helps teachers to see the links between their personal development path and the broader educational context.

In summary, reflective practice incorporates reflection in, on and for action as well as a reflection within.

Seeking information from various lenses serves to further strengthen reflective practice.

Use the Reflective practice questions to support reflection in action. The questions use the 4 modes of reflection and a variety of lenses.

• Australian Institute of Teaching and School Leadership. (2014) Learning from practice - workbook series.
• Biggs, J. (2003) Teaching for Quality Learning at University: What the Student Does (2nd ed.) Berkshire: SRHE & Open University Press.
• NSW Education Standards Authority Australian Professional Standards for Teachers.
• Brookfield, S. 1995 Becoming a Critically Reflective Teacher San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
• Dewey, J. 1938 Logic: The Theory of Inquiry New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston.
• Killion, J. & Todnem, G (1991) ?A process of personal theory building? Educational Leadership, 48(6).
• Larrivee, B. (2006) An Educator?s Guide to Teacher Reflection, Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
• Timperley, H. Wiseman, J. Fung, I. (2003) The Sustainability of Professional Development in Literacy, Part 2. Final report to the Ministry of Education, Ministry of Education, Wellington New Zealand.

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Critical reflection for assessments and practice

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Critical reflection for assessments and practice: Critical reflection

• Reflective practice
• How to reflect
• Critical reflection writing
• Recount and reflect

What is critical reflection?

"We don't see things as they are, we see them as we are".

Anais Nin - Seduction of the Minotour (1961)

Critical reflection can be defined in different ways but at core it's an extension of critical thinking. It involves learning from everyday experiences and situations. You need to ask questions of yourself and about your actions to better understand why things happened.  

Critical reflection is active not passive

Critical reflection is active personal learning and development where you take time to engage with your thoughts, feelings and experiences. It helps us examine the past, look at the present and then  apply learnings to future experiences or actions.

Critical reflection is also focused on a central question, “Can I articulate the doing that is shaped by the knowing.” What this means is that critical reflection and reflective practice are tied together. You can use critical reflection as a tool to analyse your reflections more critically which allows you to evaluate , inform and continually change your practice .

Critical reflection: think, feel, and do

The events, experiences or interactions you choose to critically reflect on can be either positive or negative. They may be an interesting interaction or an everyday occurrence. 

No matter what it is, when you are critically reflecting it is a good idea to think about how the experience, event or interaction made you: 

And what you can do to change your practice.

What you think, feel and do as a result of critical reflective learning will shape the what, how and why of future behaviours, actions and work.

Critical reflection: what influences your practice 

Critical reflection also means thinking about why you make certain choices in your practice. Sometimes this may feel uncomfortable because it can highlight your assumptions, biases, views and behaviours. But it is important to take the time to think about how your own experiences influence your study, your work and your life in general. This involves you recognising how your perspectives and values influence the decisions you make. 

Click on the plus (+) icons  beneath each thought bubble to view some example assumptions that may influence practice. 

Scaffolded approach to think, feel, and do in your practice

There is quite a bit to keep in mind with using critical reflective to shape your practice. Making critical reflection part of your everyday is easier if you have a framework to refer to.

This critical reflection and reflective practice framework is a handy resource for you to keep. Download the framework  and use it as a prompt when doing critical reflective assessments at uni or as part of developing reflective practice in your work.

DOWNLOAD FRAMEWORK (PDF, 1MB)

Critical reflection includes research and evidence-base

Why you need to use academic literature in critical reflections can be hard to understand as you may feel that you don’t need to draw on other sources when discussing your own experiences. Critical reflections involve both personal perspective and theory = the need to use academic literature. 

Personal plus theory underpins reflective practice

Keep in mind that when you are at university there is an expectation that you support the points you make by referring to information from relevant, credible sources. 

You also need to think about how theories can influence and inform your practice. Reflective practice relies on evidence, with research informing your reflection and what changes to practice you intend to put into play. This means you will need to use academic literature to support what you are saying in your reflection. 

Learn more about including literature in your writing. Deakin’s academic skills guide on  Using Sources  will help you weave academic literature into your critical reflection assessments. It’s focused on supporting evidence in your writing.

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Embracing Reflection for Enhanced Education

• Author: Responsive Learning
• Publishing Editor: Krista Miller
• 3 minute read
• April 23, 2024

In the heart of San Antonio, Texas, Martin Silverman brings to life an approach that is transforming educational landscapes. With a career spanning four decades, Silverman introduces us to the Reflective Practice Model, a vital tool for educators and school leaders striving for excellence. This isn’t just about teaching; it’s about evolving, reflecting, and pushing the boundaries of traditional education to new heights, particularly in challenging socioeconomic environments.

Unveiling the Reflective Practice Model

The Reflective Practice Model stands as a testament to the power of introspection in the educational realm. It champions the idea that to truly enhance our schools and the learning experiences within them, we must take a step back to examine and refine our teaching methodologies. “In my experience, I have found that practice is less looked at in PLC than products,” Silverman says, shedding light on the critical shift from product to process that this model advocates. Here are some key insights:

• The Reflective Practice Model encourages a deep dive into teaching methodologies for continuous improvement.
• It shifts the focus from end results to the processes that lead to educational success.
• Silverman’s vast experience underscores the model’s efficacy in diverse educational settings.

With these insights in hand, let’s explore the foundational elements that make the Reflective Practice Model a catalyst for educational transformation.

Building Blocks for Success

Before diving into the specifics of the model, it’s pivotal to grasp the principles guiding this reflective journey. These principles extend beyond mere theory; they are practical, actionable, and form the cornerstone of fostering a culture of continuous improvement. Consider these essential elements:

• Aligned Vision and Goals – Establishing a clear mission that guides all educational endeavors.
• Collaborative Efforts – Promoting teamwork among educators to share insights and strategies.
• Learner-Centric Focus – Keeping student learning at the heart of every educational practice and decision.

Understanding these principles sets the stage for a deeper exploration of how the Reflective Practice Model can revolutionize educational practices.

The Model in Motion

Silverman’s journey through the Reflective Practice Model reveals a path filled with observation, analysis, and action. He walks school leaders through the process of transforming educational practices, from identifying challenges to implementing solutions. To better grasp this process, let’s focus on:

• Problem Identification – Recognizing areas within teaching practices that offer room for improvement.
• Data Collection – Systematically gathering information through observations and analysis to inform decision-making.
• Actionable Planning – Using insights derived from data to formulate strategies aimed at enhancing student learning outcomes.

Silverman reminds school leaders of the model’s practicality: “We work in a profession in a situation where we can’t always make changes to things that are out of our control, but there are things we can absolutely control within the boundaries of our school.” This perspective is crucial, highlighting the model’s focus on leveraging control and making impactful changes.

Navigating Challenges

Implementing the Reflective Practice Model is not without its hurdles. Silverman candidly addresses these, offering strategies for overcoming them and ensuring the model’s successful integration into educational practices. Here are some strategies to overcome obstacles:

• Managing Time – Maximizing limited time for reflection amidst a bustling school schedule.
• Fostering Observation Culture – Building an environment where peer observation is welcomed and valued.
• Adapting and Evolving – Recognizing when it’s necessary to refine goals based on ongoing insights and outcomes.

Silverman’s strategies for navigating these challenges are a beacon for educators and school leaders, illuminating the path toward a more reflective and effective educational practice.

Stepping Forward with Intention

The journey through the Reflective Practice Model, guided by Martin Silverman, offers a promising route for educational leaders eager to foster a culture of continuous improvement. By embracing reflection, collaboration, and strategic action, educators can unlock new potential for teaching effectiveness and student success.

To begin your journey toward reflective practice, visit Creating a Reflective Practice Model PLC . Together, we can transform educational practices for the better, creating environments where students and educators alike can continuously thrive.

Want to learn more about how you can set yourself and school leaders up for success? Check out the School Leadership Academy .

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CONCEPTUAL ANALYSIS article

Conceptualizing the complexity of reflective practice in education.

• 1 Centre for Enhancement of Learning and Teaching, University of West London, London, United Kingdom
• 2 Faculty of Languages and Communication, Universiti Sultan Zainal Abidin, Terengganu, Malaysia
• 3 Department of English Language, Literature and Translation, Zarqa University, Zarqa, Jordan

In higher education, reflective practice has become a dynamic, participatory, and cyclical process that contributes to educators’ professional development and personal growth. While it is now a prominent part of educators, many still find it challenging to apply the concept for it carries diverse meaning for different people in different contexts. This article attempts to (re)conceptualize the complexity of reflective practice in an educational context. Scholars in this field have taken different approaches to reflective practice, but all these approaches consist of four main components in common: (i) reflecting; (ii) planning for future action; (iii) acting; and (iv) evaluating the outcomes. We extend the existing literature by proposing a model which integrates these four components with three key aspects of reflection: problem-solving, action orientation, and criticality. The novelty of this model lies within its alignment of the three key aspects with different levels of criticality in a comprehensive framework with detailed descriptors provided. The model and its descriptors are useful in guiding individuals who directly or indirectly involve in critical reflection, especially educators, in appraising their levels of criticality and consequently engage in a meaningful reflection.

Introduction

In the field of education, reflective practice has been recognized as an important aspect in continuing professional development. Through reflective practice, we can identify the factors, the consequences of and the assumptions that underlie our actions. In higher education, reflective practice has become a dynamic, participatory, and cyclical process ( Ai et al., 2017 ) that contributes to educators’ professional development and personal growth ( McAlpine et al., 2004 ; De Geest et al., 2011 ; Davies, 2012 ; Marshall, 2019 ). It enables professional judgment ( Day, 1999 ) and fosters professional competence through planning, implementing and improving performance by rethinking about strengths, weaknesses and specific learning needs ( Huda and Teh, 2018 ; Cirocki and Widodo, 2019 ; Zahid and Khanam, 2019 ; Seyed Abolghasem et al., 2020 ; Huynh, 2022 ). Without routinely engaging in reflective practice, it is unlikely that educators will comprehend the effects of their motivations, expectations and experiences upon their practice ( Lubbe and Botha, 2020 ). Thus, reflective practice becomes an important tool that helps educators to explore and articulate lived experiences, current experience, and newly created knowledge ( Osterman and Kottkamp, 2004 ). Educators are continually recommended to apply reflective practice in getting a better understanding of what they know and do as they develop their knowledge of practice ( Loughran, 2002 ; Lubbe and Botha, 2020 ). In fact, reflective practice is now a prominent part of training for trainee teachers (e.g., Shek et al., 2021 ; Childs and Hillier, 2022 ; Ruffinelli et al., 2022 ) because it can help future teachers review their own practices and develop relevant skills where necessary.

Despite the wide acceptance of the concept of reflective practice, the notion of ‘reflection’ in itself is still broad. Our review of literature reveals that reflection is a term that carries diverse meaning. For some, “it simply means thinking about something” or “just thinking” (e.g., Loughran, 2002 , p. 33), whereas for others, it is a well-defined practice with very specific purpose, meaning and action (e.g., Dewey, 1933 ; Schön, 1983 ; Grimmett and Erickson, 1988 ; Richardson, 1990 ; Loughran, 2002 ; Spalding et al., 2002 ; Paterson and Chapman, 2013 ). We found many interesting interpretations made along this continuum, but we believe the most appealing that rings true for most people is that reflection is useful and informing in the development and understanding of teaching and learning (e.g., Seitova, 2019 ; McGarr, 2021 ; Huynh, 2022 ). This, however, is not enough to signify the characteristics of reflection. Consequently, many teachers find it hard to understand the concept and engage in reflective practice for their professional development ( Bennett-Levy and Lee, 2014 ; Burt and Morgan, 2014 ; Haarhoff et al., 2015 ; Marshall, 2019 ; Huynh, 2022 ; Knassmüller, 2022 ; Kovacs and Corrie, 2022 ). For example, some teachers from higher arts education have considered reflective practice as antithetical to practical learning ( Guillaumier, 2016 ; Georgii-Hemming et al., 2020 ) as they often frame explicit reflection as assessed reflective writing, which is “disconnected from the embodied and non-verbal dimensions of making and reflecting on art” ( Treacy & Gaunt, 2021 , p. 488). The lack of understanding of the concept has created disengagement in reflection and reflective practice ( Aliakbari and Adibpour, 2018 ; Huynh, 2022 ; Knassmüller, 2022 ) which resulted in poor insight and performance in practice ( Davies, 2012 ). To overcome this, educators should foster their understanding of the reflective practice, so they not only can reap its benefits for their own learning, but also facilitate and maximize reflective skills within their students.

