rush hour traffic cause and effect essay

Traffic: Why It’s Getting Worse, What Government Can Do

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January 1, 2004

• 17 min read
• Introduction

The Real Problem

Coping with the mobility problem, the principle of triple convergence, triple convergence and other proposals, how population growth can swamp transportation capacity, low-density settlements, possible improvements.

Rising traffic congestion is an inescapable condition in large and growing metropolitan areas across the world, from Los Angeles to Tokyo, from Cairo to Sao Paolo. Peak-hour traffic congestion is an inherent result of the way modern societies operate. It stems from the widespread desires of people to pursue certain goals that inevitably overload existing roads and transit systems every day. But everyone hates traffic congestion, and it keeps getting worse, in spite of attempted remedies.

Commuters are often frustrated by policymakers’ inability to do anything about the problem, which poses a significant public policy challenge. Although governments may never be able to eliminate road congestion, there are several ways cities and states can move to curb it.

POLICY BRIEF #128

Traffic congestion is not primarily a problem, but rather the solution to our basic mobility problem, which is that too many people want to move at the same times each day. Why? Because efficient operation of both the economy and school systems requires that people work, go to school, and even run errands during about the same hours so they can interact with each other. That basic requirement cannot be altered without crippling our economy and society. The same problem exists in every major metropolitan area in the world.

In the United States, the vast majority of people seeking to move during rush hours use private automotive vehicles, for two reasons. One is that most Americans reside in low-density areas that public transit cannot efficiently serve. The second is that privately owned vehicles are more comfortable, faster, more private, more convenient in trip timing, and more flexible for doing multiple tasks on one trip than almost any form of public transit. As household incomes rise around the world, more and more people shift from slower, less expensive modes of movement to privately owned cars and trucks.

With 87.9 percent of America’s daily commuters using private vehicles, and millions wanting to move at the same times of day, America’s basic problem is that its road system does not have the capacity to handle peak-hour loads without forcing many people to wait in line for that limited road space. Waiting in line is the definition of congestion, and the same condition is found in all growing major metropolitan regions. In fact, traffic congestion is worse in most other countries because American roads are so much better.

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There are four ways any region can try to cope with the mobility challenge. But three of them are politically impractical or physically and financially impossible in the United States.

Charging peak-hour tolls. Governments can charge people money to enter all the lanes on major commuting roads during peak hours. If tolls were set high enough and collected electronically with “smart cards,” the number of vehicles on each major road during peak hours could be reduced enough so that vehicles could move at high speeds. That would allow more people to travel per lane per hour than under current, heavily congested conditions.

Transportation economists have long been proponents of this tactic, but most Americans reject this solution politically for two reasons. Tolls would favor wealthier or subsidized drivers and harm poor ones, so most Americans would resent them, partly because they believe they would be at a disadvantage.

The second drawback is that people think these tolls would be just another tax, forcing them to pay for something they have already paid for through gasoline taxes. For both these reasons, few politicians in our democracy—and so far, anywhere else in the world—advocate this tactic. Limited road-pricing schemes that have been adopted in Singapore, Norway, and London only affect congestion in crowded downtowns, which is not the kind of congestion on major arteries that most Americans experience.

Greatly expanding road capacity. The second approach would be to build enough road capacity to handle all drivers who want to travel in peak hours at the same time without delays. But this “cure” is totally impractical and prohibitively expensive. Governments would have to widen all major commuting roads by demolishing millions of buildings, cutting down trees, and turning most of every metropolitan region into a giant concrete slab. Those roads would then be grossly underutilized during non-peak hours. There are many occasions when adding more road capacity is a good idea, but no large region can afford to build enough to completely eliminate peak-hour congestion.

