what is the main focus of the essay of studies

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Of Studies by Francis Bacon Summary

“Studies serve for delight, ornament, and for ability”.

Francis Bacon gives account of three chief uses of studies. The first use is that they serve for delight. This delight may come in solitude or in leisure after retirement from active life. Secondly, they serve for ornament in communication, conversation and discourse. A person who is well read can talk more attractively than an uneducated person. The third use of studies is they help in the judgement, and disposition of business.

An expert man can judge matters one by one when they come face by face to him and he executes them according to his experience. However, this is not the case with an educated man. He can give counsels at any situation according to his knowledge and thus, learned men are best at marshalling of affairs.

Studies, however, have their limitations. If too much time is spent at studies it nothing more than sloth. If they are used excessively in conversation, they show exaggeration and posing of a person. And if a scholar makes each and every judgement of his life with the help of his knowledge, it is just foolish and humorous behavior of the scholar.

Studies perfect nature. Furthermore, they are perfected by experience. Bacon compares natural abilities of a man with a natural tree that needs proyning that comes by study. Studies have a vast scope, it is icing on the cake if experience is also added with them.

Bacon says,

“Crafty men contemn studies, simple men admire them, and wise men use them”.

The men who are hard workers or primitive men hate or contemn studies. However, the men who have simple wits admire them. Moreover, the men who are wise use them practically. Studies do not teach their own use. It is the wisdom of a person that teaches him their usage. Bacon is of the view that a man should not read to contradict and confute others; he should not believe and rely wholly on words; nor to find a point of discussion in conversation; but he should read to weigh them their value and use them. The writer further supports this argument in the following statement,

“Some books are to be tasted, others to be swallowed, and some few to be chewed and digested”.

There are some books that are to be read only in parts because they are useful for a person only at some places. It is not worthy to read them word by word. On contrary, there are some books that are to be read not with curiosity; and some are to be read completely with attention and diligence because they require the full attention of the reader. Moreover, this category of books has treasures hidden in them that can be found only by reader’s diligence. There is another category ‘like common distilled waters’ i.e ‘distilled books’, these books are extracts made from other books and compiled in another book. These are the meaner sort of books.

Bacon says a million dollars verses,

“Reading maketh a full man; conference a ready man; and writing an exact man”.

It is reading that adds to the knowledge of a man and makes him complete in a sense of his wit. Undoubtedly, it is conversation with others that makes a man ready for any sort of step to be taken practically on behalf of his knowledge. Furthermore, it is the skill of comprehensive or innovative writing that makes a full man because man is created to do wonders, make innovations and generate new ideas.

Moreover, the writer describes some facts about studies. He says if a man writes little than he needs to have a great memory to remember all the learned things. If a man interacts little he needs to have a present and sharp wit; and if a man read little, he should be cunning to know what he does not.

Bacon impresses reader through his comprehensive and great sayings. He says,

“Histories make men wise; pots witty; the mathematics subtile; natural philosophy deep; moral grave; logic and rhetoric able to contend”.

The about stated couple of lines contains an ocean of meaning in it. Bacon says that it is history of ancients that makes new generations wise and witty. These are rules and laws stated by the ancients that make mathematics subtile in its nature. It is because of histories that philosophy has deeper meanings and logic and rhetoric are able to defend through arguments.

Bacon is of the view that any impediment or stond in the wit can be wrought out by fit studies. If a person considers oneself dull, he can make him better through studies. Clearly, ‘bowling is good for the stone and reins; shooting for the lungs and breast; gentle walking for the stomach; riding for the head’, similarly, studies also have a physical role in mortals’ life. If a man’s wit is unable to focus at a point and it keeps wandering, let him study mathematics so that he may learn to demonstrate rationally. If his wit is unable to find differences let him study the schoolmen. If a man is not able to call up one thing to prove and illustrate another, he should study the lawyers’ cases.

Bacon encloses the essay by saying,

“So every defect of the mind may have a special receipt”.

Of Studies Frequently Asked Questions

What are the views of francis bacon regarding studies in his essay “of studies”.

Bacon’s view regarding studies is that it “serve for Delight, for Ornament, and for Ability”. Here Delight refers to the personal and private education, similarly, Ornament refers to the conversation among people that Bacon tags as Discourse. Whereas, studies for Ability tips and individual for the better interpretation of trade and commercial pursuit. According to Bacon, the worldly experience can lead men to carry out plans and interpret particular circumstances, however, the study makes men to better recognize the various dogmatic matters and how to act in various circumstances realizing its severity i.e. rationalizing of affairs.

Bacon also encourages studies and warns the readers that sometimes too much studying may lead to the sluggishness; moreover, the excessive and irrelevant use of knowledge by men in conversation indicates the showing off of knowledge; likewise, if one only takes guidance from studies disregard of practical experiences, he only becomes a scholar. Bacon argues that the only way to use studies appropriately is to modernize it i.e. studies are only effective if it is influenced by experience as this will enhance the natural abilities of a man; however, studies without the influence of experience may lead to a great misperception in communication with the world around.

Bacon illustrates that corrupt men denounce education; imprudent men approve education; however the wise men utilize education according to the command of the real-world. He also warns the educated men not to indulge himself in an unnecessarily argument with people, likewise, educated men must not suppose that education can always cause the correct conduct or interpretation; moreover, educated men should not use purely to emphasize on their conversation with others. Rather, Bacon illustrates, some books must only be read, some must be ignored completely, while few books must be “Chewed and digested”, i.e. should be understood and interpreted completely. Furthermore, he advises that some books are read by other and they take notes out of it, and these notes are good enough substitute of a book to be read, however, this category mustn’t include the books with sublime subject matters.

Bacon, by returning to the previous argument, addresses the consequences of reading, writing, and conversation by illustrating the reading crafts an all-rounder man; conversation makes a man sharp and fast thinker; while writing makes a man rational. Furthermore, Bacon says that if an individual doesn’t write must, he must have a good memory to compensate for his writing; similarly, if he doesn’t have a good conversation, he should compensate it with a wit; and an individual has to pretend that he knows more than he does in order to fake his reading that he never does much.

Bacon, by pointing out the various subject, argues that the studying history makes men wise; mathematics makes them intellectually sharp, while logic and rhetoric skilled men in arguments. Moreover, thinking is not problematic if it cannot be established by the proper study. Every mind disorder has a treatment just like every physical illness. For instance, a man should study law, if he cannot utilizes the proofs to demonstrate the certainty of unrelated facts. By studying other forms, any defect in the brain can be cured.

Explain the line “Some books are to be tasted, others to be swallowed, and some few to be chewed and digested” in reference to the context of Bacon’s essay “Of Studies”?

The notion with which Bacon opens his essay “Studies serve for delight, for ornament, and for ability” parallels the line quoted in the question. The simplest interpretation of the statement implies that the studies which delight are intended for personal observation, pleasure, and understanding; the studies which are for ornament are intended to improve discourse, communication, and inscription; those that are intended for ability are meant for the “argument and judgment of business”. However, one may also assume that one by reading, for amusement or pleasure, can also grasp a thoughtful understanding that could be utilized in serious learning.

Hence, among the books that delight are tend to be the ones that are only to be tasted. As one doesn’t surely take in the philosophical knowledge, so one simple tastes it. The books that contain some wisdom and deep thoughts need to be swallowed. However, the books that contain a real sociological, philosophical, or psychological perception, and that necessarily becomes a part of one’s mental being, are to be chewed and digested. Nutrients are absorbed when one chew and digest the food and these nutrients become a part of the body. Similarly, the books that are useful, truthful, and worthier, Bacon says, must be chewed and digested. However, if they lack truth and wisdom, they must only be tasted.

What are the three main benefits of studies did Bacon mention in his essay Of Studies? And what are dangers associated with each benefit?

Bacon’s essays contain practical, religious, and moral subjects that, according to him, would direct a man to a valuable and successful life in both business and politics. Most of his essay deals with the manners, behavior, and conduct of a man and guides him how should one act and to adopt moderation in everything. In simple words, one should neither exceed nor fall short of anything as it can lead to an unstable life, with devastating results.

Bacon, in the essay Of Studies, illustrates both the benefits and the drawbacks of studying and reading books. 1st of all he argues that “studies serve for Delight, for Ornament, and for Ability. Delight is intended for private and personal affairs; Ornament for communication; the ability for logical judgment and outlook for the business.

He argues that one study for delight as it allows an individual to be contented in himself. In short, studies make a man relax when he is away from social life. Studies also make one skillful to analyze and discuss a variety of topics in a prudent way and allow him to convince other with strong facts and arguments. Moreover, in business life that also includes politics, one’s judgmental qualities increases by thorough study.

Bacon, however, simultaneously discuss the pitfall of excessive studying, more importantly, if one is studying with wrong intentions. He says that spending time only on studying makes man idle; moreover, studying for ornament is showing-off; and a scholar seems to be silly if he makes his judgment solely by rules.

Bacon depicts his practical nature in the essay when he argues that a man should have concerns for both public and private business. He mustn’t only spend his time in studying as by this he may neglect his business. Similarly, if the purpose of study for a man is only to show-off his articulating skill, then he is embarrassed with affectation. For Bacon, showing-off is not merely a waste of time but also a moral degradation. The last disadvantage of only acquiring bookish knowledge and neglecting real world experience is it may make a person “book smart” but not “street smart”. In short, study without experience is useless.

The main purpose of Bacon’s essay is to guide people in experiences they might come across as they live in the world. He encourages the readers to bring their bookish knowledge in practical use.

Explain Francis Bacon’s perspective in the line “Writing makes an exact man” with reference to the essay “Of Studies”?

This line is extracted from Bacon’s essay “Of Studies”. The whole statement reads “Reading makes a full man; Conference a ready man; and Writing an exact man.” Through this line, Bacon argues that writing makes man perfect. This statement is immediately followed by another statement in which he states that if a man doesn’t write much, he must have a good memory to remember. Inscription aids a person to understand various composite problems as it is inclined to stamp on the mind.

Bacon also links writing with compactness and preciseness. It is well said that if a person is unable to write about a subject clearly, his thinking is about the subject is also vague.

Of Studies by Sir Francis Bacon | Complete Summary and Analysis

“Of Studies” is one of the most quoted essays of Sir Francis Bacon. He has analyzed the importance of studies; therefore, in this essay, he convinces his readers to know its vitality. He does not only talk about bookish knowledge but also demonstrates the importance of experience; without experience, the studies cannot help a person, means Sir Francis Bacon. Moreover, in his eyes, studies and education are two separate things. However, he agrees that education is the name of studying books and experiences of life. He answers some common questions that arise in every common mind. For instance, he answers why we should read books; what are the impacts of studies in one’s life; why study without experience is useless; and many other such like questions.

He elaborates each assertion through either reference or example. Style of the author is simple but his arguments are much effective. Further, he uses concise sentences, similes , and Latin phrases to strengthen his stance.

Three Types of studies in the Eyes of Sir Francis Bacon:

From the very beginning of the essay, Sir Francis Bacon divides studies into three categories; in fact, these three types are benefits of studies. Studies serve three purposes, says Sir Francis Bacon, “delight”, “ornament” and “ability”. In Bacon’s times, the drama was banned; drama may have a moral purpose but it is certainly a source of entertainment. It was forbidden in that era; therefore, people had no other option except to rely upon books; thus, books replaced stage. From that point of view, if we think, then books are the source of entertainment. It may be the reason that Bacon has used the word “delight”. From modern views, there are still people in the world, who find delight in books instead of movies and plays.

However, in next lines, he has explained the word “delight” while saying, “their chief use for delight, is in privateness and retiring”. Hence, only words are different but the purpose is same i.e. entertainment.

