essay on hazards of pollution

261 Pollution Essay Topics & Essay Examples

The problem of environmental pollution is one of the main subjects for discussion worldwide. Manufacturing, carbon emissions, plastic, etc., have an adverse impact on air, water, and soil entire the world. That is why it is crucial to understand the problem and develop solutions to mitigate our negative effects on Earth.

In this article, you will find interesting research questions about pollution, ideas for your argumentative and persuasive papers, and essay examples to inspire.

Keep reading!

💡 8 Tips for Writing Essays on Pollution

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There is a rising interest in ecological awareness and an overall building desire to move towards sustainable living within society. Thus, a pollution essay requires much more than merely outlining cause and effect occurrences.

Tackling a topic that should be both conscientious and demanding may be a difficult task, but with these few tips below, you can quickly address all pollution essay topics. Here are some ideas on how to make your assigned essay more comfortable to write:

Do your research beforehand. This action will help you start your bibliography, which you should begin by writing down every book and article you hope to use.

Additionally, doing so will help you better understand your subject and be more comfortable writing about it. Readers can always feel when writers are too vague because they want to avoid some aspects of a problem.

Introduce your issue from a historical viewpoint. You should explain the origin of your problem, outlining what changes began affecting the environment and why.

Doing so not only allows engaging your readers but also prevents needlessly confusing them by being evasive about your subject.

If some key terms and processes are not common knowledge, then you should explain them. Topics on pollution have tricky terminology, and you should allow your readers to read your essay while on the same level of knowledge as you.

For example, if you are writing about air pollution, then the terms you use may range from “particulate matter” to “hygroscopicity,” depending on the complexity of your essay’s subject.

The pollution essay thesis statement is a guiding line throughout your writing process. Every sentence you write should relate to your central argument and help advance it forward.

From when you start outlining until you write your conclusion and even when revising your draft, you should always ask yourself whether your writing helps you uphold your thesis.

Use credible sources to support your writing. Book and journal titles, research papers, and even interviews with respected scientists are good examples of what you should include in a bibliography.

You may also use pollution essay quotations to demonstrate scientists’ opinions or statistical numbers. When you reference your facts, your readers trust your writing and accept it as credible and truthful, as well as show a good understanding of the subject.

Give your essay an appropriate heading. Your pollution essay titles should clue your readers in on your argument. Using a “talking” title, which explains your subject at a glance, is a useful way of making your essay stand out among others.

If your subject ties together different issues, then you should think about using subheadings to make your essay more readable.

For example, when writing about nonpoint source pollution, you may need to mention its effects on both ocean and forest environments.

Doing so in different sections of your essay may help you structure your thoughts and bring together your arguments for a well-written conclusion.

Read sample essays written by others to help you understand your subject and essay structure better. Doing so will help you be consistent with your chosen citation style and immerse yourself in your research.

However, do not commit an academic offense by plagiarizing from the work of others.

Need more tips? Want to read an essay example? Visit IvyPanda!

Water Pollution: Causes, Effects and Possible Solutions This is why clean water is required in all the places to make sure the people and all the living creatures in the planet live a good and healthy life.
Air and Water Pollution in the Modern World The high number of vehicles in the city has greatly promoted air pollution in the area. Poor sewerage system, high pollution from industries and automobiles are among the major causes of air and water pollutions […]
Garbage Pollution Electronic waste can also be recycled and refurbished.’Reduce’, ‘Reuse’ and ‘Recycle’ are the 3Rs that go a long way in handling the issue of garbage.
Water Pollution: Causes, Effects, and Prevention Farmers should be encouraged to embrace this kind of farming which ensures that the manure used is biodegradable and do not end up accumulating in the water bodies once they are washed off by floods.
Noise Pollution: Effects, Causes, and Potential Solutions According to the International Program on Chemical Safety, “an adverse effect of noise is defined as a change in the morphology and physiology of organism that results in an impairment of functional capacity, or an […]
Pollution Caused by Transportation The growth of consignment and travelers’ mobility is associated with the rise of negative impacts of transportation through pollutants. Additionally, the pollutants can be related to fuels’ refining and distribution as well as manufacturing and […]
The Impact of Groundwater Pollution on Agriculture and Its Prevention People have to be aware about the impact of their activities on groundwater and be able to improve the conditions, they live under, and this piece of writing will inform each reader about each detail […]
How to Protect the Egypt Nile River From Pollution? The secret to the overflowing waters of the Nile is linked to the five months in a year of rain experienced in Ethiopia.
Ocean Pollution and the Fishing Industry In essence, the activities of over six billion people in the world are threatening the survival and quality of water found in the oceans, lakes and other inland water catchment areas.
Cultural Pollution:Traditions and Historical Concepts The cultures traditions and historical concepts of the Middle East have over the centuries been characterised as by a distinct sense of variety that stems from a whirlwind of customs and traditions.
Environmental Pollution: Causes and Solutions The consequences that have risen as a result of neglecting to take care of the environment have now become a reality to the whole of mankind.
Environmental Pollution and Its Effect on Health In climate change, due to air pollution, the main force to prevent environmental disasters need to change the approach to the production of substances from fossil fuels.
Water Pollution in the Philippines: Metropolitan Manila Area In this brief economic analysis of water pollution in Metro Manila, it is proposed to look at the industrial use of waters and the household use to understand the impact that the population growth and […]
Environmental Pollution: Causes and Consequences The essay will provide an overview of pollution and proffer solutions to combating pollution for a sustainable environment and health. Preventing pollution lowers the cost to the environment and the economy.
Air Travel as a Cause of Severe Pollution Ecologists cite the growth of air travel as one of the factors that are contributing to environmental pollution. Restricting air transport can minimize the amount of noise that airplanes make, therefore improving the quality of […]
The Ocean Pollution Problem Overview Ocean pollution is the unfavorable upshot due to the entrance of chemicals and particulate substances into the ocean. The land is the key source of ocean pollution in the form of non-point water pollution.
Nurse Associate’s Role in Air Pollution Prevention This paper analyzes current health promotion strategies in Somerset and the United Kingdom, obstacles to preventative health strategies, health screening programs, the impact of psycho-social, economic, and behavioral factors, epidemiology and genomics, vaccination and immunization […]
Air Pollution and Its Impact on Human Health Community needs assessment is a systematic process in which the health educator, the nurse and other health care professionals together with the members of the community determine the health problems & needs of the community […]
Aviation’s Environmental Impact and Pollution One of the main disadvantages of the speedy technological progress is the pollution of the environment. However, in spite of all the world’s efforts to improve the state of the environment, the damage is done […]
Pollution as a Big Problem That Faces the World Pollution is human made, pausing devastating health issues among the community at large, and its management cuts across all spectrums of societies including cultural, political, ethnic, and educational backgrounds Various forms of pollution have contributed […]
Water Pollution as a Crime Against the Environment In particular, water pollution is a widespread crime against the environment, even though it is a severe felony that can result in harm to many people and vast territories.
Algae Explosion and Nitrogen Pollution in Lakes One of the most problematic aspects of nitrogen pollution as a form of nutrient pollution in lakes is the algae explosion.
Environmental Pollution in the Petroleum Industry At the same time, it threatens nature and creates many long-term issues related to pollution of air, soil, water, the weakening of the ozone layer, and the facilitation of the greenhouse gas effect.
Coca-Cola India and Water Pollution Issues The first difficulty that the representatives of the Coca-Cola Company happened to face due to their campaign in the territory of India was caused by the concerns of the local government.
Acid Rain and Ozone Pollution Acid rain and ozone pollution are a form of pollution, which entails the release of gaseous and dust particles in quantities that destroy the integrity of the atmosphere and affect organisms in their respective habitats […]
Air Pollution Impacts on Weather and Climate Air pollution is rated to be the major cause of discomfort in the living creatures of the world for air is essential for the survival of every living creature.
Plastic Pollution From a Sociological Standpoint Wagner, as well as Miranda and de Carvalho-Souza, are in favor of increased recycling efforts to prevent more plastic from escaping into the sea.
Water Pollution and Management in the UAE The groundwater in UAE meets the needs of 51% of users in terms of quantity mainly for irrigation. Surface water is the source of groundwater and plays a major role in groundwater renewal.
An Investigation of Green Roofs to Mitigate Air Pollution With Special Reference to Tehran, Iran Thus, the aim of the research is to inquire into the basic information on the concept of green roofs, to answer the research questions on different attributes of green roofs, methods used to construct green […]
Air Pollution Sources, Effects and Ways of Minimizing This paper discusses the various sources of air pollution, the effects of air pollution, and ways of minimizing air pollution. Definitely, the destruction of the atmosphere is a serious issue of concern to many people, […]
The Problem of Ocean Pollution in Modern World Wastes such as toxic matter, plastics, and human wastes are some of the major sources of pollution in the ocean. Many people consume fish as food; when marine life is affected by toxic substance in […]
Hudson River Pollution Concerns Unfortunately, the Industrial Revolution and the subsequent advancement of the local and national economy have turned the River into an object of environmental pollution.
The Negative Impact of Soil Pollution The picture does not show where the water is coming from, and that is how to determine whether the pollution is from a non-point source.
Environmental Factors and Health Promotion: Indoor and Outdoor Air Pollution This presentation offers some information about the damage of air pollution and presents a health promotion plan with helpful resources and evidence from research.
Water Pollution in a Community: Mitigation Plan Though for the fact that planet earth is abundant with water and almost two-thirds of the planet is made up of water still it is viewed that in future years, a shortage of water may […]
Kuwait’s Desert Pollution Obviously, the given problem might seem not that important if to observe the general environmental situation of the country, which is extremely close to that of the environmental catastrophe, but as an ordinary citizen, who […]
Environmental Pollution: Waste Landfilling and Open Dumping The solution is simple and practical it is necessary to put efforts into further development of hard industries and stop financing the research of the issue that is useless.
Noise and Sound Pollution The noise pollution should be considered by the duration of the sound, the frequency of noise, and whether there is any control to the sound or not.
The World Oceans Pollution and Overfishing Human beings have taken a lot of time to realize the need for ocean conservation to the extent that the ocean has succumbed to ecological challenges that have affected their lives in a variety of […]
The Impact of Industrial Pollution on the Environment The attainment of these higher costs is through compulsory inclusion of the social costs of production in determination of the price of the goods.
Plastic Ocean Pollution on Ocean Life in U.S. Ocean plastic pollution has had a great impact on a minimum of two hundred and sixty seven species across the world and these include forty three percent of all of the sea mammal species, eighty […]
Car Air Pollution Further, NO2 can prevent the flow of oxygen in the blood to other parts of the body like the brain. These toxic substances settle in the lungs and disrupt the normal flow of air in […]
Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control Environmental management is dynamic and it is concurrent to the existing management strategies and agenda of the company. Statutes and legislations pertaining to environmental compliance enforce the need to implement environmental management and monitoring of […]
Air Pollution in Beijing and Its Effects on Society It is worth noting that different regions/countries/cities in the world have different levels of air pollution depending on the intensity/presence of causing agents and the techniques applied in dealing with air pollution.
New York City Air Pollution Problem One positive impact of technological advancements on the environment in New York is the ability to provide communication options that are friendly to the environment.
Smog and Air Pollution in Los Angeles The city is often covered with a yellow veil in the sky, so the problem of smog is an actual problem of the state.
Graveyard Ship Pollution in Kuwait The main legal issue of this case is the collision of two ships that led to the killing of millions of people and the dumping of waste along the sea.
Cashion Water Quality: Spatial Distribution of Water Pollution Incidents This essay discusses the quality of water as per the report of 2021 obtained from the municipality, the quality issue and the source of pollution, and how the pollution impacts human health and the environment […]
Environmental Pollution and Human Health The effects of sprawl on health workers are discussed in the article by Pohanka. It is similarly essential to take social justice and fairness into account because the effects of sprawl on population health are […]
The Ecogeographical Impact of Air Pollution The weakness of the text is that the safety of NPs and their probable toxic effects on human health and the environment are not evaluated.
Carbon Offsets: Combatting Environmental Pollution I think that using other organizations or projects to offset an entity’s carbon footprint avoids the main goal of any present environmental protection efforts sustainability.
Air Pollution and Impact of Transportation Emissions of greenhouse gases, air pollution, the release of ballast water, aquatic invasive species, and oil and chemical leaks are only some of the environmental problems that marine transportation continues to cause.
Pollution and Respiratory Disease in Louisiana The United States of America is an industrial powerhouse, a powerful nation that devoted much of its time to the growth and development of the petrochemical industry.
Beat Plastic Pollution Essay These tips will help people to reduce the circulation of plastic in their lives. In conclusion, the best method to protect the environment is to minimize the accumulation of plastic waste by recycling, composting, and […]
Air Pollution and Lung Disease To design a study in order to explore the link between lung disease and air pollution, it would be possible to follow a four-step process started by identifying the level or unit of analysis.
American Society on Health and Pollution’s Activity The organization is purposed to inspire newly elected leaders to act as examples and lead the way in the promotion of a green economy that is sustainable for all American citizens.
Air Pollution in China: Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics One of the most acute environmental problems in China is air pollution, which the authorities are trying to solve, but still, many people, factories, and active processes of globalization do not allow environmental programs to […]
CSR Initiatives in Reducing Pollution and Carbon Emissions in GCC The purpose of this paper is to conduct a literature review evaluating the impact of CSR initiatives in reducing pollution and carbon emissions in GCC and the Middle East.
A Pollution Concern in the Anacostia River In addition, the unending sedimentation affected the river’s ecosystem due to the lack of sunshine, especially at the bottom of the river.
Environmental Protection: Pollution and Fossil Fuels The term used to describe a combination of oil and petroleum-related businesses, fossil fuel has been continuously cited as being dangerous for the planet.
Importance of Mercury Water Pollution Problem Solutions The severity of the mercury contamination consequences depends on the age of the person exposed to the contamination, the way of contamination, the health condition, and many other factors.
Issue of Pollution of Everest A policy that can be put in place by Nepal to address the current state of pollution on Everest is limiting the number of climbers to the mountain. The increase in the number of people […]
The Impact of Atmospheric Pollution on Human Health and the Environment Atmospheric pollution is a set of environmental problems associated with releasing chemicals and accumulating concentrations of natural gases in the air.
Air Pollution and Vulnerability to Covid-19 In other words, the findings will be used as one of the key arguments for showing that air pollution is detrimental to both individual and societal health.
Poor Waste Disposal and Pollution in California For instance, the rapid increase in the number of factories and industries in California has led to more waste products in the state.
Technical Report Pollution in Cities of Trinidad Many people who live in the environment close to the dumping sites are exposed to the daily combustion of the refuse, coupled with the inhalation of the emissions from the combusted material.
Cultural Pollution in the Middle East The importance of the cultural patriarchal society suffers the whims of the feminist movement that has underscored the cultural values and roles of women.
Fundamentals of Air Pollution The components of secondary air pollution include ozone and nitrogen oxides. Smog occurs when “car exhausts are exposed to direct sunlight”.
The Reduction of Agricultural Nutrient Pollution: Possible Solutions The nutrients that are contained in fertilizer or manure may reach water basins and cause a dramatic increase in the populations of phytoplankton and algae.
The Perspectives of Pollution for International Business Turning to the society’s role in changing the unsustainable system, the most important part of the discussion is usually dedicated to the role-changing possibility in the governmental structure.
Pollution Problem: Sewage Spills in San Jose Water is a crucial element for all known forms of life to be able to live. Groundwater quality is essential for human consumption and social and economic activities.
Equipment to Monitor Pollution Emissions In assessing the situation, the vital aspects are: the quality of the decision, the commitment of the subordinates, the knowledge of the leader, the structure of the problem, the probability of subordinates’ commitment, sharing the […]
Global Plastic Pollution Problem and Its Drivers The primary challenge is the production and use of plastic products, which overwhelm the environment’s capacity to withstand. It cannot be burned because of air contamination, and the process of recycling equally results in plastic […]
Plastic Pollution and Its Consequences Water in vapor form is also a product of combusted carbon-rich molecules and forms part of the hydrosphere from where it is absorbed into the biosphere.
Newark Water Crisis: Water Pollution Problem The main problem was rooted in the fact that lead levels in the drinking water were highly elevated, which is dangerous and detrimental to the population’s health.
Pollution Caused by Plastic Materials However, it is important to note that regardless of the many pleasant and appealing uses of plastics, the numerous health problems and dangers presented to the environment are gruesome.
Pollution and Illegal Dumping in Chilliwack River Chilliwack River Watershed maintenance is under great pressure because of differing use of resources and activity, high demands for growth and recreation, and impacts to quality of water and riparian habitation from different water-use and […]
Simply Green Products Firm: Pollution Allegations The natural decomposition is the surety that the company to the environmentalist organizations and the citizens. There is considerable proof that the company has been the primary producer of the packaging materials for the orchards […]
Atmospheric Pollution Constituents A department dealing with the effects of atmospheric pollutants in the vicinity of an industrial complex has established a data table of measurements of a purity index Y on a scale of 0 to 1000 […]
Air Pollution: The Problem’ Review Indoor pollution and related conditions are a big burden to the already suffering world according to the reports of the world health organization that it’s the 8th most important risk factor and is perceived to […]
Law, Property Rights, and Air Pollution In the law of torts, ‘harm’ is considered when there is physical invasion to a person there fore in the case there was no violation of this law as the secretary was not harmed by […]
Reducing Traffic Noise Pollution in Cairo In conclusion, it seems reasonable to state that the issue of traffic noise pollution is rapidly growing in Egypt’s capital Cairo and increasingly impacts public health.
Air Pollution in Middle East: Saudi Arabia The rate of air pollution in the world has increased gradually since the advent of the industrial revolution in the early 1800s.
Global Pollution and Climate Change Both of these works address the topic of Global pollution, Global warming, and Climate change, which are relevant to the current situation in the world.
Health Science: Pollution and Health The spill was apparently a result of the containing dam wall being weak and the ensuing heavy rains rapidly increased the volume of the contents resulting in breaking of the reservoir.
Point vs. Non-Point Air Pollution To determine the air pollution source of a large smoke stack, one has to assess the physical characteristics of the smoke; description of the color concentration intensity is it grey or extremely dark?
Noise Pollution: Best Practicable Means Magistrates’ Court identified Statutory Nuisance in the case and forwarded an abatement order against respondents along with a huge fine for their misconduct that led to noise pollution.
Public Policy Issue: Particle Pollution in Chicago Metropolitan Area The Chicago metropolitan area has been mentioned quite a number of times in American Lung Association’s State of the Air 2008, an annual report that grades the quality of the air across the different cities […]
Noise Pollution: Environmental Issue in Lagos, Nigeria The aim of the study would be to understand and evaluate the amount of noise pollution in Lagos, Nigeria and its affects on public health.
Air Pollution and Health Issues in the US The industry of health care is closely connected to the industrial activities sector, which has the largest impact on the atmosphere through polluting the air, soil, and waters.
Thames Water Company’s Pollution Issue and Ecocentrism Fines can be treated as a strong solution to this issue even though it is not presupposed by the ethical theory discussed, as they ensure that some funds can be spent on protecting the environment.
Air Pollution Externalities and Possible Solutions In order to fully integrate public utility, power generation, policy and use of nuclear power in light of the growing concerns on the depletion of natural forms of energy as well as degradation of the […]
Industrial Pollution in China and USA The pollution of world’s environment with industrial wastes is highly intensified and according to the authors’ opinion the scientific approach is the most significant and useful tool for the purpose of quick resolving of this […]
Air Pollution and Ecological Perspectives of the Atmosphere The major contributors to CO2, one of the main pollutants in the atmosphere, are the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation.
Pollution Is a Consistent Demolition of the Earth Pollution means the introduction into the environment of substances or energy that is liable to cause hazards to human health, harm to living resources and ecological systems, damage to structure or interfere with the legitimate […]
Air Pollution and Its World History From the times of industrial revolution, smoke pollution was a concern and continues to be one with vehicles and industries replacing coal and wood.
The Influence of Global Warming and Pollution on the Environment This essay is going to address global warming from a psychological point of view with an emphasis on the psychological and social reasons that make it important to tackle this problem which is threatening the […]
Atmospheric Chemistry – Pollution Ozone, a photochemical pollutant, is formed by the oxidation of explosive organic compounds in the presence of sunlight and oxides of nitrogen in the atmosphere.
Construction Technology and Air Pollution Hot-list section has new and transferable technology and highlights the features that appeal to construction companies, specifies and designers, owners of the building and end users.
As China Roars, Pollution Reaches Deadly Extremes The idea is to harness the excess waters of the Yangtze River to replenish the Yellow River which perennially suffers from lack of water and the formation of silt.
Pollution Control Policy: Glodal Issues Global warming poses a great problem for the global biosphere since it affects the habitat of most of the natural occupants of the global hemisphere.
Earth’s Atmosphere and Natural Pollution The stratosphere is the next layer of the atmosphere and is from that 7 17 km range to about 30 km above the earth’s surface.
Water Pollution: OIL Spills Aspects The effects of the oil spill on a species of ducks called the Harlequin ducks were formulated and the author attempted to trace out the immediate and residual effects of the oil on the birds.
Atmospheric Pollution and Global Warming Green forests help in soaking the suspended particles in the air and thus clean the air for all of us to breathe.
Recurrent Pollution of the Tisza River of Hungary The Tisza basin is located almost precisely in the geographical center of Europe and crosses the near-future boundary of the European Union.
Marine Pollution: Management and International Legislation Marine environment refers to: the physical, chemical, geological and biological components, conditions and factors which interact and determine the productivity of, state, condition and quality of the marine ecosystem, the waters of the seas and […]
Marine Pollution: Sources, Types, Pathways, and Status By examining sources, types, pathways, and status of water contamination in the context of the World Ocean, it is clear that most marine pollution caused by human actions, especially the mismanagement of plastic debris.
The Public Perceptions of Air Pollution and Related Policies in London The primary questions for consideration are the public perceptions of air pollution and related policies in London and other cities of the United Kingdom, previous surveys regarding existing policies related to the environment or air […]
Concerns of Ocean Ecosystem Pollution The range of adverse outcomes for ocean ecosystems can be discussed in volumes; however, the current discussion will focus on trash in the ocean waters, acidification, and the disruption of the marine life cycles.
Food Distribution and Water Pollution Therefore, food distribution is one of the central reasons for water pollution. According to Greenpeace, one of the ways to improve the ecology of the planet is by creating healthy food markets.
How China Cuts Its Air Pollution 5, which is the smallest and one of the most harmful polluting particles, were 54 percent lower in the last quarter of 2017 as compared to the same period in 2016, specifically in Beijing.
Haze Pollution in China One of the outstanding aspects of pollution in the country is that the Chinese are highly desensitized and aware of issues surrounding this matter.
Pollution and Federal Environmental Policy Pollution continues to influence the flora and the fauna of the United States, as well as people in urban and even rural areas.
Plastic Pollution and Social Institutions The purpose of this paper is to investigate the political and economic barriers that hamper the efforts to reduce plastic pollution and discuss the ways in how they could be overcome.
Social Activism Against Plastic Pollution Of the 30 million tons of plastic waste in the United States in 2009, only 7% were sent for recycling, which primarily damages marine life.
Climate Change: Reducing Industrial Air Pollution One of the most effective measures of air quality in the USA is the Air Quality Index, which estimates air conditions by concentrations of such pollutants as particle solution, nitrogen and sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide, […]
Pollution as a Social Issue and Mass Media’s Role The reason why plastic pollution gained traction only during the 21st century is directly connected to the invention of the Internet and the technological advances in electronics.
Environmental Ethics. Optimal Pollution: Reality or Myth? The effects of globalization and environmental change have caused the resurgence of environmentalism, yet the necessity to sustain industries and the global economy invalidates the idea of a pollution-free environment.
Environmental Pollution and Contamination The rains are known to corrode marble and metals, cause respiratory diseases in human beings and increase the acidity of the soil.
Low Pollution Car Engine The following is a discussion on the introduction of the low pollution car engine and its benefits to the UAE. In addition, pollution and climate change will be a thing of the past.
Chemistry: Environmental Pollution in Hungary The acidification of water bodies leads to the death of numerous species that are susceptible to the presence of acid. Part of the problem is caused by the fact that Hungary is currently forced to […]
Environmental Pollution Analysis The author explains that the damaging alterations have become possible due to the use of a large number of pesticides in the area.
Coal Pollution in China as an Environmental Problem Thesis: Coal pollution in China has been a significant cause of environmental pollution-China being one of the largest coal producers in the world- therefore, necessitating the development of appropriate measures to reduce its severity.
Air Pollution, Its Constituents and Health Effects The National Ambient Air Quality Standards are the regulations or policies that are adopted by states to ensure the safety of the environment.
The Deepwater Horizon Oil Platform Pollution The oil spillage in the sea can result to the death of sea animals as well as plants that thrive in the water because of the dangerous chemicals that are contained in the oil.
Air Pollution in the United Arab Emirates’ Cities In the article called Evaluating the Potential Impact of Global Warming on the UAE Residential Buildings, the author focuses on the negative consequences of global warming on the situation in the United Arab Emirates.
Advanced Pollution Prevention in the United States In the United States, the overview of the previous legislation shows that the government used to enforce measures that would deal with pollution control which occurred at the final stage of production processes. The Pollution […]
Environmental Pollution and Increased Birds Death The increase in the population of different animals may also cause the death of birds. This leads to the extinction of some animals and birds hence massive death.
Climate Change, Air Pollution, Soil Degradation Then followed by outdoor air pollution, soil degradation which can also be called as soil contamination, global overpopulation, drinking water pollution, nuclear waste build-up, disappearing of the water supplies, indoor air pollution, depletion of the […]
Smog, Its Harm and Pollution Reduction Progress Smog can be defined as the mixture of solid and liquid fog and smoke particles that are formed under the impact of high humidity and calm air.
China Shenhua Energy Company: Pollution Reducing Although the Chinese government recognized the issue of pollution and announced a course for liberalization of the economy and a greater emphasis on ecology during the 12th 5-year plan, the transformation from a coal-based energy […]
Air Pollution in Washington State and Healthy Living of People The problem of air pollution is closely related to the issue of the energy supply of the US. Due to the high level of air pollution in Washington state, there is a growing threat to […]
Air Pollution as a Factor for Renal Cancer Therefore, to prevent renal cancer, it is crucial to examine the primary causes and look for better strategies to curb the issue.
Podocnemis Lewyana: Habitat Loss, Overfishing and Pollution The second factor is overhunting, which in the case of Magdalena River Turtle leads to the inability of these animals to locate food.
Pollution in the San Francisco Bay The rivers provide fresh water for domestic use to many civilians, and it is apparent that the authorities have given the power plant the freedom to test the quantity of chemicals in the waste water.
Indoor Air Pollution: The Silent Killer in Rural India The video “Indoor air pollution: The silent killer” discusses the detrimental impact of indoor air pollution in rural Indian households on people’s health. The problem of indoor air pollution is rather significant, and people should […]
Water Pollution and Associated Health Risks The results of plenty of studies indicate the existence of the relation between the contamination of water by hazardous chemicals and the development of respiratory and cardiovascular diseases, cancer, asthma, allergies, as well as reproductive […]
Air Pollution and China’s Governmental Measures The consequences of air pollution in China are already becoming evident, and not only they are the reason for environmental problems, but also they have a significant influence on the health of Chinese people living […]
Lake Erie Water Pollution There are worries among the members of the community that the lake could be facing another episode of high toxicity, and they have called for the authorities to investigate the main causes of the pollution […]
Environmental Pollution and Green Policies Although various scholars are of the view that green technology reduces the level of pollution, adequate research on the use of this form of technology needs to be conducted so as to fully contain environmental […]
Air Pollution in Beijing and the Decision-Making Bias Severe air pollution in Beijing did not become a subject of worldwide concern and discussion until the 2008 Beijing Olympics, which brought the issue to the attention of the global public due to the immense […]
“Fort McMurray Fires Cause Air Pollution” by McDiarmid As a rule, the air in Canada is clean and rich in oxygen; however, when the wildfire burst, it affected the ozone layer to a significant degree.
Air Pollution as the Trigger of the Ecological Catastrophe The key data collection tool is a survey that is targeted at determining the main factors of air pollution, finding out the social opinion regarding the quality of air in different cities, and estimating the […]
Agricultural Nutrient Pollution and Its Reduction The solutions that have been proposed for the issue are varied: there is the possibility of upgrading farms with the help of better technologies, controlling the use of fertilizers and waste discharge with the help […]
Water & Air Pollution and Health Issues in Brazil The main environmental effects of pollution include the destruction of marine habitats, water scarcity, and anoxia. The conclusion is informative because the writer includes strategies to alleviate the problem of air and water pollution in […]
Air Pollution and Respiratory Illnesses in Nigeria The purpose of the article presented was to test the relationship of the respiratory system illness and air pollution in developing countries, especially in Africa.
Air Pollution Impact on Children’s Health in the US In these parts of the country, the level of air pollution is much higher. Nevertheless, the growing number of vehicles in the United States contributes to air pollution.
Traffic-Related Air Pollution and Health Effects It emphasizes the fact that air contamination has a negative influence on the health of the representatives of the general public.
Nebraska Pollution Prevention Project The article is about Nebraska’s Partners in Pollution Prevention program and the benefits it has brought to the state in the reduction of pollution caused by small businesses.
Storm Water Pollution Prevention Plan All players need to be trained in significant areas of business so as they can handle them with care and beware of the potential they have in causing damage.
Water Pollution in the US: Causes and Control Although water pollution can hardly be ceased entirely, the current rates of water pollution can be reduced by resorting to the sustainable principle of water use in both the industrial area and the realm of […]
Importance of Water in Economics: Uses, Pollution, and Sustainable Growth Some of the water is found in the continents’ rivers, lakes and in the subsurface. This research tries to explain the importance of water especially in an economist’s perspective by explaining the uses of water […]
Air Pollution in Los Angeles
Noise Pollution: Urban Traffic Noise
Environmental Revolution: Air Pollution in China
Pollution & Climate Change as Environmental Risks
The Knoxville City’s Environmental Pollution
Environmental Behavior and Air Pollution in Ohio
Pollution of the Ganges and Its Main Factors
Pollution Externalities Role in Management Economics
Marine Pollution and the Anthropogenic Effects Upon It
The New York City Air Pollution
Air Pollution Effects on the Health and Environment
Dealing With Air Pollution
Environmental Justice and Air Pollution in Canada
Environment Destruction: Pollution
Big Coal and the Natural Environment Pollution
Principles of Air Pollution Control and Analysis
China’s Air Pollution Problem
Pollution and Human Health
Business and Pollution Inequality in Poor States
China’s Air Pollution Is Not Unique
Water Pollution and Its Challenges
Air Pollution: Human Influence on Environment
Water Pollution Sources, Effects and Control
Issues in Non-Point Source Pollution
Air Pollution Sources in Houston
Pollution Prevention in the Industrial Production
Pollution Caused by Medium-Sized Enterprises and the Means to Prevent It
Technological Applications in Industrial Pollution Prevention
Air Pollution: Public Health Impact
Solutions to the Los Angeles Metropolitan Watershed Pollution Problem
Economic Impact of Industrial Pollution in China
Environmental Impacts of Air Pollution
Pollution and Neglect in America
Pollution in Beijing, China
Nitrate and Phosphate Pollution of Freshwater Ecosystem: Sources, Impacts and Cost Effective Measurements
Automobile Pollution in the US
Chloramine in Drinking Water: When the Threat of Pollution Emerges
How Mechanical Engineering Used to Prevent and Fix Oil Pollution
Technologies for Reduction of Automobile Pollution
“Water and Pollution” Class Game
How Bad Pollution Is in the Arab World
Water in Crisis: Public Health Concerns in Africa
Does Air Pollution in Schools Influence Student Performance?
Regulation and Management of Haze Pollution in Canada
Air Pollution Characteristics and Effect
Impact of Blowing Drums on Air Pollution
The System for Pollution Offsets
The Nature of Nonpoint Pollution Control Problem
Air and Water Pollution
Health Hazard of Noise Pollution
Fossil Fuels Subsidies and the Impact of Pollution on Health and Lifetime Earnings
Causes of Water Pollution and the Present Environmental Solution
Water Pollution & Diseases (Undeveloped Nations)
Environmental Pollution in Canada
Water and Water Pollution in Point of Economics’ View
Environmental Justice Issues Affecting African Americans: Water Pollution
Air Pollution Effects on the Health in China
Air Pollution and Health Policy in China
The Pollution Within: Foreign Substances in the Human Body
The Effects of Noise Pollution
Air Pollution and Its Consequences
The Problem of Atmospheric Pollution in Modern World
Four Marketing Practices That Cause Noise Pollution
Water Pollution and Wind Energy
Air Pollution by Automobiles
Air and Water Pollution in Los Angeles
Tehran Chokes and Blames Severe Pollution on US Sanctions
Water Pollution Causes and Climate Impacts
The Case of PBC Pollution in Hudson River
Preposition 23: Suspension of Air Pollution Control Act
Climate and Air Pollution
Urban Pollution – Many Long Years Ago
Water Pollution Origins and Ways of Resolving
Can Pollution Rights Trading Effectively Control Environmental Problems?
Mud Lick Creek Project – Fresh Water Pollution
A Discussion of Air Pollution & Related Health Implications on the Community
Car Pollution in Moscow
What Causes Air Pollution and What Effect Does It Have on People?
Why Air Pollution Can Harm the Environment Dramatically?
What Are the Sources of Air Pollution?
Does Air Pollution Affect Health and Medical Insurance Cost in the Elderly?
What Are the Causes and Effects of Water Pollution in Lake Huron?
What Causes Water Pollution and Its Effects?
What Can the Public Do to Curb Pollution?
Will COVID-19 Containment and Treatment Measures Drive Shifts in Marine Litter Pollution?
Does Inequality Matter Air Pollution and Health Relationship?
Why Environmental Management May Yield No-Regret Pollution Abatement Options?
How Can Be Organised Curbing Environmental Pollution Through Recycling?
What Will the Effects Be if We Don’t Stop Plastic Pollution in Our Oceans?
Does Air Pollution Crowd Out Foreign Direct Investment Inflows?
Does Off-Farm Employment Contribute to Agriculture-Based Environmental Pollution?
Does Environmental Pollution Affect Metropolitan Housing Prices?
Does Financial Instability Increase Environmental Pollution in Pakistan?
What Are the Leading Factors of Water Pollution Around the World?
What King of Cost-Effective Control Strategies for Energy-Related Transboundary Air Pollution in Western Europe?
Which Firms Are More Sensitive to Public Disclosure Schemes for Pollution Control?
What Are the Kinds of Water Pollution?
Does Air Pollution Affect Consumption Behavior?
What Are the Causes and Effects of Water Pollution?
Does Animal Feeding Operation Pollution Hurt Public Health?
Does Industry Self-Regulation Reduce Pollution?
Will Pollution Free Cars Become a Reality of the Near Future?
Who Pays for Industrial Pollution Abatement?
Does Trade Promote Environmental Coordination of Pollution in International Rivers?
Who Suffers From Indoor Air Pollution?
What Are the Main Ways to Reduce Pollution?
What Causes Haze Pollution?
Environment Research Topics
Global Warming Essay Titles
Climate Change Titles
Water Issues Research Ideas
Deforestation Research Ideas
Hazardous Waste Essay Topics
Extinction Research Topics
Environmentalism Essay Topics
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Essay on Pollution: Samples in 100, 150 and 200 Words