Greatly expanding public transit capacity. The third approach would be to expand public transit capacity enough to shift so many people from cars to transit that there would be no more excess demand for roads during peak hours. But in the United States in 2000, only 4.7 percent of all commuters traveled by public transit. (Outside of New York City, only 3.5 percent use transit and 89.3 percent use private vehicles.) A major reason is that most transit commuting is concentrated in a few large, densely settled regions with extensive fixed-rail transit systems. The nine U.S. metropolitan areas with the most daily transit commuters, when taken together, account for 61 percent of all U.S. transit commuting, though they contain only 17 percent of the total population. Within those regions, transit commuters are 17 percent of all commuters, but elsewhere, transit carries only 2.4 percent of all commuters, and less than one percent in many low-density regions.

Even if America’s existing transit capacity were tripled and fully utilized, morning peak-hour transit travel would rise to 11.0 percent of all morning trips. But that would reduce all morning private vehicle trips by only 8.0 percent—certainly progress, but hardly enough to end congestion—and tripling public transit capacity would be extremely costly. There are many good reasons to expand the nation’s public transit systems to aid mobility, but doing so will not notably reduce either existing or future peak-hour traffic congestion.

Living with congestion. This is the sole viable option. The only feasible way to accommodate excess demand for roads during peak periods is to have people wait in line. That means traffic congestion, which is an absolutely essential mechanism for American regions—and most other metropolitan regions throughout the world—to cope with excess demands for road space during peak hours each day.

Although congestion can seem intolerable, the alternatives would be even worse. Peak-hour congestion is the balancing mechanism that makes it possible for Americans to pursue other goals they value, including working or sending their children to school at the same time as their peers, living in low-density settlements, and having a wide choice of places to live and work.

The least understood aspect of peak-hour traffic congestion is the principle of triple convergence, which I discussed in the original version of Stuck in Traffic (Brookings/Lincoln Institute of Land Policy, 1992). This phenomenon occurs because traffic flows in any region’s overall transportation networks form almost automatically self-adjusting relationships among different routes, times, and modes. For example, a major commuting expressway might be so heavily congested each morning that traffic crawls for at least thirty minutes. If that expressway’s capacity were doubled overnight, the next day’s traffic would flow rapidly because the same number of drivers would have twice as much road space. But soon word would spread that this particular highway was no longer congested. Drivers who had once used that road before and after the peak hour to avoid congestion would shift back into the peak period. Other drivers who had been using alternative routes would shift onto this more convenient expressway. Even some commuters who had been using the subway or trains would start driving on this road during peak periods. Within a short time, this triple convergence onto the expanded road during peak hours would make the road as congested as it was before its expansion.

Experience shows that if a road is part of a larger transportation network within a region, peak-hour congestion cannot be eliminated for long on a congested road by expanding that road’s capacity.

The triple convergence principle does not mean that expanding a congested road’s capacity has no benefits. After expansion, the road can carry more vehicles per hour than before, no matter how congested it is, so more people can travel on it during those more desirable periods. Also, the periods of maximum congestion may be shorter, and congestion on alternative routes may be lower. Those are all benefits, but that road will still experience some period of maximum congestion daily.

Triple convergence affects the practicality of other suggested remedies to traffic congestion. An example is staggered work hours. In theory, if a certain number of workers are able to commute during less crowded parts of the day, that will free up space on formerly congested roads. But once traffic moves faster on those roads during peak hours, that will attract other drivers from other routes, other times, and other modes where conditions have not changed to shift onto the improved roads. Soon the removal of the staggered-working-hour drivers will be fully offset by convergence.

The same thing will happen if more workers become telecommuters and work at home, or if public transit capacity is expanded on off-road routes that parallel a congested expressway. This is why building light rail systems or even new subways rarely reduces peak-hour traffic congestion. In Portland, where the light rail system doubled in size in the 1990s, and in Dallas, where a new light rail system opened, congestion did not decline for long after these systems were up and running. Only road pricing or higher gasoline taxes are exempt from the principle of triple convergence.