In this paper, we aim to provide an overview of the concepts of effective reflective practice and present the value of reflective practice that can help teachers to professionally develop. First, we situate our conceptual understanding of reflective practice by discussing key issues surrounding reflection and reflective practice. Second, we present the key aspects of effective reflective practice. Finally, based on our discussion of key aspects of effective reflective practice, we introduce a revised model of reflective practice that may serve as a guide for educators to professionally develop. Although the model is but one approach, we believe it holds promise for others grappling as we are with efforts to encourage reflective practices among educators who find reflection in and on their practices a complex concept.

Key issues in reflective practice

The concepts of “reflection,” “reflective thought,” and “reflective thinking” have been discussed since 1904, when John Dewey claimed that an individual with good ethical values would treat professional actions as experimental and reflect upon their actions and consequences. Dewey defined reflection as the “active, persistent, and careful consideration of any belief or supposed form of knowledge in the light of the grounds that support it and the further conclusions to which it tends” ( Dewey, 1904 , p. 10). His basic notion is that reflection is an active, deliberative cognitive process involving a sequence of interconnected ideas that include the underlying beliefs and knowledge of an individual.

Following Dewey’s original work and its subsequent interpretation, four key thought-provoking issues are worthy of discussion: reflective thinking versus reflective action; time of reflection; reflection and problem solving; and critical reflection. The first concern is whether reflection is a process limited to thinking about action or also bound up in action ( Grant and Zeichner, 1984 ; Noffke and Brennan, 1988 ; Hatton and Smith, 1995 ). There seems to be broad agreement that reflection is a form of thought process ( Ross, 1989 ; McNamara, 1990 ; Sparks-Langer et al., 1991 ; Hatton and Smith, 1995 ) even though some do not lead to action. However, Dewey’s first mention of “reflective action” suggests he was concerned with the implementation of solutions after thinking through problems. Therefore, reflective practice, in our view, is bound up with the constant, careful consideration of practice in the light of knowledge and beliefs. The complete cycle of reflection should then lead to clear, modified action and this needs to be distinguished from routine action derived from impulse, tradition, or authority ( Noffke and Brennan, 1988 ; Gore and Zeichner, 1991 ; Hatton and Smith, 1995 ).

The time frames within which reflection takes place, needs to be addressed—relatively immediate and short term, or rather more extended and systematic. Schön (1983) holds that professionals should learn to frame and reframe the problems they often face and after trying out various interpretations, modify their actions as a result. He proposes “reflection-in-action,” which requires conscious thinking and modification, simultaneously reflecting and doing almost immediately. Similar to this concept is “technical reflection,” involving thinking about competencies or skills and their effectiveness and occurs almost immediately after an implementation and can then lead to changes in subsequent action ( Cruickshank, 1985 ; Killen, 1989 ). While the notion of immediacy in reflective practice seems appropriate, some argue that the process should involve conscious detachment from an activity after a distinct period of contemplation ( Boud et al., 1985 ; Buchmann, 1990 ). This is because reflection demands contemplating rational and moral practices in order to make reasoned judgments about better ways to act. Reflective practice often involves looking back at actions from a distance, after they have taken place ( Schön, 1983 ; Gore and Zeichner, 1991 ; Smith and Lovat, 1991 ). While immediate and extended “versions” of reflections are both recognized, we suppose no one is better than another. However, we believe that being able to think consciously about what is happening and respond instantaneously makes for a higher level of reflective competence.

The third issue identified from our literature review is whether reflection by its very nature is problem orientated ( Calderhead, 1989 ; Adler, 1991 ). Reflection is widely agreed to be a thought process concerned with finding solutions to real problems ( Calderhead, 1989 ; Adler, 1991 ; Hatton and Smith, 1995 ; Loughran, 2002 ; Choy and Oo, 2012 ). However, it is unclear whether solving problems is an inherent characteristic of reflection. For example, Schön’s (1983) reflection-in-action involves thought processing simultaneously with a group event taking place, and reflection-on-action refers to a debriefing process after an event. Both aims to develop insights into what took place—the aims, the difficulties during the event or experience and better ways to act. While focusing on reacting to practical events, these practices do not often intend to find solutions to specific practical problems. Instead, reflective practitioners are invited to think about a new set of actions from if not wider, at least different perspectives.

The fourth issue in the literature revolves around “critical reflection.” Very often critical reflection is concerned with how individuals consciously consider their actions from within wider historical, cultural and political beliefs when framing practical problems for which to seek solutions ( Gore and Zeichner, 1991 ; Hatton and Smith, 1995 ; Choy and Oo, 2012 ). It is a measure of a person’s acceptance of a particular ideology, its assumptions and epistemology, when critical reflection is developed within reflective practice ( McNamara, 1990 ; Hatton and Smith, 1995 ). It implies the individual locates any analysis of personal action within her/his wider socio-historical and political-cultural contexts ( Noffke and Brennan, 1988 ; Smith and Lovat, 1991 ; Hatton and Smith, 1995 ). While this makes sense, critical reflection in the literature appears to loosely refer to an individual’s constructive self-criticism of their actions to improve in future ( Calderhead, 1989 ), not a consideration of personal actions with both moral and ethical criteria ( Senge, 1990 ; Adler, 1991 ; Gore and Zeichner, 1991 ). Thus, we see a need to define critical reflection in line with the key characteristics of reflective practice.

Effective reflective practice

Reflecting on the issues discussed above, we conclude that for reflective practice to be effective, it requires three key aspects: problem-solving, critical reflection and action-orientation. However, these aspects of reflective practice have different levels of complexity and meaning.

Problem-solving

A problem is unlikely to be acted upon if it is not viewed as a problem. Thus, it is crucial to problematize things during reflection, to see concerns that require improvement. This is not a simple process as people’s ability to perceive things as problems is related to their previous experiences. For example, a senior teacher with years of teaching experience and a rapport with the students s/he teaches will be immediately aware of students experiencing difficulties with current teaching strategies. However, a junior teacher whose experience is restricted to a three-month placement and who has met students only a few times will be less aware. The differences in experience also influence the way people interpret problems. For example, the senior teacher may believe his/her teaching strategy is at fault if half the students cannot complete the given tasks. A junior teacher with only 2 weeks teaching experience may deduce that the students were not interested in the topic, and that is why they cannot complete the tasks given. This example illustrates the range of ways a problem can be perceived and the advantages of developing the ability to frame and reframe a problem ( Schön, 1983 ). Problems can also be perceived differently depending on one’s moral and cultural beliefs, and social, ethical and/or political values ( Aliakbari and Adibpour, 2018 ; Karnieli-Miller, 2020 ). This could be extended to other factors such as institutional, educational and political system ( Aliakbari and Adibpour, 2018 ).

Framing and reframing a problem through reflection can influence the practice of subsequent actions ( Loughran, 2002 ; Arms Almengor, 2018 ; Treacy and Gaunt, 2021 ). In the example above, the junior teacher attributes the problem to the students’ attitude, which gives her/him little to no incentive to address the situation. This is an ineffective reflective practice because it has little impact on the problem. Thus, we believe it is crucial for individuals to not only recognize problems but to examine their practices ( Loughran, 2002 ; Arms Almengor, 2018 ; Zahid and Khanam, 2019 ) through a different lens to their existing perspectives so solutions can be developed and acted upon. This requires critical reflection.

Critical reflection

We believe it is the critical aspect of reflection that makes reflective practice effective and more complex, formulated by various scholars as different stages of reflection. Zeichner and Liston (1987) proposed three stages of reflection similar to those described by Van Manen (1977) . They suggested the first stage was “technical reflection” on how far the means to achieve certain end goals were effective, without criticism or modification. In the second stage, “practical reflection,” both the means and the ends are examined, with the assumptions compared to the actual outcomes. This level of reflection recognizes that meanings are embedded in and negotiated through language, hence are not absolute. The final stage, “critical reflection,” combined with the previous two, considers both the moral and ethical criteria of the judgments about professional activity ( Senge, 1990 ; Adler, 1991 ; Gore and Zeichner, 1991 ).

While the three stages above capture the complexity of reflection, individuals will only reach an effective level of reflection when they are able to be self-critical in their judgments and reasoning and can expand their thinking based on new evidence. This aligns with Ross’ (1989) five stages of reflection (see Table 1 ). In her five stages of reflection, individuals do not arrive at the level of critical reflection until they get to stages 4 and 5, which require them to contextualize their knowledge and integrate the new evidence before making any judgments or modification ( Van Gyn, 1996 ).

Table 1 . Five stages of reflections ( Ross, 1989 ).

Action-orientation

We believe it is important that any reflections should be acted upon. Looking at the types and stages of reflection discussed earlier, there is a clear indication that reflective practice is a cyclical process ( Kolb, 1984 ; Richards and Lockhart, 2005 ; Taggart and Wilson, 2005 ; Clarke, 2008 ; Pollard et al., 2014 ; Babaei and Abednia, 2016 ; Ratminingsih et al., 2018 ; Oo and Habók, 2020 ). Richards and Lockhart (2005) suggest this cyclical process comprises planning, acting, observing, and reflecting. This is further developed by Hulsman et al. (2009) who believe that the cyclical process not only involves action and observation, but also analysis, presentation and feedback. In the education field, reflective practice is also considered cyclical ( Clarke, 2008 ; Pollard et al., 2014 ; Kennedy-Clark et al., 2018 ) because educators plan, observe, evaluate, and revise their teaching practice continuously ( Pollard et al., 2014 ). This process can be done through a constant systematic self-evaluation cycle ( Ratminingsih et al., 2018 ) which involves a written analysis or an open discussion with colleagues.

From the descriptions above, it seems that cyclical reflective practice entails identifying a problem, exploring its root cause, modifying action plans based on reasoning and evidence, executing and evaluating the new action and its results. Within this cyclical process, we consider action as a deliberate change is the key to effective reflective practice, especially in the field of education. Reflection that is action-oriented is an ongoing process which refers to how educators prepare and teach and the methods they employ. Educators move from one teaching stage to the next while gaining the knowledge through experience of the importance/relevance of the chosen methods in the classroom situation ( Oo and Habók, 2020 ).

While reflection is an invisible cognitive process, it is not altogether intuitive ( Plessner et al., 2011 ). Individuals, especially those lacking experience, may lack adequate intuition ( Greenhalgh, 2002 ). To achieve a certain level of reflection, they need guidance and this can be done with others either in groups ( Gibbs, 1988 ; Grant et al., 2017 ) or through one-on-one feedback ( Karnieli-Miller, 2020 ). The others, who can be peers or mentors, can help provide different perspectives in exploring alternative interpretations and behaviors. Having said this, reflecting with others may not always feasible as it often requires investment of time and energy from others ( Karnieli-Miller, 2020 ). Therefore, teachers must learn how to scaffold their own underlying values, attitudes, thoughts, and emotions, and critically challenge and evaluate assumptions of everyday practice on their own. With this in mind, we have created a cyclical process of reflective practice which may help in individual reflections. It captures the three key aspects of reflective practice discussed above. This model may help teachers having a range of experience enhance their competence through different focus and levels of reflection (see Figure 1 ).

Figure 1 . Cyclical reflective practice model capturing problem-solving, action-oriented critical reflection.

The model illustrates the cyclical process with three stages: reflection, modification and action. At the reflection stage, a problem and the root of the problem is explored so it can be framed as it is/was and then reframed to identify a possible solution. This is followed by a modification for change based on the reasoning and evidence explored during the reflection stage. Finally, the action stage involves executing action (an event), followed by the reflection stage to begin another cycle and continue the process.

As presented earlier, it is crucial for individuals to be able to frame and reframe problems through a different lens to their existing perspectives so solutions can be developed and acted upon. Thus, the model above expands Tsangaridou and O’Sullivan’s (1994) framework by adding together the element of problematizing. The current revised framework highlights the four focuses of reflection; technical addresses the management or procedural aspects of teaching practice; situational addresses the context of teaching; sensitizing involves reflecting upon the social, moral, ethical or political concerns of teaching; and problematizing concerns the framing and reframing of the problem identified within the teaching context. Considering the different levels of critical reflection, we extend the four focuses of reflection to three different levels of critical reflection: descriptive involves reflection of the four focuses without reasoning or criticism; descriptive with rationale involves reflection of the four focuses with reasoning; and descriptive with rationale and evaluation involves reflection of the four focuses with both reasoning and criticism (see Table 2 ). Each of these levels requires different degrees of critical analysis and competence to extract information from actions and experiences. Overall, level three best captures effective critical reflection for each focus.

Table 2 . A framework of reflection.