Updated on
Apr 27, 2024

As the world embraced urbanization, mother nature witnessed the greener lands getting transformed into modern cities and metropolises. What followed is a trail of natural disasters signalling that something is wrong with the planet Earth. Pollution is increasingly asked under the writing section in school and college tests as well as competitive exams . This is because it is a relevant environmental issue today. This blog aims to help you with the necessary knowledge as well as tips and tricks to draft a well-written essay on pollution.

What is Pollution?

Pollution is the introduction of harmful materials into the environment. These materials are called pollutants. They can be created by human activity like trash and natural like volcanic ash. Pollutants damage the quality of water, air and land. Pollution is a global problem. Air and water carry pollution into the ocean currents and migrating fish. Pollution is among the many things that harm our planet- once greener and healthier than it is now. Pollution is a dangerous phenomenon that is contributing to an array of health issues.

Types of Pollution

In simple terms, pollution is defined as the contamination of the physical and biological constituents in the earth’s atmosphere. It affects human life and the natural environment to a very great extent. It degrades our natural resources, from the water we drink to the air we breathe. While writing an essay on Pollution, you must mention the major four types of pollution which are as follows:

Air Pollution : Air pollution is the contamination of air in the atmosphere when harmful or excessive quantities of substances such as smoke and harmful gases from industries, CFCs and oxides produced by automobiles, the burning of solid wastes, etc. are introduced into the environment.
Water Pollution : This refers to the contamination of natural resources of water, due to the addition of harmful chemical, biological or physical materials, which includes industrial wastes, oil spills, domestic and farm wastes, pesticides, as well as mining and agricultural wastes, to water resource which make it unusable.
Soil Pollution : Land/Soil Pollution occurs due to the degradation of the earth’s surface by different commercial, industrial, agricultural and domestic activities. Causes of soil pollution also include mining, deforestation, dumping of e-waste and other industrial wastes, usage of harmful chemicals such as insecticides, pesticides, etc.
Noise Pollution : Excess noise due to sounds created by machines, loudspeakers, microphones, loud music, noise from industries, construction and civil engineering works etc. lead to noise pollution.

Causes and Health Effects of Pollution

You can include various causes and health effects in your essay on Pollution from the following table:-

Sample Essay on Pollution in 100 Words

Pollution is the addition of unwanted substances which are incorporated into the environment that can damage our Earth. There are mainly four types of pollution, these include water pollution, air pollution, soil pollution, and noise pollution. One should note that any form of pollution is the result of careless activity carried out by man. We, humans daily dump waste directly into water bodies which leads to water pollution.

Vehicle emissions of smoke into the atmosphere impede the ability of all living things to breathe, leading to air pollution. Our garbage is dumped into landfills directly, which results in soil pollution. Although it cannot be seen, noise pollution is a severe type of pollution that can harm our ears.

Sample Essay on Pollution in 250-300 Words

The biggest threat planet Earth is facing is pollution. Unwanted substances leave a negative impact once released into an environment. There are four types of pollution air, water, land, and noise. Pollution affects the quality of life more than any human can imagine.

Due to air pollution, even teenage kids have developed various respiratory diseases. Water pollution has led to diseases in children. The waste we humans dump on the land or chemical fertilisers which are put on the land for agricultural purposes causes land/ soil pollution.

If the soil quality deteriorates due to such practices, the soil will become infertile and no crops could be grown in future. The government has launched various schemes over the years to fight pollution but individual efforts can also play a vital role.

Start by replacing plastic bags for shopping with cloth bags, stopping littering on roads and stopping wasting water are some of the basic things to start with that can lead to big changes in the environment.

Also Read: Essay on Green Energy PDF: 150 and 250 Words

Sample Essay on Pollution in 300-350 Words

One of the most critical threats faced by our planet in the present-day scenario. Environmental pollution is a global issue affecting people around the world. It is occurring in different forms, whether by affecting the air we breathe or the water resources we utilise for several purposes.

Air pollution came into being with an increase in the level of carbon dioxide, with the increase in pollutants which are contaminating the air and causing breathing discomfort as well as skin diseases to human beings. Talking about the other aspect, there is no life without water.

The water bodies are polluting and becoming unsafe for drinking or any other use because of industrial development, rapid urbanisation and various other reasons. Due to air pollution, diseases that can occur in human beings are asthma, various skin diseases, cancer, etc. Therefore, it is the essential need of the hour to take serious steps to reduce pollution to its core.

At a personal level, we can minimise environmental pollution by taking public transport or carpools to reduce vehicular smoke, avoiding firecrackers at festivals and celebrations can also cut down on air and noise pollution, and not using fertilisers and pesticides which can cause both water and soil pollution, and switching over to organic farming. The government can also bring strict rules and regulations to lessen industrial pollution.

To sum up, any type of pollution is harmful to the environment with serious consequences like global warming, uneven climatic changes, etc. Due to our greediness and illegal human activities, the innocent lives of animals are lost. The time has come to join hands and work towards preserving and protecting the environment for the present as well as future generations.

Also Read: Essay on Environment: Examples and Tips

Short Essay on Pollution in English

Find a sample of a short essay on pollution below:

Nikita Puri

Nikita is a creative writer and editor, who is always ready to learn new skills. She has great knowledge about study abroad universities, researching and writing blogs about them. Being a perfectionist, she has a habit of keeping her tasks complete on time before the OCD hits her. When Nikita is not busy working, you can find her eating while binge-watching The office. Also, she breathes music. She has done her bachelor's from Delhi University and her master's from Jamia Millia Islamia.

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Biology Article

Essay on Pollution

An essay on pollution is an essential concept for students as it reveals the consequences of human activities on the environment. Read on to explore how to write an intriguing and engaging essay on pollution.

Essay on Pollution – Important Guidelines

Please consider adopting the following suggestions when writing an essay on pollution. Moreover, these suggestions will be helpful for most other essays as well.

Begin with an introductory paragraph, preferably highlighting the history or insight of the topic.
Try to avoid jargon unless the topic demands so.
Use bulleted points to present content wherever possible
Incorporate factual data, such as dates, names and places wherever possible.
Avoid writing a large monotonous block of text. Always break up the content into easily digestible chunks
Try to conclude the essay with a closing paragraph.

Essay on Pollution – Sample 1

Pollution had existed long before humans evolved. For instance, volcanic eruptions commonly pumped massive amounts of sulphur dioxide into the atmosphere, causing acid rain. The greenhouse gas, ozone, forms from natural, photochemical reactions in the atmosphere.

However, significant levels of pollution occurred only after the Industrial Revolution, when untreated exhausts and toxic waste products were released into the environment. Air pollution was rampant, with thick, toxic smog covering most towns and cities. Water pollution affected many water bodies. Toxic substances leached into the soil, hampering the soil quality.

Today, there have been many measures to curb the effects of pollution, but its repercussions can still be observed. For instance, the land and sea ice near the poles have been decreasing at an alarming rate. This has led to the debate regarding climatic factors and their impact on our environment. There was a time when lead used to be added to motor fuel. This substance, combined with the world’s increasing demand for motor vehicles, caused a spike in air pollution. What made this air pollution more dangerous is the fact that the air had high levels of lead.

Lead is toxic and can cause a vast array of health problems. The most common illnesses are neurological in nature. Lead can also travel through the placenta, between a mother and her unborn child. Moreover, young children and infants are even more sensitive to lead. They can develop learning deficits, behavioural problems and also a low IQ.

Furthermore, some studies have arrived at a “lead-crime postulate”, where children who were exposed to high levels of lead were more likely to indulge in criminal activities. This correlation was made as to the crime rates during the 1980s, and early 1990s were rather high. Lead can also cause neurological effects on vertebrates and impair the reproductive capabilities of plants. More ominously, lead can be absorbed into the tissues of such organisms, and they can pass it on to us when we consume them.

Technological progress also brings newer forms of pollution. Radioactive pollution is one of the rarer types of pollution. This type of pollution occurs naturally as well – elements such as uranium and thorium are present in rocks and soil. Carbon-14 is a radioactive isotope of carbon naturally present in all living organisms. It is created by cosmic rays. However, these natural sources of radiation are of little concern. Only anthropogenic sources of radioactivity are considered lethal sources of pollution. For instance, the Chernobyl nuclear disaster is the most publicised nuclear disaster ever to occur. The total death count was documented to be at 16,000. However, unofficial reports indicated that the death toll was much higher. Most deaths occurred due to acute radiation poisoning and many other deaths were caused due to radioactivity-induced cancer. Though it has been more than a few decades, radioactivity still persists around the site of the nuclear reactor. Efforts to contain the radioactivity included building the Shelter Structure, more popularly known as the “sarcophagus”. It was built in December 1986 and enclosed the reactor, preventing radiation from leaking through the building.