The second purpose that studies serve is “ornaments”. A person, after learning from books, can present himself in a good manner. Studies also help a person learn etiquettes. His societal impression is improved and he becomes wise in the eyes of people. However, Bacon has used only one word to explain, “ornament” i.e. “discourse”. Thereby, studies increase the speaking power of a person but the word “discourse” also needs explanation. It has many meanings; discourse has different types; romantic, professional, religious, motivational, debate etc. Nevertheless, considering in view the worldly approach of the author, he may have used it as a professional speaking power or perhaps, he is talking about impressive discourse in every field of life whether it is profession, religion or romance.

Elaboration of the third purpose of studies, according to Sir Francis Bacon is “judgment and disposition of business”. It is somewhat professional. Studies can help a person in dealing with business matters. Thereby, studies support a person in professional life. Sir Francis Bacon has also used the word “judgment” to infer that studies enhance mental eyesight of a person. His vision becomes strong and he takes quick as well as accurate decisions in business matters.

Experience is the Key Factor:

All three purposes are useless without experience, says Bacon. Too much study for “delight” makes a person lazy; ornamentation makes him showcase; similarly, cramming bundle of rules from books does not increase his ability nor does it help him enhancing his thinking capacity. Everyone has natural abilities and studies make them perfect but along with studies, the experience is also required to gain perfection. It actually improves the mentality of a person. In order to elaborate it further, Bacon uses similes , which are worth mentioning:-

“the natural abilities are like natural plants, that need proyning by study; and studies themselves do give forth directions too much at large, except they be bounded in by experience.” Sir Francis Bacon

Hence, studies show a person thousands of paths to walk but experience helps choosing the right one. Additionally, different types of men see studies differently; some people do not give studies any value; some appreciate them; but wise are those, who perfectly use them.

Why and What Kind of Books should We Study?

After describing the importance of study, Francis Bacon gives his own opinions, “read….to weigh and consider”. A person should not read books to win over a debate or to oppose arguments of others; nor should he read to believe on each and everything written in the book; rather he should study books to know the difference between right and wrong. Moreover, not every book is worth reading. He divides books, too, into three categories; “tasted”, “swallowed”, and “chewed and digested”. “Tasted” books are those, which require no special attention. A reader just needs to go through them; books that come in the category of “swallowed” need a little attention. Category, “Chewed and digested” is self-explanatory. These kinds of books need the full concentration of the readers. Each word and every line should be chewed completely and then digested.

Some Subjects and Their Purposes:

If a person has a habit of reading books then Bacon guarantees improvement in his temperament. If he is used to exchanging dialogues then his wit is going to be enhanced. Above all, if he reads books and then writes down every important suggestion or advice then this method will definitely increase his intellectuality. Francis Bacon, at the end of the essay, creates a list of different subjects and sorts them by their benefits. Here is the list of books and their benefits:-

History increases wisdom.
Poetry enhances imagination.
Mathematics makes a person subtle.
Philosophy deepens thinking.
Logic and rhetoric help to contend.

Thus, a person needs to study the relevant subject as per his choice or requirement. If he wants wisdom, history can help him. If he wants imaginative powers, his concern should be poetry. Similarly, mathematics, philosophy, and logic serve their specific purposes. In Bacon’s eyes, a person can improve himself as much as he can; he just needs to focus. He actually wants to say that, “reading is to the mind what exercise is to the body”. With body, the mind also needs exercise; therefore, every person needs to do an exercise of the mind; he can do it by studying books.

Conclusion of “Of Studies” by Sir Francis Bacon:

The whole essay proves the intellectuality of Sir Francis Bacon. It is full of wisdom. Every line, written by the author, is philosophically rich. His philosophy is definitely praiseworthy. Moreover, he is called the father of English prose not only because of his deep philosophy but also because of his writing style. He uses exact words to summarize his viewpoint. He tries to demonstrate his thinking in concise words. This essay is well knitted. There is no denying the fact that “Of Studies” is the pure creation of Sir Francis Bacon . In short, this essay is enough to regard him as the father of English prose.

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Of Studies | Summary and Analysis

Summary and analysis of of studies by francis bacon.

Of Studies by Sir Francis Bacon, written in 1597 and enlarged in 1625, is an essay written in didactic style – it is intended to inform, or teach a lesson. Here, Bacon discusses the importance of studies, highlighting three main reasons to convince his readers of its necessity. In the end, we are told that merely studying a subject isn’t enough. What’s needed to perfect one’s study is the exercise and practice of the studied subject matter. On the whole, Of Studies is an engaging read from “ The Father of English Essays”.

Of Studies | Summary

Bacon begins the essay by listing the three central reasons that studies are important for: delight , ornament and ability . He says that a man can deal with his problems one at a time based on experience, but it is only informed men who can give counsels according to any situation, whether or not they have directly trained in it. In the next paragraph, he hastens to add that too much of anything is not good- and that includes studies. Spending an excess amount of time on it will make one a sloth , while displaying too much in conversation will make one seem affected . And living life solely based on book-learned knowledge is plainly foolish. One has in-born natural talents which are honed by studying and embellished by experiences.

Naturally clever men view studies with contempt , those with average wits admire i t, and wise men learn from it. Because studies do not teach how one should use the information- it simply provides it, it is up to the person’s wisdom to utilise it well. One should not study with the intention of contradicting or disproving others, nor should they entirely believe and rely upon everything they read- books should be read to understand and apply, to weigh and consider .

Bacon then says that some books are meant to be read in snippets, as only a few parts are necessary. Others are meant to be ‘swallowed’ as they are important in their entirety. And some are meant to be analysed and understood thoroughly, as they present principal information. Some books may be made up of excerpts from other books- but only excerpts of less important arguments may be read in this fashion. Removing key points from a book and reading it out of context is as good as not reading it at all.

Together, it is reading, writing and discussion that makes a man truly wise. If he only has little of one of these elements, then he must have an overflowing abundance of the other. There are different academic subjects which provide different aspects of intelligence to a person – history for wisdom, poetry for wit, morals for gravity, philosophy for depth. And it is the presence of one that aids the improvement of the other. Bacon then makes a connection between intellectual improvement and physical improvement. Like how bowling is good for the stone and reins, and shooting for the lung and breast and so forth- which each sport aiding a different part of the body- each subject aids a different part of their intellectual capacity. If a man wants to learn to focus, let him study mathematics. If his wit is not up to par, let him study Schoolmen. If he is not up to par in his reasoning and analytical strength, let him study law. Every intellectual capability which one’s mind lacks has an apt solution in the form of a subject of study.

Of Studies | Analysis

Sir Francis Bacon employs an informative, lesson-oriented structure to his essay. The vocabulary and context are fit to the late 1500s and early 1600s, as we can see by several references such as the reference to shooting and riding, which was especially popular in that time, and the use of a Latin phrase in the piece. The theme of the essay is the intelligent application of studies , rather than merely the concept of studying. Sir Bacon emphasises on the importance of knowing how to use what one has learnt .

In order to convey the importance of studying in a more efficient manner, he created three main reasons – to read for enjoyment , to read for merit , and to read for knowledge . However, it is interesting to note that he also inserts bits of advice, suggestions and explanations which elaborate his statements. Such an essay is termed ‘ didactic ’, as it is written with the intention of conveying a lesson or a point.

He points out in the first paragraph the difference between experts and learned men . Here, he draws a comparison between experience and book-based knowledge. Experience can make one an expert only in that particular subject matter, while reading can be done on several different topics- this may be likened to the modern, on-going debate of ‘book-smart versus street smart’ . Rather than choosing one, Sir Bacon underlines the importance of having both. A point to note is that despite advocating for the importance of studies, it is stressed that an excess of anything is harmful:

“ To spend too much time in studies is sloth; to use them too much for ornament, is affectation; to make judgment wholly by their rules, is the humor of a scholar. ”

This is a cleverly strung sentence, drawing a firm boundary between necessity and imprudence. It also places weight on the significance of balance.

He also proceeds to reiterate the link between studied knowledge and experiential knowledge, saying that one embellishes the other . We may understand from this, as well as his emphasis on using what the book teaches, that his idea of studying gives value to the ability to apply it in the real world. He regards studying as a tool, something one should be able to connect to real-world scenarios and consequently use. The following sentence gives an insight to how a person may observe studying based on their natural intellectual capacity:

“ Crafty men contemn studies, simple men admire them, and wise men use them; for they teach not their own use; but that is a wisdom without them, and above them, won by observation.”

Studies are scorned by the shrewd, admired by the simple and observed by the wise.

Sir Bacon follows this with another aspect of studying a subject: intention . It must be acknowledged that one’s reason for performing a certain task plays a great role in how well it is accomplished. Consider the line below:

“R ead not to contradict and confute; nor to believe and take for granted; nor to find talk and discourse; but to weigh and consider. ”

One will not receive the same amount of knowledge if their intention is simply to disprove others. This may be because it is not a genuine desire to learn for oneself, but out of pure ambition, and therefore the motivation can disappear quickly. Similarly, Bacon also warns readers against naivety and quick relaxation. Believing everything immediately is equally as dangerous as learning without sincerity. The advice to “ weigh and consider” once more links back to Sir Bacon’s accentuation of application . One must understand what they study, when and how to use it, and the reason behind it. They must consider which information is valid for a given situation. It is only with this ability to think critically and use their book-learned information that they can say they are truly learned.

Sir Bacon also discusses how to study- sometimes it is better to read mere chapters of the books, while certain other books are meant to be thoroughly inspected. This may be symbolic of ‘smart learning’ over ‘rote learning’ in more contemporary language. It is important to know how to make use of one’s time and energy, that is the only way not to waste effort on unnecessary information. He likens books which contain collections of important excerpts without context to “common distilled waters, flashy things. ” because it is a plateau. There is no further learning that can be done from such books, because we can only learn many things superficially, rather than one thing deeply. Not having context prevents us from understanding the true meaning behind the argument.

Another theme of Sir Bacon’s essay is balance . Multiple times, he mentions the importance of being well-versed in more than one area . We may compare this to his earlier lesson of “too much of anything will cause harm.” Having too much of one strength and none of the other will cause an imbalance of the mind- for example, the ability to memorize quickly, but the inability to focus does not lead to a learned man. Bacon’s vision of an ideal learned man is one who can study, write and discuss.

As this is a didactic essay, Sir Bacon ends it in a rather prescriptive manner- he tells the readers of the importance of different academic subjects, and how they may improve one’s skill and temperament. This advice is put forth in the form of information, with the idea of inspiring curiosity and willpower. He says :

“Histories make men wise; poets witty; the mathematics subtile; natural philosophy deep; moral grave; logic and rhetoric able to contend.”

He goes on to elaborate that each subject can be seen as a ‘remedy’ to a lack of ability . For example, if one suffers a lack of wit, the remedy is learning poetry. In order to make the explanation more relatable to his readers, he brings in the example of physical sports:

“ Bowling is good for the stone and reins; shooting for the lungs and breast; gentle walking for the stomach; riding for the head; and the like. ”

This is in a similar format of listing which physical activities will heal and help which parts of the body.

Bacon’s main point in his essay Of Studies, is that there is a subject for every aspect of intellectual temperament , and becoming well versed in it will confirm personal growth and improvement. He ends the essay with “So every defect of the mind, may have a special receipt. ” However, as he makes clear throughout the essay, it is crucial to maintain a balance. Too much is harmful, too little is purposeless. Too much of one and not enough of the other will work in contradiction. Intent is key, and most importantly, the experience and application of what one has read is what truly proves if they have understood their lesson.

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Of Studies – Summary and Analysis

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In his essay, Of Studies , Francis Bacon explains how and why study is important.

Studies are a source of pleasure. They have an ornamental value and also add to one’s ability.