This revised model that we proposed encompasses different levels of critical reflection and is action-oriented. There is also a clear link to problem-solving which requires framing and reframing problems to accurately identify them, which may influence the value and effectiveness of the actions that follow ( Loughran, 2002 ). Thus, this model may help people, especially those with lack experience to recognize the different aspects of reflection so they can make better assessments of and modifications to their procedures ( Ross, 1989 ; Van Gyn, 1996 ).

The meaning of reflection and reflective practice is not clear cut. However, we believe a reflective educator should cultivate a set of responses to how their teaching operates in practice. As Dewey (1933) suggested, educators must find time to reflect on their activity, knowledge, and experience so that they can develop and more effectively serve their community, nurturing each student’s learning. However, this does not always happen. Some educators do not reflect on their own practice because they find the concept of reflective practice difficult to put into practice for their professional development ( Jay and Johnson, 2002 ; Bennett-Levy and Lee, 2014 ; Burt and Morgan, 2014 ; Haarhoff et al., 2015 ; Marshall, 2019 ; Huynh, 2022 ).

Our review of the literature indicates that reflective practice is a complex process and some scholars argue that it should involve active thinking that is more bound up with action ( Grant and Zeichner, 1984 ; Noffke and Brennan, 1988 ; Hatton and Smith, 1995 ). Thus, the complete cycle of reflective practice needs to be distinguished from routine action which may stem from impulse, tradition, or authority ( Noffke and Brennan, 1988 ; Gore and Zeichner, 1991 ; Hatton and Smith, 1995 ). In addition, some also argue that reflective practice involves the conscious detachment from an activity followed by deliberation ( Boud et al., 1985 ; Buchmann, 1990 ), and therefore reflective practice should not occur immediately after action. Although this is acceptable, we believe that instant reflection and modification for future action can be a good indicator of an individual’s level of reflective competence.

Reflective practice is an active process that requires individuals to make the tacit explicit. Thus, it is crucial to acknowledge that reflection is, by its very nature, problem-centered ( Calderhead, 1989 ; Adler, 1991 ; Hatton and Smith, 1995 ; Loughran, 2002 ; Choy and Oo, 2012 ). Only with this in mind can individuals frame and reframe their actions or experiences to discover specific solutions. Reflective practice is also complex, requiring critical appraisal and consideration of various aspects of thought processes. Individuals must play close attention to what they do, evaluate what works and what does not work on a personal, practical and professional level ( Gore and Zeichner, 1991 ; Hatton and Smith, 1995 ; Choy and Oo, 2012 ). However, some would consider critical reflection as no more than constructive self-criticism of one’s actions with a view to improve ( Calderhead, 1989 ). Consequently, scholars have taken different approaches to reflective practice in teaching areas that include critical thinking (e.g., Ross, 1989 ; Tsangaridou and O’Sullivan, 1994 ; Loughran, 2002 ). These approaches had four components in common: reflecting (observing actions, reviewing, recollecting), planning for future action (thinking and considering), acting (practice, experience, and learning), and evaluating (interpreting and assessing outcomes). We propose a model that embraces these four sub-areas and three key aspects of reflection: problem-solving, action orientation and critical reflection. We align these key aspects with level of criticality in a framework with detailed descriptors. It is hoped that these elements, combined together, demonstrate the complexities of reflection in a better, clearer way so that those struggling to adopt reflective practice will now be able to do so without much difficulty.

Author contributions

MM contributed to conception and written the first draft of the manuscript. RR contributed in the discussion of the topic. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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Keywords: criticality, reflection, revised model, reflective practice, problematizing

Citation: Mohamed M, Rashid RA and Alqaryouti MH (2022) Conceptualizing the complexity of reflective practice in education. Front. Psychol . 13:1008234. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1008234

Received: 31 July 2022; Accepted: 28 September 2022; Published: 19 October 2022.

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Reflective Practice in Medical Education

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Critical reflection ; Reflection ; Reflective writing

“Practice” refers both to the repeated exercise of a skill or activity in order to achieve proficiency and the application of a method, skill, or belief. Accordingly, “reflective practice” refers to the ways in which reflection, as a skill and a habit of mind, is first acquired and then utilized by professionals. Within the fields of medicine and medical education, reflective practice encompasses both a praxis – to do the work of healing patients guided by ongoing reflective thought – and the curricular interventions through which medical trainees hone their reflective capacity. As it pertains to reflective practice, “reflection” is “the process of analyzing, questioning, and reframing an experience in order to make an assessment of it for the purposes of learning (reflective learning) and/or to improve practice (reflective practice)” (Aronson, 2011 : 200–201). The capacity for reflection as “an epistemology of...

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Bracken, R.C. (2021). Reflective Practice in Medical Education. In: Crawford, P., Kadetz, P. (eds) Palgrave Encyclopedia of the Health Humanities. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-26825-1_203-1

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Pre-service TESOL teachers’ professional-awareness building through reflecting on reflections of critical incidents

• Abdul Karim   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-2488-8297 1 ,
• Fariah Amin   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-2222-8666 1 ,
• Muhammad Kamarul Kabilan   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-6839-3344 2 , 3 ,
• Liza Reshmin 1 &
• Evita Umama Amin   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-6766-6358 1  

Asian-Pacific Journal of Second and Foreign Language Education volume  9 , Article number:  52 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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Scholars have questioned the effectiveness of reflective practice for gaining professional awareness or attaining professional development. In addition, the prevalence of inadequate comprehensive framework for pre-service teachers’ reflective practice and insufficient support of teacher educators have been noted in the literature. Against these backdrops, the present study attempted to demonstrate how reflecting on reflections, a form of reflective practice, of Critical Incidents (CIs) contributes to building pre-service TESOL teachers’ professional awareness. The study involved ten pre-service teachers (PSTs) in reflecting on reflections of CIs during the teaching practicum. Following the interpretive phenomenological approach, the study unfolded the CIs associated with pedagogical factors, including passive participation of the students, students’ late arrival in the classroom, disobedience to teachers’ instructions, the chaotic environment in the classroom, students’ rude behavior, and disruption caused by technical glitches, and CIs associated with intrapersonal and interpersonal factors, comprising students’ emotional exhaustion and unprofessional behaviors by senior teachers. Subsequently, it illustrated how PSTs cultivated their professional awareness through reflecting on reflections of CIs. The study presented a reflective practice framework applicable to pre-service and in-service teacher education programs. It also provided practical suggestions for pre-service and novice teachers to address and overcome the CIs. Teacher educators and trainers can harness the findings to prepare PSTs to conduct interactive and productive English language classes.

Introduction

Since its inception in the seminal work of Schön ( 1983 ) in teacher education, reflective practice has gained much attention in literature. As a core element of reflective practice, reflection-on-action refers to teachers’ involvement in reflecting on their teaching practice after the class (Schön, 1983 ). In contrast, reflection-in-action means to continue reflection while teaching (Schön, 1983 ). In pre-service teacher education, the constructivist perspectives support the inclusion of reflective practice so that pre-service teachers (PSTs) can reflect on their teaching by combining theoretical knowledge, a personal sense of teaching, and new experiences encountered in the process of teaching during their teaching practicum (Gungor, 2016 ; Hendriwanto, 2021 ; Kabilan, 2007 ; Lee, 2007 ). The widely cited value of the reflective practice, as echoed in the literature, is to yield new insights and enhance critical thinking and problem-solving ability for those who perform it (Bartlett, 1996 ; Farrell, 2016 ; Gungor, 2016 ; Yesilbursa, 2011 ). Understanding the benefit, the TESOL (Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages) program has remained at the forefront in sensing the allure of reflective practice and embracing it as a compulsory component to render PSTs’ enhanced ability in teaching (Cirocki & Farrell, 2017 ; Farrell, 2016 ). Through teaching practicum, reflective practice embedded in the TESOL program paves the way for PSTs to reflect on their beliefs, assumptions, experiences, and practices and eventually aiding them in gaining professional development (Hendriwanto, 2021 ; Karim et al., 2019a , 2020 , 2023 ; Körkkö et al., 2016 ; Lamote & Engels, 2010 ; Walkington, 2005 ).

Yet reflective practice is criticized, and its credibility in rendering PSTs’ professional development is questioned in the literature (Beauchamp, 2015 ; Yuan, 2023 ). According to Beauchamp ( 2015 ), it lacks real reflection in teacher education; it may be more talked about than practiced. It is commonly seen in reflection-in-action and reflection-on-action, the core elements of reflective practice (Schön, 1983 ), that teachers reflect on what they do and how and why they do it (Farrell, 2015 ; Farrell & Kennedy, 2019 ). In reflection-on-action, the teachers ponder what happened in the class and critique it, while in reflection-in-action, they report a surprising problem and share what they think during the class (Farrell, 2004 ). Farrell ( 2018 ) notes that such a norm of reflective practice is limited to playing a retrospective role in identifying what works and does not work in the classroom. Farrell expresses concern that such conventional reflection may work as a fix-it approach and yield uncritical insights. Before Farrell’s ( 2018 ) assertion, Freeman ( 2016 ) also identifies reflection-in-action and reflection-on-action as ‘post-mortem’ forms of reflective practice that play a perfunctory role of ‘reflection-as-repair’ (p. 217). Freeman argues that maneuvering reflective practice in such a way confines reflection to a problem-solving tool that only encompasses the technical aspects of teaching while leaving many critical aspects of teaching unexplored.

In terms of teaching practicum, Mann and Walsh ( 2017 ) believe that PSTs’ reflection-in-action and reflection-on-action are routinized activities that need to be accomplished to obtain good grades and not actual learning. Regarding professional development, Akbari ( 2007 ) doubts the effectiveness of reflective practice in improving teachers and teaching. Likewise, Russell ( 2013 ) questions, “Has reflective practice done more harm than good in teacher education? He contends that focusing less on real action in the classroom and classroom experience limits teachers from making reflective practice relevant to their professional development. This is likely because reflective practice is not as deeply ingrained in teaching practice as its motto envisions (Beauchamp, 2015 ). Besides, teacher educators have not conveyed a clear and precise meaning of reflection that would facilitate PSTs’ total understanding (Russell, 2013 ).

The shortcomings enacted to supervision and/or mentorship to make reflective practice relevant to PSTs’ professional growth are evident in the literature (see Gu, 2013 ; Nguyen & Loughland, 2018 ; Senom et al., 2013 ). Apart from the problems linked to supervision and/or mentorship, Hourani ( 2013 ) notes some barriers that impede PSTs’ attempts to reflect. For instance, language barriers, the complexity of multi-layered tasks, insufficient skills in reflection, and the absence of internal control are the major constraints that make PSTs suffer from perfunctory reflection. Besides, the absence of PSTs’ critical reflection also hinders them from sensing the relevance of reflective practice with regard to the teaching profession (Akbari, 2007 ; Beauchamp, 2015 ; Enfield & Stasz, 2011 ). The denouncement of reflective practice, as voiced by scholars, indicates that conventional forms of reflection-in-action and reflection-on-action generate little insight to stimulate professional development. Sensitized by the aforesaid backdrops, the researchers of the present study embraced PSTs’ active and independent participation to generate in-depth reflection for growing a sense of professionalism to support their future teaching.

In-depth reflection situates the PSTs in the trajectory of developing professional sense (Flynn, 2019 ). To produce in-depth and meaningful reflections and acquire knowledge from these, Akbari ( 2007 ) advocates the idea that “it is good to reflect, but reflection itself also requires reflection” (p. 2005). Hence, the researchers applied ‘reflecting on reflections’ in this study, which is effective for ensuring the active participation of the PSTs to produce in-depth and comprehensive reflections and thus render professional learning (Kabilan, 2007 ). They selected critical incidents (CIs) as the element of focus to perform reflecting on reflections (the detailed application of reflecting on reflections of CIs is explained in the ‘ Methods ’ section). CIs were chosen as the element of focus in this study as Dursun et al. ( 2023 ) emphasize the inclusion of diverse elements of focus in reflective practice in teacher education programs to equip PSTs with multifaceted knowledge. Moreover, CIs are instrumental in providing in-depth reflections because reflections on CIs stretch beyond the conventional form of reflection by encapsulating more reasoning and meaning-making of the unanticipated event(s) (Griffin, 2003 ). CIs faced by PSTs are scarcely investigated in the literature, which is contrastive to the proliferation of research on in-service teachers’ or young teachers’ CIs (Pourhassan & Nazari, 2023 ). Most importantly, as Pourhassan and Nazari ( 2023 ) argue, existing literature provides inadequate evidence on how CIs can be applied in teacher education programs to grow PSTs’ sense of professionalism. Although reflections on CIs and their contribution to PSTs’ professional development through gaining ability in reflective and critical thinking have been studied (e.g., Atai & Nejadghanbar, 2016 ; Bruster & Peterson, 2013 ; Farrell, 2008 , 2013a , 2013b ; Kilgour et al., 2015 ; Nejadghanbar, 2021 ; Pourhassan & Nazari, 2023 ), PSTs’ involvement in reflecting on reflections concerning CIs and its contribution to their professional development remain underrepresented in the literature. To bridge the knowledge gap, the present study intended to report how PSTs cultivated their professional awareness by performing ‘reflecting on reflections’ of CIs.