Though the levels of pollution have dropped down since the industrial revolution, we still see many repercussions to this day. Following are some extreme cases of pollution caused by anthropological activities.

The Great Smog of London was a severe case of air pollution that occurred in 1952. The event caused massive disruption by severely affecting visibility. It also caused a variety of respiratory illnesses in 1,00,000 individuals and the death of over 4,000 as a direct result of the smog.

In India, pollution is even more rampant. Delhi has recorded one of the worst cases of air pollution, with the air rated as “hazardous” in November 2017.

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Environmental and health impacts of air pollution: a review.

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1 Delphis S.A., Kifisia, Greece
2 Laboratory of Hygiene and Environmental Protection, Faculty of Medicine, Democritus University of Thrace, Alexandroupolis, Greece
3 Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois (CHUV), Service de Médicine Interne, Lausanne, Switzerland
4 School of Social and Political Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom

One of our era's greatest scourges is air pollution, on account not only of its impact on climate change but also its impact on public and individual health due to increasing morbidity and mortality. There are many pollutants that are major factors in disease in humans. Among them, Particulate Matter (PM), particles of variable but very small diameter, penetrate the respiratory system via inhalation, causing respiratory and cardiovascular diseases, reproductive and central nervous system dysfunctions, and cancer. Despite the fact that ozone in the stratosphere plays a protective role against ultraviolet irradiation, it is harmful when in high concentration at ground level, also affecting the respiratory and cardiovascular system. Furthermore, nitrogen oxide, sulfur dioxide, Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs), dioxins, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are all considered air pollutants that are harmful to humans. Carbon monoxide can even provoke direct poisoning when breathed in at high levels. Heavy metals such as lead, when absorbed into the human body, can lead to direct poisoning or chronic intoxication, depending on exposure. Diseases occurring from the aforementioned substances include principally respiratory problems such as Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD), asthma, bronchiolitis, and also lung cancer, cardiovascular events, central nervous system dysfunctions, and cutaneous diseases. Last but not least, climate change resulting from environmental pollution affects the geographical distribution of many infectious diseases, as do natural disasters. The only way to tackle this problem is through public awareness coupled with a multidisciplinary approach by scientific experts; national and international organizations must address the emergence of this threat and propose sustainable solutions.

Approach to the Problem

The interactions between humans and their physical surroundings have been extensively studied, as multiple human activities influence the environment. The environment is a coupling of the biotic (living organisms and microorganisms) and the abiotic (hydrosphere, lithosphere, and atmosphere).

Pollution is defined as the introduction into the environment of substances harmful to humans and other living organisms. Pollutants are harmful solids, liquids, or gases produced in higher than usual concentrations that reduce the quality of our environment.

Human activities have an adverse effect on the environment by polluting the water we drink, the air we breathe, and the soil in which plants grow. Although the industrial revolution was a great success in terms of technology, society, and the provision of multiple services, it also introduced the production of huge quantities of pollutants emitted into the air that are harmful to human health. Without any doubt, the global environmental pollution is considered an international public health issue with multiple facets. Social, economic, and legislative concerns and lifestyle habits are related to this major problem. Clearly, urbanization and industrialization are reaching unprecedented and upsetting proportions worldwide in our era. Anthropogenic air pollution is one of the biggest public health hazards worldwide, given that it accounts for about 9 million deaths per year ( 1 ).

Without a doubt, all of the aforementioned are closely associated with climate change, and in the event of danger, the consequences can be severe for mankind ( 2 ). Climate changes and the effects of global planetary warming seriously affect multiple ecosystems, causing problems such as food safety issues, ice and iceberg melting, animal extinction, and damage to plants ( 3 , 4 ).

Air pollution has various health effects. The health of susceptible and sensitive individuals can be impacted even on low air pollution days. Short-term exposure to air pollutants is closely related to COPD (Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease), cough, shortness of breath, wheezing, asthma, respiratory disease, and high rates of hospitalization (a measurement of morbidity).

The long-term effects associated with air pollution are chronic asthma, pulmonary insufficiency, cardiovascular diseases, and cardiovascular mortality. According to a Swedish cohort study, diabetes seems to be induced after long-term air pollution exposure ( 5 ). Moreover, air pollution seems to have various malign health effects in early human life, such as respiratory, cardiovascular, mental, and perinatal disorders ( 3 ), leading to infant mortality or chronic disease in adult age ( 6 ).

National reports have mentioned the increased risk of morbidity and mortality ( 1 ). These studies were conducted in many places around the world and show a correlation between daily ranges of particulate matter (PM) concentration and daily mortality. Climate shifts and global planetary warming ( 3 ) could aggravate the situation. Besides, increased hospitalization (an index of morbidity) has been registered among the elderly and susceptible individuals for specific reasons. Fine and ultrafine particulate matter seems to be associated with more serious illnesses ( 6 ), as it can invade the deepest parts of the airways and more easily reach the bloodstream.

Air pollution mainly affects those living in large urban areas, where road emissions contribute the most to the degradation of air quality. There is also a danger of industrial accidents, where the spread of a toxic fog can be fatal to the populations of the surrounding areas. The dispersion of pollutants is determined by many parameters, most notably atmospheric stability and wind ( 6 ).

In developing countries ( 7 ), the problem is more serious due to overpopulation and uncontrolled urbanization along with the development of industrialization. This leads to poor air quality, especially in countries with social disparities and a lack of information on sustainable management of the environment. The use of fuels such as wood fuel or solid fuel for domestic needs due to low incomes exposes people to bad-quality, polluted air at home. It is of note that three billion people around the world are using the above sources of energy for their daily heating and cooking needs ( 8 ). In developing countries, the women of the household seem to carry the highest risk for disease development due to their longer duration exposure to the indoor air pollution ( 8 , 9 ). Due to its fast industrial development and overpopulation, China is one of the Asian countries confronting serious air pollution problems ( 10 , 11 ). The lung cancer mortality observed in China is associated with fine particles ( 12 ). As stated already, long-term exposure is associated with deleterious effects on the cardiovascular system ( 3 , 5 ). However, it is interesting to note that cardiovascular diseases have mostly been observed in developed and high-income countries rather than in the developing low-income countries exposed highly to air pollution ( 13 ). Extreme air pollution is recorded in India, where the air quality reaches hazardous levels. New Delhi is one of the more polluted cities in India. Flights in and out of New Delhi International Airport are often canceled due to the reduced visibility associated with air pollution. Pollution is occurring both in urban and rural areas in India due to the fast industrialization, urbanization, and rise in use of motorcycle transportation. Nevertheless, biomass combustion associated with heating and cooking needs and practices is a major source of household air pollution in India and in Nepal ( 14 , 15 ). There is spatial heterogeneity in India, as areas with diverse climatological conditions and population and education levels generate different indoor air qualities, with higher PM 2.5 observed in North Indian states (557–601 μg/m 3 ) compared to the Southern States (183–214 μg/m 3 ) ( 16 , 17 ). The cold climate of the North Indian areas may be the main reason for this, as longer periods at home and more heating are necessary compared to in the tropical climate of Southern India. Household air pollution in India is associated with major health effects, especially in women and young children, who stay indoors for longer periods. Chronic obstructive respiratory disease (CORD) and lung cancer are mostly observed in women, while acute lower respiratory disease is seen in young children under 5 years of age ( 18 ).

Accumulation of air pollution, especially sulfur dioxide and smoke, reaching 1,500 mg/m3, resulted in an increase in the number of deaths (4,000 deaths) in December 1952 in London and in 1963 in New York City (400 deaths) ( 19 ). An association of pollution with mortality was reported on the basis of monitoring of outdoor pollution in six US metropolitan cities ( 20 ). In every case, it seems that mortality was closely related to the levels of fine, inhalable, and sulfate particles more than with the levels of total particulate pollution, aerosol acidity, sulfur dioxide, or nitrogen dioxide ( 20 ).

Furthermore, extremely high levels of pollution are reported in Mexico City and Rio de Janeiro, followed by Milan, Ankara, Melbourne, Tokyo, and Moscow ( 19 ).

Based on the magnitude of the public health impact, it is certain that different kinds of interventions should be taken into account. Success and effectiveness in controlling air pollution, specifically at the local level, have been reported. Adequate technological means are applied considering the source and the nature of the emission as well as its impact on health and the environment. The importance of point sources and non-point sources of air pollution control is reported by Schwela and Köth-Jahr ( 21 ). Without a doubt, a detailed emission inventory must record all sources in a given area. Beyond considering the above sources and their nature, topography and meteorology should also be considered, as stated previously. Assessment of the control policies and methods is often extrapolated from the local to the regional and then to the global scale. Air pollution may be dispersed and transported from one region to another area located far away. Air pollution management means the reduction to acceptable levels or possible elimination of air pollutants whose presence in the air affects our health or the environmental ecosystem. Private and governmental entities and authorities implement actions to ensure the air quality ( 22 ). Air quality standards and guidelines were adopted for the different pollutants by the WHO and EPA as a tool for the management of air quality ( 1 , 23 ). These standards have to be compared to the emissions inventory standards by causal analysis and dispersion modeling in order to reveal the problematic areas ( 24 ). Inventories are generally based on a combination of direct measurements and emissions modeling ( 24 ).

As an example, we state here the control measures at the source through the use of catalytic converters in cars. These are devices that turn the pollutants and toxic gases produced from combustion engines into less-toxic pollutants by catalysis through redox reactions ( 25 ). In Greece, the use of private cars was restricted by tracking their license plates in order to reduce traffic congestion during rush hour ( 25 ).

Concerning industrial emissions, collectors and closed systems can keep the air pollution to the minimal standards imposed by legislation ( 26 ).

Current strategies to improve air quality require an estimation of the economic value of the benefits gained from proposed programs. These proposed programs by public authorities, and directives are issued with guidelines to be respected.

In Europe, air quality limit values AQLVs (Air Quality Limit Values) are issued for setting off planning claims ( 27 ). In the USA, the NAAQS (National Ambient Air Quality Standards) establish the national air quality limit values ( 27 ). While both standards and directives are based on different mechanisms, significant success has been achieved in the reduction of overall emissions and associated health and environmental effects ( 27 ). The European Directive identifies geographical areas of risk exposure as monitoring/assessment zones to record the emission sources and levels of air pollution ( 27 ), whereas the USA establishes global geographical air quality criteria according to the severity of their air quality problem and records all sources of the pollutants and their precursors ( 27 ).

In this vein, funds have been financing, directly or indirectly, projects related to air quality along with the technical infrastructure to maintain good air quality. These plans focus on an inventory of databases from air quality environmental planning awareness campaigns. Moreover, pollution measures of air emissions may be taken for vehicles, machines, and industries in urban areas.

Technological innovation can only be successful if it is able to meet the needs of society. In this sense, technology must reflect the decision-making practices and procedures of those involved in risk assessment and evaluation and act as a facilitator in providing information and assessments to enable decision makers to make the best decisions possible. Summarizing the aforementioned in order to design an effective air quality control strategy, several aspects must be considered: environmental factors and ambient air quality conditions, engineering factors and air pollutant characteristics, and finally, economic operating costs for technological improvement and administrative and legal costs. Considering the economic factor, competitiveness through neoliberal concepts is offering a solution to environmental problems ( 22 ).

The development of environmental governance, along with technological progress, has initiated the deployment of a dialogue. Environmental politics has created objections and points of opposition between different political parties, scientists, media, and governmental and non-governmental organizations ( 22 ). Radical environmental activism actions and movements have been created ( 22 ). The rise of the new information and communication technologies (ICTs) are many times examined as to whether and in which way they have influenced means of communication and social movements such as activism ( 28 ). Since the 1990s, the term “digital activism” has been used increasingly and in many different disciplines ( 29 ). Nowadays, multiple digital technologies can be used to produce a digital activism outcome on environmental issues. More specifically, devices with online capabilities such as computers or mobile phones are being used as a way to pursue change in political and social affairs ( 30 ).

In the present paper, we focus on the sources of environmental pollution in relation to public health and propose some solutions and interventions that may be of interest to environmental legislators and decision makers.

Sources of Exposure

It is known that the majority of environmental pollutants are emitted through large-scale human activities such as the use of industrial machinery, power-producing stations, combustion engines, and cars. Because these activities are performed at such a large scale, they are by far the major contributors to air pollution, with cars estimated to be responsible for approximately 80% of today's pollution ( 31 ). Some other human activities are also influencing our environment to a lesser extent, such as field cultivation techniques, gas stations, fuel tanks heaters, and cleaning procedures ( 32 ), as well as several natural sources, such as volcanic and soil eruptions and forest fires.

The classification of air pollutants is based mainly on the sources producing pollution. Therefore, it is worth mentioning the four main sources, following the classification system: Major sources, Area sources, Mobile sources, and Natural sources.

Major sources include the emission of pollutants from power stations, refineries, and petrochemicals, the chemical and fertilizer industries, metallurgical and other industrial plants, and, finally, municipal incineration.

Indoor area sources include domestic cleaning activities, dry cleaners, printing shops, and petrol stations.

Mobile sources include automobiles, cars, railways, airways, and other types of vehicles.

Finally, natural sources include, as stated previously, physical disasters ( 33 ) such as forest fire, volcanic erosion, dust storms, and agricultural burning.

However, many classification systems have been proposed. Another type of classification is a grouping according to the recipient of the pollution, as follows:

Air pollution is determined as the presence of pollutants in the air in large quantities for long periods. Air pollutants are dispersed particles, hydrocarbons, CO, CO 2 , NO, NO 2 , SO 3 , etc.

Water pollution is organic and inorganic charge and biological charge ( 10 ) at high levels that affect the water quality ( 34 , 35 ).

Soil pollution occurs through the release of chemicals or the disposal of wastes, such as heavy metals, hydrocarbons, and pesticides.

Air pollution can influence the quality of soil and water bodies by polluting precipitation, falling into water and soil environments ( 34 , 36 ). Notably, the chemistry of the soil can be amended due to acid precipitation by affecting plants, cultures, and water quality ( 37 ). Moreover, movement of heavy metals is favored by soil acidity, and metals are so then moving into the watery environment. It is known that heavy metals such as aluminum are noxious to wildlife and fishes. Soil quality seems to be of importance, as soils with low calcium carbonate levels are at increased jeopardy from acid rain. Over and above rain, snow and particulate matter drip into watery ' bodies ( 36 , 38 ).

Lastly, pollution is classified following type of origin:

Radioactive and nuclear pollution , releasing radioactive and nuclear pollutants into water, air, and soil during nuclear explosions and accidents, from nuclear weapons, and through handling or disposal of radioactive sewage.

Radioactive materials can contaminate surface water bodies and, being noxious to the environment, plants, animals, and humans. It is known that several radioactive substances such as radium and uranium concentrate in the bones and can cause cancers ( 38 , 39 ).

Noise pollution is produced by machines, vehicles, traffic noises, and musical installations that are harmful to our hearing.

The World Health Organization introduced the term DALYs. The DALYs for a disease or health condition is defined as the sum of the Years of Life Lost (YLL) due to premature mortality in the population and the Years Lost due to Disability (YLD) for people living with the health condition or its consequences ( 39 ). In Europe, air pollution is the main cause of disability-adjusted life years lost (DALYs), followed by noise pollution. The potential relationships of noise and air pollution with health have been studied ( 40 ). The study found that DALYs related to noise were more important than those related to air pollution, as the effects of environmental noise on cardiovascular disease were independent of air pollution ( 40 ). Environmental noise should be counted as an independent public health risk ( 40 ).

Environmental pollution occurs when changes in the physical, chemical, or biological constituents of the environment (air masses, temperature, climate, etc.) are produced.

Pollutants harm our environment either by increasing levels above normal or by introducing harmful toxic substances. Primary pollutants are directly produced from the above sources, and secondary pollutants are emitted as by-products of the primary ones. Pollutants can be biodegradable or non-biodegradable and of natural origin or anthropogenic, as stated previously. Moreover, their origin can be a unique source (point-source) or dispersed sources.

Pollutants have differences in physical and chemical properties, explaining the discrepancy in their capacity for producing toxic effects. As an example, we state here that aerosol compounds ( 41 – 43 ) have a greater toxicity than gaseous compounds due to their tiny size (solid or liquid) in the atmosphere; they have a greater penetration capacity. Gaseous compounds are eliminated more easily by our respiratory system ( 41 ). These particles are able to damage lungs and can even enter the bloodstream ( 41 ), leading to the premature deaths of millions of people yearly. Moreover, the aerosol acidity ([H+]) seems to considerably enhance the production of secondary organic aerosols (SOA), but this last aspect is not supported by other scientific teams ( 38 ).

Climate and Pollution

Air pollution and climate change are closely related. Climate is the other side of the same coin that reduces the quality of our Earth ( 44 ). Pollutants such as black carbon, methane, tropospheric ozone, and aerosols affect the amount of incoming sunlight. As a result, the temperature of the Earth is increasing, resulting in the melting of ice, icebergs, and glaciers.

In this vein, climatic changes will affect the incidence and prevalence of both residual and imported infections in Europe. Climate and weather affect the duration, timing, and intensity of outbreaks strongly and change the map of infectious diseases in the globe ( 45 ). Mosquito-transmitted parasitic or viral diseases are extremely climate-sensitive, as warming firstly shortens the pathogen incubation period and secondly shifts the geographic map of the vector. Similarly, water-warming following climate changes leads to a high incidence of waterborne infections. Recently, in Europe, eradicated diseases seem to be emerging due to the migration of population, for example, cholera, poliomyelitis, tick-borne encephalitis, and malaria ( 46 ).

The spread of epidemics is associated with natural climate disasters and storms, which seem to occur more frequently nowadays ( 47 ). Malnutrition and disequilibration of the immune system are also associated with the emerging infections affecting public health ( 48 ).

The Chikungunya virus “took the airplane” from the Indian Ocean to Europe, as outbreaks of the disease were registered in Italy ( 49 ) as well as autochthonous cases in France ( 50 ).

An increase in cryptosporidiosis in the United Kingdom and in the Czech Republic seems to have occurred following flooding ( 36 , 51 ).

As stated previously, aerosols compounds are tiny in size and considerably affect the climate. They are able to dissipate sunlight (the albedo phenomenon) by dispersing a quarter of the sun's rays back to space and have cooled the global temperature over the last 30 years ( 52 ).

Air Pollutants

The World Health Organization (WHO) reports on six major air pollutants, namely particle pollution, ground-level ozone, carbon monoxide, sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, and lead. Air pollution can have a disastrous effect on all components of the environment, including groundwater, soil, and air. Additionally, it poses a serious threat to living organisms. In this vein, our interest is mainly to focus on these pollutants, as they are related to more extensive and severe problems in human health and environmental impact. Acid rain, global warming, the greenhouse effect, and climate changes have an important ecological impact on air pollution ( 53 ).

Particulate Matter (PM) and Health

Studies have shown a relationship between particulate matter (PM) and adverse health effects, focusing on either short-term (acute) or long-term (chronic) PM exposure.

Particulate matter (PM) is usually formed in the atmosphere as a result of chemical reactions between the different pollutants. The penetration of particles is closely dependent on their size ( 53 ). Particulate Matter (PM) was defined as a term for particles by the United States Environmental Protection Agency ( 54 ). Particulate matter (PM) pollution includes particles with diameters of 10 micrometers (μm) or smaller, called PM 10 , and extremely fine particles with diameters that are generally 2.5 micrometers (μm) and smaller.

Particulate matter contains tiny liquid or solid droplets that can be inhaled and cause serious health effects ( 55 ). Particles <10 μm in diameter (PM 10 ) after inhalation can invade the lungs and even reach the bloodstream. Fine particles, PM 2.5 , pose a greater risk to health ( 6 , 56 ) ( Table 1 ).

Table 1 . Penetrability according to particle size.

Multiple epidemiological studies have been performed on the health effects of PM. A positive relation was shown between both short-term and long-term exposures of PM 2.5 and acute nasopharyngitis ( 56 ). In addition, long-term exposure to PM for years was found to be related to cardiovascular diseases and infant mortality.

Those studies depend on PM 2.5 monitors and are restricted in terms of study area or city area due to a lack of spatially resolved daily PM 2.5 concentration data and, in this way, are not representative of the entire population. Following a recent epidemiological study by the Department of Environmental Health at Harvard School of Public Health (Boston, MA) ( 57 ), it was reported that, as PM 2.5 concentrations vary spatially, an exposure error (Berkson error) seems to be produced, and the relative magnitudes of the short- and long-term effects are not yet completely elucidated. The team developed a PM 2.5 exposure model based on remote sensing data for assessing short- and long-term human exposures ( 57 ). This model permits spatial resolution in short-term effects plus the assessment of long-term effects in the whole population.

Moreover, respiratory diseases and affection of the immune system are registered as long-term chronic effects ( 58 ). It is worth noting that people with asthma, pneumonia, diabetes, and respiratory and cardiovascular diseases are especially susceptible and vulnerable to the effects of PM. PM 2.5 , followed by PM 10 , are strongly associated with diverse respiratory system diseases ( 59 ), as their size permits them to pierce interior spaces ( 60 ). The particles produce toxic effects according to their chemical and physical properties. The components of PM 10 and PM 2.5 can be organic (polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, dioxins, benzene, 1-3 butadiene) or inorganic (carbon, chlorides, nitrates, sulfates, metals) in nature ( 55 ).

Particulate Matter (PM) is divided into four main categories according to type and size ( 61 ) ( Table 2 ).

Table 2 . Types and sizes of particulate Matter (PM).

Gas contaminants include PM in aerial masses.

Particulate contaminants include contaminants such as smog, soot, tobacco smoke, oil smoke, fly ash, and cement dust.

Biological Contaminants are microorganisms (bacteria, viruses, fungi, mold, and bacterial spores), cat allergens, house dust and allergens, and pollen.

Types of Dust include suspended atmospheric dust, settling dust, and heavy dust.

Finally, another fact is that the half-lives of PM 10 and PM 2.5 particles in the atmosphere is extended due to their tiny dimensions; this permits their long-lasting suspension in the atmosphere and even their transfer and spread to distant destinations where people and the environment may be exposed to the same magnitude of pollution ( 53 ). They are able to change the nutrient balance in watery ecosystems, damage forests and crops, and acidify water bodies.