A ground transportation system’s equilibria can also be affected by big changes in the region’s population or economic activity. If a region’s population is growing rapidly, as in Southern California or Florida, any expansions of major expressway capacity may soon be swamped by more vehicles generated by the added population. This result is strengthened because America’s vehicle population has been increasing even faster than its human population. From 1980 to 2000, 1.2 more automotive vehicles were added to the vehicle population of the United States for every 1.0 person added to the human population (though this ratio declined to 1 to 1 in the 1990s). The nation’s human population is expected to grow by around 60 million by 2020—possibly adding another 60 million vehicles to our national stock. That is why prospects for reducing peak-hour traffic congestion in the future are dim indeed.

Shifts in economic activity also affect regional congestion. During the internet and telecommunications boom of the late 1990s, congestion in the San Francisco Bay Area intensified immensely. After the economic “bubble” burst in 2000, congestion fell markedly without any major change in population. Thus, severe congestion can be a sign of strong regional prosperity, just as reduced congestion can signal an economic downturn.

The most obvious reason traffic congestion has increased everywhere is population growth. In a wealthy nation, more people means more vehicles. But total vehicle mileage traveled has grown much faster than population. From 1980 to 2000, the total population of the United States rose 24 percent, but total vehicle miles traveled grew 80 percent because of more intensive use of each vehicle. The number of vehicles per 1,000 persons rose 14 percent and the number of miles driven per vehicle rose 24 percent. Even without any population gain in those two decades, miles driven would have risen 47 percent.

One reason people drove their vehicles farther is that a combination of declining real gas prices (corrected for inflation) and more miles per gallon caused the real cost of each mile driven to fall 54 percent from 1980 to 2000. That helped raise the fraction of U.S. households owning cars from 86 percent in 1983 to 92 percent in 1995.

Furthermore, American road building lagged far behind increases in vehicle travel. Urban lane-miles rose by 37 percent versus an 80 percent increase in miles traveled. As a result, the amount of daily traffic that was congested in the 75 areas analyzed in studies by the Texas Transportation Institute went from 16 percent in 1982 to 34 percent in 2001.

Another factor in road congestion is accidents and incidents, which some experts believe cause half of all traffic congestion. From 1980 to 2000, the absolute number of accidents each year has remained amazingly constant, and the annual number of traffic deaths in the United States fell 18 percent, in spite of the great rise in vehicle miles traveled. So accidents could only have caused more congestion because roads were more crowded, and each accident may now cause longer back-ups than before.

Incidents are non-accident causes of delay, such as stalled cars, road repairs, overturned vehicles, and bad weather. No one knows how many incidents occur, but it is a much greater number than accidents. And the number of incidents probably rises along with total driving. So that could have added to greater congestion, and will in the future.

Another crucial factor contributing to traffic congestion is the desire of most Americans to live in low-density settlements. In 1999, the National Association of Homebuilders asked 2,000 randomly-selected households whether they would rather buy a $150,000 townhouse in an urban setting that was close to public transportation, work, and shopping or a larger, detached single-family home in an outlying suburban area, where distances to work, public transportation, and shopping were longer. Eighty-three percent of respondents chose the larger, farther-out suburban home. At the same time, new workplaces have been spreading out in low-density areas in most metropolitan regions.

Past studies, including one published in 1977 by Boris S. Pushkarev and Jeffery M. Zupan, have shown that public transit works best where gross residential densities are above 4,200 persons per square mile; relatively dense housing is clustered close to transit stations or stops; and large numbers of jobs are concentrated in relatively compact business districts.

But in 2000, at least two thirds of all residents of U.S. urbanized areas lived in settlements with densities of under 4,000 persons per square mile. Those densities are too low for public transit to be effective. Hence their residents are compelled to rely on private vehicles for almost all of their travel, including trips during peak hours.

Recognizing this situation, many opponents of “sprawl” call for strong urban growth boundaries to constrain future growth into more compact, higher-density patterns, including greater reinvestment and increased densities in existing neighborhoods. But most residents of those neighborhoods vehemently oppose raising densities, and most American regions already have densities far too low to support much public transit. So this strategy would not reduce future traffic congestion much.