The context of the research was Malaysia. The research site was Universiti Sains Malaysia. The School of Educational Studies offers a Bachelor of Education (TESOL) with Honors degree program, a four-year professional program aiming to produce English teachers to teach English as a second language in Malaysian secondary schools. As practiced in all Malaysian universities, teaching practicum is a compulsory course for the PSTs doing Bachelor of Education (TESOL) at Universiti Sains Malaysia. The PSTs are asked to reflect on various aspects of teaching during the teaching practicum. In Malaysia, the teaching practicum course is perceived as a professional development platform to learn “in, from, and for” their future teaching (Johnson, 2009 , p. 26). We believe that if we, being teacher educators, fail to familiarize PSTs with CIs and reflections on these to develop their competencies in dealing with these during the teaching practicum course, we would leave a significant aspect of teaching schoolers unexplored by them, which may disrupt their future endeavors as TESOL teachers (Garton & Copland, 2019 ).

Literature review

Theorizing reflecting on reflections of critical incidents.

Collin and Karsenti ( 2011 ) advocate that reflection should be done at both interpersonal and intrapersonal levels, and reflective practice should be interactive. Before that, Sikka and Timoštšuk ( 2008 ) propagate that reflective practice offers incremental benefits when programmed in an interactive environment. Reflecting on reflections is an interactive form of reflective practice (Kabilan, 2007 ). To put reflecting on reflections into practice, the researchers embraced the idea of dialogic reflective practice (Farrell, 2019 ) since it connects PSTs face-to-face or online for interactive reflective practice. Mann and Walsh ( 2017 ) note that dialogue adds further insights to reflections. According to them, interactive reflective practice is a crucial device to continue the “reflection-action-further-action” cycle since it allows PSTs to gain better clarification through questioning and provides enhanced understanding (Mann & Walsh, 2017 , p. 8). Farrell ( 2019 ) concurs that reflection becomes effective when it involves dialogue with peers in reflection groups. Such groups can be formed and operated online, tailoring mutual aid-type collaboration through exploring various issues that directly impact their teaching (Farrell, 2013a , 2013b ). By stepping into a discursive environment and immersing in discussions with peers, the PSTs can experience an enhanced opportunity to learn something from each other because individual PSTs have a unique perspective to analyze and interpret a phenomenon (Farrell, 2019 ). This means that dialogic reflections ultimately provide PSTs with valuable insights, perspectives, and understanding, offering an optimal opportunity to enhance their professional awareness. This opportunity might be missed when reflection is conducted in isolation (Farrell, 2019 ). Mann and Walsh ( 2017 ) also point out that the zones of proximal development are better ensured when dialogues are embedded in reflective practice. Hence, TESOL PSTs should be afforded the opportunity for a continuous dialogical reflective practice, enabling them to reap the benefits of heightened reflections (Farrell, 2019 ).

The impetus for the current study to explore the practice of reflecting on reflections is set by Farrell’s ( 2019 ) dialogic reflective practice. In the process of reflecting on reflections, pre-service teachers (PSTs) engage in 'the interaction of experiences,' wherein everyone employs their critical lens to analyze and interpret experiences within a “collegial environment” (Newell, 1996 , p. 568). This collaborative setting allows everyone to benefit from additional insights into the success (or failure), clarity (or uncertainties), and difficulties, issues, and challenges that may arise in future teaching or that were encountered in the initial reflecting process (Kabilan, 2007 ). Reflecting on reflections allows the PSTs to share, analyze, and interpret diverse experiences yielded by direct teaching during teaching practicum in either face-to-face or online modes (e.g., online chat group and Facebook group) (Kabilan, 2007 ; Karim et al., 2023 ). Fundamentally, reflecting on reflections comprises reflecting on self-reflections and reflections of others (Karim et al., 2023 ). Karim et al. ( 2023 ) clarify that in reflecting on reflections, each PST shares classroom experiences gained from direct teaching during the teaching practicum along with his or her reflections on the experiences, which paves the initial gateway to commence interactions. For instance, based on one’s shared experiences and reflections, others are invited to share their reflections. Once the individual receives others’ reflections, he or she can elicit his or her reflections on others’ reflections. At this stage, they can argue over peers’ reflections and accept or reject the ideas, new knowledge, and professional insights divulged in their reflections (Karim et al., 2023 ). That is how muti-layered reflections evolve in reflecting on reflections, which is expected to create and develop professional knowledge, awareness, and insights relevant to the teaching profession (Kabilan, 2007 ). One can question: Why should reflecting on reflections be incorporated as a form of reflective practice? Reflective practice can take a back seat when PSTs’ primary concern is to complete the reflection reports and submit them to the supervisors to obtain good grades in teaching practicum instead of emphasizing professional knowledge acquisition (Ramasamy, 2002; Mann & Walsh, 2017 ). That is why, as Kabilan ( 2007 ) notes, the conventional form of reflective practice often shows limited success in fulfilling its actual aim. Reflecting on reflections, in contrast, is more operational because of its interactive model, which involves PSTs’ active participation (Karim et al., 2023 ). For example, Macpherson ( 2002 ) assigned students to reflect on their reflective writing and found that it helped improve their writing. Similarly, Kabilan ( 2007 ) found that reflecting on reflections enhanced students’ fundamental pedagogical knowledge and increased their awareness of meaningful and effective classroom practices, thereby building confidence for future teaching endeavors. More recently, Karim et al. ( 2023 ) engaged PSTs in reflecting on reflections of CIs and concluded that it helped construct their professional identity. Therefore, it becomes conspicuous that CI can be an essential element of focus to engage PSTs in the process of reflecting on reflections.

For capturing and reflecting on CIs, Farrell ( 2008 ) recommends a description of incidents that occurred during teaching. He proposes some prompted questions to be answered in the first phase. For instance, the answers to ‘what happened exactly,’ ‘who was involved,’ ‘where did it take place,’ and ‘when did it take place’ constitute the initial description of CIs. Farrell ( 2008 ) consciously advises teacher educators to avoid asking PSTs to add reasons (i.e., explanation and interpretation driven by the question ‘why did it happen’) so that PSTs can note the detailed description of CIs without being overwhelmed by the focus on explaining and interpreting these at the primary stage.

In the second phase, as Farrell ( 2008 ) suggests, PSTs should be guided to add their explanation and interpretation of the incidents. PSTs’ reactions (i.e., what was done to overcome or minimize the incidents) to the incidents can be reported at this juncture. In addition, the reflections on the incidents may include their underlying assumptions about teaching and learning the English language. Thiel’s ( 1999 ) suggestion to reflect on CIs is reverberated by Farrell ( 2008 ), with one exception: Thiel prefers PSTs to answer how the CIs led to a change in understanding and practice of teaching, which adds additional insights about the professional awareness building.

In the third phase, Farrell ( 2008 ) wants teacher educators to engage each PST in sharing their reflections with other PSTs so that others can reflect on an individual’s CIs. Others can share their reflections on the incidents by including suggestions of alternatives concerning what the person could do to overcome or minimize these (Nazari & De Costa, 2022 ). They can also generate discussions on the incidents to offer more insights (Farrell, 2008 ). Subsequently, this process gives birth to dialogic reflective practice, which can also be performed online (Farrell, 2019 ). Hence, the researchers maintained an anonymized Facebook group for PSTs to share their CIs and reflections and reflect on reflections. In the designated group, each PST shared his or her reflections on CIs, received others’ reflections, and finally reflected on self-reflections and reflections of others in pursuit of professional awareness, as theorized in the practice of reflecting on reflections in Kabilan ( 2007 ) and Karim et al. ( 2023 ). Since reflecting on reflections concerning CIs is incorporated in this study and it is performed on the Facebook Group, the following framework guides the study (Fig.  1 ).

Framework for reflecting on reflections of CIs for PSTs’ professional-awareness building

Critical incidents, reflective practice, and professional awareness

CI was first devised as a technique in the Aviation Psychology program for selecting and categorizing aircrews of the US Air Force, and later, the American Institute for Research conceived it as a focus to study (Pourhassan & Nazari, 2023 ). The earlier definition of CI, as illustrated by (Brookfield, 1990 ), presented it as a “vividly remembered event which is unplanned and unanticipated” (p. 84). Farrell ( 2008 ) defined CIs, from a pedagogical perspective, as events that occur in the classroom and are unplanned or unanticipated. It could also be referred to as the event or situation that significantly impacts pre-service teachers’ view and practice of teaching (Tripp, 1993 ). However, Pourhassan and Nazari ( 2023 ) regard CIs as unfavorable events or negative occurrences that young teachers face due to a lack of competencies while teaching young learners. Other CIs that are undesirable in nature may include collegial nonconformity, learner behavior, clashes, passive engagement in class participation, and teachers’ unpreparedness (Atai & Nejadghanbar, 2016 ; Pourhassan & Nazari, 2023 ).

Engaging PSTs in the realities of the world through reflecting on CIs as a way of preparing them for future professional endeavors is well explored in literature. For instance, Farrell ( 2015 ) argues that second-language teacher education programs should allow PSTs to face CIs to sense real-world classroom challenges, and reflections on these will support them in the initial years of their teaching careers. Since CIs will occur during the in-service teaching profession, involving PSTs to analyze these through reflective practice certainly adds value to their professional awareness (Farrell, 2019 ). Professional awareness is teachers’ awareness of ‘being’ or ‘becoming’ a teacher (Žydžiūnaitė & Daugėla, 2020 ), and it shapes their professional positionality (Beijaard et al., 2004 ; Richardson & Shupe, 2003 ) and determines perceived role (Žydžiūnaitė & Daugėla, 2020 ). Professional awareness is also the result of teachers’ constant involvement in reflective practice that continuously enjoins them to (re)think and understand their actions depending on the situational demands (Žydžiūnaitė & Daugėla, 2020 ). To illustrate, professional awareness, gained through reflective practice, determines self-attitude and makes them capable of interpreting present actions in light of pedagogical and contextual needs (Canrinus et al., 2011 ). The analysis of CIs in reflective practice enables the PSTs to explore and scrutinize all possibilities before reaching a conclusion (Dewey, 1993 ) to be prepared to face multi-faceted problems and govern their actions in response to them (Griffin, 2003 ). Furthermore, Poudel ( 2019 ) postulates that in reflecting on CIs, PSTs have the privilege of questioning their actions, which results in fine-tuning their future practices. In other words, such reflective practice ignites professional awareness by identifying what went wrong or what could have been done differently (Poudel, 2019 ). Cultivating professional awareness is crucial for teachers, especially PSTs, as it is tied to their professional satisfaction, status, and pride. These factors empower them to remain committed to teaching (Frelin, 2010 ; Roccas & Brewer, 2002 ).

A notable number of studies reported that novice teachers gained professional knowledge by reflecting on CIs. For instance, 28 PSTs in Griffin’s ( 2003 ) study presented 135 CIs and reflected on these in pursuit of enhanced ability in reflective inquiry. It was found that the participants’ reflective ability was increased, shifting their positionality from “concrete thinker to alert thinker” (Griffin, 2003 , p. 218). Farrell’s ( 2008 ) investigation of 18 PSTs’ reflections on their CIs resulted in 36 critical incidents and enhanced their professional knowledge. When such reflections on CIs were shared with others, the reflecting teacher became professionally sensitized to her future teaching as she developed a greater awareness of herself as a teacher and her practices (Farrell, 2013a , 2013b ). These types of reflections also raise PSTs’ consciousness and awareness of their learners and own teaching processes (Bruster & Peterson, 2013 ), improve their future teaching (Kilgour et al., 2015 ), enhance their professional learning (Hall & Townsend, 2017 ) and, identify and understand specific tenets important for successful learning such as individual learner differences, classroom management strategies and instructional, strategies (Chien, 2018 ).