As stated, PM 2.5 , due to their tiny size, are causing more serious health effects. These aforementioned fine particles are the main cause of the “haze” formation in different metropolitan areas ( 12 , 13 , 61 ).

Ozone Impact in the Atmosphere

Ozone (O 3 ) is a gas formed from oxygen under high voltage electric discharge ( 62 ). It is a strong oxidant, 52% stronger than chlorine. It arises in the stratosphere, but it could also arise following chain reactions of photochemical smog in the troposphere ( 63 ).

Ozone can travel to distant areas from its initial source, moving with air masses ( 64 ). It is surprising that ozone levels over cities are low in contrast to the increased amounts occuring in urban areas, which could become harmful for cultures, forests, and vegetation ( 65 ) as it is reducing carbon assimilation ( 66 ). Ozone reduces growth and yield ( 47 , 48 ) and affects the plant microflora due to its antimicrobial capacity ( 67 , 68 ). In this regard, ozone acts upon other natural ecosystems, with microflora ( 69 , 70 ) and animal species changing their species composition ( 71 ). Ozone increases DNA damage in epidermal keratinocytes and leads to impaired cellular function ( 72 ).

Ground-level ozone (GLO) is generated through a chemical reaction between oxides of nitrogen and VOCs emitted from natural sources and/or following anthropogenic activities.

Ozone uptake usually occurs by inhalation. Ozone affects the upper layers of the skin and the tear ducts ( 73 ). A study of short-term exposure of mice to high levels of ozone showed malondialdehyde formation in the upper skin (epidermis) but also depletion in vitamins C and E. It is likely that ozone levels are not interfering with the skin barrier function and integrity to predispose to skin disease ( 74 ).

Due to the low water-solubility of ozone, inhaled ozone has the capacity to penetrate deeply into the lungs ( 75 ).

Toxic effects induced by ozone are registered in urban areas all over the world, causing biochemical, morphologic, functional, and immunological disorders ( 76 ).

The European project (APHEA2) focuses on the acute effects of ambient ozone concentrations on mortality ( 77 ). Daily ozone concentrations compared to the daily number of deaths were reported from different European cities for a 3-year period. During the warm period of the year, an observed increase in ozone concentration was associated with an increase in the daily number of deaths (0.33%), in the number of respiratory deaths (1.13%), and in the number of cardiovascular deaths (0.45%). No effect was observed during wintertime.

Carbon Monoxide (CO)

Carbon monoxide is produced by fossil fuel when combustion is incomplete. The symptoms of poisoning due to inhaling carbon monoxide include headache, dizziness, weakness, nausea, vomiting, and, finally, loss of consciousness.

The affinity of carbon monoxide to hemoglobin is much greater than that of oxygen. In this vein, serious poisoning may occur in people exposed to high levels of carbon monoxide for a long period of time. Due to the loss of oxygen as a result of the competitive binding of carbon monoxide, hypoxia, ischemia, and cardiovascular disease are observed.

Carbon monoxide affects the greenhouses gases that are tightly connected to global warming and climate. This should lead to an increase in soil and water temperatures, and extreme weather conditions or storms may occur ( 68 ).

However, in laboratory and field experiments, it has been seen to produce increased plant growth ( 78 ).

Nitrogen Oxide (NO 2 )

Nitrogen oxide is a traffic-related pollutant, as it is emitted from automobile motor engines ( 79 , 80 ). It is an irritant of the respiratory system as it penetrates deep in the lung, inducing respiratory diseases, coughing, wheezing, dyspnea, bronchospasm, and even pulmonary edema when inhaled at high levels. It seems that concentrations over 0.2 ppm produce these adverse effects in humans, while concentrations higher than 2.0 ppm affect T-lymphocytes, particularly the CD8+ cells and NK cells that produce our immune response ( 81 ).It is reported that long-term exposure to high levels of nitrogen dioxide can be responsible for chronic lung disease. Long-term exposure to NO 2 can impair the sense of smell ( 81 ).

However, systems other than respiratory ones can be involved, as symptoms such as eye, throat, and nose irritation have been registered ( 81 ).

High levels of nitrogen dioxide are deleterious to crops and vegetation, as they have been observed to reduce crop yield and plant growth efficiency. Moreover, NO 2 can reduce visibility and discolor fabrics ( 81 ).

Sulfur Dioxide (SO 2 )

Sulfur dioxide is a harmful gas that is emitted mainly from fossil fuel consumption or industrial activities. The annual standard for SO 2 is 0.03 ppm ( 82 ). It affects human, animal, and plant life. Susceptible people as those with lung disease, old people, and children, who present a higher risk of damage. The major health problems associated with sulfur dioxide emissions in industrialized areas are respiratory irritation, bronchitis, mucus production, and bronchospasm, as it is a sensory irritant and penetrates deep into the lung converted into bisulfite and interacting with sensory receptors, causing bronchoconstriction. Moreover, skin redness, damage to the eyes (lacrimation and corneal opacity) and mucous membranes, and worsening of pre-existing cardiovascular disease have been observed ( 81 ).

Environmental adverse effects, such as acidification of soil and acid rain, seem to be associated with sulfur dioxide emissions ( 83 ).

Lead is a heavy metal used in different industrial plants and emitted from some petrol motor engines, batteries, radiators, waste incinerators, and waste waters ( 84 ).

Moreover, major sources of lead pollution in the air are metals, ore, and piston-engine aircraft. Lead poisoning is a threat to public health due to its deleterious effects upon humans, animals, and the environment, especially in the developing countries.

Exposure to lead can occur through inhalation, ingestion, and dermal absorption. Trans- placental transport of lead was also reported, as lead passes through the placenta unencumbered ( 85 ). The younger the fetus is, the more harmful the toxic effects. Lead toxicity affects the fetal nervous system; edema or swelling of the brain is observed ( 86 ). Lead, when inhaled, accumulates in the blood, soft tissue, liver, lung, bones, and cardiovascular, nervous, and reproductive systems. Moreover, loss of concentration and memory, as well as muscle and joint pain, were observed in adults ( 85 , 86 ).

Children and newborns ( 87 ) are extremely susceptible even to minimal doses of lead, as it is a neurotoxicant and causes learning disabilities, impairment of memory, hyperactivity, and even mental retardation.

Elevated amounts of lead in the environment are harmful to plants and crop growth. Neurological effects are observed in vertebrates and animals in association with high lead levels ( 88 ).

Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons(PAHs)

The distribution of PAHs is ubiquitous in the environment, as the atmosphere is the most important means of their dispersal. They are found in coal and in tar sediments. Moreover, they are generated through incomplete combustion of organic matter as in the cases of forest fires, incineration, and engines ( 89 ). PAH compounds, such as benzopyrene, acenaphthylene, anthracene, and fluoranthene are recognized as toxic, mutagenic, and carcinogenic substances. They are an important risk factor for lung cancer ( 89 ).

Volatile Organic Compounds(VOCs)

Volatile organic compounds (VOCs), such as toluene, benzene, ethylbenzene, and xylene ( 90 ), have been found to be associated with cancer in humans ( 91 ). The use of new products and materials has actually resulted in increased concentrations of VOCs. VOCs pollute indoor air ( 90 ) and may have adverse effects on human health ( 91 ). Short-term and long-term adverse effects on human health are observed. VOCs are responsible for indoor air smells. Short-term exposure is found to cause irritation of eyes, nose, throat, and mucosal membranes, while those of long duration exposure include toxic reactions ( 92 ). Predictable assessment of the toxic effects of complex VOC mixtures is difficult to estimate, as these pollutants can have synergic, antagonistic, or indifferent effects ( 91 , 93 ).

Dioxins originate from industrial processes but also come from natural processes, such as forest fires and volcanic eruptions. They accumulate in foods such as meat and dairy products, fish and shellfish, and especially in the fatty tissue of animals ( 94 ).

Short-period exhibition to high dioxin concentrations may result in dark spots and lesions on the skin ( 94 ). Long-term exposure to dioxins can cause developmental problems, impairment of the immune, endocrine and nervous systems, reproductive infertility, and cancer ( 94 ).

Without any doubt, fossil fuel consumption is responsible for a sizeable part of air contamination. This contamination may be anthropogenic, as in agricultural and industrial processes or transportation, while contamination from natural sources is also possible. Interestingly, it is of note that the air quality standards established through the European Air Quality Directive are somewhat looser than the WHO guidelines, which are stricter ( 95 ).

Effect of Air Pollution on Health

The most common air pollutants are ground-level ozone and Particulates Matter (PM). Air pollution is distinguished into two main types:

Outdoor pollution is the ambient air pollution.

Indoor pollution is the pollution generated by household combustion of fuels.

People exposed to high concentrations of air pollutants experience disease symptoms and states of greater and lesser seriousness. These effects are grouped into short- and long-term effects affecting health.

Susceptible populations that need to be aware of health protection measures include old people, children, and people with diabetes and predisposing heart or lung disease, especially asthma.

As extensively stated previously, according to a recent epidemiological study from Harvard School of Public Health, the relative magnitudes of the short- and long-term effects have not been completely clarified ( 57 ) due to the different epidemiological methodologies and to the exposure errors. New models are proposed for assessing short- and long-term human exposure data more successfully ( 57 ). Thus, in the present section, we report the more common short- and long-term health effects but also general concerns for both types of effects, as these effects are often dependent on environmental conditions, dose, and individual susceptibility.

Short-term effects are temporary and range from simple discomfort, such as irritation of the eyes, nose, skin, throat, wheezing, coughing and chest tightness, and breathing difficulties, to more serious states, such as asthma, pneumonia, bronchitis, and lung and heart problems. Short-term exposure to air pollution can also cause headaches, nausea, and dizziness.

These problems can be aggravated by extended long-term exposure to the pollutants, which is harmful to the neurological, reproductive, and respiratory systems and causes cancer and even, rarely, deaths.

The long-term effects are chronic, lasting for years or the whole life and can even lead to death. Furthermore, the toxicity of several air pollutants may also induce a variety of cancers in the long term ( 96 ).

As stated already, respiratory disorders are closely associated with the inhalation of air pollutants. These pollutants will invade through the airways and will accumulate at the cells. Damage to target cells should be related to the pollutant component involved and its source and dose. Health effects are also closely dependent on country, area, season, and time. An extended exposure duration to the pollutant should incline to long-term health effects in relation also to the above factors.

Particulate Matter (PMs), dust, benzene, and O 3 cause serious damage to the respiratory system ( 97 ). Moreover, there is a supplementary risk in case of existing respiratory disease such as asthma ( 98 ). Long-term effects are more frequent in people with a predisposing disease state. When the trachea is contaminated by pollutants, voice alterations may be remarked after acute exposure. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) may be induced following air pollution, increasing morbidity and mortality ( 99 ). Long-term effects from traffic, industrial air pollution, and combustion of fuels are the major factors for COPD risk ( 99 ).

Multiple cardiovascular effects have been observed after exposure to air pollutants ( 100 ). Changes occurred in blood cells after long-term exposure may affect cardiac functionality. Coronary arteriosclerosis was reported following long-term exposure to traffic emissions ( 101 ), while short-term exposure is related to hypertension, stroke, myocardial infracts, and heart insufficiency. Ventricle hypertrophy is reported to occur in humans after long-time exposure to nitrogen oxide (NO 2 ) ( 102 , 103 ).

Neurological effects have been observed in adults and children after extended-term exposure to air pollutants.

Psychological complications, autism, retinopathy, fetal growth, and low birth weight seem to be related to long-term air pollution ( 83 ). The etiologic agent of the neurodegenerative diseases (Alzheimer's and Parkinson's) is not yet known, although it is believed that extended exposure to air pollution seems to be a factor. Specifically, pesticides and metals are cited as etiological factors, together with diet. The mechanisms in the development of neurodegenerative disease include oxidative stress, protein aggregation, inflammation, and mitochondrial impairment in neurons ( 104 ) ( Figure 1 ).

Figure 1 . Impact of air pollutants on the brain.

Brain inflammation was observed in dogs living in a highly polluted area in Mexico for a long period ( 105 ). In human adults, markers of systemic inflammation (IL-6 and fibrinogen) were found to be increased as an immediate response to PNC on the IL-6 level, possibly leading to the production of acute-phase proteins ( 106 ). The progression of atherosclerosis and oxidative stress seem to be the mechanisms involved in the neurological disturbances caused by long-term air pollution. Inflammation comes secondary to the oxidative stress and seems to be involved in the impairment of developmental maturation, affecting multiple organs ( 105 , 107 ). Similarly, other factors seem to be involved in the developmental maturation, which define the vulnerability to long-term air pollution. These include birthweight, maternal smoking, genetic background and socioeconomic environment, as well as education level.

However, diet, starting from breast-feeding, is another determinant factor. Diet is the main source of antioxidants, which play a key role in our protection against air pollutants ( 108 ). Antioxidants are free radical scavengers and limit the interaction of free radicals in the brain ( 108 ). Similarly, genetic background may result in a differential susceptibility toward the oxidative stress pathway ( 60 ). For example, antioxidant supplementation with vitamins C and E appears to modulate the effect of ozone in asthmatic children homozygous for the GSTM1 null allele ( 61 ). Inflammatory cytokines released in the periphery (e.g., respiratory epithelia) upregulate the innate immune Toll-like receptor 2. Such activation and the subsequent events leading to neurodegeneration have recently been observed in lung lavage in mice exposed to ambient Los Angeles (CA, USA) particulate matter ( 61 ). In children, neurodevelopmental morbidities were observed after lead exposure. These children developed aggressive and delinquent behavior, reduced intelligence, learning difficulties, and hyperactivity ( 109 ). No level of lead exposure seems to be “safe,” and the scientific community has asked the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) to reduce the current screening guideline of 10 μg/dl ( 109 ).

It is important to state that impact on the immune system, causing dysfunction and neuroinflammation ( 104 ), is related to poor air quality. Yet, increases in serum levels of immunoglobulins (IgA, IgM) and the complement component C3 are observed ( 106 ). Another issue is that antigen presentation is affected by air pollutants, as there is an upregulation of costimulatory molecules such as CD80 and CD86 on macrophages ( 110 ).

As is known, skin is our shield against ultraviolet radiation (UVR) and other pollutants, as it is the most exterior layer of our body. Traffic-related pollutants, such as PAHs, VOCs, oxides, and PM, may cause pigmented spots on our skin ( 111 ). On the one hand, as already stated, when pollutants penetrate through the skin or are inhaled, damage to the organs is observed, as some of these pollutants are mutagenic and carcinogenic, and, specifically, they affect the liver and lung. On the other hand, air pollutants (and those in the troposphere) reduce the adverse effects of ultraviolet radiation UVR in polluted urban areas ( 111 ). Air pollutants absorbed by the human skin may contribute to skin aging, psoriasis, acne, urticaria, eczema, and atopic dermatitis ( 111 ), usually caused by exposure to oxides and photochemical smoke ( 111 ). Exposure to PM and cigarette smoking act as skin-aging agents, causing spots, dyschromia, and wrinkles. Lastly, pollutants have been associated with skin cancer ( 111 ).

Higher morbidity is reported to fetuses and children when exposed to the above dangers. Impairment in fetal growth, low birth weight, and autism have been reported ( 112 ).

Another exterior organ that may be affected is the eye. Contamination usually comes from suspended pollutants and may result in asymptomatic eye outcomes, irritation ( 112 ), retinopathy, or dry eye syndrome ( 113 , 114 ).

Environmental Impact of Air Pollution

Air pollution is harming not only human health but also the environment ( 115 ) in which we live. The most important environmental effects are as follows.

Acid rain is wet (rain, fog, snow) or dry (particulates and gas) precipitation containing toxic amounts of nitric and sulfuric acids. They are able to acidify the water and soil environments, damage trees and plantations, and even damage buildings and outdoor sculptures, constructions, and statues.

Haze is produced when fine particles are dispersed in the air and reduce the transparency of the atmosphere. It is caused by gas emissions in the air coming from industrial facilities, power plants, automobiles, and trucks.

Ozone , as discussed previously, occurs both at ground level and in the upper level (stratosphere) of the Earth's atmosphere. Stratospheric ozone is protecting us from the Sun's harmful ultraviolet (UV) rays. In contrast, ground-level ozone is harmful to human health and is a pollutant. Unfortunately, stratospheric ozone is gradually damaged by ozone-depleting substances (i.e., chemicals, pesticides, and aerosols). If this protecting stratospheric ozone layer is thinned, then UV radiation can reach our Earth, with harmful effects for human life (skin cancer) ( 116 ) and crops ( 117 ). In plants, ozone penetrates through the stomata, inducing them to close, which blocks CO 2 transfer and induces a reduction in photosynthesis ( 118 ).

Global climate change is an important issue that concerns mankind. As is known, the “greenhouse effect” keeps the Earth's temperature stable. Unhappily, anthropogenic activities have destroyed this protecting temperature effect by producing large amounts of greenhouse gases, and global warming is mounting, with harmful effects on human health, animals, forests, wildlife, agriculture, and the water environment. A report states that global warming is adding to the health risks of poor people ( 119 ).

People living in poorly constructed buildings in warm-climate countries are at high risk for heat-related health problems as temperatures mount ( 119 ).

Wildlife is burdened by toxic pollutants coming from the air, soil, or the water ecosystem and, in this way, animals can develop health problems when exposed to high levels of pollutants. Reproductive failure and birth effects have been reported.

Eutrophication is occurring when elevated concentrations of nutrients (especially nitrogen) stimulate the blooming of aquatic algae, which can cause a disequilibration in the diversity of fish and their deaths.

Without a doubt, there is a critical concentration of pollution that an ecosystem can tolerate without being destroyed, which is associated with the ecosystem's capacity to neutralize acidity. The Canada Acid Rain Program established this load at 20 kg/ha/yr ( 120 ).

Hence, air pollution has deleterious effects on both soil and water ( 121 ). Concerning PM as an air pollutant, its impact on crop yield and food productivity has been reported. Its impact on watery bodies is associated with the survival of living organisms and fishes and their productivity potential ( 121 ).

An impairment in photosynthetic rhythm and metabolism is observed in plants exposed to the effects of ozone ( 121 ).

Sulfur and nitrogen oxides are involved in the formation of acid rain and are harmful to plants and marine organisms.

Last but not least, as mentioned above, the toxicity associated with lead and other metals is the main threat to our ecosystems (air, water, and soil) and living creatures ( 121 ).

In 2018, during the first WHO Global Conference on Air Pollution and Health, the WHO's General Director, Dr. Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus, called air pollution a “silent public health emergency” and “the new tobacco” ( 122 ).

Undoubtedly, children are particularly vulnerable to air pollution, especially during their development. Air pollution has adverse effects on our lives in many different respects.

Diseases associated with air pollution have not only an important economic impact but also a societal impact due to absences from productive work and school.

Despite the difficulty of eradicating the problem of anthropogenic environmental pollution, a successful solution could be envisaged as a tight collaboration of authorities, bodies, and doctors to regularize the situation. Governments should spread sufficient information and educate people and should involve professionals in these issues so as to control the emergence of the problem successfully.

Technologies to reduce air pollution at the source must be established and should be used in all industries and power plants. The Kyoto Protocol of 1997 set as a major target the reduction of GHG emissions to below 5% by 2012 ( 123 ). This was followed by the Copenhagen summit, 2009 ( 124 ), and then the Durban summit of 2011 ( 125 ), where it was decided to keep to the same line of action. The Kyoto protocol and the subsequent ones were ratified by many countries. Among the pioneers who adopted this important protocol for the world's environmental and climate “health” was China ( 3 ). As is known, China is a fast-developing economy and its GDP (Gross Domestic Product) is expected to be very high by 2050, which is defined as the year of dissolution of the protocol for the decrease in gas emissions.

A more recent international agreement of crucial importance for climate change is the Paris Agreement of 2015, issued by the UNFCCC (United Nations Climate Change Committee). This latest agreement was ratified by a plethora of UN (United Nations) countries as well as the countries of the European Union ( 126 ). In this vein, parties should promote actions and measures to enhance numerous aspects around the subject. Boosting education, training, public awareness, and public participation are some of the relevant actions for maximizing the opportunities to achieve the targets and goals on the crucial matter of climate change and environmental pollution ( 126 ). Without any doubt, technological improvements makes our world easier and it seems difficult to reduce the harmful impact caused by gas emissions, we could limit its use by seeking reliable approaches.

Synopsizing, a global prevention policy should be designed in order to combat anthropogenic air pollution as a complement to the correct handling of the adverse health effects associated with air pollution. Sustainable development practices should be applied, together with information coming from research in order to handle the problem effectively.

At this point, international cooperation in terms of research, development, administration policy, monitoring, and politics is vital for effective pollution control. Legislation concerning air pollution must be aligned and updated, and policy makers should propose the design of a powerful tool of environmental and health protection. As a result, the main proposal of this essay is that we should focus on fostering local structures to promote experience and practice and extrapolate these to the international level through developing effective policies for sustainable management of ecosystems.

Author Contributions

All authors listed have made a substantial, direct and intellectual contribution to the work, and approved it for publication.

Conflict of Interest

IM is employed by the company Delphis S.A.

The remaining authors declare that the present review paper was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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Keywords: air pollution, environment, health, public health, gas emission, policy

Citation: Manisalidis I, Stavropoulou E, Stavropoulos A and Bezirtzoglou E (2020) Environmental and Health Impacts of Air Pollution: A Review. Front. Public Health 8:14. doi: 10.3389/fpubh.2020.00014

Received: 17 October 2019; Accepted: 17 January 2020; Published: 20 February 2020.

Reviewed by:

Copyright © 2020 Manisalidis, Stavropoulou, Stavropoulos and Bezirtzoglou. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Ioannis Manisalidis, giannismanisal@gmail.com ; Elisavet Stavropoulou, elisabeth.stavropoulou@gmail.com

† These authors have contributed equally to this work

Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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What is air pollution?

What causes air pollution, effects of air pollution, air pollution in the united states, air pollution and environmental justice, controlling air pollution, how to help reduce air pollution, how to protect your health.