This essay deals with some of the uses of study and offers some sound ideas relating to this theme. The pleasure of study can best be enjoyed by a man leading a life of aloofness and retirement. The ornamental value of study lies in enabling a man to become a good talker. He who spends too much time in studies is temporarily lazy. He who makes too much use of reading for purposes of conversation, is trying to make a vain display of his learning. If a man’s judgment is governed wholly by rules, he has learned from books,it shows his eccentricity.

Studies makes one develop one’s abilities with ease Studies by themselves provide guidance, but without practical experience this is abstract. Men who are cunning, do not approve of the studies, but those who are simple, feel an admiration for studies. Men who are basically wise, make use of studies for their progress.

One should not read books only to contradict others. All things written in books should not be followed in life. One should ponder over what he read sand how he uses it.

Some books are to be read in parts only. Some may be read quickly and hastily. There are only a small number of books that are worth close and detailed study. In the case of some books, a man may engage somebody else to read them and then tell him what they contain and also give him extracts from them. But this method should be adopted in the case of the meaner sort of books only. No man can be satisfied with a mere summary or synopsis of a good book.

Reading develops the whole personality of a man. Conversation makes a man witty. Different kinds of books have different effects upon the reader.History man a man wise, Poetry makes a man imaginative, Mathematics develops subtlety in a man, Natural science enables a man to look, deep into the things, Logic and art of public speaking develop a person’s communicative skills.

Various capabilities are developed by effective and useful reading. If a man’s mind wonders too much, he should be made to study Mathematics to develop concentration; if a man is unable to make distinctions amongst things, he should study the literature produced in the Middle Ages.

Studies are a cure for mental deficiency. Just as bowling is good for kidneys,shooting for the lungs, walking for digestion and riding for the head, so also mathematics is good for wondering wits. Every defect of a man’s mind can be cured through studies.

This essay deals with different kinds of books and their effect on the reader.The uses of studies are classified by Bacon under three heads – the use of studies for delight; the use of studies for ornament and the use of studies for ability. Bacon also gives us some excellent advice as to why or how one should read. He tells us that different studies have varied effects on the human mind.

Various mental defects can be remedied by various kinds of studies. The need of experience to supplement and perfect studies has duly been emphasized in the essay. Bacon would not be satisfied with more bookish knowledge. The wisdom won by experience is as necessary as the wisdom gained from books.

But it is not only the ideas that are so important in this essay. We find Bacon displaying his talent for using the maximum economy of words in order to express his ideas. The essay is a masterpiece of brevity and terseness. Some of his sentences read like proverbs.

Bacon’s essays abound in very appropriate and original similes. We have one such simile here when Bacon says that “distilled books are, like common distilled waters, flashy things”.

We could say, without any exaggeration, that it is one of the finest essays in English prose. It gives us a number of sound maxims and a number of sentences that we can use as quotations when occasion demands. Some of the sentences, indeed, cling to our memory without any mental effort on our part to memorise them. This is one of the best known essays from the pen of Bacon.

The Elizabethan Age is the most creative period in English Literature. The foreign wars were over and the Englishmen had for the first time the leisure to devote their energies to interests other than war upon their neighbours.

Fortunately, just at this time, the great wave of the Renaissance, the new birth of letters, having spent itself in Italy and crossing over France and Spain reached the shores of England.

With Francis Bacon begins philosophical reflections upon life, in the style of Plutarch’s “Morals” and the “Essays” of Montaigne. Bacon’s mind was catholic in its range, but the subjects of moral thought that interest him are comparatively few and generalized.

The method used by Bacon is to reduce reflection to the lowest terms to try to discover the fundamental principles of conduct, the influence and the actions of men. His essays reflects his experiences of learning. His observations do not clear his likes or dislikes. They are austere, brief to the point of crudeness.

In the essay Of Studies, a life-long student, Bacon describes his craft. He was no plodder upon books though he read much and that with great judgment. The subject of this essay was the one that revolved longest in the edition of his “Essays”.

One peculiarity of this essay which deserves notice is the frequency with which Bacon repeats himself. Thus essay has each sentence carefully selected and strung together, Bacon has gems of thought and language, but he does not scatter them about with un calculating profusion of a Shakespeare, non‘like wealthy men who care not how they give, but rather like those who are spending their story with care’.

Bacon is not an optimist. He has no sentiment to lead the reader astray. He writes with brevity and compactness. To the careless reader much of what he has written will seem common-place enough. But to the serious reader,his thoughts are universal. The sentences are compact and simple.

The passage is compressed, bold, full of condensed thought and utterly devoid of ornamentation. The sentences run smooth. Force and precision are its main characteristics. The sustained passage has easy eloquence, and sentences here and there are of singular and unaffected beauty and not thrust in but flowing continuously with the rest. Bacon writes with an air of modesty.His passages bear the mark of a grand and confident self-esteem sometimes directly assertive, sometimes condescending, sometimes scornful, sometimes disguised under a transparent affectation of modesty.

There is one special characteristic of Bacon’s manner which does not admit of being illustrated except at a prohibitive length, his long magnificent roll of sentence after sentence. Each falling into its place, each adding new weight to what has gone before it, and all together uniting to complete the entire effect.

His style has simplicity, strength, brevity, clearness and precision. Simplicity cannot be said to be a characteristics in its strict sense, of his style. His passage is simple in the sense of being free from all affection, free from any studied elegance in the choice of words and in the structure of sentences.He avoids with equal care both pedantry and vulgarity, though he has no scruple in using homely illustrations, where such illustrations would be more telling.

That the quality of strength in Bacon’s style is intellectual rather than emotional.

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'Of Studies' by Francis Bacon

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Ph.D., Rhetoric and English, University of Georgia
M.A., Modern English and American Literature, University of Leicester
B.A., English, State University of New York

Francis Bacon, the first major English essayist , comments forcefully in Of Studies on the value of reading, writing, and learning.

Notice Bacon's reliance on parallel structures (in particular, tricolons ) throughout this concise, aphoristic essay. Then, compare the essay to Samuel Johnson 's treatment of the same theme more than a century later in On Studies .

The Life of Francis Bacon

Francis Bacon is considered a Renaissance man. He worked as a lawyer and scientist throughout his life (1561-1626.)

Bacon's most valuable work surrounded philosophical and Aristotelian concepts that supported the scientific method. Bacon served as an attorney general as well as lord chancellor of England and received his education from several universities including Trinity College and the University of Cambridge.

Bacon wrote over 50 essays beginning with "Of" in the title and following the concept, such as Of Truth , Of Atheism and Of Discourse .

Bacon Facts

Bacon's uncle was the lord keeper for Queen Elizabeth I. He helped symbolize the approvals for key documents. Additionally:

Bacon is known as the father of the scientific method which was influenced by his own Baconian method based on reason and observation.
There are rumors that Bacon was mostly attracted to men, due to his late marriage in life, among other theories.

Interpretations of 'Of Studies'

Bacon's essay expresses several comments in Of Studies that can be interpreted as the following:

Studying is helpful for better understanding and provides a knowledge that develops experience, as well as a character that grows.
Reading provides delight and fun, ornament and showing off, and the ability for success.
Bacon expanded upon different fields of study depending on one's goal; for example, to master clarity with language, study poetry.

'Of Studies' Excerpt

"Studies serve for delight, for ornament, and for ability. Their chief use for delight is in privateness and retiring; for ornament, is in discourse; and for ability, is in the judgment and disposition of business. For expert men can execute, and perhaps judge of particulars, one by one; but the general counsels, and the plots and marshalling of affairs, come best from those that are learned. To spend too much time in studies is sloth; to use them too much for ornament, is affectation; to make judgment wholly by their rules, is the humor of a scholar. They perfect nature, and are perfected by experience: for natural abilities are like natural plants, that need pruning, by study; and studies themselves do give forth directions too much at large, except they be bounded in by experience. Crafty men condemn studies, simple men admire them, and wise men use them; for they teach not their own use; but that is a wisdom without them, and above them, won by observation. Read not to contradict and confute; nor to believe and take for granted; nor to find talk and discourse; but to weigh and consider. Some books are to be tasted, others to be swallowed, and some few to be chewed and digested; that is, some books are to be read only in parts; others to be read, but not curiously; and some few to be read wholly, and with diligence and attention. Some books also may be read by deputy, and extracts made of them by others; but that would be only in the less important arguments, and the meaner sort of books, else distilled books are like common distilled waters, flashy things. Reading maketh a full man; conference a ready man; and writing an exact man. And therefore, if a man write little, he had need have a great memory; if he confer little, he had need have a present wit: and if he read little, he had need have much cunning, to seem to know that he doth not. Histories make men wise; poets witty; the mathematics subtle; natural philosophy deep; moral grave; logic and rhetoric able to contend. Abeunt studia in mores [Studies pass into and influence manners]. Nay, there is no stone or impediment in the wit but may be wrought out by fit studies; like as diseases of the body may have appropriate exercises. Bowling is good for the stone and reins; shooting for the lungs and breast; gentle walking for the stomach; riding for the head; and the like. So if a man’s wit be wandering, let him study the mathematics; for in demonstrations, if his wit be called away never so little, he must begin again. If his wit be not apt to distinguish or find differences, let him study the Schoolmen; for they are cymini sectores [splitters of hairs]. If he be not apt to beat over matters, and to call up one thing to prove and illustrate another, let him study the lawyers’ cases. So every defect of the mind may have a special receipt."

Bacon published three editions of his essays (in 1597, 1612, and 1625) and the last two were marked by the addition of more essays. In many cases, they became expanded works from earlier editions. This is the best-known version of the essay Of Studies , taken from the 1625 edition of Essays or Counsels, Civil and Moral.

Version From the First Edition (1597)

"Studies serve for pastimes, for ornaments, for abilities; their chief use for pastimes is in privateness and retiring; for ornaments in discourse; and for ability in judgment; for expert men can execute, but learned men are more fit to judge and censure. To spend too much time in them is sloth; to use them too much for ornament is affectation; to make judgment wholly by their rules is the humor of a scholar; they perfect nature, and are themselves perfected by experience; crafty men contemn them, wise men use them, simple men admire them; for they teach not their use, but that there is a wisdom without them and above them won by observation. Read not to contradict nor to believe, but to weigh and consider. Some books are to be tasted, others to be swallowed, and some few to be chewed and digested: that is, some are to be read only in parts, others to be read but curiously, and some few to be read wholly with diligence and attention. Reading maketh a full man, conference a ready, and writing an exact man; therefore, if a man write little, he had need of a great memory; if he confer little, he had need of a present wit; and if he read little, he had need have much cunning to seem to know that he doth not know. Histories make wise men; poets witty; the mathematics subtle; natural philosophy deep; moral grave; logic and rhetoric able to contend."

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Of Studies by Francis Bacon Summary and Analysis

Table of Contents

Introduction

The essay Of Studies by Sir Francis Bacon is the first essay in the series of ten essays published in 1597. Later, it was revised in 1612 with the addition of some more sentences and ideas in it along with the alteration in some vocabulary terms.

This essay is regarded as Bacon’s masterpiece enriched with stylised Latin vocabulary, fresh and new ideas, logical and relevant themes and wisdom of the world.

For these reasons, the essay is still popular among individuals of all ages. Adopting a didactic approach, the essay informs the readers about the benefits and uses of studies in one’s life.

Highlighting the importance of studies, Bacon’s essay illustrates the role studies play in an individual’s daily life. For Bacon, the study is always related to the application of knowledge in practical life.

At the beginning of his essay, Bacon describes the three main purposes of study including studying for gaining delight, studies done for ornamenting one’s life and studying in order to improve one’s ability.

The author is the notion that only learned and well-read men can execute plans effectively, manage their daily affairs with expertise and lead a healthy and stable life. He further states that reading makes a full man; conference leads to a ready man while writing makes an exact man.

While throwing light on the advantages and usefulness of studies, Bacon also puts forward some demerits of study as he thinks that studying for a prolonged period of time may lead to laziness.