Further reflections by PSTs on how they dealt with the CIs, alongside sharing the reasons for dealing with those CIs, led to PSTs’ professional learning, particularly when mentor teachers read their reflections and provided them with feedback on what they could do better. Such feedback by mentors appears to be effective in facilitating PSTs’ meaningful professional development experiences during practicum. The practice of prompting critical questions (by mentors) resulted in imagined responses (by PSTs) (Atai & Nejadghanbar, 2016 ; Nejadghanbar, 2021 ) and unpacked their interpersonal, pedagogical, and professional CIs (Pourhassan & Nazari, 2023 ). In igniting and enabling such professional development experiences, the framework fashioned by Richards and Farrell ( 2005 ) and further refined by Pourhassan and Nazari ( 2023 ) could be applied. It contains six questions: (i) the description of the incidents, (ii) the reasons for the incidents, (iii) the reactions to the incidents, (iv) the analysis of the reactions, (v) the learning from the incidents and, (vi) the intention to collect written responses to continue subsequent discussions. Based on this framework, Pourhassan and Nazari ( 2023 ) outlined the outcome, suggesting conceptual, practical and personal-professional changes in treating PSTs’ CIs in their future teaching. Nejadghanbar and Atai ( 2021 ) illustrated that reflections on CIs and comments given by fellow colleagues facilitated the teachers in “getting more confidence” to face future CIs and “getting practical solutions to the existing problems in classes” (p. 97).

The above studies present insights of reflections on CIs from Iran, Singapore, Canada, the United States, Australia, Japan, and Taiwan following the case study research design (Chien, 2018 ; Farrell, 2008 ), narrative inquiry (Farrell, 2013a , 2013b ), critical incident technique (Bruster & Peterson, 2013 ; Hall & Townsend, 2017 ), qualitative approach entailing critical incident research design (Kilgour et al., 2015 ), qualitative and exploratory design (Pourhassan & Nazari, 2023 ), and mixed-mode research design (Nejadghanbar & Atai, 2021 ). The review transpires how PSTs in various contexts got involved in diverse forms of reflective practice concerning CIs and how they developed professionally. However, professional development is an endless journey (Wallace, 1991 ), indicating PSTs’ continuous involvement in pursuing professional development through various means. Hence, teacher educators and researchers should make constant efforts to determine what variety can be added to the trajectory of continuous professional development. The incorporation of reflective practice is of no difference. Various forms of reflective practices should be introduced to tailor PSTs’ continuous professional development. The demand for more research on capturing how reflective practice can contribute to the growth of professional awareness is voiced in the literature (Akbari, 2007 ; Beauchamp, 2015 ; Hourani, 2013 ; Nguyen & Loughland, 2018 ; Russell, 2013 ). In addition, Farrell ( 2008 ) and Pourhassan and Nazari ( 2023 ) called for more investigation into how reflections on CIs contribute to building PSTs’ professional awareness (Farrell, 2008 ; Pourhassan & Nazari, 2023 ). In response to the calls from scholars, the current attempts to present a form of reflective practice (i.e., reflecting on reflections, as illustrated above) on CIs and its contribution to building Malaysian PSTs’ professional awareness by espousing the interpretive phenomenological approach.

The present study

The present study aims to demonstrate how Malaysian PSTs build professional awareness through reflecting on reflections of CIs during teaching practicum. The following question guided the current study:

How does reflecting on reflections of critical incidents contribute to building PSTs’ professional awareness?

The context of teaching practicum

The Malaysian Quality Agency (MQA) mandates that teacher education programs must include teaching practicum, which requires PSTs to teach for at least 20 weeks in schools. Under this provision, Universiti Sains Malaysia makes it compulsory for the PSTs who are doing the Bachelor of Education (TESOL) with Honors degree program to complete the teaching practicum course. Following the provision, the PSTs of this study had to complete the course. All 10 PSTs were placed in different secondary schools in different states, except for two who taught in the same schools. Each PST was assigned to teach secondary school students (aged between 13 and 16) for a maximum of 12 h per week for four months. They were assigned to teach the English language during the teaching practicum. In the first two months (April and May 2021), the PSTs experienced face-to-face classroom teaching. Yet, with soaring COVID-19 cases and the eventual nationwide lockdown, the PSTs had to resort to online teaching in June and July (Annamalai et al., 2021 ; Sabani & Istiqomah, 2021 ) where the students learned via online platforms. Like in-service teachers, the PSTs were asked to carry out all responsibilities in the assigned schools. The researchers believed that CIs would be a common phenomenon that PSTs might encounter daily inside and outside the classroom.

Research design

The goal of the current study was to present the trajectory of PSTs’ professional-awareness building through reflecting on reflections of CIs. As such, we utilized the interpretive phenomenological approach (Heidegger, 2019 ) as this study involved the “lived experiences” and realities of the PSTs’ “narratives of their experiences of and feelings” of “specific phenomena” and “in-depth descriptions” of experiences during their teaching practicum (Cilesiz, 2009 , p. 240). Usually, researchers employ this strategy when they opt to learn about how individuals perceive the meaning of significant experiences (Pietkiewicz & Smith, 2014 ). Therefore, the researchers adopted the interpretative phenomenological approach to understanding how PSTs perceive the meaning of CIs by reflecting on reflections in building their professional awareness.

Participants

This study involved 10 PSTs specializing in TESOL at the focal university. They enrolled in the Bachelor of Education (TESOL) with Honors degree program, a four-year professional program. They opted to be English teachers to teach English as a Second Language in Malaysian secondary schools. Teaching practicum is a compulsory course for them. Out of the 10 participants (with an average age of 23 years), nine were female PSTs and one was male PST. Though they hail from different parts of Malaysia and of different ethnicities (i.e., Malay, Indian, and Chinese), the PSTs have quite a similar secondary educational background as all Malaysian secondary school students received education following the same curriculum and syllabus before furthering their studies at the tertiary level. For our study purpose, we issued an invitation letter to participate in our study. We informed the participants about the purpose of the study, how the findings will be disseminated, what their rights were, their choice to withdraw from the study, and the guarantee of maintaining anonymity and confidentiality of the study (Creswell & Poth, 2018 ). All the participants electronically signed the consent form. To safeguard their identities, we use pseudonyms such as PST1, PST2, …… PST10.

Research instruments

The first instrument of this study entailed individual PST’s reflective writing on CIs posted on the Facebook group and peers’ reflections enveloping criticisms and suggestions in the ‘comment’ section. To illustrate, PSTs were asked to share the CIs encountered and their reflections on these in the Facebook Group. Based on the individual’s shared CI(s) and reflections posted on the Facebook Group, other PSTs wrote their reflections in the ‘comment’ section. For example, when PST1 posted the CI she faced and shared her reflection on it, other PSTs (PST2, PST3…PST10) were instructed to share their reflections on PST1’s CI and reflection. After that, PST1 reflected on self-reflections and her peers’ reflections to perform reflecting on reflections of CI for gaining professional awareness. The detailed guidelines for reflective writing on CIs are illustrated in ‘Involving PSTs in Writing Reflections on CIs and Reflecting on Reflections of CIs’ section.

Premised upon the first instrument, reflecting on reflections was put into practice. Building on the encountered CIs, self-reflections and reflections of others, the PSTs reflected on reflections whereby the prime focus was to answer the following open-ended question circulated in the anonymized WhatsApp Group.

What kind of professional awareness have you built through reflecting on reflections of CI(s) that you experienced?

The PSTs were instructed to email the response to this question to the third author. The answers to the open-ended question enabled the researchers to understand how reflecting on reflections of critical incidents contributed to PSTs’ professional-awareness building, which is the fundamental concern of the main research question in this study. Alongside this, we attempted to reveal the answer to the following question:

Since you have read multiple CIs (shared by you and others), reflected on them, and reflected on reflections, how do see the contribution of reflecting on reflections of CIs to building your professional awareness as a TESOL teacher?

After circulating the question in the WhatsApp Group, we asked the PSTs to write and share the answer to this open-ended question in the group. The purpose of administering this was to ensure and verify that this teaching practicum course subsuming reflecting on reflections of CIs has the possibility of contributing to building PSTs’ professional awareness (Guskey, 2002 ). Tarrou et al. ( 1999 ) necessitated such an investigation since it would inform the teacher educators about the possible revisions and unveil the room for improvement for further quality assurance.

Data analysis and trustworthiness

We merged the data collected via an open-ended questionnaire and Facebook group, resulting in 10 sets of data that constituted the raw data of the study. We espoused Van Manen’s ( 1997 ) three approaches—the detailed reading approach, the selective reading approach, and the holistic reading approach. We started with “The Detailed Reading Approach” which entails reading and rereading the participants’ raw data, facilitating data analysis. We considered significant phrases and words to consider what the data reveals about the phenomenon. The “Selective or Highlighting Approach” was the next method we used. In this method, significant words, phrases, and statements were highlighted, and then those words and phrases were copied, tabulated, and pasted into a Word document in order to look for implicit meaning and classify them into concepts and later categories. The subthemes that gave meaning to the phenomenon emerged at this point. The data from each participant underwent the same procedure. The data was then reviewed holistically under “The holistic reading approach,” and the subthemes that were shared by every participant were used to generate the final themes.

In establishing the trustworthiness and rigor of this study, we utilized Lincoln and Guba’s ( 1985 ) four criteria—credibility, transferability, dependability, and confirmability. In fulfilling the credibility of this study, we collected data from two different sources and their findings were triangulated to ensure findings were grouped into respective and suitable themes. Transferability was established by providing evidence in the ‘ Discussion ’ part and informing how findings could be applied in other contexts in the ‘Conclusion’ section. A thorough description of methods facilitated the transferability of this study to other similar contexts (Guba, 1981 ). Dependability was achieved as we ensured findings were consistent with the raw data collected by facilitating a member-checking process with the PSTs after the data were analyzed (Varpio et al., 2017 ). Confirmability, which refers to “data and interpretations of the findings are not figments of the inquirer’s imagination” (Tobin & Begley, 2004 , p. 392), was established using a rigorous method of data analysis, how codes were assigned, and how themes were generated (Kaur et al., 2021 ).

Research procedures

Researchers’ input.

We arranged a Webex meeting with the PSTs to guide them about reflecting on reflections of CIs. In the first session of the meeting, we drew their attention to CIs. We informed them that CIs are unanticipated events that can happen inside and outside classrooms in the school during teaching practicum (Farrell, 2008 ) that have a significant impact on changing the PSTs’ view and practice of teaching during teaching practicum (Tripp, 1993 ). We also told them these are critical episodes in teaching that they can note to reflect on to gain professional awareness. Additionally, we presented examples of CIs including the undesired behavior of the students and teachers, language proficiency, clashes, individual differences, class participation, and teachers’ unpreparedness are identified as the potential source of CIs in the classroom (see Nejadghanbar, 2021 for details).

In the second session of the Webex meeting, based on Kabilan ( 2007 ), we introduced the writing, sharing, and reading of reflections on CIs. We asked the PSTs to understand and espouse Richards and Lockhart’s ( 1994 ) suggestion that “the process of reflecting upon one’s own teaching is an essential component in developing knowledge and theories of teaching and hence is a key element in one’s professional development” (p. 202). We ensured that the PSTs understood what it meant to be reflective and critical during their TP, especially in terms of identifying and reflecting on the CIs they experienced and how it could contribute to building their professional awareness. We elucidated professional awareness as a simple notion that is connected to professional development by drawing their attention to sensing the needful “to develop an individual’s skills, knowledge and expertise as a teacher” (OECD, 2014 , p.528) aiming at improving teaching and learning (McChesney & Aldridge, 2019 ; Kabilan, 2013 ; Wei et al., 2009 ). This fundamental understanding of professional awareness would enable the PSTs in this study to easily identify what would be the relevant professional development activities and the related outcomes of these, which would not only “facilitate change-making, but also to contribute to the endurance of change” (Guskey, 2002 , p. 389). That is how we strived to implant the sense of professional awareness that could be engendered by reflecting on reflections of CIs.

Involving PSTs in reflecting on reflections of CIs

We guided them to write their reflections with the help of prompted questions echoed by Farrell ( 2008 ), Thiel ( 1999 ) and Nazari and De Costa ( 2022 ) in the designated Facebook Group. We also supplied them with the pattern of reporting and reflecting on CIs (Fig.  2 ), as modeled by Richards and Lockhart ( 1994 ).

(Adopted from Richards & Lockhart, 1994 , p. 8)

Reflections and afterthoughts

In activating PSTs’ reflecting on reflections, we espoused the following framework (Fig.  3 ), which was discerned from Fig.  1 .

Framework espoused to involve PSTs in reflecting on reflections of CIs to build professional awareness

In addition, we issued the following guidelines:

Four PSTs will post their respective CIs on the Facebook Group each week. A schedule was drawn, indicating the selected two PSTs who would post on Thursday, and the other two who would post on Monday. The CIs should be linked to their professional awareness.