Air pollution refers to the release of pollutants into the air—pollutants that are detrimental to human health and the planet as a whole. According to the World Health Organization (WHO) , each year, indoor and outdoor air pollution is responsible for nearly seven million deaths around the globe. Ninety-nine percent of human beings currently breathe air that exceeds the WHO’s guideline limits for pollutants, with those living in low- and middle-income countries suffering the most. In the United States, the Clean Air Act , established in 1970, authorizes the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to safeguard public health by regulating the emissions of these harmful air pollutants.

“Most air pollution comes from energy use and production,” says John Walke , director of the Clean Air team at NRDC. Driving a car on gasoline, heating a home with oil, running a power plant on fracked gas : In each case, a fossil fuel is burned and harmful chemicals and gases are released into the air.

“We’ve made progress over the last 50 years in improving air quality in the United States, thanks to the Clean Air Act. But climate change will make it harder in the future to meet pollution standards, which are designed to protect health ,” says Walke.

Air pollution is now the world’s fourth-largest risk factor for early death. According to the 2020 State of Global Air report —which summarizes the latest scientific understanding of air pollution around the world—4.5 million deaths were linked to outdoor air pollution exposures in 2019, and another 2.2 million deaths were caused by indoor air pollution. The world’s most populous countries, China and India, continue to bear the highest burdens of disease.

“Despite improvements in reducing global average mortality rates from air pollution, this report also serves as a sobering reminder that the climate crisis threatens to worsen air pollution problems significantly,” explains Vijay Limaye , senior scientist in NRDC’s Science Office. Smog, for instance, is intensified by increased heat, forming when the weather is warmer and there’s more ultraviolet radiation. In addition, climate change increases the production of allergenic air pollutants, including mold (thanks to damp conditions caused by extreme weather and increased flooding) and pollen (due to a longer pollen season). “Climate change–fueled droughts and dry conditions are also setting the stage for dangerous wildfires,” adds Limaye. “ Wildfire smoke can linger for days and pollute the air with particulate matter hundreds of miles downwind.”

The effects of air pollution on the human body vary, depending on the type of pollutant, the length and level of exposure, and other factors, including a person’s individual health risks and the cumulative impacts of multiple pollutants or stressors.

Smog and soot

These are the two most prevalent types of air pollution. Smog (sometimes referred to as ground-level ozone) occurs when emissions from combusting fossil fuels react with sunlight. Soot—a type of particulate matter —is made up of tiny particles of chemicals, soil, smoke, dust, or allergens that are carried in the air. The sources of smog and soot are similar. “Both come from cars and trucks, factories, power plants, incinerators, engines, generally anything that combusts fossil fuels such as coal, gasoline, or natural gas,” Walke says.

Smog can irritate the eyes and throat and also damage the lungs, especially those of children, senior citizens, and people who work or exercise outdoors. It’s even worse for people who have asthma or allergies; these extra pollutants can intensify their symptoms and trigger asthma attacks. The tiniest airborne particles in soot are especially dangerous because they can penetrate the lungs and bloodstream and worsen bronchitis, lead to heart attacks, and even hasten death. In 2020, a report from Harvard’s T.H. Chan School of Public Health showed that COVID-19 mortality rates were higher in areas with more particulate matter pollution than in areas with even slightly less, showing a correlation between the virus’s deadliness and long-term exposure to air pollution.

These findings also illuminate an important environmental justice issue . Because highways and polluting facilities have historically been sited in or next to low-income neighborhoods and communities of color, the negative effects of this pollution have been disproportionately experienced by the people who live in these communities.

Hazardous air pollutants

A number of air pollutants pose severe health risks and can sometimes be fatal, even in small amounts. Almost 200 of them are regulated by law; some of the most common are mercury, lead , dioxins, and benzene. “These are also most often emitted during gas or coal combustion, incineration, or—in the case of benzene—found in gasoline,” Walke says. Benzene, classified as a carcinogen by the EPA, can cause eye, skin, and lung irritation in the short term and blood disorders in the long term. Dioxins, more typically found in food but also present in small amounts in the air, is another carcinogen that can affect the liver in the short term and harm the immune, nervous, and endocrine systems, as well as reproductive functions. Mercury attacks the central nervous system. In large amounts, lead can damage children’s brains and kidneys, and even minimal exposure can affect children’s IQ and ability to learn.

Another category of toxic compounds, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), are by-products of traffic exhaust and wildfire smoke. In large amounts, they have been linked to eye and lung irritation, blood and liver issues, and even cancer. In one study , the children of mothers exposed to PAHs during pregnancy showed slower brain-processing speeds and more pronounced symptoms of ADHD.

Greenhouse gases

While these climate pollutants don’t have the direct or immediate impacts on the human body associated with other air pollutants, like smog or hazardous chemicals, they are still harmful to our health. By trapping the earth’s heat in the atmosphere, greenhouse gases lead to warmer temperatures, which in turn lead to the hallmarks of climate change: rising sea levels, more extreme weather, heat-related deaths, and the increased transmission of infectious diseases. In 2021, carbon dioxide accounted for roughly 79 percent of the country’s total greenhouse gas emissions, and methane made up more than 11 percent. “Carbon dioxide comes from combusting fossil fuels, and methane comes from natural and industrial sources, including large amounts that are released during oil and gas drilling,” Walke says. “We emit far larger amounts of carbon dioxide, but methane is significantly more potent, so it’s also very destructive.”

Another class of greenhouse gases, hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) , are thousands of times more powerful than carbon dioxide in their ability to trap heat. In October 2016, more than 140 countries signed the Kigali Agreement to reduce the use of these chemicals—which are found in air conditioners and refrigerators—and develop greener alternatives over time. (The United States officially signed onto the Kigali Agreement in 2022.)

Pollen and mold

Mold and allergens from trees, weeds, and grass are also carried in the air, are exacerbated by climate change, and can be hazardous to health. Though they aren’t regulated, they can be considered a form of air pollution. “When homes, schools, or businesses get water damage, mold can grow and produce allergenic airborne pollutants,” says Kim Knowlton, professor of environmental health sciences at Columbia University and a former NRDC scientist. “ Mold exposure can precipitate asthma attacks or an allergic response, and some molds can even produce toxins that would be dangerous for anyone to inhale.”

Pollen allergies are worsening because of climate change . “Lab and field studies are showing that pollen-producing plants—especially ragweed—grow larger and produce more pollen when you increase the amount of carbon dioxide that they grow in,” Knowlton says. “Climate change also extends the pollen production season, and some studies are beginning to suggest that ragweed pollen itself might be becoming a more potent allergen.” If so, more people will suffer runny noses, fevers, itchy eyes, and other symptoms. “And for people with allergies and asthma, pollen peaks can precipitate asthma attacks, which are far more serious and can be life-threatening.”

More than one in three U.S. residents—120 million people—live in counties with unhealthy levels of air pollution, according to the 2023 State of the Air report by the American Lung Association (ALA). Since the annual report was first published, in 2000, its findings have shown how the Clean Air Act has been able to reduce harmful emissions from transportation, power plants, and manufacturing.

Recent findings, however, reflect how climate change–fueled wildfires and extreme heat are adding to the challenges of protecting public health. The latest report—which focuses on ozone, year-round particle pollution, and short-term particle pollution—also finds that people of color are 61 percent more likely than white people to live in a county with a failing grade in at least one of those categories, and three times more likely to live in a county that fails in all three.

In rankings for each of the three pollution categories covered by the ALA report, California cities occupy the top three slots (i.e., were highest in pollution), despite progress that the Golden State has made in reducing air pollution emissions in the past half century. At the other end of the spectrum, these cities consistently rank among the country’s best for air quality: Burlington, Vermont; Honolulu; and Wilmington, North Carolina.

No one wants to live next door to an incinerator, oil refinery, port, toxic waste dump, or other polluting site. Yet millions of people around the world do, and this puts them at a much higher risk for respiratory disease, cardiovascular disease, neurological damage, cancer, and death. In the United States, people of color are 1.5 times more likely than whites to live in areas with poor air quality, according to the ALA.

Historically, racist zoning policies and discriminatory lending practices known as redlining have combined to keep polluting industries and car-choked highways away from white neighborhoods and have turned communities of color—especially low-income and working-class communities of color—into sacrifice zones, where residents are forced to breathe dirty air and suffer the many health problems associated with it. In addition to the increased health risks that come from living in such places, the polluted air can economically harm residents in the form of missed workdays and higher medical costs.

Environmental racism isn't limited to cities and industrial areas. Outdoor laborers, including the estimated three million migrant and seasonal farmworkers in the United States, are among the most vulnerable to air pollution—and they’re also among the least equipped, politically, to pressure employers and lawmakers to affirm their right to breathe clean air.

Recently, cumulative impact mapping , which uses data on environmental conditions and demographics, has been able to show how some communities are overburdened with layers of issues, like high levels of poverty, unemployment, and pollution. Tools like the Environmental Justice Screening Method and the EPA’s EJScreen provide evidence of what many environmental justice communities have been explaining for decades: that we need land use and public health reforms to ensure that vulnerable areas are not overburdened and that the people who need resources the most are receiving them.

In the United States, the Clean Air Act has been a crucial tool for reducing air pollution since its passage in 1970, although fossil fuel interests aided by industry-friendly lawmakers have frequently attempted to weaken its many protections. Ensuring that this bedrock environmental law remains intact and properly enforced will always be key to maintaining and improving our air quality.

But the best, most effective way to control air pollution is to speed up our transition to cleaner fuels and industrial processes. By switching over to renewable energy sources (such as wind and solar power), maximizing fuel efficiency in our vehicles, and replacing more and more of our gasoline-powered cars and trucks with electric versions, we'll be limiting air pollution at its source while also curbing the global warming that heightens so many of its worst health impacts.

And what about the economic costs of controlling air pollution? According to a report on the Clean Air Act commissioned by NRDC, the annual benefits of cleaner air are up to 32 times greater than the cost of clean air regulations. Those benefits include up to 370,000 avoided premature deaths, 189,000 fewer hospital admissions for cardiac and respiratory illnesses, and net economic benefits of up to $3.8 trillion for the U.S. economy every year.

“The less gasoline we burn, the better we’re doing to reduce air pollution and the harmful effects of climate change,” Walke explains. “Make good choices about transportation. When you can, ride a bike, walk, or take public transportation. For driving, choose a car that gets better miles per gallon of gas or buy an electric car .” You can also investigate your power provider options—you may be able to request that your electricity be supplied by wind or solar. Buying your food locally cuts down on the fossil fuels burned in trucking or flying food in from across the world. And most important: “Support leaders who push for clean air and water and responsible steps on climate change,” Walke says.

“When you see in the news or hear on the weather report that pollution levels are high, it may be useful to limit the time when children go outside or you go for a jog,” Walke says. Generally, ozone levels tend to be lower in the morning.
If you exercise outside, stay as far as you can from heavily trafficked roads. Then shower and wash your clothes to remove fine particles.
The air may look clear, but that doesn’t mean it’s pollution free. Utilize tools like the EPA’s air pollution monitor, AirNow , to get the latest conditions. If the air quality is bad, stay inside with the windows closed.
If you live or work in an area that’s prone to wildfires, stay away from the harmful smoke as much as you’re able. Consider keeping a small stock of masks to wear when conditions are poor. The most ideal masks for smoke particles will be labelled “NIOSH” (which stands for National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health) and have either “N95” or “P100” printed on it.
If you’re using an air conditioner while outdoor pollution conditions are bad, use the recirculating setting to limit the amount of polluted air that gets inside.

This story was originally published on November 1, 2016, and has been updated with new information and links.

This NRDC.org story is available for online republication by news media outlets or nonprofits under these conditions: The writer(s) must be credited with a byline; you must note prominently that the story was originally published by NRDC.org and link to the original; the story cannot be edited (beyond simple things such as grammar); you can’t resell the story in any form or grant republishing rights to other outlets; you can’t republish our material wholesale or automatically—you need to select stories individually; you can’t republish the photos or graphics on our site without specific permission; you should drop us a note to let us know when you’ve used one of our stories.

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Essay on Environmental Hazards

Students are often asked to write an essay on Environmental Hazards in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on Environmental Hazards

Understanding environmental hazards.

Environmental hazards refer to natural or human-induced conditions that negatively affect the environment and human health. These include air pollution, water pollution, soil erosion, and deforestation.

Types of Environmental Hazards

Air pollution, mainly from factories and vehicles, harms our lungs. Water pollution, from industrial waste and chemicals, affects aquatic life and our drinking water. Soil erosion, due to deforestation, leads to loss of fertile land.

Protecting Our Environment

We can reduce environmental hazards by using renewable energy, recycling, and planting trees. Educating others about these issues is also crucial. Let’s protect our environment for a healthy future.

250 Words Essay on Environmental Hazards

Introduction to environmental hazards.

Environmental hazards are a pressing issue in our contemporary society, posing significant threats to both human health and the natural world. These hazards, often a result of human activities, include air, water, and soil pollution, radiation, deforestation, and climate change.

The Impact of Pollution

Air pollution, primarily caused by the burning of fossil fuels, affects not only the environment but also human health, causing respiratory diseases and contributing to global warming. Similarly, water pollution, resulting from industrial waste and agricultural runoff, threatens aquatic life and contaminates drinking water, leading to a myriad of health problems.

Deforestation and Its Consequences

Deforestation, driven by the demand for agricultural land and timber, disrupts ecosystems, leading to loss of biodiversity and contributing to climate change. The removal of trees, which act as carbon sinks, increases the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, accelerating global warming.

Climate Change: A Global Threat

Climate change, arguably the most significant environmental hazard, is driven by human-induced increases in greenhouse gas emissions. Rising global temperatures result in melting ice caps, rising sea levels, and extreme weather events, all of which pose profound threats to human societies.

Conclusion: The Need for Action

Addressing environmental hazards requires concerted global action. Strategies include promoting sustainable practices, investing in renewable energy, and implementing effective environmental policies. As the stewards of our planet, it is incumbent upon us to mitigate these hazards and ensure a sustainable future for generations to come.

500 Words Essay on Environmental Hazards

Environmental hazards are a diverse set of issues that pose potential harm to our natural world and the living organisms that inhabit it. These hazards, often a direct result of human activity, can lead to significant damage to ecosystems and a decline in biodiversity, affecting the balance of life on Earth.

The Different Types of Environmental Hazards

Environmental hazards can be broadly categorized into four types: physical, biological, chemical, and cultural. Physical hazards include natural disasters such as earthquakes, floods, and volcanic eruptions. Biological hazards refer to the spread of diseases and invasive species. Chemical hazards encompass pollution from industrial waste, pesticides, and other harmful substances. Lastly, cultural hazards arise from societal practices that harm the environment, such as deforestation and over-fishing.

The Impact of Environmental Hazards

The consequences of environmental hazards are far-reaching and multifaceted. They contribute to the degradation of ecosystems, loss of biodiversity, and the deterioration of human health. The release of harmful chemicals into the environment, for instance, can contaminate water sources, leading to a range of health problems in humans and wildlife. Moreover, the destruction of natural habitats can lead to the extinction of numerous species, disrupting the balance of ecosystems.

Climate Change: A Global Environmental Hazard

Climate change, induced by anthropogenic activities, is one of the most critical environmental hazards facing our planet today. The burning of fossil fuels releases greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, leading to global warming. This phenomenon results in more frequent and severe weather events, rising sea levels, and shifts in wildlife populations and habitats. These changes pose significant threats to human societies, particularly those in vulnerable, low-lying coastal areas.

Addressing Environmental Hazards

Addressing environmental hazards requires a multi-pronged approach. This includes implementing stricter regulations on pollution, promoting sustainable practices, and raising public awareness about the importance of environmental conservation. Technological innovations can also play a key role in mitigating environmental hazards. For instance, the development of renewable energy sources can help reduce our reliance on fossil fuels, thereby curbing greenhouse gas emissions.

In conclusion, environmental hazards pose a significant threat to both our planet and its inhabitants. It is crucial for us to understand the different types of environmental hazards and their impacts, as this knowledge can guide our efforts in mitigating these issues. As we move forward, it is essential that we prioritize sustainable practices and innovative solutions to protect our environment for future generations.

That’s it! I hope the essay helped you.

If you’re looking for more, here are essays on other interesting topics:

Essay on Environmental Ethics
Essay on Environmental Degradation
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Apart from these, you can look at all the essays by clicking here .

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Environmental and Health Impacts of Air Pollution: A Review

Ioannis manisalidis.

1 Delphis S.A., Kifisia, Greece

2 Laboratory of Hygiene and Environmental Protection, Faculty of Medicine, Democritus University of Thrace, Alexandroupolis, Greece

Elisavet Stavropoulou

3 Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois (CHUV), Service de Médicine Interne, Lausanne, Switzerland

Agathangelos Stavropoulos

4 School of Social and Political Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom

Eugenia Bezirtzoglou

Approach to the Problem

Furthermore, extremely high levels of pollution are reported in Mexico City and Rio de Janeiro, followed by Milan, Ankara, Melbourne, Tokyo, and Moscow ( 19 ).

Concerning industrial emissions, collectors and closed systems can keep the air pollution to the minimal standards imposed by legislation ( 26 ).

Sources of Exposure

Indoor area sources include domestic cleaning activities, dry cleaners, printing shops, and petrol stations.

Mobile sources include automobiles, cars, railways, airways, and other types of vehicles.

Finally, natural sources include, as stated previously, physical disasters ( 33 ) such as forest fire, volcanic erosion, dust storms, and agricultural burning.

However, many classification systems have been proposed. Another type of classification is a grouping according to the recipient of the pollution, as follows:

Air pollution is determined as the presence of pollutants in the air in large quantities for long periods. Air pollutants are dispersed particles, hydrocarbons, CO, CO 2 , NO, NO 2 , SO 3 , etc.

Water pollution is organic and inorganic charge and biological charge ( 10 ) at high levels that affect the water quality ( 34 , 35 ).

Soil pollution occurs through the release of chemicals or the disposal of wastes, such as heavy metals, hydrocarbons, and pesticides.

Lastly, pollution is classified following type of origin:

Noise pollution is produced by machines, vehicles, traffic noises, and musical installations that are harmful to our hearing.

Environmental pollution occurs when changes in the physical, chemical, or biological constituents of the environment (air masses, temperature, climate, etc.) are produced.

Climate and Pollution

The Chikungunya virus “took the airplane” from the Indian Ocean to Europe, as outbreaks of the disease were registered in Italy ( 49 ) as well as autochthonous cases in France ( 50 ).

An increase in cryptosporidiosis in the United Kingdom and in the Czech Republic seems to have occurred following flooding ( 36 , 51 ).

Air Pollutants

Particulate Matter (PM) and Health

Studies have shown a relationship between particulate matter (PM) and adverse health effects, focusing on either short-term (acute) or long-term (chronic) PM exposure.

Penetrability according to particle size.

Particulate Matter (PM) is divided into four main categories according to type and size ( 61 ) ( Table 2 ).

Types and sizes of particulate Matter (PM).

Gas contaminants include PM in aerial masses.

Particulate contaminants include contaminants such as smog, soot, tobacco smoke, oil smoke, fly ash, and cement dust.

Biological Contaminants are microorganisms (bacteria, viruses, fungi, mold, and bacterial spores), cat allergens, house dust and allergens, and pollen.

Types of Dust include suspended atmospheric dust, settling dust, and heavy dust.

Ozone Impact in the Atmosphere

Ground-level ozone (GLO) is generated through a chemical reaction between oxides of nitrogen and VOCs emitted from natural sources and/or following anthropogenic activities.

Due to the low water-solubility of ozone, inhaled ozone has the capacity to penetrate deeply into the lungs ( 75 ).

Toxic effects induced by ozone are registered in urban areas all over the world, causing biochemical, morphologic, functional, and immunological disorders ( 76 ).

Carbon Monoxide (CO)

However, in laboratory and field experiments, it has been seen to produce increased plant growth ( 78 ).

Nitrogen Oxide (NO 2 )

However, systems other than respiratory ones can be involved, as symptoms such as eye, throat, and nose irritation have been registered ( 81 ).

Sulfur Dioxide (SO 2 )

Environmental adverse effects, such as acidification of soil and acid rain, seem to be associated with sulfur dioxide emissions ( 83 ).

Lead is a heavy metal used in different industrial plants and emitted from some petrol motor engines, batteries, radiators, waste incinerators, and waste waters ( 84 ).

Elevated amounts of lead in the environment are harmful to plants and crop growth. Neurological effects are observed in vertebrates and animals in association with high lead levels ( 88 ).

Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons(PAHs)

Volatile Organic Compounds(VOCs)

Effect of Air Pollution on Health

The most common air pollutants are ground-level ozone and Particulates Matter (PM). Air pollution is distinguished into two main types:

Outdoor pollution is the ambient air pollution.

Indoor pollution is the pollution generated by household combustion of fuels.

Susceptible populations that need to be aware of health protection measures include old people, children, and people with diabetes and predisposing heart or lung disease, especially asthma.

Neurological effects have been observed in adults and children after extended-term exposure to air pollutants.

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Impact of air pollutants on the brain.

Higher morbidity is reported to fetuses and children when exposed to the above dangers. Impairment in fetal growth, low birth weight, and autism have been reported ( 112 ).

Environmental Impact of Air Pollution

Air pollution is harming not only human health but also the environment ( 115 ) in which we live. The most important environmental effects are as follows.

People living in poorly constructed buildings in warm-climate countries are at high risk for heat-related health problems as temperatures mount ( 119 ).

An impairment in photosynthetic rhythm and metabolism is observed in plants exposed to the effects of ozone ( 121 ).

Sulfur and nitrogen oxides are involved in the formation of acid rain and are harmful to plants and marine organisms.

Last but not least, as mentioned above, the toxicity associated with lead and other metals is the main threat to our ecosystems (air, water, and soil) and living creatures ( 121 ).

Undoubtedly, children are particularly vulnerable to air pollution, especially during their development. Air pollution has adverse effects on our lives in many different respects.

Diseases associated with air pollution have not only an important economic impact but also a societal impact due to absences from productive work and school.

Author Contributions

All authors listed have made a substantial, direct and intellectual contribution to the work, and approved it for publication.