He also condemns the act of studying from books solely without learning from nature around. The essay Of Studies further asserts the benefits of studies by considering this act as a medicine for the defects of the human mind and the source of enhancing one’s wit.

While discussing the importance of studying in an individual’s life, the essayist informs his readers about the benefits of reading good books.

For Bacon, some books are only meant to be tasted; others are there to swallow while some books are meant for chewing and digesting properly. Therefore, the readers must choose wisely before studying any book to enhance his/her knowledge about the world around.

Bacon concludes his essay by suggesting that studies assist an individual in removing the defects of his/her mind as every problem of the human mind carries special importance for the individual and the world.

Bacon’s essay Of Studies deals with the benefits of studies for the individuals in their daily lives. From reading books to writing papers, study plays a vital role in a man’s life making him learned, witty and experienced.

The essay by Bacon is enriched with intellectual wisdom, pragmatic approach and practical knowledge; therefore, it is considered to be the most beneficial essay for the students and young individuals.

Although the essay is devoid of any emotions and colourful expressions, it is; nevertheless, a wonderful effort of teaching the readers about the importance of studying. Here is the original essay .

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Of Studies | Francis Bacon |Summary and Analysis | Questions

Table of Contents

Of Studies – Summary

Francis Bacon’s classic essay “Of Studies” explains how and why study—knowledge—is important. In this essay, he discusses some of the benefits of studying and offers some sound ideas on the subject.

Bacon is regarded as the “Father of the English Essay”. Bacon envisioned the essay as an opportunity to offer advice. The title of his essay collection: “Essays or Counsels: Civil and Moral,” suggests that didactic intent.

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In “Of Studies,” Bacon explains the practical value of knowledge. Bacon considers how studies might be put to use. He is more interested in their practical utility than in their theoretical promise, a proclivity that is perhaps more English than French. In “Of Studies,” Bacon’s writing is direct and pointed. It avoids Montaigne’s essays’ meandering, find-your-own-way free form. Bacon gets right to the point in his first sentence: “Studies serve for delight, ornament, and ability.” He then goes on to explain how studies can help in these three ways. And he doesn’t mince words when describing the use of “studies” for a Renaissance gentleman.

One of the essay’s main draws is Bacon’s skillful use of parallel sentence structure, which is evident in the opening sentence and throughout “Of Studies.” This stylistic technique adds clarity and order to the writing, as in “crafty men condemn studies, simple men admire them, and wise men use them,” which demonstrates confidence and elegance in addition to clarity and emphasis through its straightforward assertiveness.

Studies are a source of pleasure. They have ornamental value and also improve one’s ability.

A man who lives a life of aloofness and retirement is best suited to enjoy the pleasures of study. Study has a ornamental value in that it enables a man to become a good talker. A student who devotes too much time to his studies becomes temporarily sluggish. Whoever tries to make a show of his knowledge by reading excessively for conversational purposes is wasting his time. It reveals a man’s eccentricity if his judgement is entirely based on rules he has learned from books.

Studies allow you to easily develop your skills and abilities. Studies provide guidance on their own, but this is abstract without practical experience. The studies are disliked by cunning men, but they are admired by simple men. Men who are fundamentally wise use studies to advance in life.

One should not read books solely to contradict others. Everything written in a book should not be followed in real life. One should think about what he reads and how he applies it.

Studies are a treatment for mental illness. Mathematics is good for wondering wits in the same way that bowling is good for kidneys, shooting is good for lungs, walking is good for digestion, and riding is good for the head. Every mental defect in a man can be cured through studies

Critical Analysis

This essay discusses various types of books and their effects on the reader. Bacon divides the uses of studies into three categories: the use of studies for delight, the use of studies for ornament, and the use of studies for ability. Bacon also provides some excellent advice on why and how to read. He claims that different studies have different effects on the human mind.

Various kinds of studies can help to correct a variety of mental flaws. The importance of experience in supplementing and perfecting studies is duly emphasised in the essay. Bacon would not be satisfied with more bookish knowledge. The wisdom gained through experience is just as important as the wisdom gained through reading books.

But ideas aren’t the only thing that matters in this essay. Bacon demonstrates his talent for expressing his ideas with the least amount of words possible. The essay is a masterwork of concision and brevity. His sentences have a proverbial feel to them.

Bacon’s essays abound in very appropriate and original similes. We have one such simile here when Bacon says that “distilled books are, like common distilled waters, flashy things”.

It is, without a doubt, one of the best English prose essays ever written. It provides us with a number of sound maxims and sentences that we can quote when the situation calls for it. Some of the sentences do, in fact, stick in our heads without any conscious effort on our part. Bacon’s essay is one of his most well-known works.

Questions and Answers

You must have understood Bacon’s ideas about studies. You must have understood the uses and disadvantages of study. You have also come to know about rules and modes of study.

Exercise – 1

Now answer the following questions by choosing the correct answer from the three alternatives given below each question.

1. Bacon’s essay entitled Of Studies is a passage to be:

(i) chewed and digested

(ii) read with main points

(iii) studied thoroughly Answer: i) chewed and digested

2. One who makes too much use of his readings for conversational purposes makes:

(i) things haphazard

(ii) vain display of his learnings

(iii) proper use of books Answer: (ii) vain display of his learning

3. One should take extracts from :

(i) books of high value

(ii) meaner sort of books

(iii) remedial books Answer: (ii) meaner sort of books

4. Books worth a closer and thorough reading :

(i) are smaller in number

(ii) are written by famous writers

(iii) are text books Answer: (i) are smaller in number

5. Logic and rhetoric develops :

(i) man’s debating powers

(ii) man’s thinking power

(iii) man’s power to interact Answer: (i) man’s debating powers

Exercise – 2

Now try to answer the following questions in sentences of your own :

1. What type of books are to be chewed and digested? Answer: The books which have knowledgeable contents should be read thoroughly and understood properly.

2. What do you think is the proper use of study? Answer: We study for personal enjoyment and for cultivation of social charm through the cultivation of the power of exposition in speech and to develop ability for judgment of facts and circumstances.

3. What is the use of the study of natural philosophy? Answer: It enables the reader to understand things in a better way and reach to the depth of subject matter.

4. How can a man acquire ability to perfection? Answer: It can be acquired when knowledge gained from books is supplemented with practical experience.

5. For what we should not read books? Answer: One should not read books to contradict others.

Now try to answer the following questions :

1. How did Bacon classify the books? Answer: Bacon classified books under three major categories. Some books are for personal enjoyment, others are to be read to develop conversational qualities and some others are to develop power of judgment.

2. What are special qualities of this essay? Answer: Some of these qualities are maximum economy of words, straight forward presentation, brevity, terseness and use of sentences as proverbs.

3. Comment on the theme of this essay. Answer: Bacon tries to discover fundamental principles of conduct influence and actions of men.

4. Discuss the peculiarity of structure of this essay. Answer: Each sentence is carefully selected and strung together. The essay shows brevity and compactness.

5. Discuss the main qualities of Bacon’s style. Answer: The essay of Bacon is compressed, full of condensed thought and utterly devoid of ornamentation. The sentences in the paragraph run smooth.

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1.2 Purpose, Audience, Tone and Content

Imagine reading one long block of text, with each idea blurring into the next. Even if you are reading a thrilling novel or an interesting news article, you will likely lose interest in what the author has to say very quickly. During the writing process, it is helpful to position yourself as a reader. Ask yourself whether you can focus easily on each point you make. Keep in mind that three main elements shape the content of each essay:

Purpose: The reason the writer composes the essay.

Audience: The individual or group whom the writer intends to address.

Tone: The attitude the writer conveys about the essay’s subject.

The assignment’s purpose, audience, and tone dictate what each paragraph of the essay covers and how the paragraph supports the main point—the thesis.

Identifying Common Academic Purposes

The purpose for a piece of writing identifies the reason you write it by, basically, answering the question “Why?” For example, why write a play? To entertain a packed theater. Why write instructions to the babysitter? To inform him or her of your schedule and rules. Why write a letter to your congressman? To persuade him to address your community’s needs.

In academic settings, the reasons for writing typically fulfill four main purposes:

• to summarize

• to analyze

• to synthesize

• to evaluate

A summary shrinks a large amount of information into only the essentials, using your own words; although shorter than the original piece of writing, a summary should still communicate all the key points and key support of the original document.

An analysis , on the other hand, separates complex materials into their different parts and studies how the parts relate to one another. In the sciences, for example, the analysis of simple table salt would require a deconstruction of its parts—the elements sodium (Na) and chloride (Cl). Then, scientists would study how the two elements interact to create the compound NaCl, or sodium chloride: simple table salt.

In an academic analysis , instead of deconstructing compounds, the essay takes apart a primary source (an essay, a book, an article, etc.) point by point. It communicates the main points of the document by examining individual points and identifying how the points relate to one another.

The third type of writing— synthesis —combines two or more items to create an entirely new item. Take, for example, the electronic musical instrument aptly named the synthesizer. It looks like a simple keyboard but displays a dashboard of switches, buttons, and levers. With the flip of a few switches, a musician may combine the distinct sounds of a piano, a flute, or a guitar—or any other combination of instruments—to create a new sound. The purpose of an academic synthesis is to blend individual documents into a new document by considering the main points from one or more pieces of writing and linking the main points together to create a new point, one not replicated in either document.

Finally, an evaluation judges the value of something and determines its worth. Evaluations in everyday life are often not only dictated by set standards but also influenced by opinion and prior knowledge such as a supervisor’s evaluation of an employee in a particular job. Academic evaluations, likewise, communicate your opinion and its justifications about a particular document or a topic of discussion. They are influenced by your reading of the document as well as your prior knowledge and experience with the topic or issue. Evaluations typically require more critical thinking and a combination of summary, analysis, and synthesis skills.

You will encounter these four purposes not only as you read for your classes but also as you read for work or pleasure, and, because reading and writing work together, your writing skills will improve as you read. Remember that the purpose for writing will guide you through each part of your paper, helping you make decisions about content and style.

When reviewing directions for assignments, look for the verbs that ask you to summarize, analyze, synthesize, or evaluate. Instructors often use these words to clearly indicate the assignment’s purpose. These words will cue you on how to complete the assignment because you will know its exact purpose.

Identifying the Audience

Imagine you must give a presentation to a group of executives in an office. Weeks before the big day, you spend time creating and rehearsing the presentation. You must make important, careful decisions not only about the content but also about your delivery. Will the presentation require technology to project figures and charts? Should the presentation define important words, or will the executives already know the terms? Should you wear your suit and dress shirt? The answers to these questions will help you develop an appropriate relationship with your audience, making them more receptive to your message.

Now imagine you must explain the same business concepts from your presentation to a group of high school students. Those important questions you previously answered may now require different answers. The figures and charts may be too sophisticated, and the terms will certainly require definitions. You may even reconsider your outfit and sport a more casual look. Because the audience has shifted, your presentation and delivery will shift as well to create a new relationship with the new audience.

In these two situations, the audience—the individuals who will watch and listen to the presentation—plays a role in the development of presentation. As you prepare the presentation, you visualize the audience to anticipate their expectations and reactions. What you imagine affects the information you choose to present and how you will present it. Then, during the presentation, you meet the audience in person and discover immediately how well you perform.

Although the audience for writing assignments—your readers—may not appear in person, they play an equally vital role. Even in everyday writing activities, you identify your readers’ characteristics, interests, and expectations before making decisions about what you write. In fact, thinking about audience has become so common that you may not even detect the audience-driven decisions.

For example, you update your status on a social networking site with the awareness of who will digitally follow the post. If you want to brag about a good grade, you may write the post to please family members. If you want to describe a funny moment, you may write with your friends’ senses of humor in mind. Even at work, you send emails with an awareness of an unintended receiver who could intercept the message.