Based on the CI(s) posted by individual PSTs, the remaining nine PSTs were asked to read, comment, and reflect on the posted reflections. They were reminded that reading should lead to critical understanding; commenting could include providing suggestions, new ideas, and criticisms.

The researchers continuously monitored whether PSTs were active in writing and sharing reflections of CIs on the Facebook group, commenting, criticizing, and yielding suggestions to each other’s reflections.

Timeline of the study

The study was carried out during the final two months of the practicum, i.e., June and July of 2021, as PSTs gained the needed experiences of teaching, as well as the experiences of functioning and performing as a ‘real’ English language teacher in an actual school environment in the first two months (Kabilan, 2013 ). Without these experiences, the phenomenon we wanted to explore and identify in this study would not be reified since teaching experience has “a catalytic effect on how teachers perceive the teaching process” (Androusou & Tsafos, 2018 , p. 564).

The present study intended to show how reflecting on reflections of CIs, as a form of reflective practice, contributes to building PSTs’ professional awareness. The findings are categorized into four broad themes: CIs associated with students’ behavioral problems leading to professional awareness, CIs related to technical glitches leading to professional awareness, CIs linked to the absence of collegiality leading to professional awareness, and the contribution of reflecting on reflections concerning CIs to gain professional awareness. While the findings presented under the first three themes showed the trajectory of how reflecting on reflections of these CIs grew professional awareness among PSTs, the data under the fourth theme indicated the contribution of reflecting on reflections of CIs to gain professional awareness.

CIs associated with students’ behavioral problems leading to professional awareness

The passive participation of the students and professional awareness.

Students’ inhibition to take part in classroom activities is a commonly experienced phenomenon of the teachers. However, for the PSTs, the phenomenon is intriguing and spins them into a spot of bother. Hence, the passive participation provoked the PSTs to perceive it as a CI. For instance, PST1 reported,

In one of my classes, students were not responding to my instructions. I was frustrated since I felt like I was talking to myself rather than actually teaching someone. I tried to make them speak through questioning, but none of them responded and did not participate in the activities. I was taken aback because this was a new experience.

In reflection, she noted, “I designed an interesting lesson plan for introducing a new topic along with some videos and pictures for students to participate in the discussion but they remained silent. What seemed interesting to me might bring boredom to them”. After sharing CI and reflection, she received other’s reflections that were intriguing and provoked her to reflect more critically on the incident she faced. In others’ reflections, instructional clarity was prioritized to avoid such a CI. For instance, PST2 emphasized attaining instructional clarity, mentioning, “Instructions should be delivered clearly so that they can understand how to respond and what to respond.” The reflection of PST2 also entailed the significance of understanding students’ body language and reacting accordingly.

Sometimes, your way of teaching might be correct, but they remain less active in involving themselves in the lesson […] feel afraid and shy too. From their face and body language, we must understand their enthusiasm level. We have to bring changes to the plan. For example, instead of engaging them in activities at the beginning, we can discuss something interesting so that they happily participate in the discussion. Having their energy back, we can introduce a new topic and activities.

Similarly, performing a full retrospect of the materials, teaching style and lesson plans was also highlighted in others’ reflections. While PST3 appreciated the step to “reassess the materials to examine the credibility of these in engaging students”, PST 4 saw it as a positive initiative to “reflect on teaching style along with materials and lesson plan to avoid such a silent class”. In addition, PST6 suggested to “start conversing about something funny and exciting in order to energize the students for the class activities.”

PST1 reflected on the reflections of her peers and reported her “professional awareness being linked to understanding students’ moods and acting accordingly without being stuck to the prior plan,” which would help her “to avoid such situations” and enhance her capability “of managing a class.” To her, “the incident was an eye-opener.” She understood that “the students might not be motivated sometimes. Things do not always go the way we planned.” Hence, “the teacher has to bring immediate change in self-strategies.” These constituted the professional awareness of PST1.

Students’ late arrival in the classroom and professional awareness

The late arrival of students gave birth to a CI for PST5. She reported, “the lesson was designed based on a funny debate, but the late arrival of the students did the blunder.” She explained, “the discussion on rules and preparation took a long time, leading to a messy classroom.” In her reflection, she illuminated the need “to consider the level of the students and plan the activities for English classes” that “suits students better”. She also admitted the need to be “practical” instead of being “ambitious” about choosing an activity. “I could avoid incorporating debate in my initial days of teaching”, she added. Others also reflected on her CI and reflection. The proper management of class time was echoed. PST2 illuminated the need to “take note of the time for accommodating everyone in the debate and ask the students to speak in an orderly manner. This will be a good listening practice for others.” Similarly, PST4 drew attention to some relevant factors, e.g., students’ mood, their level of enthusiasm, time constraints, and the learning environment, to be considered while selecting activities.” Differently, PST8 noted an alternative way to assess learners’ speaking. She added her experience to provide a comprehensive reflection.

During face-to-face class, I did a debate activity with my students, and they were very active. However, they were quite reluctant to speak during an online class, which made me think of an alternative way. I asked them to record their speech individually on specific topics and send them to me so that I could provide them with feedback on spoken English.

Reflecting on her prior reflection and reflections of others, PST5 realized,

Trial and error are common phenomena in teaching [profession]. I should have clearly guided them about how the procedure of debate would go on and asked them to take preparation prior to attending the class. In the future, I will select activities commensurate with the students' level and be careful about time management.

Diverse aspects were noted in the reflections of others, which led to PST5’s professional awareness entailing the reification of teaching strategies and planning activities.

Disobedience to teachers’ instructions and professional awareness

The advent of technology offers multiple sources of learning (Karim et al., 2019b ), which shifts students’ utmost attention to learning from conventional forms of teaching to other modes of teaching, e.g., private tutoring, online learning, and so on, and disrupts their consistent endeavor to learn in the classroom. PSTs doing teaching practicum feel shocked to see the absence of students’ undivided attention to their instructions. Such disobedience formed a CI for PST5. She reported,

I asked my students to complete some activities based on the reading text. The students were reluctant to speak when I asked them to share their completed tasks with everyone. I kept calling a few names, but no one had the courtesy to reply and respond to any of the instructions.

In her reflection, she explained, “It is a normal phenomenon that students may not adhere to the instructions given by the teacher.” She acknowledged that “things do not necessarily turn out the way I want them to, but I should deliver my best to retain their motivation and never give up just because they are disregarding instructions.” Others also shared reflections on this, which added more insights to PST5’s understanding of the phenomenon. Instructional clarity was underscored in the reflections of other PSTs. For instance, PST3 stated,

Sometimes, it is difficult to determine whether all the students understand and follow the instructions […] Breaking down the steps of instructions for them to follow gradually and complete the tasks accordingly would have been effective.

The reflections also subsumed the need to understand the level of the students. On this note, PST9 pointed out, “Sometimes the students are overestimated by the teachers […] an activity perceived easier for them can turn out to be much harder.”

After reflecting on self-reflections and reflections of her peers, PST5 shaped her “professional awareness being linked to the instructional clarity and well-defined objectives of the activities,” which would help in gaining students’ interest. This is how pre-service teachers learn various aspects of teaching through reflecting on CIs encountered during the practical teaching in teaching practicum (Karacan & Kesen Mutlu, 2023 ).

The chaotic environment in the classroom and professional awareness

The fighting of the students created a disturbance and gave birth to a CI. PST9 described,

When I was conducting a class, two students started cursing each other loudly and then started fighting physically […] The other students kept cheering for them. I stood in the middle of the two students, hoping that they would stop fighting, but I failed. I was feeling helpless and blank. When I investigated, I came to know from one of them that his classmate came and started sharing dirty jokes and adult stuff. The continuation of the perverted conversation caused the fighting. I scolded them.

In reflection, PST9 asserted, “I should possess a more active instinct to infer consequence. I should have stopped them immediately when they started cursing at each other to avoid their involvement in the fighting. Also, instead of scolding them, I could counsel them.” The other PSTs also shared their reflections on it. Most of the reflections noted by the PSTs were suggestive concerning what could be done instead of what was done. PST2 suggested to “stop the fight before it starts.” According to her, “the students' verbal attack towards each other is a sign”. She advised to “separate their seats far from each other to maximize the distance between the two and give them some timeout to calm themselves down.” PST4 also advanced the suggestions stating, “you could transfer the case to the Discipline Division and Student Affairs who are experienced in handling such situations” while PST5 elaborated the need for “sending them to the counseling unit […]”. “Or you could ask them to meet you after the class to discuss the issue and prohibit them from repeating it in the class,” PST5 added.

PST9 reflected on self-reflections and reflections of others and embraced her professional awareness, having linked to “advising why it is wrong to do so [watching adult stuff] at an early age.” She felt the importance of “good communication between teachers and students in stopping such discussions publicly. Beyond teaching the syllabus-oriented contents, I should also teach them what to do and what not to do. I should not confine myself to teaching relevant content only.” With the proliferation of and easy access to electronic devices and internet connections (Karim et al., 2019b ), children get exposed to things that they should not have at such an early age. Hence, the teacher’s role is to instill a sense of right and wrong among the students, as conceived by PST9 by reflecting on reflections of this CI.

Similarly, another CI took place in PST2’s class due to students creating unwanted chaos. PST2 described,

They acted out of control by talking, laughing, and screaming in my class. They randomly got in and out of the class without my permission. I tried to be nice initially but had to raise my voice to control the situation.

In reflection, PST2 acknowledged the incident as “changing the outlook on drawing a thin line between being a friendly and strict teacher.” Others also shared their reflections where setting rules and sharing these with pupils beforehand were highlighted as important responsibilities of the teachers. PST4 outlined, “[…] it would be nicer to give them some advice, set class rules, and occasionally remind the students about these.” Advancing further, PST6 added,

You can make a good impression at the first meeting to gain their respect. Yet, be serious when needed and be a friend to them when necessary. You must maintain a balance between being a friendly and strict teacher.

While reflecting on reflections to gain insights from the incidents to embrace professional awareness, PST2 learned that students tend to be “noisy” but “a teacher must set the rules and boundaries for the students to follow.” Additionally, she realized that “motivating students to retain their positive attitude for learning is instrumental.”

Students’ rude behavior and professional awareness

The rude behavior constituted a CI. PST3 stated,

One outspoken student in my class started sharing jokes about a certain religion. I told him to be quiet. I was mentally disturbed, and my teaching was disrupted […] no matter how light the joke was, it was rooted in racism and disrespect for someone else’s belief.

In her initial reflection, she noted, “I should have addressed this issue in class instantly. They live in a multi-racial country […] if their mindset is not changed, then it will be difficult for them to cope in the same society with others.” In response to this incident, the other PSTs yielded their reflections, which comprised their personal experiences and attempts to minimize students’ misbehavior. For instance, PST8 noted,

I had a student who used to address me with endearing terms and make jokes about me in the classroom. I messaged him and addressed the mistakes he made, as well as explained to him why it was wrong. So, we must advise what they should and should not do.

PST4 shared, “I implemented a rule in the classroom that everyone is a family member and must protect each other.” PST4 suggested to “plan a lesson on cultural diversity to activate listening and/or speaking and/or reading and/or writing activities.” PST6 also elicited, “You could have a general discussion with the class on how such improper manners can negatively affect someone’s self-esteem and lead towards causing discrimination and bullying in the classroom.”

After reflecting on reflections, PST3 defined her professional awareness in the following way:

I should teach students how to differentiate between right and wrong. Such incidents may occur in the classroom due to ignorance, but as an educator, I should not condone behavior like that […] I needed to teach them to be sensitive as they live in a multicultural society with people from different origins. Planning an in-class activity that informs the students about how to behave in a multicultural society would be useful.

The reflections of others were useful in positively impacting PST3’s professional awareness. She felt the need to teach such things by planning listening/speaking/reading/writing activities. This is an innovative idea to inculcate a sense of conscience in a language classroom. Numanee et al. ( 2020 ) showed how empathy can be taught in a language classroom by using audio-visual aids that accelerate writing and speaking activities in the EAP (English for Academic Purposes) classroom.

CIs related to technical glitches leading to professional awareness

CI was also generated in the classroom due to technical problems, as illustrated by PST8. PST8 noted,

I started the class […] but suddenly, an irritable sound started coming from my laptop. I tried everything to stop the noise […] but had to change the mode and conduct my class online via WhatsApp.

Based on the CI, PST8 reflected,

I discussed with my friends how to solve such a problem. Through that, I learned there is nothing wrong with asking for help from others and making the lesson plan flexible for shifting the mode if such a situation occurs.