Conflict of Interest

IM is employed by the company Delphis S.A. The remaining authors declare that the present review paper was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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Environmental Pollution Essay

Essay on Environmental Pollution

The environment is the surrounding of an organism. The environment in which an organism lives is made up of various components like air, water, land, etc. These components are found in fixed proportions to create a harmonious balance in the environment for the organism to live in. Any kind of undesirable and unwanted change in the proportions of these components can be termed as pollution. This issue is increasing with every passing year. It is an issue that creates economic, physical, and social troubles. The environmental problem that is worsening with each day needs to be addressed so that its harmful effects on humans as well as the planet can be discarded.

Causes of Environmental Pollution

With the rise of the industries and the migration of people from villages to cities in search of employment, there has been a regular increase in the problem of proper housing and unhygienic living conditions. These reasons have given rise to factors that cause pollution.

Environmental pollution is of five basic types namely, Air, Water, Soil, and Noise pollution.

Air Pollution: Air pollution is a major issue in today’s world. The smoke pouring out of factory chimneys and automobiles pollute the air that we breathe in. Gases like carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, and sulphur dioxide are emitted with this smoke which mixes with air and causes great harm to the human body, flora, and fauna. The dry-farm waste, dry grass, leaves, and coal used as domestic fuels in our villages also produce harmful gases. Acid rain occurs due to an excess of sulphur dioxide in the air.

The Main Sources of Air Pollution are as Follows:

Automobile pollution

Industrial air pollution

Burning garbage

Brick kilns

Indoor air pollution

Decomposed animals and plants

Radioactive elements

Water Pollution: Water pollution is one of the most serious environmental issues. The waste products from the growing industries and sewage water are not treated properly before disposing of the wastewater into the rivers and other water bodies, thus leading to water pollution. Agricultural processes with excess fertilizers and pesticides also pollute the water bodies.

The Main Sources of Water Pollution as Follows:

Marine commerce.

Industrial effluents joining seas and oceans.

Dumping of radioactive substances into seawater.

Sewage is disposed of into the sea by rivers.

Offshore oil rigs.

Recreational activities.

Agricultural pollutants are disposed of into the water bodies.

Soil or Land Pollution: Soil pollution or land pollution results from the deposition of solid waste, accumulation of biodegradable material, deposition of chemicals with poisonous chemical compositions, etc on the open land. Waste materials such as plastics, polythene, and bottles, cause land pollution and render the soil infertile. Moreover, the dumping of dead bodies of animals adds to this issue. Soil pollution causes several diseases in man and animals like Cholera, Dysentery, Typhoid, etc.

The Main Causes of Soil Pollution are as Follows:

Industrial waste

Urban commercial and domestic waste

Chemical fertilizers

Biomedical waste

Noise Pollution: With an increasing population, urbanization, and industrialization, noise pollution is becoming a serious form of pollution affecting human life, health, and comfort in daily life. Horns of vehicles, loudspeakers, music systems, and industrial activities contribute to noise pollution.

The Main Sources of Noise Pollution as Follows:

The machines in the factories and industries produce whistling sounds, crushing noise, and thundering sounds.

Loudspeakers, horns of vehicles.

Blasting of rocks and earth, drilling tube wells, ventilation fans, and heavy earth-moving machinery at construction sites.

How Pollution Harms Health and Environment

The lives of people and other creatures are affected by environmental pollution, both directly and indirectly. For centuries, these living organisms have coexisted with humans on the planet.

1. Effect on the Environment

Smog is formed when carbon and dust particles bind together in the air, causing respiratory problems, haze, and smoke. These are created by the combustion of fossil fuels in industrial and manufacturing facilities and vehicle combustion of carbon fumes.

Furthermore, these factors impact the immune systems of birds, making them carriers of viruses and diseases. It also has an impact on the body's system and organs.

2. Land, Soil, and Food Effects

The degradation of human organic and chemical waste harms the land and soil. It also releases chemicals into the land and water. Pesticides, fertilisers, soil erosion, and crop residues are the main causes of land and soil pollution.

3. Effects on water

Water is easily contaminated by any pollutant, whether it be human waste or factory chemical discharge. We also use this water for crop irrigation and drinking. They, too, get polluted as a result of infection. Furthermore, an animal dies as a result of drinking the same tainted water.

Furthermore, approximately 80% of land-based pollutants such as chemical, industrial, and agricultural waste wind up in water bodies.

Furthermore, because these water basins eventually link to the sea, they contaminate the sea's biodiversity indirectly.

4. Food Reaction

Crops and agricultural produce become poisonous as a result of contaminated soil and water. These crops are laced with chemical components from the start of their lives until harvest when they reach a mass level. Due to this, tainted food has an impact on our health and organs.

5. Climate Change Impact

Climate change is also a source of pollution in the environment. It also has an impact on the ecosystem's physical and biological components.

Ozone depletion, greenhouse gas emissions, and global warming are all examples of environmental pollution. Because these water basins eventually link to the sea, they contaminate the sea's biodiversity indirectly. Furthermore, their consequences may be fatal for future generations. The unpredictably cold and hot climate impacts the earth’s natural system.

Furthermore, earthquakes, starvation, smog, carbon particles, shallow rain or snow, thunderstorms, volcanic eruptions, and avalanches are all caused by climate change, caused entirely by environmental pollution.

How to Minimise Environmental Pollution?

To minimise this issue, some preventive measures need to be taken.

Principle of 3R’s: To save the environment, use the principle of 3 R’s; Reuse, Reduce and Recycle.

Reuse products again and again. Instead of throwing away things after one use, find a way to use them again. Reduce the generation of waste products.

Recycle: Paper, plastics, glass, and electronic items can be processed into new products while using fewer natural resources and lesser energy.

To prevent and control air pollution, better-designed equipment, and smokeless fuels should be used in homes and industries. More and more trees should be planted to balance the ecosystem and control greenhouse effects.

Noise pollution can be minimised by better design and proper maintenance of vehicles. Industrial noise can be reduced by soundproofing equipment like generators, etc.

To control soil pollution, we must stop the usage of plastic. Sewage should be treated properly before using it as fertilizers and as landfills. Encourage organic farming as this process involves the use of biological materials and avoiding synthetic substances to maintain soil fertility and ecological balance.

Several measures can be adopted to control water pollution. Some of them are water consumption and usage that can be minimized by altering the techniques involved. Water should be reused with treatment.

The melting icebergs in Antarctica resulted in rising sea levels due to the world's environmental pollution, which had become a serious problem due to global warming, which had become a significant concern. Rising carbon pollution poses a risk for causing natural disasters such as earthquakes, cyclones, and other natural disasters.

The Hiroshima-Nagasaki and Chernobyl disasters in Russia have irreversibly harmed humanity. Different countries around the world are responding to these calamities in the most effective way possible.

Different countries around the world are responding to these calamities in the most effective way possible. More public awareness campaigns are being established to educate people about the hazards of pollution and the importance of protecting our environment. Greener lifestyles are becoming more popular; for example, energy-efficient lighting, new climate-friendly autos, and the usage of wind and solar power are just a few examples.

Governments emphasise the need to plant more trees, minimise the use of plastics, improve natural waste recovery, and reduce pesticide use. This ecological way of living has helped humanity save other creatures from extinction while making the Earth a greener and safer ecology.

Conclusion

It is the responsibility of every individual to save our planet from these environmental contamination agents. If preventive measures are not taken then our future generation will have to face major repercussions. The government is also taking steps to create public awareness. Every individual should be involved in helping to reduce and control pollution.

FAQs on Environmental Pollution Essay

1. What do you understand by ‘Environmental Pollution’?

Environmental pollution is the contamination of the environment and surroundings like air, water, soil by the discharge of harmful substances.

2. What preventive measures should be taken to save our environment?

Some of the preventive measures that should be taken to save our environment are discussed below.

We can save our environment by adopting the concept of carpooling and promoting public transport to save fuel. Smoking bars are public policies, including criminal laws and occupational safety and health regulations that prohibit tobacco smoking in workplaces and other public places.

The use of Fossil fuels should be restricted because it causes major environmental issues like global warming.

Encourage organic farming to maintain the fertility of the soil.

3. What are the main sources of soil pollution?

The main sources of soil pollution as follows:

Industrial waste

Urban commercial and domestic waste

Chemical fertilizers

Biomedical waste

4. What is organic farming?

It is a farming method that involves growing and nurturing crops without the use of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides.

Essay on Air Pollution for Students and Children

500+ words essay on air pollution.

Essay on Air Pollution – Earlier the air we breathe in use to be pure and fresh. But, due to increasing industrialization and concentration of poisonous gases in the environment the air is getting more and more toxic day by day. Also, these gases are the cause of many respiratory and other diseases . Moreover, the rapidly increasing human activities like the burning of fossil fuels, deforestation is the major cause of air pollution.

How Air Gets Polluted?

The fossil fuel , firewood, and other things that we burn produce oxides of carbons which got released into the atmosphere. Earlier there happens to be a large number of trees which can easily filter the air we breathe in. But with the increase in demand for land, the people started cutting down of trees which caused deforestation. That ultimately reduced the filtering capacity of the tree.

Moreover, during the last few decades, the numbers of fossil fuel burning vehicle increased rapidly which increased the number of pollutants in the air .

Causes Of Air Pollution

Its causes include burning of fossil fuel and firewood, smoke released from factories , volcanic eruptions, forest fires, bombardment, asteroids, CFCs (Chlorofluorocarbons), carbon oxides and many more.

Besides, there are some other air pollutants like industrial waste, agricultural waste, power plants, thermal nuclear plants, etc.

Greenhouse Effect

The greenhouse effect is also the cause of air pollution because air pollution produces the gases that greenhouse involves. Besides, it increases the temperature of earth surface so much that the polar caps are melting and most of the UV rays are easily penetrating the surface of the earth.

Get the huge list of more than 500 Essay Topics and Ideas

Effects Of Air Pollution On Health

Moreover, it increases the rate of aging of lungs, decreases lungs function, damage cells in the respiratory system.

Ways To Reduce Air Pollution

Although the level of air pollution has reached a critical point. But, there are still ways by which we can reduce the number of air pollutants from the air.

Reforestation- The quality of air can be improved by planting more and more trees as they clean and filter the air.

Policy for industries- Strict policy for industries related to the filter of gases should be introduced in the countries. So, we can minimize the toxins released from factories.

Use of eco-friendly fuel- We have to adopt the usage of Eco-friendly fuels such as LPG (Liquefied Petroleum Gas), CNG (Compressed Natural Gas), bio-gas, and other eco-friendly fuels. So, we can reduce the amount of harmful toxic gases.

To sum it up, we can say that the air we breathe is getting more and more polluted day by day. The biggest contribution to the increase in air pollution is of fossil fuels which produce nitric and sulphuric oxides. But, humans have taken this problem seriously and are devotedly working to eradicate the problem that they have created.

Above all, many initiatives like plant trees, use of eco-friendly fuel are promoted worldwide.

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ENCYCLOPEDIC ENTRY

Marine pollution.

Marine pollution is a combination of chemicals and trash, most of which comes from land sources and is washed or blown into the ocean. This pollution results in damage to the environment, to the health of all organisms, and to economic structures worldwide.

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Marine pollution is a growing problem in today’s world. Our ocean is being flooded with two main types of pollution: chemicals and trash.

Chemical contamination, or nutrient pollution, is concerning for health, environmental, and economic reasons. This type of pollution occurs when human activities, notably the use of fertilizer on farms, lead to the runoff of chemicals into waterways that ultimately flow into the ocean. The increased concentration of chemicals, such as nitrogen and phosphorus, in the coastal ocean promotes the growth of algal blooms , which can be toxic to wildlife and harmful to humans. The negative effects on health and the environment caused by algal blooms hurt local fishing and tourism industries.

Marine trash encompasses all manufactured products—most of them plastic —that end up in the ocean. Littering, storm winds, and poor waste management all contribute to the accumulation of this debris , 80 percent of which comes from sources on land. Common types of marine debris include various plastic items like shopping bags and beverage bottles, along with cigarette butts, bottle caps, food wrappers, and fishing gear. Plastic waste is particularly problematic as a pollutant because it is so long-lasting. Plastic items can take hundreds of years to decompose.

This trash poses dangers to both humans and animals. Fish become tangled and injured in the debris , and some animals mistake items like plastic bags for food and eat them. Small organisms feed on tiny bits of broken-down plastic , called micro plastic , and absorb the chemicals from the plastic into their tissues. Micro plastics are less than five millimeters (0.2 inches) in diameter and have been detected in a range of marine species, including plankton and whales. When small organisms that consume micro plastics are eaten by larger animals, the toxic chemicals then become part of their tissues. In this way, the micro plastic pollution migrates up the food chain , eventually becoming part of the food that humans eat.

Solutions for marine pollution include prevention and cleanup. Disposable and single-use plastic is abundantly used in today’s society, from shopping bags to shipping packaging to plastic bottles. Changing society’s approach to plastic use will be a long and economically challenging process. Cleanup, in contrast, may be impossible for some items. Many types of debris (including some plastics ) do not float, so they are lost deep in the ocean. Plastics that do float tend to collect in large “patches” in ocean gyres. The Pacific Garbage Patch is one example of such a collection, with plastics and micro plastics floating on and below the surface of swirling ocean currents between California and Hawaii in an area of about 1.6 million square kilometers (617,763 square miles), although its size is not fixed. These patches are less like islands of trash and, as the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration says, more like flecks of micro plastic pepper swirling around an ocean soup. Even some promising solutions are inadequate for combating marine pollution. So-called “ biodegradable ” plastics often break down only at temperatures higher than will ever be reached in the ocean.

Nonetheless, many countries are taking action. According to a 2018 report from the United Nations, more than sixty countries have enacted regulations to limit or ban the use of disposable plastic items. The National Geographic Society is making this content available under a Creative Commons CC-BY-NC-SA license . The License excludes the National Geographic Logo (meaning the words National Geographic + the Yellow Border Logo) and any images that are included as part of each content piece. For clarity the Logo and images may not be removed, altered, or changed in any way.

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Pollution deserves more attention in cardiology—and more action, the adverse cardiovascular effects of pollution are greater than that of many other established risk factors, jason kovacic argues..

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Pollution Deserves More Attention in Cardiology—and More Action

There’s plenty of evidence linking pollution with adverse cardiovascular outcomes, and the problem deserves to be better recognized and addressed by the cardiology community, argue the authors of two review papers published Monday.

“The burden here is alarming and I think that's really important to drive home,” senior author Jason C. Kovacic, MD, PhD (Victor Chang Cardiac Research Institute, Darlinghurst, Australia), told TCTMD. “Pollution in all its forms is a greater health threat than that of war, terrorism, malaria, HIV, tuberculosis, drugs, and alcohol combined. The scale of the problem is absolutely alarming .”

Pointing to a recent paper published in the New England Journal of Medicine regarding the adverse cardiovascular effects of microplastics in carotid artery plaque as one example, Kovacic said that “the problem is not just coming, it's here. And we need to do so much to raise awareness and to act.”

While the scope of the issue can seem daunting, the best place for the cardiology community to start would be to recognize that this is “not a niche interest,” lead author Mark Miller, PhD (University of Edinburgh, Scotland), told TCTMD. Frustratingly, he said, even though the evidence has existed for a while connecting pollution and heart disease, “I think [for] a lot of cardiologists, it's perhaps not their focus. . . . In cardiology, we're still thinking of high blood pressure. We're still thinking about a diet and lack of physical exercise.”

Those are all “hugely important,” he continued, but air pollution, specifically, has now been ranked higher than smoking and hypertension as a cardiovascular disease risk factor by the Global Burden of Disease Study. “It's time to take this seriously,” he said. “It's time to start doing something about it. Yes, it's perhaps big policies that we need to try and tackle this. But the cardiologist can do something as well.”

For instance, he said, he’d like to see more training in medical school regarding the effects of air pollution. Additionally, Miller said cardiologists are “great advocates for change,” not only for their patients, but within society and government as well.

There's so much evidence accumulating that at some point it will no longer be acceptable to sit on the sidelines. Dhruv Kazi

Dhruv Kazi, MD (Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center/Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA), who commented on the papers for TCTMD, agreed. “We haven't traditionally thought about the tight connection between climate change and cardiovascular health,” he said. “And now what we're seeing is both increasing awareness of that relationship—a clarification that we need to understand that relationship better—and certainly a resulting call to action. This isn't a distant threat, but it's here and now.”

Looking at All Pollutants

In two papers, published today in the Journal of the American College of Cardiology, Miller, Kovacic, and colleagues do a deep dive into the research connecting cardiovascular disease with global warming, air pollution, and wildfires, and into the cardiovascular impact of water, soil, noise, and light pollution, respectively.

For the first, the authors call out specific examples of cardiovascular risk factors or events exacerbated by heat events (dehydration, sympathetic activation, increased cardiac strain, increased renal strain, peripheral vasodilation, increased coagulation, and heat stroke), air pollution (systemic inflammation, autonomic imbalance, endothelial dysfunction, increased blood pressure, platelet activation and increased coagulation, and impaired fibrinolysis), and wildfires (systemic inflammation, oxidative stress, impaired cardiac function, and reduced pulmonary blood flow).

The second paper explores perhaps lesser-known pollutants related to water, soil, noise, and light. They highlight the potential negative effects of toxic metals like lead , cadmium, mercury, arsenic, and cobalt at even low exposure levels, as well as organophosphate insecticides often used in agriculture and halogenated hydrocarbons and plastic-associated chemicals like bisphenol A (BPA) and phthalates ever present in our environments.

While the effects of each of these types of pollution can and do vary by geography, the global population is at risk generally, the authors say. Notably, though, they write: “Inequalities are rife in terms of exposure to pollutants and their consequences, with 92% of pollution-related deaths occurring in low- and middle-income countries.”

Miller, Kovacic, and colleagues call for several global reforms to reduce pollutants and slow the burden of climate change. They call upon individual lifestyle changes related to reducing waste and “living a more modest life” as well as country-level shifts toward renewable energy and “changes to our built environment that facilitate clean travel, close local amenities, and efficient waste removal streams.” Additionally, the authors urge governments to end the “massive subsidies” provided to the fossil fuel industry.

Within the medical field, they insist practitioners “lead by example to reduce pollution and energy inefficiency.” Specifically, they write: “The cardiovascular community, in particular, has the scale and foundations to promote the message for change, and, given the prominence of cardiovascular disease as a consequence of environmental risk factors, that voice should be justifiably strong.”

‘So Much Evidence Accumulating’

One of the biggest challenges with addressing pollution is that it’s a “collective problem,” said Stacey E. Alexeeff, PhD (Kaiser Permanente Division of Research, Oakland, CA), who commented on the papers for TCTMD. “It isn’t something that you can just purely control on an individual level.”

The scale of the problem is absolutely alarming . Jason C. Kovacic

Another frustration is that there are “likely many undiscovered cardiotoxins among the more than 300,000 synthetic chemicals invented in the past half century,” Alexeeff said. “There's so much that we still don't even know, basically, about what other chemicals that we have been exposed to. . . . How do we figure out what burdens some of those could be having? That’s a big research problem.”

While individual actions can contribute to change, she said the biggest impact will come from governments and other societal and cross-border commitments .

Education is at the foundation of this issue, so publication of these papers is already a start, according to Alexeeff. “The burden of pollution to cardiovascular health really is very important and we need to think about it with the same level of importance as things like diet and exercise and smoking that are factors cardiologists are already thinking about,” she said, adding that cardiologists should feel empowered to coach their high-risk patients about reducing exposure to air pollution, for example.

Kazi agreed that individuals need to be “introspective about what they can change about their carbon footprint.” But, he said, hospitals and healthcare systems should “look outward” about the effect climate change and pollution is having on patients, especially vulnerable ones.

“Health systems, in particular, can be sources of greenhouse emissions , particularly in the US,” Kazi said. “It's not just the fact that we have a lot of buildings and a lot of people. It's also that we use drugs and devices that are fairly intense in terms of their carbon footprint. And so just being cognizant of what can we do to build a greener health system is a conversation that cardiologists can contribute to.”

Cardiovascular societies should also take a more active role in advocating for climate-friendly policies within and outside of the health system, Kazi continued. “In general, cardiovascular societies have been reluctant to take this position, I guess implicitly suggesting that it feels ‘outside’ our lane,” he said. “What these and a series of other papers coming out are showing us is that this is very much in our lane, and it is affecting the health of our patients and it's doing that now. And just as we are perfectly comfortable proposing individual and societal interventions for other things that adversely affect our patient's health, we should be willing to talk about climate change as well.

“We're getting to this tipping point where there's so much evidence accumulating that at some point it will no longer be acceptable to sit on the sidelines ,” Kazi added.

Yael L. Maxwell is Senior Medical Journalist for TCTMD and Section Editor of TCTMD's Fellows Forum . She served as the inaugural…

Disclosures

Miller MR, Landrigan PJ, Arora M, et al. Environmentally not so friendly: global warming, air pollution, and wildfires: JACC focus seminar. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2024;83:2291-2307.

Miller MR, Landrigan PJ, Arora M, et al. Water, soil, noise, and light pollution: JACC focus seminar. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2024;83:2308-2323.

Miller reports receiving grant support from the British Heart Foundation.
Kovacic reports receiving research support from the NIH, New South Wales health grant, the Bourne Foundation, Snow Medical, and Agilent.
Alexeeff and Kazi report no relevant conflicts of interest.

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‘Green Cardiovascular Care’ Needed to Protect Environment, Bolster Health

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Children, older people, and people with existing conditions are at particular risk.

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Introduction
Conclusions
Article Information

NO 2 indicates nitrogen dioxide; PM 2.5 , particulate matter under 2.5 μm; and WHO, World Health Organization. Shading in panel A represents IQRs.