In other words, being aware of “invisible” readers is a skill you most likely already possess and one you rely on every day. Consider the following paragraphs. Which one would the author send to her parents? Which one would she send to her best friend?

Last Saturday, I volunteered at a local hospital. The visit was fun and rewarding. I even learned how to do cardiopulmonary resuscitation, or CPR. Unfortunately, I think caught a cold from one of the patients. This week, I will rest in bed and drink plenty of clear fluids. I hope I am well by next Saturday to volunteer again.

OMG! You won’t believe this! My advisor forced me to do my community service hours at this hospital all weekend! We learned CPR but we did it on dummies, not even real peeps. And some kid sneezed on me and got me sick! I was so bored and sniffling all weekend; I hope I don’t have to go back next week. I def do NOT want to miss the basketball tournament!

Most likely, you matched each paragraph to its intended audience with little hesitation. Because each paragraph reveals the author’s relationship with the intended readers, you can identify the audience fairly quickly. When writing your own essays, you must engage with your audience to build an appropriate relationship given your subject. Imagining your readers during each stage of the writing process will help you make decisions about your writing. Ultimately, the people you visualize will affect what and how you write.

While giving a speech, you may articulate an inspiring or critical message, but if you left your hair a mess and laced up mismatched shoes, your audience would not take you seriously. They may be too distracted by your appearance to listen to your words. Similarly, grammar and sentence structure serve as the appearance of a piece of writing. Polishing your work using correct grammar will impress your readers and allow them to focus on what you have to say.

Because focusing on audience will enhance your writing, your process, and your finished product, you must consider the specific traits of your audience members. Use your imagination to anticipate the readers’ demographics, education, prior knowledge, and expectations.

Demographics: These measure important data about a group of people, such as their age range, their ethnicity, their religious beliefs, or their gender. Certain topics and assignments will require these kinds of considerations about your audience. For other topics and assignments, these measurements may not influence your writing in the end. Regardless, it is important to consider demographics when you begin to think about your purpose for writing.

Education: Education considers the audience’s level of schooling. If audience members have earned a doctorate degree, for example, you may need to elevate your style and use more formal language. Or, if audience members are still in college, you could write in a more relaxed style. An audience member’s major or emphasis may also dictate your writing.

Prior knowledge: This refers to what the audience already knows about your topic. If your readers have studied certain topics, they may already know some terms and concepts related to the topic. You may decide whether to define terms and explain concepts based on your audience’s prior knowledge. Although you cannot peer inside the brains of your readers to discover their knowledge, you can make reasonable assumptions. For instance, a nursing major would presumably know more about health- related topics than a business major would.

Expectations: These indicate what readers will look for while reading your assignment. Readers may expect consistencies in the assignment’s appearance, such as correct grammar and traditional formatting like double-spaced lines and legible font. Readers may also have content-based expectations given the assignment’s purpose and organization. In an essay titled “The Economics of Enlightenment: The Effects of Rising Tuition,” for example, audience members may expect to read about the economic repercussions of college tuition costs.

Selecting an Appropriate Tone

Tone identifies a speaker’s attitude toward a subject or another person. You may pick up a person’s tone of voice fairly easily in conversation. A friend who tells you about her weekend may speak excitedly about a fun skiing trip. An instructor who means business may speak in a low, slow voice to emphasize her serious mood. Or, a coworker who needs to let off some steam after a long meeting may crack a sarcastic joke.

Just as speakers transmit emotion through voice, writers can transmit a range of attitudes and emotions through prose–from excited and humorous to somber and critical. These emotions create connections among the audience, the author, and the subject, ultimately building a relationship between the audience and the text. To stimulate these connections, writers intimate their attitudes and feelings with useful devices, such as sentence structure, word choice, punctuation, and formal or informal language. Keep in mind that the writer’s attitude should always appropriately match the audience and the purpose.

Read the following paragraph and consider the writer’s tone. How would you describe the writer’s attitude toward wildlife conservation?

Choosing Appropriate, Interesting Content

Content refers to all the written substance in a document. After selecting an audience and a purpose, you must choose what information will make it to the page. Content may consist of examples, statistics, facts, anecdotes, testimonies, and observations, but no matter the type, the information must be appropriate and interesting for the audience and purpose. An essay written for third graders that summarizes the legislative process, for example, would have to contain succinct and simple content.

Content is also shaped by tone. When the tone matches the content, the audience will be more engaged, and you will build a stronger relationship with your readers. Consider that audience of third graders. You would choose simple content that the audience will easily understand, and you would express that content through an enthusiastic tone. The same considerations apply to all audiences and purposes.

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Literary Theory and Criticism

Home › Eco Criticism › Ecocriticism: An Essay

Ecocriticism: An Essay

By NASRULLAH MAMBROL on November 27, 2016 • ( 3 )

Ecocriticism is the study of literature and environment from an interdisciplinary point of view where all sciences come together to analyze the environment and brainstorm possible solutions for the correction of the contemporary environmental situation. Ecocriticism was officially heralded by the publication of two seminal works, both published in the mid-1990s: The Ecocriticism Reader , edited by Cheryll Glotfelty and Harold Fromm , and The Environmental Imagination, by Lawrence Buell.

Ecocriticism investigates the relation between humans and the natural world in literature. It deals with how environmental issues, cultural issues concerning the environment and attitudes towards nature are presented and analyzed. One of the main goals in ecocriticism is to study how individuals in society behave and react in relation to nature and ecological aspects. This form of criticism has gained a lot of attention during recent years due to higher social emphasis on environmental destruction and increased technology. It is hence a fresh way of analyzing and interpreting literary texts, which brings new dimensions to the field of literary and theoritical studies. Ecocriticism is an intentionally broad approach that is known by a number of other designations, including “green (cultural) studies”, “ecopoetics”, and “environmental literary criticism.”

Western thought has often held a more or less utilitarian attitude to nature —nature is for serving human needs. However, after the eighteenth century, there emerged many voices that demanded a revaluation of the relationship between man and environment, and man’s view of nature. Arne Naess , a Norwegian philosopher, developed the notion of “Deep Ecology” which emphasizes the basic interconnectedness of all life forms and natural features, and presents a symbiotic and holistic world-view rather than an anthropocentric one.

Earlier theories in literary and cultural studies focussed on issue of class, race, gender, region are criteria and “subjects”of critical analysis. The late twentieth century has woken up to a new threat: ecological disaster. The most important environmental problems that humankind faces as a whole are: nuclear war, depletion of valuable natural resources, population explosion, proliferation of exploitative technologies, conquest of space preliminary to using it as a garbage dump, pollution, extinction of species (though not a human problem) among others. In such a context, literary and cultural theory has begun to address the issue as a part of academic discourse. Numerous green movements have sprung up all over the world, and some have even gained representations in the governments.

Large scale debates over “dumping,” North versus South environmentalism (the necessary differences between the en-vironmentalism of the developed and technologically advanced richer nations—the North, and the poorer, subsistence environmentalism of the developing or “Third World”—the South). Donald Worster ‘s Nature’s Economy (1977) became a textbook for the study of ecological thought down the ages. The historian Arnold Toynbee recorded the effect of human civilisation upon the land and nature in his monumental, Mankind and Mother Earth (1976). Environmental issues and landscape use were also the concern of the Annales School of historians , especially Braudel and Febvre. The work of environmental historians has been pathbreaking too. Rich-ard Grove et al’s massive Nature and the Orient (1998), David Arnold and Ramachandra Guha’s Nature, Culture, Imperialism (1995) have been significant work in the environmental history of India and Southeast Asia. Ramachandra Guha is of course the most important environmental historian writing from India today.

Various versions of environmentalism developed.Deep ecology and ecofeminism were two important developments. These new ideas questioned the notion of “development” and “modernity,” and argued that all Western notions in science, philosophy, politics were “anthropocentric” (human-centred) and “androcentric”(Man/male-centred). Technology, medical science with its animal testing, the cosmetic and fashion industry all came in for scrutiny from environmentalists. Deep ecology, for instance, stressed on a “biocentric” view (as seen in the name of the environmentalist group, “ Earth First! !”).

Ecocriticism is the result of this new consciousness: that very soon, there will be nothing beautiful (or safe) in nature to discourse about, unless we are very careful.

Ecocritics ask questions such as: (1) How is nature represented in the novel/poem/play ? (2) What role does the physical-geographical setting play in the structure of the novel? (3) How do our metaphors of the land influence the way we treat it? That is, what is the link between pedagogic or creative practice and actual political, sociocultural and ethical behaviour towards the land and other non-human life forms? (4) How is science —in the form of genetic engineering, technologies of reproduction, sexualities—open to critical scrutiny terms of the effects of science upon the land?

The essential assumptions, ideas and methods of ecocritics may be summed up as follows. (1) Ecocritics believe that human culture is related to the physical world. (2) Ecocriticism assumes that all life forms are interlinked. Ecocriticism expands the notion of “the world” to include the entire ecosphere. (3) Moreover, there is a definite link between nature and culture, where the literary treatment, representation and “thematisation” of land and nature influence actions on the land. (4) Joseph Meeker in an early work, The Comedy of Survival: Studies in Literary Ecology (1972) used the term “literary ecology” to refer to “the study of biological themes and relationships which appear in literary works. It is simultaneously an attempt to discover what roles have been played by literature in the ecology of the human species.” (5) William Rueckert is believed to have coined the term “ecocriticism” in 1978, which he defines as “the application of ecology and ecological concepts to the study of literature.”

Source: Literary Theory Today,Pramod K Nair

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Maintaining Your Focus

To focus your writing, you'll need to know how to narrow your focus, so you don't overwhelm your readers with unnecessary information. Knowing who your readers are and why you are writing will help you stay focused.

A Definition of Focus

Kate Kiefer, English Department, Composition Director 1992 -1995 The focus of the text is also referred to as its thesis, theme, controlling idea, main point. In effect, writers tell readers what territory they plan to cover. That's the focus. A focus can be very narrow--as when a photographer takes a close-up of one mountain flower--or it can be broad --as when the photographer takes a long-range shot of the mountain. In practical writing, the focus is often specified for the writer by the "occasion" for the writing.

In their discussions of focus, writers may use a number of terms: main point, thesis, theme, position statement, and controlling idea. What these terms have in common—and what focus is really all about—is informally known as sticking to the point.

Sticking to the point involves having a clear idea of what you want to write and how you want to write about your topic. While you write, you'll want to keep in mind your supporting details to help your readers better understand your main point.

Coordinating all the aspects of your paper requires you to make each part work with the whole. Imagine your writing is a symphony orchestra in which one out of tune instrument will ruin the sound of the entire performance.

How Audience and Purpose Affect Focus

All readers have expectations. They assume what they read will follow a logical order and support a main idea. For instance, an essay arguing for a second skating rink for hockey players should not present cost figures on how expensive new uniforms have become.

Your audience and writing purpose will help you determine your focus. While it may seem obvious to include certain details, your audience may require specific information. Further, why you are writing will also affect what information you present.

Michel Muraski, Journalism and Technical Communication By articulating the problem, you give yourself focus. You must have done your audience analysis to have asked the question, "What kinds of information does the audience need? What are they going to do with it? Are they going to use it to further their research? Are they going to use it to make a decision?" Once you've identified your audience and what they're going to do with your information, you can refine your problem statement and have a focus. It's a necessary outcome.

Different audiences require different ways of focusing. Let's look at a proposal for a second ice rink in town for hockey players only.

Audience One: City Council

This audience will want to know why another ice rink is necessary. They will need to know how practice hours were shortened due to increases in open skate and lesson hours. They will need to know about new hockey teams forming within the community and requiring practice and game time on the ice. They should also be informed of how much money is made from spectators coming to view the games, as well as of any funding raised by existing hockey teams to help support a new rink. Every detail they read should support why city council should consider building a new rink.