While it’s practically impossible to eliminate congestion, there are several ways to slow its future rate of increase:

Create High Occupancy Toll (HOT) lanes. Peak-hour road pricing would not be politically feasible if policymakers put tolls on all major commuter lanes, but HOT lanes can increase traveler choices by adding new toll lanes to existing expressways, or converting underused high-occupancy vehicle (HOV) lanes to HOT lanes, and leaving present conventional lanes without tolls. True, HOT lanes do not eliminate congestion. But they allow anyone who needs to move fast on any given day to do so, without forcing all low-income drivers off those same roads during peak periods. In some regions, whole networks of HOT lanes could both add to overall capacity and make high-speed choices always available to thousands of people in a hurry.

Respond more rapidly to traffic-blocking accidents and incidents. Removing accidents and incidents from major roads faster by using roving service vehicles run by government-run Traffic Management Centers equipped with television and electronic surveillance of road conditions is an excellent tactic for reducing congestion delays.

Build more roads in growing areas. Opponents of building more roads claim that we cannot build our way out of congestion because more highway capacity will simply attract more travelers. Due to triple convergence, that criticism is true for established roads that are already overcrowded. But the large projected growth of the U.S. population surely means that we will need a lot more road and lane mileage in peripheral areas.

Install ramp-metering. This means letting vehicles enter expressways only gradually. It has improved freeway speed during peak hours in both Seattle and the Twin Cities, and could be much more widely used.

Use Intelligent Transportation System devices to speed traffic flows. These devices include electronic coordination of signal lights on local streets, large variable signs informing drivers of traffic conditions ahead, one-way street patterns, Global Positioning System equipment in cars and trucks, and radio broadcasts of current road conditions. These technologies exist now and can be effective on local streets and arteries and informative on expressways.

Create more HOV (High Occupancy Vehicle) lanes. HOV lanes have proven successful in many areas such as Houston. More regions could use HOV lanes effectively if there were more lanes built for that purpose, rather than trying to convert existing ones. Merely converting existing lanes would reduce overall road capacity.

Adopt “parking cash-out” programs. Demonstration programs have shown that if firms offer to pay persons now receiving free employee parking a stipend for shifting to carpooling or transit, significant percentages will do so. That could reduce the number of cars on the road. However, this tactic does not prevent the offsetting consequences of triple convergence.

Restrict very low-density peripheral development. Urban growth boundaries that severely constrain all far-out suburban development will not reduce future congestion much, especially in fast-growing regions. And such boundaries may drive up peripheral housing prices. But requiring at least moderate residential densities—say, 3,500 persons per square mile (4.38 units per net acre)—in new growth areas could greatly reduce peripheral driving, compared to permitting very low densities there, which tend to push growth out ever farther. In 2000, thirty-six urbanized areas had fringe area densities of 3,500 or more. Those thirty-six urbanized areas contained 18.2 percent of all persons living in all 476 U.S. urbanized areas.

Cluster high-density housing around transit stops. Such Transit Oriented Developments (TODs) would permit more residents to commute by walking to transit, thereby decreasing the number of private vehicles on the roads. However, the potential of this tactic is limited. In order to shift a significant percentage of auto commuters to transit, the number of such “transit circles” within each region would have to be very large, the density within each circle would have to be much greater than the average central city density in America’s fifty largest urbanized areas, and the percentage of workers living in the TODs who commuted by transit would have to greatly exceed the 10.5 percent average for central cities in 2000. Even so, developing many of these high-density clusters might make public transit service more feasible to many more parts of large regions.

Give regional transportation authorities more power and resources. Congress has created Metropolitan Planning Organizations to coordinate ground transportation planning over all modes in each region. If these were given more technical assistance and power, more rational systems could be created. Without much more regionally focused planning over land uses as well as transportation, few anti-congestion tactics will work effectively.