Results are from model 3, which is adjusted for ethnicity, family psychiatric history, maternal social class, maternal education, house tenure, population density, neighborhood deprivation, social fragmentation, and greenspace. Sample sizes of imputed data sets range from 2952 (adolescence noise pollution and psychotic experiences) to 6154 (pregnancy air pollution and anxiety). NO 2 indicates nitrogen dioxide; OR, odds ratio; and PM 2.5 , particulate matter less than 2.5 μm.

eMethods. Participants, pollution data, covariates, and multiple imputation

eResults. Findings from sensitivity analyses

eDiscussion. Interpretation of sensitivity analyses

eFigure 1. Correlations between NO2, PM2.5, and noise pollution across pregnancy, childhood, and adolescence

eFigure 2. Directed acyclic graph (DAG)

eTable 1. Association of early-life noise pollution exposure with youth mental health problems, treating noise pollution as a categorical variable

eTable 2. Comparison between e-value and covariate point estimates: pregnancy PM2.5 and psychotic experiences

eTable 3. Comparison between e-value and covariate point estimates: adolescent noise pollution and anxiety

eTable 4. Adjusting pollutants for one another: associations of early-life air and noise pollution exposure with youth mental health problems

eTable 5. Restricting to non-movers (~30% of participants): associations of early-life air and noise pollution exposure with youth mental health problems

eTable 6. Complete case analysis: associations of early-life air and noise pollution exposure with youth mental health problems

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Newbury JB , Heron J , Kirkbride JB, et al. Air and Noise Pollution Exposure in Early Life and Mental Health From Adolescence to Young Adulthood. JAMA Netw Open. 2024;7(5):e2412169. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2024.12169

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Air and Noise Pollution Exposure in Early Life and Mental Health From Adolescence to Young Adulthood

1 Population Health Sciences, Bristol Medical School, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom
2 Social, Genetic, and Developmental Psychiatry Centre, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King’s College London, London, United Kingdom
3 PsyLife Group, Division of Psychiatry, University College London, London, United Kingdom
4 ESRC Centre for Society and Mental Health, King’s College London, London, United Kingdom
5 Department of Biostatistics and Health Informatics, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King’s College London, London, United Kingdom
6 Centre for Implementation Science, Health Service and Population Research Department, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King’s College London, London, United Kingdom
7 UK Longitudinal Linkage Collaboration, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom
8 MRC Centre for Neuropsychiatric Genetics and Genomics, School of Medicine, Cardiff University, Cardiff, United Kingdom

Question Is exposure to air and noise pollution in pregnancy, childhood, and adolescence associated with the development of psychotic experiences, depression, and anxiety between 13 and 24 years of age?

Findings In this longitudinal birth cohort study followed up into adulthood that included 9065 participants with mental health data, higher exposure to fine particulate matter (PM 2.5 ) in pregnancy and childhood was associated with increased psychotic experiences and in pregnancy was associated with higher rates of depression. Higher noise pollution exposure in childhood and adolescence was associated with increased anxiety.

Meaning These findings build on evidence associating air and noise pollution with mental health, highlighting a role of early-life pollution exposure in youth mental health problems.

Importance Growing evidence associates air pollution exposure with various psychiatric disorders. However, the importance of early-life (eg, prenatal) air pollution exposure to mental health during youth is poorly understood, and few longitudinal studies have investigated the association of noise pollution with youth mental health.

Objectives To examine the longitudinal associations of air and noise pollution exposure in pregnancy, childhood, and adolescence with psychotic experiences, depression, and anxiety in youths from ages 13 to 24 years.

Design, Setting, and Participants This cohort study used data from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children, an ongoing longitudinal birth cohort founded in 1991 through 1993 in Southwest England, United Kingdom. The cohort includes over 14 000 infants with due dates between April 1, 1991, and December 31, 1992, who were subsequently followed up into adulthood. Data were analyzed October 29, 2021, to March 11, 2024.

Exposures A novel linkage (completed in 2020) was performed to link high-resolution (100 m 2 ) estimates of nitrogen dioxide (NO 2 ), fine particulate matter under 2.5 μm (PM 2.5 ), and noise pollution to home addresses from pregnancy to 12 years of age.

Main outcomes and measures Psychotic experiences, depression, and anxiety were measured at ages 13, 18, and 24 years. Logistic regression models controlled for key individual-, family-, and area-level confounders.

Results This cohort study included 9065 participants who had any mental health data, of whom (with sample size varying by parameter) 51.4% (4657 of 9051) were female, 19.5% (1544 of 7910) reported psychotic experiences, 11.4% (947 of 8344) reported depression, and 9.7% (811 of 8398) reported anxiety. Mean (SD) age at follow-up was 24.5 (0.8) years. After covariate adjustment, IQR increases (0.72 μg/m 3 ) in PM 2.5 levels during pregnancy (adjusted odds ratio [AOR], 1.11 [95% CI, 1.04-1.19]; P = .002) and during childhood (AOR, 1.09 [95% CI, 1.00-1.10]; P = .04) were associated with elevated odds for psychotic experiences. Pregnancy PM 2.5 exposure was also associated with depression (AOR, 1.10 [95% CI, 1.02-1.18]; P = .01). Higher noise pollution exposure in childhood (AOR, 1.19 [95% CI, 1.03-1.38]; P = .02) and adolescence (AOR, 1.22 [95% CI, 1.02-1.45]; P = .03) was associated with elevated odds for anxiety.

Conclusions and Relevance In this longitudinal cohort study, early-life air and noise pollution exposure were prospectively associated with 3 common mental health problems from adolescence to young adulthood. There was a degree of specificity in terms of pollutant-timing-outcome associations. Interventions to reduce air and noise pollution exposure (eg, clean air zones) could potentially improve population mental health. Replication using quasi-experimental designs is now needed to shed further light on the underlying causes of these associations.

Childhood, adolescence, and early adulthood are critical periods for the development of psychiatric disorders: worldwide, nearly two-thirds of individuals affected become unwell by 25 years of age. 1 Identifying early-life risk factors is a crucial research challenge in developing preventative interventions and improving lifelong mental health trajectories.

Growing evidence suggests that air pollution exposure may be associated with the onset of psychiatric problems, including mood, affective, and psychotic disorders. 2 - 6 Air pollution comprises toxic gases and particulate matter (ie, organic and inorganic solid and liquid aerosols) of mostly anthropogenic origin. 7 Understanding the potential effect of air pollution on mental health is increasingly crucial, given the human and societal cost of poor mental health, 8 the global shift toward urban living, 9 , 10 and the backdrop of emissions-induced climate change. 11 Air pollution could negatively affect mental health via numerous pathways, including by compromising the blood-brain barrier, promoting neuroinflammation and oxidative stress, and directly entering the brain and damaging tissue therein. 12 , 13 However, key research gaps remain. First, the relative importance of early-life exposure, including prenatal exposure, is uncertain. Infants and children are thought to be especially vulnerable to air pollution, 14 , 15 but longitudinal, high-resolution pollution data spanning the early years of human life are scarce. Second, relatively few studies have examined the association of air pollution with youth mental health problems, 16 despite youth being a critical period for intervention. Third, few longitudinal studies have investigated the role of noise pollution in mental health, 17 despite the correlation between noise and air pollution. 18 Finally, studies have often used crude pollution data and lacked adequate controls for potential confounders.

We aimed to advance understanding on this topic by capitalizing on a novel linkage between high-resolution outdoor air and noise pollution data and a cohort of over 14 000 infants born in Southwest England in 1991 through 1993 and followed up into adulthood. We examined the association of air and noise pollution exposure from pregnancy to 12 years of age with mental health problems from ages 13 to 24 years. Based on previous evidence, we focused on psychotic experiences (eg, subclinical hallucinations and delusions), depression, and anxiety. These problems are common 1 , 19 - 21 and increasing 22 among youth and strongly predict future psychopathology, 23 , 24 making them useful and important targets. We hypothesized that participants exposed to higher air and noise pollution would subsequently experience worse mental health.

The Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC) is a UK birth cohort, 25 - 28 described further in the eMethods in Supplement 1 . Briefly, pregnant women residing in and around the City of Bristol (population approximately 714 000 in 2024) in Southwest England with due dates between April 1, 1991, and December 31, 1992, were approached to take part in the study. The initial number of pregnancies enrolled was 14 551, resulting in 13 988 children alive at 1 year of age. At age 7 years, the initial sample was bolstered with additional eligible cases, resulting in 14 901 infants alive at 1 year of age. The catchment area has a mix of urban, suburban, and rural environments. 29 The study website contains details of all the data and a fully searchable data dictionary and variable search tool. 30 Ethical approval for the study was obtained from the ALSPAC Ethics and Law Committee and the Local Research Ethics Committees. Informed consent for the use of data collected via questionnaires and clinics was obtained from participants following the recommendations of the ALSPAC Ethics and Law Committee at the time. The present study is reported according to the Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology ( STROBE ) reporting guideline. 31

Psychotic experiences were measured at ages 13, 18, and 24 years using a semi-structured interview 32 that consisted of 12 core items about hallucinations, delusions, and thought interference, rated against the Schedule for Clinical Assessment in Neuropsychiatry version 2.0 (SCAN 2.0). 33 Consistent with previous ALSPAC studies, 34 , 35 psychotic experiences were defined such that 0 represented none, and 1 represented suspected or definite. The reporting period at each phase was since the participant’s 12th birthday. At 13 years of age, 13.6% (926 of 6788) of participants reported psychotic experiences, at 18 years of age 9.2% (432 of 4715) reported psychotic experiences, and at 24 years of age, 12.6% (491 of 3888) reported psychotic experiences. We summed psychotic experiences across time points and dichotomized the variable for analyses such that participants received a score of 1 for suspected or definite psychotic experiences if they reported psychotic experiences at any age.

Depression and anxiety were measured at age 13 years via parent-completed Development and Well-being Assessments. 36 Responses were classified into probabilistic bands according to Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (Fourth Edition) criteria for major depressive disorder and generalized anxiety disorder, and dichotomized for analysis (bands 0-2, 0; bands 3-5, 1). At ages 18 and 24 years, depression and anxiety were measured using the Clinical Interview Schedule Revised, 37 a self-administered computerized interview that gave International Statistical Classification of Diseases, Tenth Revision , diagnoses of moderate to severe depression and generalized anxiety disorder. The reporting period at each phase was the past month, although a 6-month reporting period was used for anxiety at 13 years of age. At 13 years of age, 5.6% (386 of 6944 of participants) reported depression and 3.6% (254 of 7044) reported anxiety. At 18 years of age, 7.9% (359 of 4560) reported depression and 5.7% (262 of 4560) reported anxiety. At 24 years of age, 7.7% (304 of 3965) reported depression and 9.8% (386 of 3956) reported anxiety. We summed depression and anxiety across time points and dichotomized the variables for analysis such that participants received a score of 1 if they had depression or anxiety at any age.

Air pollutants included nitrogen dioxide (NO 2 ) and fine particulate matter with a diameter smaller than 2.5 μm (PM 2.5 ). Both pollutants have well-established health impacts 10 and more recent associations with psychiatric disorders. 5 These air pollutants were estimated as part of the LifeCycle project 38 using the Effects of Low-Level Air Pollution: A Study in Europe (ELAPSE) model, which is described elsewhere and further in the eMethods in Supplement 1 . 39 Briefly, the ELAPSE model is a hybrid land-use regression model for Europe that derived concentrations of NO 2 and PM 2.5 in 2010. The model produces annualized estimates at 100 m 2 resolution, explaining 59% and 71% of measured spatial variability for NO 2 and PM 2.5 , respectively. 39 Estimates were linked to residential geocodes from pregnancy to age 12 years for participants who had lived in the original ALSPAC catchment area 29 up to 12 years of age and provided permission for geospatial linkage. Linkage was completed in 2020.

Residential noise pollution exposure was also estimated as part of the LifeCycle project 38 based on the UK Government’s Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs 2006 road traffic noise map. Data represent an annualized mean of day and night noise pollution, categorized according to low to medium (<55 dB: the European Environment Agency’s threshold 40 ), high (55-60 dB), and very high (>60 dB) noise. eFigure 1 in Supplement 1 shows the correlation between noise pollution, NO 2 , and PM 2.5 across time points.

Potential confounders were informed by the literature and formally selected using a directed acyclic graph (eFigure 2 in Supplement 1 ). We considered individual- and family-level covariates that could be associated with mental health problems and with downward mobility into more polluted neighborhoods. These included ethnicity self-reported by mothers during pregnancy, family psychiatric history, maternal social class, maternal education, and housing tenure. Area-level covariates included population density, neighborhood deprivation, social fragmentation, and greenspace and were time varying, corresponding to the timing of pollution exposure. Covariates are described fully in the eMethods in Supplement 1 and briefly below.

Race and ethnic group was reported by mothers during pregnancy, with specific categories to select including Bangladeshi, Black/African, Black/Caribbean, Black/other, Chinese, Indian, Pakistani, White, and any other ethnic group. Family psychiatric problems were reported by mothers and fathers during pregnancy and defined as the presence of any psychiatric problem affecting the mother, father, or any biological grandparent. Maternal social class based on occupation was reported by mothers during pregnancy. Maternal education was reported by mothers when infants were around 8 months. Home ownership was reported by mothers during pregnancy.

Population density was derived from 1991 and 2001 census data. 35 Area-level deprivation was based on the Index of Multiple Deprivation 2000. 41 Social fragmentation was based on a z-scored sum of census data on residential mobility, marital status, single-person households, and home ownership. 35 Greenspace was assessed based on the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index. 42

Analyses were performed from October 29, 2021, to March 11, 2024, in Stata, version 18.0 (StataCorp LLC). The code can be found at GitHub. 43 The characteristics of the sample with vs without mental health data were described according to percentages, means, and standard deviations. Group differences were explored using χ 2 and t tests. To explore the importance of different exposure periods, we derived exposure estimates for 3 developmental stages, pregnancy, childhood (birth to age 9 years), and adolescence (ages 10-12 years), 44 which were calculated using mean exposure values for NO 2 , PM 2.5 , and noise pollution during these age windows. Given that NO 2 and PM 2.5 had very different absolute ranges, scores were standardized by dividing by the IQR. To aid comparison between air and noise pollution, we treated noise pollution as a continuous variable, assuming a normal distribution underlying the categorical variable. Results treating noise as categorical are reported in eTable 1 in Supplement 1 .

For main analyses, logistic regression was used to examine the associations of NO 2 , PM 2.5 , and noise pollution in pregnancy, childhood, and adolescence with the mental health outcomes. We conducted an unadjusted model (model 1), then adjusted for individual- and family-level covariates (model 2), and then additionally adjusted for area-level covariates (model 3). To better understand the independent associations from different exposure periods, we then adjusted childhood and adolescent exposure for previous exposure (model 4). However, given that the high correlation between pollutants over time (eFigure 1 in Supplement 1 ) could introduce multicollinearity, we interpreted model 4 with caution. To estimate residual confounding, we also calculated E values 45 for models 3 and 4, which indicate the strength of association that an unmeasured confounder would require to nullify associations. All models accounted for potential hierarchy in the data by clustering around the lower layer super output area (containing a mean of about 1500 residents) using the cluster command, which provides robust SEs adjusted for within cluster correlated data. 46 All analyses were conducted following multiple imputation by chained equations, 47 described in the eMethods in Supplement 1 . A 2-sided value of P < .05 was considered statistically significant.

We conducted 3 sensitivity analyses. First, we analyzed NO 2 , PM 2.5 , and noise pollution simultaneously, to control each for the others and address potential copollutant confounding. Second, we restricted analyses to participants who did not move house from pregnancy to age 12 years (29.8%) to keep pollution levels as consistent as possible over time. Third, we repeated main analyses for individuals with complete data.

The study included 9065 participants (mean [SD] age at follow-up, 24.5 [0.8] years) who had any mental health data, of whom (with sample sizes varying by parameter) 51.4% (4657 of 9051) were female, 48.6% (4394 of 9051) were male, 95.8% (7616 of 7954) were ethnically White, and 4.2% (338 of 7954) were of other ethnicity (which included Bangladeshi, Black African, Black Caribbean, Chinese, Indian, Pakistani, and others; these categories were collapsed into one because numbers in some categories were small enough to increase the risk of identification). In addition, 19.5% (1544 of 7910) reported psychotic experiences, 11.4% (947 of 8344) reported depression, and 9.7% (811 of 8398) reported anxiety ( Table 1 ). Over half of participants (60.8% [4793 of 7886]) had a family psychiatric history; 21.8% (1583 of 7248) had mothers who worked in manual occupations; 15.7% (1274 of 8093) had mothers with degrees; and 81.6% (6670 of 8176) lived in homes owned by their parent (or parents). Mean (SD) population density was 33 (21) persons per hectare, and 19.3% (933 of 4831) of participants lived in the most deprived neighborhoods. The sample with vs without mental health data differed for most variables: participants with mental health data were more likely to be female, be White, have a family psychiatric history, and have more advantaged characteristics across the other variables. These differences should be borne in mind when interpreting the results.

Figure 1 A shows estimated levels of NO 2 and PM 2.5 for the sample, alongside the World Health Organization’s (WHO) 2021 exposure thresholds. 48 Mean (SD) levels of NO 2 (eg, 26.9 [4.2] μg/m 3 in pregnancy vs 21.1 [3.5] μg/m 3 at 12 years of age) and PM 2.5 (eg, 13.3 [0.9] μg/m 3 in pregnancy vs 10.7 [0.8] μg/m 3 at 12 years of age) decreased slightly over time. However, the mean exposure at age 12 years remained above the WHO’s thresholds for both pollutants (NO 2 , 10.0 μg/m 3 ; PM 2.5 , 5.0 μg/m 3 ). Additionally, over two-thirds of participants were exposed to high or very high noise pollution, 40 which changed little over time (eg, 22.7% in pregnancy vs 22.2% at year 12 for high noise pollution) ( Figure 1 B).

Associations of levels of NO 2, PM 2.5 , and noise pollution with psychotic experiences, depression, and anxiety are given in Table 2 , which shows unadjusted and adjusted results alongside E values, and Figure 2 , which shows model 3 results. Before covariate adjustment, IQR (4.47 μg/m 3 ) increases in NO 2 levels during pregnancy were associated with elevated odds for psychotic experiences (odds ratio [OR], 1.08, [95% CI, 1.00-1.17]; P = .04). However, there was no association after adjusting for area-level covariates. In contrast, following covariate adjustment, IQR (0.72 μg/m 3 ) increases in PM 2.5 during pregnancy (adjusted [A]OR, 1.11 [95% CI, 1.04-1.19]; P = .002) and childhood (AOR, 1.09 [95% CI, 1.00-1.19]; P = .04) were associated with elevated odds for psychotic experiences, although for childhood exposure (model 4), there was no association after adjusting for pregnancy exposure. There was no association between noise pollution and psychotic experiences (eg, AOR, 1.04 [95% CI, 0.92-1.18]; P = .50 during pregnancy).

Following covariate adjustment, IQR increases in PM 2.5 during pregnancy were associated with elevated odds for depression (eg, AOR, 1.10 [95% CI, 1.02-1.18]; P = .01 during pregnancy). There were no associations between NO 2 (eg, AOR, 1.10 [95% CI, 0.98-1.24]; P = .10 during pregnancy) or noise pollution (eg, AOR, 1.02 [95% CI, 0.89-1.18]; P = .74 during pregnancy) and depression.

Before covariate adjustment, IQR increases in NO 2 in pregnancy (OR, 1.14 [95% CI, 1.04-1.26]; P = .006) and childhood (OR, 1.15 [95% CI, 1.03-1.27]; P = .009) were associated with elevated odds for anxiety, but associations were attenuated to the null after adjusting for area-level covariates. There were no associations between PM 2.5 exposure during childhood and anxiety (AOR, 1.10 [95% CI, 0.97-1.25]; P = .58 for model 3). In contrast, participants exposed to higher noise pollution in childhood (AOR, 1.19 [95% CI, 1.03-1.38]; P = .02) and in adolescence (AOR, 1.22 [95% CI, 1.02-1.45]; P = .03) had elevated odds for anxiety; however, adolescent exposure was attenuated to the null after controlling for pregnancy and childhood exposure (model 4). eTable 1 in Supplement 1 gives results when noise pollution was treated as categorical. This analysis highlighted several dose-response associations, although no difference in model fit was observed compared with the main results.

In eTables 2 and 3 in Supplement 1 , we take as examples the associations of pregnancy PM 2.5 with psychotic experiences and adolescent noise pollution with anxiety from model 3 and compare the E values to the associations from included covariates. The E value ORs were 1.46 (lower confidence limit, 1.24) for pregnancy PM 2.5 with psychotic experiences and 1.74 (lower confidence limit, 1.16) for adolescent noise pollution with anxiety. These E value ORs were larger in magnitude than the ORs for associations of the covariates with the exposures and outcomes, indicating that an unmeasured confounder would require a relatively strong confounding influence to nullify associations.

Results from sensitivity analyses are described in the eResults in Supplement 1 , presented in eTables 4 to 6 in Supplement 1 , and addressed in the eDiscussion in Supplement 1 . Briefly, point estimates were generally similar after adjusting pollutants for each other, similar (and often higher) for participants who did not move house, and similar for complete cases, although CIs were often less precise.

In this longitudinal birth cohort study with a follow-up of approximately 25 years, participants exposed to higher PM 2.5 during pregnancy and childhood subsequently experienced more psychotic experiences and (for pregnancy exposure only) depression. In contrast, higher noise pollution in childhood and adolescence were associated subsequently with more anxiety. These associations were not explained by numerous potential individual-, family-, and area-level confounders.

Our findings suggest an important role of early-life (including prenatal) exposure to air pollution in the development of youth mental health problems. Early-life exposure could be detrimental to mental health given the extensive brain development and epigenetic processes that occur in utero and during infancy. 13 , 15 , 49 , 50 Air pollution exposure could also lead to restricted fetal growth 51 and preterm birth, 52 which are both risk factors for psychopathology. Notably, the point estimate for pregnancy PM 2.5 and depression (10% elevated odds for every 0.72 μg/m 3 increase) was considerably greater than a previous meta-analytic estimate based on exposure in adulthood (10% elevated odds for every 10 μg/m 3 increase). 2 These contrasting findings are in keeping with a particularly detrimental role of early-life air pollution exposure. However, our findings could also have arisen if early-life exposure data provide a proxy for cumulative exposure over a longer period, given that families often settle when children are young.