Other PSTs also reflected on it, which resembled the solutions to the CI. For instance, PST7 stated that one solution to this problem can be using the phone to join the session and speak, while the laptop can be used to share slides and other teaching materials.” PST4 added, “It is also imperative to make the lesson plan flexible so that the mode can be switched instantly without exterminating class timing.” After reflecting on self-reflections and peers’ reflections, PST8 implanted the following professional awareness.

Having better technical equipment for conducting a class is quite challenging. However, the teachers should not panic and strategize on how to complete the rest of the lesson. The teachers must also be prepared for any situation and design lesson plans and activities accordingly, which ultimately helps us grow with expertise.

Similarly, PST3 reported the technological disruption that she encountered in her class. “The quizzing platform that I created did not work. Google Meet got disconnected. I faced a complete blunder […] I did not think of an alternative quizzing platform.” In initial reflection, she wrote that she could have been more “aware of keeping alternative quizzing platforms.” She should have been “prepared with technical support or a backup plan.” Her peers also shared their reflections, which informed PST3 about the features a teacher should embody. For example, PST4 characterized teachers, stating, “Teachers must be flexible and adaptable, as these two skills complement each other. Therefore, applying these two skills in ourselves and our teaching will bring more remarkable outcomes.” PST5 supplemented, “Things might not always fall into place exactly how we want them to, and we always need to expect the unexpected because these will help us develop our intrapersonal skills.”

During reflecting on reflections for professional awareness, PST3 discerned that “as a teacher, I should be perfectly prepared with the teaching plan, materials, internet connectivity, and examination platforms,” and if things spiral out of control, “I need to be ready to combat the technological glitches.”

CIs linked to the absence of collegiality leading to professional awareness

A senior teacher wrongly accused PST4 of skipping the assigned task, which was sensed as a CI by her. She described,

I did everything that I had been asked to do. I got the module photocopied and distributed and even informed my senior, and she acknowledged it. Yet she claimed that I did not follow her instructions. She brought the issue to English panels, questioned my responsibility, and accused me.

In her reflections, she highlighted,

My senior teacher was anxious that I could not finish the task. She was concerned about the students. I should have informed her after the completion of the job. It was partly my fault. Being a teacher, I am not just dealing with the students but also fellow teachers.

In her narrative, PST4 acknowledged that the prevalence of the communication gap gave birth to the CI. Other PSTs also reflected on it, with multiple aspects being enveloped. PST1 illustrated, “When all responsibilities are imposed on a teacher, he/she is bound to mishandle things, misbehave with others, malfunction, or perform miscommunication. The senior teacher you refer to might be occupied by many activities that dismantle her patience.” PST2 highlighted, “Everyone should have mutual respect, especially in teaching.” PST9 linked her reflections to the need to maintain regular communication. While noting the professional awareness she gained through reflecting on reflections of this CI, PST4 deduced, “Everyone should hold respect for each other. Maintaining proper communication from both sides is inevitable.”

A similar incident happened to PST8. She faced an improper action from her colleague. She explained,

I had made extensive preparations to conduct a class. When I reminded the students about the class, I learned that their history teacher had scheduled his class at the same time without informing me. He killed my excitement and threw away […] I was infuriated as I should not be treated like this for being a practicum teacher.

In her reflection, she highlighted, “I would not behave like him whenever I need to exchange class schedules with other teachers. I should inform them before deciding to exchange the class. I will maintain mutual respect and professionalism.” Other PSTs contemplated their reflections on it. They acknowledged the prevalence of workplace conflict and essentialized maintaining proper communication in the teaching profession. PST3 outlined, “It is impossible to avoid workplace conflict; if it arises, we must solve it professionally.” For this to be accomplished, PST4 necessitated “teachers’ proper communication skills with their colleagues.

After reflecting on reflections, PST8 gained the enhanced understanding that “as a language teacher, I not only need to have good skills in teaching but also great interpersonal skills to maintain healthy communication with my colleagues.” The outcome of the incident led to a change in the outlook of PST8. In her initial reflection, she stated that she would not do the same to others. Moreover, after reflecting on reflections, she remarked that having prior discussions with other teachers is essential when such cases emerge. An emergency may arise, but teachers should not forget to maintain courtesy, or one should not undermine or disregard others.

Contribution of reflecting on reflections concerning CIs to gain professional awareness

The PSTs confirmed that reflecting on reflections of CIs gave them an opportunity to gain professional awareness and shape their actions in future teaching. PST1 remarked, “The reflections on CIs were useful…prepared me for deciding what to do if the same situations arise.” PST2 added,

We did TP in different schools […] our CIs and experiences varied, and we reflected on various CIs […] reflections prepared me to handle those situations better. I think reflecting on reflections of CIs helps elevate my readiness/prepare me to become a teacher.

Similarly, PST3 highlighted that the “insights shared would be effective to be a strategic TESOL teacher.” Besides, PST4 also acknowledged that various perspectives “emerged during reflecting on reflections of CIs” would help frame her as a TESOL teacher. “Teaching is something to be critically thought of with various lenses, and the norm of such reflective practice concerning CIs paved the way," she explained. She added, “I learned a lot that would boost my professionalism as a TESOLIAN.” According to PST6, teaching “is not just about teaching a subject, but stretches beyond that. Teaching should encapsulate norms, values, behavior, and conscience, apart from the subject matter” and something that should be “critically thought with various lenses.” PST7 clarified how reflecting on reflections of CIs has engaged her in a meaningful and thoughtful trajectory of professional awareness,

Reflection concerning CIs was a prolific initiative that paved my growth as a TESOL professional. We shared thoughts and discussed various situations during the teaching practicum. It gave us a new perspective on how an incident can change teaching practice. Moreover, it made us aware that the problem in every school is different and prepared us for various unexpected things.

The responses of other PSTs were commensurate with the ones described above. By and large, reflecting on reflections of CIs offered an open platform for the PSTs to discuss critical events that occurred in the classroom. Without feeling of being judged, they freely shared the CIs and reflections. Everyone actively reported CIs, wrote and read, and reflected on reflections. Each reflection was insightful, thought-provoking, and change-maker in terms of the teaching profession. As a result, they stimulated their professional awareness.

Griffin ( 2003 ) explained that CI is an instrument that engenders “a deeper and more profound level of reflection” by including a detailed description of an event in conjunction with adding a critical analysis of that event to make meaning of it (p. 208). Reflecting on reflections subsuming reflecting on self-reflections and reflections of others (Kabilan, 2007 ) on the presented CIs added more value to professional awareness by making meaning of the reported incidents. To cast light on it, through reflecting on reflections of CIs, the PSTs obtained a deeper and more profound level of reflections since a multi-layered analysis of CIs enabled them to generate meanings of the CIs (Kabilan, 2007 ; Karim et al., 2023 ). In the first phase of reflection or during the initial reflection, the PSTs had to be critical by going beyond simply describing the details in writing their reflections on the encountered CIs by answering ‘what happened,’ ‘who was involved,’ ‘where did it happen,’ when did it happen,’ ‘how did it happen,’ ‘how did you react,’ ‘why it happened,’ and ‘what did you learn.’ Although the answers to ‘what happened,’ ‘who was involved,’ ‘where did it happen,’ when did it happen,’ how did it happen,’ and ‘how did you react’ required PSTs’ relatively less criticality, answering to ‘why did it happen’ and ‘what did you learn’ demanded the employment of more critical lens. For instance, a CI, outlined by PST3, included a student’s negative comments or mockery of a specific religion, which was the simple answer to ‘what happened.’ The setting of the incident was a classroom, the agent of this incident was a boy, and the incident occurred during the lecture were the simple answers to ‘where did it happen,’ ‘who was involved,’ and ‘when did it happen’ respectively. Likewise, “I told him to be quiet” was the PST’s answer to ‘how did you react.’ By contrast, answering ‘why did it happen’ and ‘what did you learn’ required the PST to think more critically. The reason was that she had to think critically to capture the reason behind it. Subsequently, she pointed out the negativity implanted in the captious student’s mind, which stimulated him to upbraid another student’s religion. Such causality sensitized the PST to think about her learning. Eventually, she noted, “I should have addressed this issue in the class instantly. They live in a multicultural country […]”. That is how the first-level reflection on the CI embedded her critical lens. In addition, in the second-level reflection on this incident, she reflected on others’ perspectivizations concerning the phenomenon, which acted as an additive to her insights. Hence, after reflecting on self-reflections and reflections of others, she understood the need to “teach students how to differentiate between right and wrong.” Since we had set the focal point (i.e., professional awareness in this study) as the ultimate goal of PSTs’ reflecting on reflections of CIs (see Fig.  2 ), PST3 noted, “I needed to teach them to be sensitive as they live in a multicultural society […]”. She opted to contrive “an in-class activity that informs the students about how to behave in a multicultural society […]”. The reflections of PST3 comprehended the meaning-making process attached to reflecting on reflections of CIs, which was developed through two-layered reflections on the same CI (Griffin, 2003 ).

The revelation of the meaning of the CIs through reflecting on reflections led to building professional awareness since PSTs’ involvement in reflective practice enjoined them to (re)think and understand their actions depending on the situational demands, and through rethinking, they envisioned their role that constitutes professional awareness (Žydžiūnaitė & Daugėla, 2020 ). As depicted in the literature, professional awareness is teachers’ awareness of ‘being’ or ‘becoming’ a teacher (Žydžiūnaitė & Daugėla, 2020 ), and it shapes their professional positionality (Beijaard et al., 2004 ; Richardson & Shupe, 2003 ) and determines perceived role (Žydžiūnaitė & Daugėla, 2020 ). In light of the case of PST3, the religious humiliation caused by a student posited her professional awareness inclined toward a material designer (e.g., her plan to design an in-class activity) who opted to educate the students to behave sensitively in a multicultural country by being guided by her perceived role: eliminating the possessiveness of superiority concerning own religion and inferiority subject to other religions because the prevalence of such a sentiment may destabilize a multicultural society.

Another contention is that the analysis of CIs in reflective practice enables the PSTs to explore and examine all possibilities before reaching a conclusion (Dewey, 1993 ) in order for them to be prepared to face multi-faceted problems and govern their actions in response to that problem (Griffin, 2003 ). Reflections on CIs grow professional awareness by identifying what went wrong and what could have been done differently. For example, PST9 witnessed a fight between two students because of one’s forced sharing of dirty jokes and adult stuff with the other. Her immediate reaction was to scold the student to stop perverted conversations and fight. However, in her initial reflection, she questioned her action to scold them. Hence, she noted, “I could counsel them.” After reflecting on self-reflections and reflections of others, she gained more insights, and her professional awareness was linked to “advising why it is wrong to do so [watching adult stuff] […]”. She necessitated “good communication between teachers and students […]”. She opted to stretch the classroom lecture beyond “syllabus-oriented content.” She perceived her role to “teach them [students] what to do and what not to do” without confining herself “to teaching relevant content only.” Here, we saw the emergence of all possibilities before reaching a conclusion (Dewey, 1993 ). To illustrate, from scolding the students instantly (her reaction in the classroom) to counseling them (her learning reported in the initial reflection), we sensed her shift from one possibility to another with the growth of professional awareness. Her conclusive remark, after reflecting on reflections for professional awareness, entailed maintaining good communication with the students and enveloping conscience in teaching by going beyond the programmed content of the syllabus. That is how he fine-tuned her awareness for future teaching. Professional awareness gained through reflective practice determines self-attitude and makes PSTs capable of interpreting present actions in light of pedagogical and contextual needs (Canrinus et al., 2011 ).

Furthermore, in the process of reflective practice, as Poudel ( 2019 ) postulated, PSTs have the privilege to question their actions, which results in fine-tuning their future practices. Here, the pressing thing is that questioning the previous actions was a two-way process in reflecting on reflections of CIs, whereby not only did an individual PST question their own action, but other PSTs played an agentive role in questioning an individual’s action through sharing their reflections. For instance, observing the reluctance of the students to speak and share their completed tasks with everyone, PST5 reported a CI. She identified such behavior as a normal phenomenon in her initial reflection. She questioned her earlier effort and felt it was insufficient to grab the students’ attention. Hence, she expressed the need to employ more effort to retain students’ motivation to follow her instructions. However, PST3 questioned her instructional clarity and suggested “breaking down the steps of instructions for them [students] to follow and complete the task […]”. Similarly, PST9 also questioned her perception of students’ level and the activity designed for them. Subsequently, by reflecting on reflections, PST5 found her “professional awareness linked to the instructional clarity and well-defined objectives of the activities,” which would maximize students’ interest. That is how the two-way process of questioning the action and thought of a PST strengthened him or her to generate the meaning of an unanticipated event and realize the changes to be brought to his or her future endeavors (Beijaard et al., 2004 ; Richardson & Shupe, 2003 ; Žydžiūnaitė & Daugėla, 2020 ).