Audience Two: Hockey Coaches and Players

This audience should be informed of the need for a new rink to inspire their support, but chances are they already know of the need. Ultimately, they will want to know what is required of them to get a new rink. How much time will they need to donate to fundraising activities and city council meetings? In addition, they will want to know how they will benefit from a new rink. How will practice hours be increased? Every detail they read should inform them of the benefits a new rink would provide.

Steve Reid, Composition Director 1973-1977 and 1994-1996 Focus, for me, is a term we borrowed from photography. This means we narrow something down to a very sharp image. First, it's a notion of narrowing to something, but also, it's a notion of sharpness and clarity. Focus is one of the things that clarifies purpose. So once we get a sense of thesis, that helps illuminate the photography image, illuminate what the overall purpose of the paper is.

Your purpose is why you are writing about your topic. Different purposes require different ways of focusing. Let's look at a proposal for a second ice rink in town for hockey players only.

Purpose One: Arguing

Proposing a new ice rink to city council members would require convincing them the rink was necessary and affordable. You would need to acknowledge reasons for and against the rink.

Purpose Two: Informing

Informing fellow hockey coaches and players about a new rink would require telling them of the steps being taken to achieve a new rink. This audience most likely knows most of the issues, so selling them on the idea probably won't be necessary. Give them the facts and let them know what they can do to help.

Don Zimmerman, Journalism and Technical Communication Department Typically, when I'm writing a report for a person out there, I provide them with the information they need to either increase their knowledge or make a decision. When I talk about focus, I really mean targeting. Here's an example. This comes out of a trade magazine. In Nursing '96 , you'll find articles written by nurses for other nurses. They will generally open with essentially two or three paragraphs. They will say, "You know, here is the problem I had as a nurse in this setting." They tend to set them in what I would consider, soap opera-ish kinds of settings. They set up a real life situation with real people. In other words, "I went into Sally's room and discovered she'd thrown all the covers off the bed and she was sweating profusely." the article goes on to describe what it was. Then it will come back and say, "Here's the problem. Now we've had a number of patients who did this kind of activity, and we found they fell out of bed. To minimize those injuries, here are three things we've done." Then they will give you the summary and then they will elaborate those procedures. That's very targeted. Targeting influences the kind of language used. This means the nurses in the hospital are dealing with "X" kind of patient and "X" kinds of situation. This means a lot of terms and terminology are used. The other nurses reading about this will understand it because of their interest in that topic; it's going to fit them.

Narrowing Your Focus

Writers who cover too much about a topic often overwhelm their readers with information. Take, for example, an essay focused on the tragedies of the Civil War. What tragedies? Readers have no idea what to expect from this focus, not to mention how difficult it would be to write about every tragedy of the Civil War.

After writers choose a topic to write about, they need to make sure they are not covering too much nor too little about a topic. The scope of a focus is partially dictated by the length of the writing. Obviously, a book on the Civil War will cover more than a 500 word essay. Finally, focus is also determined by its significance, that is, its ability to keep readers' interest.

What It Means to be Focused

Donna Lecourt, English Department What it means to be "focused" changes from discipline to discipline. Say for example, in literature, my "focus" comes through a novel. I want to write about Henry James's Turn of the Screw . On one hand it could come through theory. I want to do a feminist analysis and Henry James's Turn of the Screw just happens to be the text I apply it to, or I might add another text. I might just approach a novel and say, "Okay. Everybody's read it in these ways before. Here's yet another way to read it." I don't have to show that I'm adding to, in some ways, I can show I'm distinguishing or coming up with something new. What my "focus" is, is determined disciplinarily as well as by my purpose. Another example would be a typical research report where a "focus" is what's been done before because that determined what an experiment was going to be about. And so, in some ways, you're not coming up with your own "focus" the way in English, in some ways, you can. You have to look at "X," "Y," and "Z" studies to see what was done on this topic before you can prove your point. Focus comes out of what was achieved before. You have to link what you're doing to previous research studies which is a requirement of a lot of research reports.

Focus is Too Broad

Michel Muraski, Journalism and Technical Communication The biggest conceptual shift in most students is having too broad of a statement and literally finding everything they ever knew about this topic and dumping it into a term paper. They need to consider what they write a pro-active document: a document that's going to be used by a specified audience for a specified reason about a specific area of that broader topic.

Kate Kiefer, English Department, Composition Director 1992 -1995 A broad focus looks easier for students, but it turns out that a narrow focus is generally easier. General articles and essays with a broad focus require lots of background information and a pretty clear sense of the readers' goals in reading the piece. Otherwise, writing with a broad focus tends to result in pretty boring prose. Most academic writing requires a narrow focus because it's easier to move from that into the specific supporting detail highly valued in the academic community.

A broad focus covers too much about a topic. It never discusses the fine details necessary to adequately present a topic and keep readers' interest. A good way to narrow a broad topic is to list the subcategories of the topic. For example, two subcategories of Civil War tragedies are:

The breakdown of families as a result of divided loyalties.
How the small details of battle strategies affected the outcome of the war.

When you list subcategories, be careful not to narrow your topic too much, otherwise you won't have enough to write about it.

Focus is Too Narrow

A narrow focus covers too little about a topic. It gets so close to the topic that the writer cannot possibly say more than a few words. For example, writing about gender interactions in one of your classes is too narrow. You can use your class to make a point about gender interactions, but chances are, you'll find nothing specific in the library about your particular class. Instead, you might look at gender interactions in group settings, and then use your class as an example to either agree or disagree with your research. Be careful not to make your focus too broad as a result.

As you refine your focus, check to see if you pass the "So What?" test. To do so, you should know who will read what you write. Readers have to care about your topic in order to continue reading, otherwise they may look at what you have written and respond "So what?" You need to determine what readers need to stay interested in your writing. Ask yourself why readers will be interested in your specific topic. Is it significant enough to hold their attention? Why or why not?

Citation Information

Stephen Reid and Dawn Kowalski. (1994-2024). Maintaining Your Focus. The WAC Clearinghouse. Colorado State University. Available at https://wac.colostate.edu/repository/writing/guides/.

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How to write an essay introduction | 4 steps & examples

How to Write an Essay Introduction | 4 Steps & Examples

Published on February 4, 2019 by Shona McCombes . Revised on July 23, 2023.

A good introduction paragraph is an essential part of any academic essay . It sets up your argument and tells the reader what to expect.

The main goals of an introduction are to:

Catch your reader’s attention.
Give background on your topic.
Present your thesis statement —the central point of your essay.

This introduction example is taken from our interactive essay example on the history of Braille.

The invention of Braille was a major turning point in the history of disability. The writing system of raised dots used by visually impaired people was developed by Louis Braille in nineteenth-century France. In a society that did not value disabled people in general, blindness was particularly stigmatized, and lack of access to reading and writing was a significant barrier to social participation. The idea of tactile reading was not entirely new, but existing methods based on sighted systems were difficult to learn and use. As the first writing system designed for blind people’s needs, Braille was a groundbreaking new accessibility tool. It not only provided practical benefits, but also helped change the cultural status of blindness. This essay begins by discussing the situation of blind people in nineteenth-century Europe. It then describes the invention of Braille and the gradual process of its acceptance within blind education. Subsequently, it explores the wide-ranging effects of this invention on blind people’s social and cultural lives.

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Step 1: hook your reader, step 2: give background information, step 3: present your thesis statement, step 4: map your essay’s structure, step 5: check and revise, more examples of essay introductions, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about the essay introduction.

Your first sentence sets the tone for the whole essay, so spend some time on writing an effective hook.

Avoid long, dense sentences—start with something clear, concise and catchy that will spark your reader’s curiosity.

The hook should lead the reader into your essay, giving a sense of the topic you’re writing about and why it’s interesting. Avoid overly broad claims or plain statements of fact.

Examples: Writing a good hook

Take a look at these examples of weak hooks and learn how to improve them.

Braille was an extremely important invention.
The invention of Braille was a major turning point in the history of disability.

The first sentence is a dry fact; the second sentence is more interesting, making a bold claim about exactly why the topic is important.

The internet is defined as “a global computer network providing a variety of information and communication facilities.”
The spread of the internet has had a world-changing effect, not least on the world of education.

Avoid using a dictionary definition as your hook, especially if it’s an obvious term that everyone knows. The improved example here is still broad, but it gives us a much clearer sense of what the essay will be about.

Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein is a famous book from the nineteenth century.
Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein is often read as a crude cautionary tale about the dangers of scientific advancement.

Instead of just stating a fact that the reader already knows, the improved hook here tells us about the mainstream interpretation of the book, implying that this essay will offer a different interpretation.

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Next, give your reader the context they need to understand your topic and argument. Depending on the subject of your essay, this might include:

Historical, geographical, or social context
An outline of the debate you’re addressing
A summary of relevant theories or research about the topic
Definitions of key terms

The information here should be broad but clearly focused and relevant to your argument. Don’t give too much detail—you can mention points that you will return to later, but save your evidence and interpretation for the main body of the essay.

How much space you need for background depends on your topic and the scope of your essay. In our Braille example, we take a few sentences to introduce the topic and sketch the social context that the essay will address:

Now it’s time to narrow your focus and show exactly what you want to say about the topic. This is your thesis statement —a sentence or two that sums up your overall argument.

This is the most important part of your introduction. A good thesis isn’t just a statement of fact, but a claim that requires evidence and explanation.

The goal is to clearly convey your own position in a debate or your central point about a topic.

Particularly in longer essays, it’s helpful to end the introduction by signposting what will be covered in each part. Keep it concise and give your reader a clear sense of the direction your argument will take.

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As you research and write, your argument might change focus or direction as you learn more.

For this reason, it’s often a good idea to wait until later in the writing process before you write the introduction paragraph—it can even be the very last thing you write.

When you’ve finished writing the essay body and conclusion , you should return to the introduction and check that it matches the content of the essay.

It’s especially important to make sure your thesis statement accurately represents what you do in the essay. If your argument has gone in a different direction than planned, tweak your thesis statement to match what you actually say.

To polish your writing, you can use something like a paraphrasing tool .

You can use the checklist below to make sure your introduction does everything it’s supposed to.

Checklist: Essay introduction

My first sentence is engaging and relevant.

I have introduced the topic with necessary background information.

I have defined any important terms.

My thesis statement clearly presents my main point or argument.

Everything in the introduction is relevant to the main body of the essay.

You have a strong introduction - now make sure the rest of your essay is just as good.

Argumentative
Literary analysis

This introduction to an argumentative essay sets up the debate about the internet and education, and then clearly states the position the essay will argue for.

The spread of the internet has had a world-changing effect, not least on the world of education. The use of the internet in academic contexts is on the rise, and its role in learning is hotly debated. For many teachers who did not grow up with this technology, its effects seem alarming and potentially harmful. This concern, while understandable, is misguided. The negatives of internet use are outweighed by its critical benefits for students and educators—as a uniquely comprehensive and accessible information source; a means of exposure to and engagement with different perspectives; and a highly flexible learning environment.

This introduction to a short expository essay leads into the topic (the invention of the printing press) and states the main point the essay will explain (the effect of this invention on European society).

In many ways, the invention of the printing press marked the end of the Middle Ages. The medieval period in Europe is often remembered as a time of intellectual and political stagnation. Prior to the Renaissance, the average person had very limited access to books and was unlikely to be literate. The invention of the printing press in the 15th century allowed for much less restricted circulation of information in Europe, paving the way for the Reformation.

This introduction to a literary analysis essay , about Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein , starts by describing a simplistic popular view of the story, and then states how the author will give a more complex analysis of the text’s literary devices.

Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein is often read as a crude cautionary tale. Arguably the first science fiction novel, its plot can be read as a warning about the dangers of scientific advancement unrestrained by ethical considerations. In this reading, and in popular culture representations of the character as a “mad scientist”, Victor Frankenstein represents the callous, arrogant ambition of modern science. However, far from providing a stable image of the character, Shelley uses shifting narrative perspectives to gradually transform our impression of Frankenstein, portraying him in an increasingly negative light as the novel goes on. While he initially appears to be a naive but sympathetic idealist, after the creature’s narrative Frankenstein begins to resemble—even in his own telling—the thoughtlessly cruel figure the creature represents him as.

If you want to know more about AI tools , college essays , or fallacies make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples or go directly to our tools!

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Post hoc fallacy
Appeal to authority fallacy
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Sunk cost fallacy

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Your essay introduction should include three main things, in this order:

An opening hook to catch the reader’s attention.
Relevant background information that the reader needs to know.
A thesis statement that presents your main point or argument.

The length of each part depends on the length and complexity of your essay .

The “hook” is the first sentence of your essay introduction . It should lead the reader into your essay, giving a sense of why it’s interesting.

To write a good hook, avoid overly broad statements or long, dense sentences. Try to start with something clear, concise and catchy that will spark your reader’s curiosity.

A thesis statement is a sentence that sums up the central point of your paper or essay . Everything else you write should relate to this key idea.

The thesis statement is essential in any academic essay or research paper for two main reasons:

It gives your writing direction and focus.
It gives the reader a concise summary of your main point.

Without a clear thesis statement, an essay can end up rambling and unfocused, leaving your reader unsure of exactly what you want to say.

The structure of an essay is divided into an introduction that presents your topic and thesis statement , a body containing your in-depth analysis and arguments, and a conclusion wrapping up your ideas.

The structure of the body is flexible, but you should always spend some time thinking about how you can organize your essay to best serve your ideas.

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Comparing and Contrasting

What this handout is about.

This handout will help you first to determine whether a particular assignment is asking for comparison/contrast and then to generate a list of similarities and differences, decide which similarities and differences to focus on, and organize your paper so that it will be clear and effective. It will also explain how you can (and why you should) develop a thesis that goes beyond “Thing A and Thing B are similar in many ways but different in others.”

Introduction

In your career as a student, you’ll encounter many different kinds of writing assignments, each with its own requirements. One of the most common is the comparison/contrast essay, in which you focus on the ways in which certain things or ideas—usually two of them—are similar to (this is the comparison) and/or different from (this is the contrast) one another. By assigning such essays, your instructors are encouraging you to make connections between texts or ideas, engage in critical thinking, and go beyond mere description or summary to generate interesting analysis: when you reflect on similarities and differences, you gain a deeper understanding of the items you are comparing, their relationship to each other, and what is most important about them.

Recognizing comparison/contrast in assignments

Some assignments use words—like compare, contrast, similarities, and differences—that make it easy for you to see that they are asking you to compare and/or contrast. Here are a few hypothetical examples:

Compare and contrast Frye’s and Bartky’s accounts of oppression.
Compare WWI to WWII, identifying similarities in the causes, development, and outcomes of the wars.
Contrast Wordsworth and Coleridge; what are the major differences in their poetry?

Notice that some topics ask only for comparison, others only for contrast, and others for both.

But it’s not always so easy to tell whether an assignment is asking you to include comparison/contrast. And in some cases, comparison/contrast is only part of the essay—you begin by comparing and/or contrasting two or more things and then use what you’ve learned to construct an argument or evaluation. Consider these examples, noticing the language that is used to ask for the comparison/contrast and whether the comparison/contrast is only one part of a larger assignment:

Choose a particular idea or theme, such as romantic love, death, or nature, and consider how it is treated in two Romantic poems.
How do the different authors we have studied so far define and describe oppression?
Compare Frye’s and Bartky’s accounts of oppression. What does each imply about women’s collusion in their own oppression? Which is more accurate?
In the texts we’ve studied, soldiers who served in different wars offer differing accounts of their experiences and feelings both during and after the fighting. What commonalities are there in these accounts? What factors do you think are responsible for their differences?

You may want to check out our handout on understanding assignments for additional tips.

Using comparison/contrast for all kinds of writing projects

Sometimes you may want to use comparison/contrast techniques in your own pre-writing work to get ideas that you can later use for an argument, even if comparison/contrast isn’t an official requirement for the paper you’re writing. For example, if you wanted to argue that Frye’s account of oppression is better than both de Beauvoir’s and Bartky’s, comparing and contrasting the main arguments of those three authors might help you construct your evaluation—even though the topic may not have asked for comparison/contrast and the lists of similarities and differences you generate may not appear anywhere in the final draft of your paper.

Discovering similarities and differences

Making a Venn diagram or a chart can help you quickly and efficiently compare and contrast two or more things or ideas. To make a Venn diagram, simply draw some overlapping circles, one circle for each item you’re considering. In the central area where they overlap, list the traits the two items have in common. Assign each one of the areas that doesn’t overlap; in those areas, you can list the traits that make the things different. Here’s a very simple example, using two pizza places:

Venn diagram indicating that both Pepper's and Amante serve pizza with unusual ingredients at moderate prices, despite differences in location, wait times, and delivery options

To make a chart, figure out what criteria you want to focus on in comparing the items. Along the left side of the page, list each of the criteria. Across the top, list the names of the items. You should then have a box per item for each criterion; you can fill the boxes in and then survey what you’ve discovered.

Here’s an example, this time using three pizza places:

As you generate points of comparison, consider the purpose and content of the assignment and the focus of the class. What do you think the professor wants you to learn by doing this comparison/contrast? How does it fit with what you have been studying so far and with the other assignments in the course? Are there any clues about what to focus on in the assignment itself?

Here are some general questions about different types of things you might have to compare. These are by no means complete or definitive lists; they’re just here to give you some ideas—you can generate your own questions for these and other types of comparison. You may want to begin by using the questions reporters traditionally ask: Who? What? Where? When? Why? How? If you’re talking about objects, you might also consider general properties like size, shape, color, sound, weight, taste, texture, smell, number, duration, and location.

Two historical periods or events

When did they occur—do you know the date(s) and duration? What happened or changed during each? Why are they significant?
What kinds of work did people do? What kinds of relationships did they have? What did they value?
What kinds of governments were there? Who were important people involved?
What caused events in these periods, and what consequences did they have later on?

Two ideas or theories

What are they about?
Did they originate at some particular time?
Who created them? Who uses or defends them?
What is the central focus, claim, or goal of each? What conclusions do they offer?
How are they applied to situations/people/things/etc.?
Which seems more plausible to you, and why? How broad is their scope?
What kind of evidence is usually offered for them?

Two pieces of writing or art

What are their titles? What do they describe or depict?
What is their tone or mood? What is their form?
Who created them? When were they created? Why do you think they were created as they were? What themes do they address?
Do you think one is of higher quality or greater merit than the other(s)—and if so, why?
For writing: what plot, characterization, setting, theme, tone, and type of narration are used?
Where are they from? How old are they? What is the gender, race, class, etc. of each?
What, if anything, are they known for? Do they have any relationship to each other?
What are they like? What did/do they do? What do they believe? Why are they interesting?
What stands out most about each of them?

Deciding what to focus on

By now you have probably generated a huge list of similarities and differences—congratulations! Next you must decide which of them are interesting, important, and relevant enough to be included in your paper. Ask yourself these questions:

What’s relevant to the assignment?
What’s relevant to the course?
What’s interesting and informative?
What matters to the argument you are going to make?
What’s basic or central (and needs to be mentioned even if obvious)?
Overall, what’s more important—the similarities or the differences?

Suppose that you are writing a paper comparing two novels. For most literature classes, the fact that they both use Caslon type (a kind of typeface, like the fonts you may use in your writing) is not going to be relevant, nor is the fact that one of them has a few illustrations and the other has none; literature classes are more likely to focus on subjects like characterization, plot, setting, the writer’s style and intentions, language, central themes, and so forth. However, if you were writing a paper for a class on typesetting or on how illustrations are used to enhance novels, the typeface and presence or absence of illustrations might be absolutely critical to include in your final paper.

Sometimes a particular point of comparison or contrast might be relevant but not terribly revealing or interesting. For example, if you are writing a paper about Wordsworth’s “Tintern Abbey” and Coleridge’s “Frost at Midnight,” pointing out that they both have nature as a central theme is relevant (comparisons of poetry often talk about themes) but not terribly interesting; your class has probably already had many discussions about the Romantic poets’ fondness for nature. Talking about the different ways nature is depicted or the different aspects of nature that are emphasized might be more interesting and show a more sophisticated understanding of the poems.

Your thesis

The thesis of your comparison/contrast paper is very important: it can help you create a focused argument and give your reader a road map so they don’t get lost in the sea of points you are about to make. As in any paper, you will want to replace vague reports of your general topic (for example, “This paper will compare and contrast two pizza places,” or “Pepper’s and Amante are similar in some ways and different in others,” or “Pepper’s and Amante are similar in many ways, but they have one major difference”) with something more detailed and specific. For example, you might say, “Pepper’s and Amante have similar prices and ingredients, but their atmospheres and willingness to deliver set them apart.”

Be careful, though—although this thesis is fairly specific and does propose a simple argument (that atmosphere and delivery make the two pizza places different), your instructor will often be looking for a bit more analysis. In this case, the obvious question is “So what? Why should anyone care that Pepper’s and Amante are different in this way?” One might also wonder why the writer chose those two particular pizza places to compare—why not Papa John’s, Dominos, or Pizza Hut? Again, thinking about the context the class provides may help you answer such questions and make a stronger argument. Here’s a revision of the thesis mentioned earlier:

Pepper’s and Amante both offer a greater variety of ingredients than other Chapel Hill/Carrboro pizza places (and than any of the national chains), but the funky, lively atmosphere at Pepper’s makes it a better place to give visiting friends and family a taste of local culture.

You may find our handout on constructing thesis statements useful at this stage.

Organizing your paper

There are many different ways to organize a comparison/contrast essay. Here are two:

Subject-by-subject

Begin by saying everything you have to say about the first subject you are discussing, then move on and make all the points you want to make about the second subject (and after that, the third, and so on, if you’re comparing/contrasting more than two things). If the paper is short, you might be able to fit all of your points about each item into a single paragraph, but it’s more likely that you’d have several paragraphs per item. Using our pizza place comparison/contrast as an example, after the introduction, you might have a paragraph about the ingredients available at Pepper’s, a paragraph about its location, and a paragraph about its ambience. Then you’d have three similar paragraphs about Amante, followed by your conclusion.

The danger of this subject-by-subject organization is that your paper will simply be a list of points: a certain number of points (in my example, three) about one subject, then a certain number of points about another. This is usually not what college instructors are looking for in a paper—generally they want you to compare or contrast two or more things very directly, rather than just listing the traits the things have and leaving it up to the reader to reflect on how those traits are similar or different and why those similarities or differences matter. Thus, if you use the subject-by-subject form, you will probably want to have a very strong, analytical thesis and at least one body paragraph that ties all of your different points together.

A subject-by-subject structure can be a logical choice if you are writing what is sometimes called a “lens” comparison, in which you use one subject or item (which isn’t really your main topic) to better understand another item (which is). For example, you might be asked to compare a poem you’ve already covered thoroughly in class with one you are reading on your own. It might make sense to give a brief summary of your main ideas about the first poem (this would be your first subject, the “lens”), and then spend most of your paper discussing how those points are similar to or different from your ideas about the second.

Point-by-point

Rather than addressing things one subject at a time, you may wish to talk about one point of comparison at a time. There are two main ways this might play out, depending on how much you have to say about each of the things you are comparing. If you have just a little, you might, in a single paragraph, discuss how a certain point of comparison/contrast relates to all the items you are discussing. For example, I might describe, in one paragraph, what the prices are like at both Pepper’s and Amante; in the next paragraph, I might compare the ingredients available; in a third, I might contrast the atmospheres of the two restaurants.