For noise pollution, evidence was strongest for childhood and adolescent exposure. Childhood and adolescent noise pollution exposure could increase anxiety by increasing stress and disrupting sleep, with high noise potentially leading to chronic physiological arousal and disruption to endocrinology. 53 Noise pollution could also impact cognition, 54 which could increase anxiety by impacting concentration during school years. It was interesting that noise pollution was associated with anxiety but not with psychotic experiences or depression. However, our measure of noise pollution estimated only decibels (ie, intensity) from road sources. Other qualities of noise, such as pitch, could be relevant to mental health.

We acknowledge several limitations. First, the causality of the findings is uncertain given that data were observational. Despite comprehensive covariate adjustment, residual confounding is inevitable given imperfect selection and measurement of covariates. The relatively large E values strengthened our confidence in the findings, but future studies should consider other methods to address confounding, such as quasi-experimental designs. Second, ALSPAC families are more affluent and less diverse than the UK population. 55 The extent to which our findings generalize to other populations and locations is uncertain. Our findings likely generalize to cities and surrounds in other high-income countries, but may be less generalizable to urban settings in lower-income countries, which can have more extreme pollution concentrations. 56 Third, modeled pollution data are subject to various sources of measurement error, 39 particularly Berkson-like error whereby estimates are smoother (less variable) than reality, leading to less precise, although unbiased, exposure-outcome estimates. 57 , 58 For instance, the 100 m 2 resolution, although an improvement over many previous studies, 59 - 61 would have masked hyperlocal variation (eg, differences between participants living on adjacent streets), to which NO 2 is especially prone due to its short decay function. 62 Additionally, the model estimated residential exposure, which would have masked variation due to behavior and time spent away from home. Finer-resolution data, including personal exposure estimates, would enable more precise exposure-outcome estimates, particularly for NO 2 . Fourth, we could not apply life-course models to investigate sensitive periods vs cumulative effects, as there was limited within-person variation in exposure over time. Larger data sets (eg, national registries) and quasi-experimental designs would be required to further tease out this question.

The results of this cohort study provide novel evidence that early-life exposure to particulate matter is prospectively associated with the development of psychotic experiences and depression in youth. This study, which is among only a handful of longitudinal studies to investigate the association between noise pollution and mental health, also finds an association with anxiety. The findings suggest a degree of specificity in terms of pollutant-timing-outcome pathways. The opportunity for intervention is potentially enormous. However, although our this study addressed various biases affecting observational research, the causality of the findings remains uncertain. There is now a pressing need for further longitudinal research using more precise measures of air and noise pollution and for replication using quasi-experimental designs.

Accepted for Publication: March 15, 2023.

Published: May 28, 2024. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2024.12169

Corresponding Author: Joanne B. Newbury, PhD, Population Health Sciences, Bristol Medical School, Oakfield House, Bristol, BS8 2BN, United Kingdom ( [email protected] ).

Author Contributions: Dr Newbury had full access to all of the data in the study and takes responsibility for the integrity of the data and the accuracy of the data analysis.

Concept and design: Newbury, Kirkbride, Fisher, Bakolis.

Acquisition, analysis, or interpretation of data: Newbury, Heron, Kirkbride, Boyd, Thomas, Zammit.

Drafting of the manuscript: Newbury.

Critical review of the manuscript for important intellectual content: All authors.

Statistical analysis: Newbury, Heron, Bakolis.

Obtained funding: Newbury, Zammit.

Administrative, technical, or material support: Boyd, Thomas.

Supervision: Heron, Kirkbride, Fisher, Bakolis, Zammit.

Conflict of Interest Disclosures: Prof Fisher reported receiving grants from the Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC) during the conduct of the study. Dr Heron and Prof Zammit are supported by a grant from the National Institute for Health and Care Research (NIHR) Biomedical Research Centre. Prof Fisher is supported by the ESRC Centre for Society and Mental Health at King’s College London. Dr Bakolis is supported in part by the NIHR Biomedical Research Centre at South London and Maudsley National Health Service (NHS) Foundation Trust and King’s College London and by the NIHR Applied Research Collaboration South London (NIHR ARC South London) at King’s College Hospital NHS Foundation Trust. Messrs Boyd and Thomas are funded by the UK Medical Research Council (MRC) and ESRC to develop centralized record linkage services via the UK Longitudinal Linkage Collaboration and by Health Data Research UK to support the development of social and environmental epidemiology in longitudinal studies. No other disclosures were reported.

Funding/Support: The UK MRC and Wellcome Trust (grant 217065/Z/19/Z) and the University of Bristol provide core support for the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC). This research was funded in whole, or in part, by grant 218632/Z/19/Z from the Wellcome Trust. This research was specifically funded by grants from the UK MRC to collect data on psychotic experiences, depression, and anxiety (MR/M006727/1 and G0701503/85179 to Prof Zammit); and a grant from the Natural Environment Research Council to facilitate linkage to geospatial and natural environment data (R8/H12/83/NE/P01830/1 to Mr Boyd). Dr Newbury is funded by Sir Henry Wellcome Postdoctoral Fellowship 218632/Z/19/Z from the Wellcome Trust and grant COV19/200057 from the British Academy.

Role of the Funder/Sponsor: The funders had no role in the design and conduct of the study; collection, management, analysis, and interpretation of the data; preparation, review, or approval of the manuscript; and decision to submit the manuscript for publication.

Disclaimer: This publication is the work of the authors, and they serve as guarantors for the contents of this paper. The views expressed are those of the authors and not necessarily those of the ESRC or King’s College London.

Data Sharing Statement: See Supplement 2 .

Additional Contributions: We are extremely grateful to all the families who took part in this study; the midwives for their help in recruiting them; and the whole ALSPAC team, which includes interviewers, computer and laboratory technicians, clerical workers, research scientists, volunteers, managers, receptionists, and nurses. We are also extremely grateful to ISGlobal, Barcelona, for conducting the LifeCycle project and generating the air and noise pollution data.

Additional Information: A comprehensive list of grant funding is available on the ALSPAC website ( http://www.bristol.ac.uk/alspac/external/documents/grant-acknowledgments.pdf ).

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Is Tennessee water full of microplastics? Where researchers are looking for answers

Microplastics, tiny bits of plastic, are everywhere. They are in oceans, the soil and in the air . Microplastics have been found in foods like honey and salt and in the seafood we eat. Now researchers at Tennessee Tech University are investigating the presence of microplastics, which measure 5 millimeters or less, in the waters of Tennessee.

The research is some of the most in-depth work yet on microplastics in the state.

Most studies of microplastics have focused on oceans and estuaries. Caroline Hitchcock, a graduate student in environmental engineering at Tennessee Tech, and associate professor Tania Datta are looking at how many microplastics pass through wastewater treatment plants in the state.

“Wastewater treatment plants are really a reflection of what we as humans are disposing,” Datta said.

Tennessee has roughly 200 wastewater treatment plants . The majority of those, according to Datta, serve small, rural communities.

The researchers are looking at three plants of different sizes throughout the state. They want to understand better if the plants are removing microplastics or adding to the amount of microplastics in Tennessee’s waters.

The dangers of microplastics

Microplastics, and even smaller nanoplastics, have been found in our livers, kidneys, blood, saliva and even brains. The effects on human health are still being investigated.

A study released last month found microplastics in the testes of both men and dogs indicating that these microplastic particles could affect human fertility.

Microplastics may also delay development in children and could cause cancer.

Fish and other marine life can also ingest microplastics in water. Researchers have found that microplastics can make aquatic animals swim slower, absorb fewer nutrients, reproduce less and even die. And when people eat seafood, they can absorb those microplastics into their bodies.

“Tennessee has some of the most biodiverse rivers and streams in the entire United States,” Datta said.

Some of those species in Tennessee's waters, such as more than 40 different varieties of freshwater mussels , are on the federal endangered list. Microplastics could further damage these animals.

How polluted are Tennessee waters?

In 2019, German professor Andreas Fath made news by swimming the full length of the Tennessee River. He made the swim to draw attention to water pollution, and his analysis of the samples taken along the 652-mile trip found high levels of microplastics .

This current research by Tennessee Tech will expand on that, as some of the first rigorous studies of microplastics in Tennessee wastewater treatment plants.

The study should be completed this year and the results will be released in the spring.

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EPA Efforts to Reduce Exposure to Carcinogens and Prevent Cancer

Since its creation in 1970, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency has focused on protecting public health and reducing impacts of toxins and toxic chemicals on communities across the country. Exposure to certain toxins in the environment (such as chemicals in tobacco smoke, chemicals used in commerce or radiation) can cause cancer. EPA’s efforts to assess and reduce cancer risks are wide-ranging. The resources on this page highlight some key EPA programs and efforts that focus on cancer risk and prevention.

Featured Highlights

A Proclamation on National Cancer Prevention and Early Detection Month, 2024

Perspectives Blog: Supporting the Cancer Moonshot Effort at EPA

Addressing Pesticides and Toxic Chemicals

Reducing air pollution, water actions.

Land, Disposal, and Emergency Response

Addressing Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS)

Children's Health

More Cancer Indicators

Enforcement and compliance actions, environmental justice, environmental impact evaluations.

Environmental Economics

Regional Projects and Geographic Initiatives

International and tribal initiatives.

On February 2, 2022, President Biden reignited his 2016 Cancer Moonshot effort with renewed White House leadership. As part of this effort, the President convened his “Cancer Cabinet,” which includes the leaders of more than 15 agencies, offices and departments, including EPA Administrator Michael Regan. The Cancer Cabinet helps coordinate efforts across the federal government to advance the President’s vision for “ending cancer as we know it.” In June 2022, the Cancer Cabinet identified five priorities:

Close the screening gap.
Understand and address environmental exposure.
Decrease the impact of preventable cancers.
Bring cutting edge research through the pipeline to patients and communities.
Support patients and caregivers.

EPA’s mission is to protect public health and the environment. One way we do that is by reducing risks people face from toxic exposures. Certain chemicals and radioactive materials can cause cancer when people are exposed to them. EPA conducts research to understand where these risks come from, develops and implements regulations to reduce these risks, and supports voluntary efforts to reduce exposure to carcinogens.

Reigniting the Cancer Moonshot

Learn more about the Cancer Moonshot’s mission to accelerate the rate of progress against cancer and the goal of reducing the cancer death rate by 50% over the next 25 years and improving the life experience of those living with and surviving cancer and their caregivers.

Read the President Biden Reignites Cancer Moonshot to End Cancer as We Know It fact sheet .
Find more information about actions other federal partners are taking in recent White House fact sheets announcing progress toward Biden's Cancer Cabinet goals .

Highlighted Programs and Efforts

The Office of Chemical Safety and Pollution Prevention (OCSPP) evaluates new and existing pesticides and toxic chemicals for risks to human health, including cancer, and — when needed — puts measures in place to protect against these risks. OCSPP also works with the private sector, states, tribes and academia to eliminate, prevent or reduce pollution at its source.

Final Rule to Prohibit Ongoing Uses of Chrysotile Asbestos – In March 2024, EPA announced a final rule to prohibit on ongoing uses of chrysotile asbestos, the only known form of asbestos currently used in or imported to the United States. Exposure to asbestos is known to cause lung cancer, mesothelioma, ovarian cancer and laryngeal cancer, and it is linked to more than 40,000 deaths in the U.S. each year.
Final Rule to Prohibit Most Uses of Methylene Chloride – In April 2024, EPA finalized a ban on most uses of methylene chloride, a dangerous chemical known to cause liver cancer, lung cancer, breast cancer, brain cancer, cancer of the blood, and cancer of the central nervous system, as well as neurotoxicity, liver harm and even death. The rulemaking also establishes landmark worker protections by setting strict exposure limits, monitoring requirements, and worker training and notification requirements that will protect workers from cancer and other adverse health effects caused by methylene chloride exposure.
Proposed Rule to Prohibit Most Uses of Perchloroethylene (PCE) - In June 2023, EPA proposed to prohibit most uses of PCE, another carcinogenic chemical, and create strict workplace protections to ensure workers will not be harmed by remaining uses of PCE.
Regulation of Ethylene Oxide (EtO) Under the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) - Regular exposure to EtO over long periods of time can pose cancer risks. In 2023, EPA began working to mitigate these risks by reviewing and proposing updates to the registrations of EtO as a pesticide under FIFRA. The proposed set of new mitigation measures will decrease risk for workers who use EtO to sterilize products and for other people in communities near sterilization facilities under FIFRA. Learn about other efforts by EPA to address EtO .

The Office of Air and Radiation (OAR) develops regulations under the Clean Air Act and other laws to limit pollutants that cause cancer and other adverse health effects. When we breathe in toxic chemicals – whether they come from industrial sources, vehicle exhaust, wildfires or woodstoves – these chemicals can often pose cancer risks. OAR has several programs that aimed at reducing exposure risks, including National Emissions Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants , National Ambient Air Quality Standards , mobile source air pollution standards , radiation protection and ozone layer protection . OAR also implements non-regulatory programs that aim to reduce emissions of and exposure to carcinogens, through its Indoor Air and Radon Programs and numerous sector-based voluntary programs. Find more information about air topics .

Clean School Bus Program - With funding from the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act, EPA’s Clean School Bus Program is providing $5 billion (FY 2022-2026) to replace existing school buses with zero-emission and low-emission models.
Diesel Emissions Reduction Act (DERA) Funding – The Office of Transportation and Air Quality’s DERA program has been transitioning diesel equipment to clean and electric equipment since 2008. This webpage has information on the health impacts of diesel emissions, grant recipient projects and other related information.
Smog, Soot, and Other Air Pollution from Transportation – The transportation sector contributes significantly to emissions of air toxics, which are compounds known or suspected to cause cancer or other serious health and environmental effects. Under the Clean Air Act, EPA develops tailpipe standards that reduce emissions of air toxics over time, either through direct regulations or as a co-benefit of reducing emissions of other pollutants.
Final Rule to Strengthen Standards for Synthetic Organic Chemical Plants and Polymers and Resins Plants – In April 2024, EPA announced a set of final rules that will significantly reduce emissions of toxic air pollution from chemical plants, including the potent air toxics ethylene oxide (EtO) and chloroprene. The reductions dramatically reduce the number of people with elevated air toxics-related cancer risks in communities surrounding the plants that use those two chemicals, especially communities historically overburdened by air toxics pollution.
National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants (NESHAP) for Integrated Iron and Steel (II&S) Manufacturing Facilities – In March 2024, EPA announced a final rule t o amend the 2003 NESHAP for II&S Manufacturing Facilities. The amendments will reduce nearly 64 tons per year of toxic metals and over 470 tons per year of fine particle pollution (also known as PM 2.5 ) and improve air quality and to public health for overburdened populations exposed to emissions from iron and steel facilities.
Final Amendments to Strengthen Air Toxics Standards for Ethylene Oxide (EtO) Commercial Sterilizers – In March 2024, EPA announced final amendments to the NESHAP for Ethylene Oxide Commercial Sterilizers. The standards will reduce lifetime cancer risks for people living near commercial sterilization facilities and put in place the strongest measures in U.S. history to reduce emissions of EtO, one of the most potent cancer-causing chemicals. Through the installation of proven and achievable air pollution controls, commercial sterilizers will reduce emissions by more than 90%.
Air Toxics Screening Assessment (AirToxScreen) – OAR manages AirToxScreen, EPA's ongoing review of hazardous air pollutants, also known as “air toxics” in the United States. EPA developed AirToxScreen as a screening tool for state, local and tribal air agencies to help them identify pollutants, emission sources and places that may warrant further study to better understand possible risks to public health from air toxics.
Radiation Protection – EPA standards set protective limits on the radioactivity in soil, water and air that comes from human use of radioactive elements such as uranium. Radioactive elements emit ionizing radiation, which can damage living tissue and cause cancer.
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EPA is committed to providing meaningful, understandable, and actionable information on per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances — known as PFAS — to help address this urgent public health and environmental issue facing communities across the United States. PFAS can be found in surface water, groundwater, drinking water, soil and air — from remote rural areas to densely-populated urban centers. A growing body of scientific evidence shows that exposure at certain levels to specific PFAS can adversely impact human health. For t wo PFAS – perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) and perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS) — EPA reviewed the weight of the evidence and determined that PFOA and PFOS are likely to be carcinogenic to humans.

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Association of air pollution exposure with overweight or obesity in children and adolescents: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Affiliations.

1 School of Public Health, Jilin University, Changchun 130021, China.
2 School of Public Health, Xinjiang Medical University, Xinjiang 834000, China.
3 School of Public Health, Jilin University, Changchun 130021, China. Electronic address: [email protected].
PMID: 37984657
DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.168589

Childhood overweight and obesity is a global problem. 38 million children under five years old were reported as being overweight/obese in 2019. However, current evidence regarding the effects of air pollution on children weight status remains scarce and inconsistent. This study aimed to determine the association between air pollutants and the weight status of children and adolescents. Four databases were searched up to August 9, 2023. Adjusted merged odds ratios (ORs), regression coefficients (β), and their 95 % confidence intervals (95 % CIs) were calculated and pooled. A total of 27 studies were included. The results showed that air pollutants had adverse effects on the body weight of children and adolescents. Exposure to PM 1 , PM 2.5 , PM coarse , and PM 10 were associated with increased risk of overweight/obesity, with pooled ORs (95 % CI) of 1.23 (1.09, 1.40), 1.18 (1.10, 1.28), 1.04 (1.03, 1.05) and 1.11 (1.06, 1.17) per 10 μg/m 3 increment, respectively. Individuals with higher exposure levels to NO X , O 3 , SO 2 and CO (per 10 μg/m 3 increment) were associated with 12 %, 6 %, 28 % and 1 % increased odds of being overweight/obese, respectively. With respect to the level of body mass index, the pooled β (95 % CIs) for each 10 μg/m 3 increase in PM 1 , PM 2.5 , PM 10 , and NO X exposure were 0.15 (0.12, 0.18), 0.11 (0.06, 0.16), 0.07 (0.03, 0.10), and 0.03 (0.01, 0.04), respectively. PM 1 has relatively strong adverse effects on body weight status. The subgroup analysis revealed a significantly increase in the risk of overweight/obesity when the concentrations of PM 2.5 , PM 10 , and NO 2 exceeded 35 μg/m 3 , 50 μg/m 3 , and 40 μg/m 3 , respectively. Exposure to PM 2.5 , PM 10 and NO X increased the risk of overweight/obesity, especially in Asia. This study provides evidence of the association between air pollution and being overweight/obese in children and adolescents.

Keywords: Adolescent; Air pollution; Body mass index; Children; Obesity; Overweight.

Publication types

Meta-Analysis
Systematic Review
Air Pollutants* / analysis
Air Pollution* / analysis
Child, Preschool
Environmental Exposure / analysis
Nitrogen Dioxide / analysis
Overweight / chemically induced
Overweight / epidemiology
Particulate Matter / adverse effects
Particulate Matter / analysis
Pediatric Obesity* / chemically induced
Pediatric Obesity* / epidemiology
Air Pollutants
Particulate Matter
Nitrogen Dioxide

Seasonal variation of heavy metals in water and Cyprinus carpio L . from Umiam Lake reservoir of Meghalaya, India: Potential health risk assessment for human consumption

Research Article
Published: 04 June 2024

Cite this article

Calvin Donkupar Warjri 1 ,
Diwakar Kshetriya 1 &
Srimoyee Ghosh ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-6832-2917 1

The purpose of this study is to assess the seasonal variation of heavy metal concentration in water and fish tissues of common carp ( Cyprinus carpio L . ) from the Umiam Lake reservoir located in the Ri bhoi district of Meghalaya, India, and to elucidate the possible human health risk of ingesting fish captured from the contaminated lake. Results show significant ( p < 0.05) seasonal differences of heavy metal concentrations in the water and different tissues of fish Cyprinus carpio L . . The total concentration of heavy metals in the water exceeds the WHO and BIS standards and thus poses a significant threat to the aquatic flora and fauna of the reservoir. The heavy metal concentrations in fish tissues were tissue-dependent, where the average concentration of heavy metals in all the tissues of Cyprinus carpio L. was in the order of Cr > Pb > Cu > Cd. In addition, the health risk assessment suggests that the heavy metals in the fish muscle from the Umiam Lake reservoir might have adverse effects on human. Therefore, the overall results of the study provide an understanding on the seasonal distribution of heavy metals in water, provide insight on their bioaccumulation in the fish tissues, and highlights the potential health risk for the local population of long-term fish consumption from Umiam Lake reservoir.

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Acknowledgements

The authors would like to acknowledge the University Grants Commission (UGC) Non- NET fellowship, Government of India, for providing the fellowship. The authors would like to thank Mr. Lastborn Marthong, Mr. Shaiphyrnai Marngar and Mr. J. Nongdhar for assisting in the collection of samples and transportation purposes. The authors are thankful to the Sophisticated Analysis Instrumentation Facility (SAIF), North Eastern Hill University for providing assistance in analysing the water samples and to the Department of Zoology, North Eastern Hill University for providing the necessary infrastructure.

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All authors contributed to the study conception and design. Methodology, Investigation, Validation, Formal analysis, Visualization, Data curation, Writing—original draft: Calvin Donkupar Warjri; Investigation, Validation: Dr. Diwakar Kshetriya; Conceptualization, Methodology, Supervision,Writing—review & editing: Dr. Srimoyee Ghosh. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

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Correspondence to Srimoyee Ghosh .

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Warjri, C.D., Kshetriya, D. & Ghosh, S. Seasonal variation of heavy metals in water and Cyprinus carpio L . from Umiam Lake reservoir of Meghalaya, India: Potential health risk assessment for human consumption. Environ Sci Pollut Res (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-024-33778-w

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Environmental and Health Impacts of Air Pollution: A Review

Elisavet Stavropoulou

Agathangelos Stavropoulos

Eugenia Bezirtzoglou

Approach to the Problem

Sources of Exposure

Climate and Pollution

Air Pollutants

Particulate Matter (PM) and Health

Ozone Impact in the Atmosphere

Carbon Monoxide (CO)

Nitrogen Oxide (NO 2 )

Sulfur Dioxide (SO 2 )