Advancing further, reflecting on reflections of building PSTs’ professional awareness through reflecting on reflections of CIs since this form of reflective practice encapsulates interpersonal and intrapersonal reflections (Collin & Karsenti, 2011 ) in an interactive environment (Sikka & Timoštšuk, 2008 ). Dialogue is instrumental for PSTs to externalize their thinking skills and shape their own point of view (Griffin, 2003 ). Sharing reflections in a dialogic environment assists in validating, expanding and enriching professional knowledge (Costa & Kallic, 2000 ). Our PSTs performed the dialogic reflective practice that incorporates their frequent interactions in a Facebook group (Farrell, 2019 ), conferring additional insights to the CIs and reflections by activating mutual aid-type collaboration (Farrell, 2013a , 2013b ; Mann & Walsh, 2017 ). By stepping into a discursive environment and immersing in discussions with peers, the student-teachers learn from each other because all are advised to reflect on an individual’s CIs by employing their unique perspectives (Farrell, 2019 ) and elicit unique suggestions (Nazari & De Costa, 2022 ) that act as an additive in building their professional awareness in a collegial environment (Kabilan, 2007 ; Newell, 1996 ). From a pedagogical perspective, Ohlemann et al. ( 2023 ) purport that teacher educators should incorporate innovation in teacher education depending on their level of knowledge and experience. With the knowledge that we gained through the review of relevant literature (e.g., Kabilan, 2007 ; Karim et al., 2023 ; Beauchamp, 2015 ; Farrell, 2015 ; 2018 ; Farrell & Kennedy, 2019 ; Flynn, 2019 ; Freeman, 2016 ; Mann & Walsh, 2017 ; Nguyen & Loughland, 2018 ; Pourhassan & Nazari, 2023 ; Russell, 2013 ) and experience of educating TESOL students for years, we embraced the criticisms revolving around the conventional reflective practice, addressed the gap prevailing in it, felt the urge to induct PSTs into reflecting on reflections of CIs and extended our study to trace how this form of reflective practice contributes to building their professional awareness. It was evident from the data that our initiative contributed to building their professional awareness.

By and large, the findings of the study suggested that motivating students and maintaining good communication with them, communicating properly with colleagues, understanding the necessity of delivering instructions clearly, selecting proper materials and activities, managing time, building rapport with the students, and taking preparation for technological glitches cement the professional awareness of the PSTs. Their professional learning was the result of encountering CIs linked to students’ behavioral problems, their late arrival in the classroom, disobedience to the teachers’ instructions and rude behavior, chaotic classroom, technical glitches, and absence of collegiality. As the PSTs, akin to the in-service ones, were asked to carry out all responsibilities in the assigned schools, they encountered CIs inside and outside the classroom. Hence, their professional awareness, transmitted by reflecting on reflections of CIs, was not only limited to improving teaching, but it also enveloped how to communicate with colleagues. Pourhassan and Nazari (2023) also found that identifying and describing CIs generate subsequent discussion, which young-learner teachers see as beneficial to conceptual, practical, and personal-professional changes in treating CIs in their future teaching. Nejadghanbar ( 2021 ) showed that individual and group reflections on CIs contribute to PSTs’ professional development by highlighting how these should be treated in future teaching. Unlike the participants in these studies, the PSTs of this study gained professional awareness that stretched beyond the notion of carefully handling CIs. For example, communicating properly with colleagues, understanding the necessity of delivering instructions clearly, selecting proper materials and activities, managing time, and building rapport with the students did not indicate the strategy to avoid or minimize CIs in future teaching. These have also implications for maintaining professionalism in their teaching career. In this capacity, the current research resonated with Chien ( 2018 ), who unfolded the growth of PSTs’ professional awareness pertaining to individual learner differences, classroom management, and instructional strategies, which would serve the PSTs in the long run. It also echoed Hall and Townsend ( 2017 ), reporting the stimulation of PSTs’ professional awareness enacted to teaching methodology, which would secure their prolonged stay in the profession.

As regards the contribution of reflecting on reflections of CIs to building PSTs’ professional awareness as TESOL teachers, the participants unequivocally admitted that such reflective practice enabled them to be strategic, critical and insightful TESOL teachers. As teacher educators, we opted to learn the extent to which it was conducive to learning the possible revisions to be brought or the rooms for improvement for further quality assurance (Tarrou et al., 1999 ). Although they confirmed the contribution of reflecting on reflections concerning CIs to building their awareness as TESOL professionals, we do not discount the possibility of their biases. We asked them to share their remarks in the WhatsApp Group, whereby the individual sender’s identity was not concealed, which might arise their biases to highlight the positive aspects. At the same time, we argue that a wholesome professional awareness of PSTs attained during their teaching practicum would be an overstatement. In the reflective model proposed by Wallace ( 1991 ), professional development is presented as an endless journey. Wallace ( 1991 ) argues that teachers continue to pursue professional development throughout their lives. What we advocate in this regard is that reflecting on reflections of CIs familiarized the PSTs with the professional-awareness building process through which they embraced the necessity of sharing reflections, continuing dialogues, questioning the present actions and fine-tuning current practices. Having any aspects of teaching or facing any challenges, they, as we assert, would be able to bring these to the table of discussion in pursuit of professional learning during their in-service teaching career.

Implications of the study

The present study shares an enhanced understanding of dialogic reflective practice propagated by Farrell ( 2019 ). By putting reflecting on reflections in practice, it demonstrates how dialogue can be embedded in the reflective practice and how peers or colleagues can simultaneously continue the dialogue and reflective practice, which confers a nuanced understanding of the dialogic reflective practice. In addition, the study showed how buddy groups (Farrell, 2019 ) can be formed and guided to perform collaborative analysis of CIs by discerning tools depicted in Fig.  1 . Furthermore, it offers valuable insights into teacher education and teacher educators. The design of reflecting on reflections with diverse elements of focus and involvement of PSTs in such a reflective practice may galvanize professional awareness and cement their knowledge about the role of a teacher. The teacher educators and researchers may replicate the framework in different contexts and settings, including PSTs and/or in-service teachers (INSETs). The incorporation of reflecting on reflections can benefit building INSETs’ professional awareness since the in-service teacher development and training programs seem to observe limited success in contenting teachers with professional knowledge due to little or no space for reflective practice (Karim & Mohamed, 2019 ; Karim et al., 2019c , 2021 ). In this study, we put reflecting on reflections into practice quite extensively with PSTs, but we postulate that researching INSETs’ CIs (or any other elements of focus) using the suggested framework would be exciting and invigorate new areas of discussions and investigations.

The framework should operate as a cyclical structure and not as a hierarchical one, where one aspect leads and/or contributes to other aspects. This is because, as the PSTs in this study were constantly going back and forth in terms of reflections on CIs in pursuit of professional awareness, we hypothesize that reflecting on reflections is complex, continuous, recurring, repetitive, and formative in nature and requires PSTs to make connections of ideas, knowledge and meaning while revisiting and reflecting on their own ideas and thoughts (and of others) at various points when they want to, and crucially, when they need to in ensuring comprehension and total grasp of an issue. Hence, this framework should be fluid and dynamic to allow teacher educators, as planners and providers of professional development programs, to develop one that allows PSTs and INSETs to interact and engage meaningfully as a member of a community of practice with others. In such circumstances, real conversations are usually transpired, engaging critical discourses are triggered, and critical reflections are made ongoing. Therefore, professional development programs should be characterized and facilitated by the above activities if the aim is to cultivate and advance one’s professional learning, professional awareness, professional development, or any predetermined element of focus.

Through this framework, teacher educators may plan the reflective practice of diverse elements of focus (CI was the focal point for this study), as it would help PSTs grow as professional teachers. To achieve this, teacher educators may consider the following tenets as a pedagogical apparatus, as they were applied in this study:

Identifying personal CIs that strongly impact a PST’s beliefs, practices, emotions, etc.

Reflecting and sharing on those CIs in a community of practice (CoP)

Reading, grasping, reflecting, supporting, and questioning the initial reflections shared by others i.e. reflecting on reflections as a CoP

Developing appropriate research tools and integrating them meaningfully to achieve the following objectives:

PSTs becoming aware and conscious of professional (re)actions; and

PSTs becoming critical and dissecting their own practices

The above suggests how reflecting on reflections should be practiced pedagogically and how the phenomenological research approach may shed clarity on understanding PST’s professional awareness. This study advocates the importance of outside classroom activities (e.g., maintaining interpersonal communication), apart from the inside classroom activities, as a source of professional awareness. Future studies are recommended to report on the retention and continuation of PSTs’ professional awareness resulting from reflecting on reflections of CIs related to inside and outside classroom activities and discern the different types of (re)actions that each PST would embark upon when different classroom activities are prioritized. We postulate that examining such scenarios in different cultures and contexts would also be enticing as the beliefs and praxis of PSTs against these backdrops would certainly divulge diverse professional awareness. In addition, how could this framework be manipulated to position and address these situations? In what ways and how effective it could be? Indeed, with more research, the suggested framework could be refined and revised or even reconceptualized and reconstructed.

Limitation of the study

The study covers the accounts of 10 PSTs, which forms the first limitation of the study. Second, the study has not explored their professional awareness of the teaching profession and/or language teaching prior to the teaching practicum. Hence, the extent to which reflecting on reflections of CIs has boosted their professional awareness remains undefined in this study. Moreover, having CIs as the element of focus, the present study involved the PSTs in reflecting on reflections. However, their professional awareness in light of specific components, including philosophy, principles, theory, practice, and beyond practice (Farrell, 2016 ), has not been directly reflected by the participants of this study. Hence, the authors call for further research to be conducted to report the outcome of PSTs’ reflections on reflections concerning CIs in light of PSTs’ teaching philosophy, principles, theory, practice, and beyond practice (Farrell, 2016 ). Besides, the teaching practicum and the study were held during the height of COVID-19, and hence, the PSTs conducted half of their classes offline, with the rest held online. At that time, it was challenging for the supervisors and supervisees to focus on many aspects. A thorough mentorship and scholarly guidance, usually offered in normal times, were absent. Therefore, critical reflections on CIs and relating the reflections to the prevalent teaching theories and concepts, which would purportedly render a deeper understanding of the issues presented by CIs, remained unexercised. Due to COVID-19’s strike across the globe, teacher education, in particular teaching practicum, suffered a lot from unusual disruptions (Kadir & Aziz, 2021 ). Likewise, Malaysian teaching practicum also succumbed to despair. The sudden appearance of the pandemic and the unpreparedness of the students and teachers paralyzed the teaching practicum, and consequently, teacher educators and PSTs had to resort to instantly revised form of teaching practicum and reflective practice (Annamalai et al., 2022 ; Awee et al., 2022 ; Wei et al., 2023 ), curtailing PSTs’ reflections on some aspects.

Availability of data and materials

The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

Abbreviations

Pre-service teachers of TESOL

Teaching English to speakers of other languages

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Acknowledgements

We express deeply held gratitude to the Pre-service teachers of TESOL for participating in the study. We also extended our gratitude to the anonymous reviewers whose comments aided us to a larger extent.

Brac University financed the researchers to publish this study.

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Abdul Karim, Fariah Amin, Liza Reshmin & Evita Umama Amin

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Muhammad Kamarul Kabilan

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The first and third authors conceptualized the study. The first author wrote the ‘Introduction,’ ‘Literature Review,’ ‘Methods,’ and ‘Discussion and Conclusion’ sections. The third author, in collaboration with the first author, developed the instruments and collected the data. He also commented on the first draft of the manuscript and performed proofreading. The second author assisted to first author in  reporting the ‘ Findings ’ of the study. The fourth and fifth authors equally contributed to amalgamating the resources for shaping ‘ Introduction ’ and ‘Literature Review.’

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Correspondence to Muhammad Kamarul Kabilan .

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Karim, A., Amin, F., Kabilan, M.K. et al. Pre-service TESOL teachers’ professional-awareness building through reflecting on reflections of critical incidents. Asian. J. Second. Foreign. Lang. Educ. 9 , 52 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40862-024-00254-4

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Received : 27 July 2023

Accepted : 15 January 2024

Published : 15 April 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s40862-024-00254-4

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• TESOL education
• Reflective practice
• Pre-service teachers
• Reflecting on reflections
• Professional awareness
• Professional development