If I had a bit more to say about the items I was comparing/contrasting, I might devote a whole paragraph to how each point relates to each item. For example, I might have a whole paragraph about the clientele at Pepper’s, followed by a whole paragraph about the clientele at Amante; then I would move on and do two more paragraphs discussing my next point of comparison/contrast—like the ingredients available at each restaurant.

There are no hard and fast rules about organizing a comparison/contrast paper, of course. Just be sure that your reader can easily tell what’s going on! Be aware, too, of the placement of your different points. If you are writing a comparison/contrast in service of an argument, keep in mind that the last point you make is the one you are leaving your reader with. For example, if I am trying to argue that Amante is better than Pepper’s, I should end with a contrast that leaves Amante sounding good, rather than with a point of comparison that I have to admit makes Pepper’s look better. If you’ve decided that the differences between the items you’re comparing/contrasting are most important, you’ll want to end with the differences—and vice versa, if the similarities seem most important to you.

Our handout on organization can help you write good topic sentences and transitions and make sure that you have a good overall structure in place for your paper.

Cue words and other tips

To help your reader keep track of where you are in the comparison/contrast, you’ll want to be sure that your transitions and topic sentences are especially strong. Your thesis should already have given the reader an idea of the points you’ll be making and the organization you’ll be using, but you can help them out with some extra cues. The following words may be helpful to you in signaling your intentions:

like, similar to, also, unlike, similarly, in the same way, likewise, again, compared to, in contrast, in like manner, contrasted with, on the contrary, however, although, yet, even though, still, but, nevertheless, conversely, at the same time, regardless, despite, while, on the one hand … on the other hand.

For example, you might have a topic sentence like one of these:

Compared to Pepper’s, Amante is quiet.
Like Amante, Pepper’s offers fresh garlic as a topping.
Despite their different locations (downtown Chapel Hill and downtown Carrboro), Pepper’s and Amante are both fairly easy to get to.

You may reproduce it for non-commercial use if you use the entire handout and attribute the source: The Writing Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

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What is the main idea of Of Studies by Francis Bacon?

Table of Contents

1 What is the main idea of Of Studies by Francis Bacon?
2 What is the main focus of the essay Of Studies?
3 What kind of essay is Of Studies?
4 What is the purpose Of Studies?
5 What is the purpose of studies?
6 What’s the purpose of a summary in a research article?
7 How to write summary of findings for dissertation?

In Of Studies by Francis Bacon we have the theme of education, knowledge and balance. Taken from his The Essays collection the reader realises from the beginning of the essay that Bacon believes that studying has three benefits. Firstly some people study for delight or personal use.

What is the main theme of Of Studies?

What is the main focus of the essay Of Studies?

The essay “Of sudies” focuses on study to increase our ability to succeed in life. He makes an important point in saying that we do not need to read every book all the way through; we can skim or select passages. The central theme of the essay is that specific fields of study sharpen the mind in specific ways.

What are the three uses Of Studies in Bacon’s essay Of Studies?

What kind of essay is Of Studies?

“Of Studies” was first published in the collection Essayes: Religious Meditations. Places of Perswasion and Disswasion.

What type of essay is Of Studies?

“Of Studies” was first published in the collection Essayes: Religious Meditations.

What is the purpose Of Studies?

Generally, a component of the purpose of the study is to provide a discussion of how the various areas are interrelated as well as serve to generate research questions that arise as a result of examining the discrete areas of the literature on the problem.

What are the main benefits of study in the essay Of Studies by Bacon?

Ans: According to The greatest essayist Fracis Bacon the main benefits of study are delight, ornament and ability.

What is the purpose of studies?

How to write a summary of a study?

What’s the purpose of a summary in a research article?

How many pages should a research summary be?

How to write summary of findings for dissertation?

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Of Studies by Francis Bacon Summary & Analysis
Francis Bacon gives account of three chief uses of studies. The first use is that they serve for delight. This delight may come in solitude or in leisure after retirement from active life. Secondly, they serve for ornament in communication, conversation and discourse. A person who is well read can talk more attractively than an uneducated person.
Of Studies by Sir Francis Bacon
Studies serve three purposes, says Sir Francis Bacon, "delight", "ornament" and "ability". In Bacon's times, the drama was banned; drama may have a moral purpose but it is certainly a source of entertainment. It was forbidden in that era; therefore, people had no other option except to rely upon books; thus, books replaced stage.
Of Studies
Of Studies by Sir Francis Bacon, written in 1597 and enlarged in 1625, is an essay written in didactic style - it is intended to inform, or teach a lesson. Here, Bacon discusses the importance of studies, highlighting three main reasons to convince his readers of its necessity. In the end, we are told that merely studying a subject isn't ...
Of Studies By Francis Bacon: Easiest Summary, Line By Line Explanation
The title "Of Studies" means the collective studies that a person does in his life. The main idea of "Of Studies" by Francis Bacon is the benefits of reading. Reading helps the readers to cope up with diverse situations. Reading also enhances readers' intellect and cures restraints of the mind. The essay provides the right method to read different branches of knowledge and discusses ...
Of Studies by Francis Bacon
Summary. Studies are a source of pleasure. They have an ornamental value and also add to one's ability. This essay deals with some of the uses of study and offers some sound ideas relating to this theme. The pleasure of study can best be enjoyed by a man leading a life of aloofness and retirement. The ornamental value of study lies in ...
Francis Bacon's Classic Essay of Studies
Francis Bacon, the first major English essayist, comments forcefully in Of Studies on the value of reading, writing, and learning. Notice Bacon's reliance on parallel structures (in particular, tricolons) throughout this concise, aphoristic essay. Then, compare the essay to Samuel Johnson 's treatment of the same theme more than a century later ...
What are the three main benefits of study and their dangers, according
In his essay "Of Studies," Francis Bacon identifies three benefits of studying: it serves for Delight, for Ornament, and for Ability. Studying provides personal delight in solitude, enhances ...
Of Studies by Francis Bacon Summary
The essay Of Studies by Sir Francis Bacon is the first essay in the series of ten essays published in 1597. Later, it was revised in 1612 with the addition of some more sentences and ideas in it along with the alteration in some vocabulary terms. This essay is regarded as Bacon's masterpiece enriched with stylised Latin vocabulary, fresh and ...
What are Francis Bacon's views on studies in his essay "Of Studies
Bacon begins this essay by arguing that studies are good for a number of reasons: "for delight, for ornament, and for ability." In other words, studying makes a man happy, enjoyable to be around ...
Of Studies
Of Studies - Summary. Francis Bacon's classic essay "Of Studies" explains how and why study—knowledge—is important. In this essay, he discusses some of the benefits of studying and offers some sound ideas on the subject. Bacon is regarded as the "Father of the English Essay". Bacon envisioned the essay as an opportunity to offer ...
Essay: Of Studies Flashcards
d. Study with Quizlet and memorize flashcards containing terms like The question below refers to the selection "Of Studies" by Sir Francis Bacon. According to Bacon, people should read for — a. laughter and excitement c. enlightenment and spiritual knowledge b. pleasure and education d. wealth and power, The question below refers to the ...
Example of a Great Essay
Your essay introduction should include three main things, in this order: An opening hook to catch the reader's attention. Relevant background information that the reader needs to know. A thesis statement that presents your main point or argument. The length of each part depends on the length and complexity of your essay.
1.2 Purpose, Audience, Tone and Content
Ask yourself whether you can focus easily on each point you make. Keep in mind that three main elements shape the content of each essay: Purpose: The reason the writer composes the essay. Audience: The individual or group whom the writer intends to address. Tone: The attitude the writer conveys about the essay's subject.
What Is Ethnography?
Ethnography is a type of qualitative research that involves immersing yourself in a particular community or organization to observe their behavior and interactions up close. The word "ethnography" also refers to the written report of the research that the ethnographer produces afterwards. Ethnography is a flexible research method that ...
Ecocriticism: An Essay
Ecocriticism is an intentionally broad approach that is known by a number of other designations, including "green (cultural) studies", "ecopoetics", and "environmental literary criticism.". Western thought has often held a more or less utilitarian attitude to nature —nature is for serving human needs. However, after the eighteenth ...
Rubric Focus
The focus refers to the main idea of the text. One way to determine this main idea is to figure out the purpose of your essay. An essay should do more than give you a grade; for example, it can persuade an audience, argue a point, or inform a reader. The assignment sheet is a great place to look for the purpose of the essay. What is your instructor asking you to do? The topic, length, variety ...
Maintaining Your Focus
In their discussions of focus, writers may use a number of terms: main point, thesis, theme, position statement, and controlling idea. What these terms have in common—and what focus is really all about—is informally known as sticking to the point. Sticking to the point involves having a clear idea of what you want to write and how you want ...
How to Write an Essay Introduction
Step 1: Hook your reader. Step 2: Give background information. Step 3: Present your thesis statement. Step 4: Map your essay's structure. Step 5: Check and revise. More examples of essay introductions. Other interesting articles. Frequently asked questions about the essay introduction.
Comparing and Contrasting
This handout will help you first to determine whether a particular assignment is asking for comparison/contrast and then to generate a list of similarities and differences, decide which similarities and differences to focus on, and organize your paper so that it will be clear and effective. It will also explain how you can (and why you should ...
Essay Structure: The 3 Main Parts of an Essay
Basic essay structure: the 3 main parts of an essay. Almost every single essay that's ever been written follows the same basic structure: Introduction. Body paragraphs. Conclusion. This structure has stood the test of time for one simple reason: It works. It clearly presents the writer's position, supports that position with relevant ...
How to Focus on Writing an Essay (Ultimate Guide)
Ideas: Formulate your own arguments and ideas about the essay topic. The main idea will go in your thesis statement, and usually will appear in the Introduction of your essay. Outline: create an outline of your main arguments to guide your writing, including citations and references. Writing: Write your essay with as much clarity as possible.
What is the main idea of Of Studies by Francis Bacon?
What is the main focus of the essay Of Studies? The essay "Of sudies" focuses on study to increase our ability to succeed in life. He makes an important point in saying that we do not need to read every book all the way through; we can skim or select passages. The central theme of the essay is that specific fields of study sharpen the mind ...
What is the main focus of the essay?
The main focus of an essay is defined by its thesis statement. All points made in the essay should relate back to this central claim, with evidence and analysis supporting it. Presentation should be clear, engaging and mindful of the readers' background. Explanation: The main focus of an essay is often referred to as the thesis statement ...

Of Studies by Francis Bacon Summary

Of Studies Frequently Asked Questions

Explain the line “Some books are to be tasted, others to be swallowed, and some few to be chewed and digested” in reference to the context of Bacon’s essay “Of Studies”?

What are the three main benefits of studies did Bacon mention in his essay Of Studies? And what are dangers associated with each benefit?

Explain Francis Bacon’s perspective in the line “Writing makes an exact man” with reference to the essay “Of Studies”?

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Table of Contents

Brevity – Say More with Less

Clarity (in Speech and Writing)

Coherence – How to Achieve Coherence in Writing

Flow – How to Create Flow in Writing

Inclusivity – Inclusive Language

The Elements of Style – The DNA of Powerful Writing

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Academic Writing – How to Write for the Academic Community

Professional Writing – How to Write for the Professional World

Authority – How to Establish Credibility in Speech & Writing

Maintaining Your Focus

A Definition of Focus

How Audience and Purpose Affect Focus

Audience One: City Council

Audience Two: Hockey Coaches and Players

Purpose One: Arguing

Purpose Two: Informing

Narrowing Your Focus

What It Means to be Focused

Focus is Too Broad

Focus is Too Narrow

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