Raise gasoline taxes. Raising gas taxes would notably slow the rate of increase of all automotive travel, not just peak-hour commuting. But Congress has refused to consider it because it is politically unpopular and fought by industry lobbyists. Despite Americans’ vocal complaints about congestion, they do not want to pay much to combat it.

Peak-hour traffic congestion in almost all large and growing metropolitan regions around the world is here to stay. In fact, it is almost certain to get worse during at least the next few decades, mainly because of rising populations and wealth. This will be true no matter what public and private policies are adopted to combat congestion.

But this outcome should not be regarded as a mark of social failure or misguided policies. In fact, traffic congestion often results from economic prosperity and other types of success.

Although traffic congestion is inevitable, there are ways to slow the rate at which it intensifies. Several tactics could do that effectively, especially if used in concert, but nothing can eliminate peak-hour traffic congestion from large metropolitan regions here and around the world. Only serious economic recessions—which are hardly desirable—can even forestall an increase.

For the time being, the only relief for traffic-plagued commuters is a comfortable, air-conditioned vehicle with a well-equipped stereo system, a hands-free telephone, and a daily commute with someone they like.

Congestion has become part of commuters’ daily leisure time, and it promises to stay that way.

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How to Plan & Write IELTS Problem Solution Essays

IELTS problem solution essays are the most challenging essay type for many people. The way they are worded can vary hugely which can make it difficult to understand how you should answer the question.

Generally, you’ll be asked to write about both the problem, or cause, and the solution to a specific issue. Sometimes, however, you will only be required to write about possible solutions.

The 3 essay types:

• Problem and solution
• Cause and solution
• Just the solution

Hence, it’s essential that you analyse the question carefully, which I’ll show you how to do in this lesson. I’m also going to demonstrate step-by-step how to plan and write IELTS problem solution essays.

Here’s what we’ll be covering:

• Identifying IELTS problem solution essays 
• 6 Common mistakes
• Essay structure
• How to plan
• How to write an introduction
• How to write main body paragraphs
• How to write a conclusion

Want  to watch and listen to this lesson?

Click on this video.

Click the links to see lessons on each of these Task 2 essay writing topics. 

Once you understand the process, practice on past questions. Take your time at first and gradually speed up until you can plan and write an essay of at least 250 words in the 40 minutes allowed in the exam.

The Question

Here are two typical IELTS problem solution essay questions. They consist of a statement followed by the question or instruction.

1. One problem faced by almost every large city is traffic congestion.

What do you think the causes are? What solutions can you suggest?

2. Since the beginning of the 20th century, the number of endangered species has increased significantly and we have witnessed more mass extinctions in this period than in any other period of time.

State some reasons for this and provide possible solutions.

These are some examples of different ways in which questions can be phrased. The first half of the questions relate to the problem or cause, the second half to the solution.

What issues does this cause and how can they be addressed?

What are some resulting social problems and how can we deal with them?

What problems arise from this and how can they be tackled?

Why is this? How might it be remedied?

What are the reasons for this, and how can the situation be improved?

Why is this happening, and what measures can be taken to tackle this problem?

And here are a few questions where you only have to write about the solution.

How can this situation be improved?

What solutions can you suggest to deal with this problem?

How can this problem be solved?

What measures could be taken to prevent this?

It’s important that you are able to recognise the common synonyms, words and phrases used in problem solution questions. Here are the key words and their synonyms used in the questions above.

• Problem  – issues, resulting, situation
• Cause  – reasons, why
• Solution  – deal with, addressed, tackled, remedied, improved, measures taken, solved, prevent

Before we move on to some common mistakes, I want to quickly explain the difference between a problem and a cause. Read the following examples.

Problem – I've missed the last bus home after visiting my friend for the evening.

Cause – I misread the timetable and thought the bus left at 22.45 when it actually left at 22.35.

The ‘cause’ is the reason for the ‘problem’.  We’ll be looking at question analysis in more detail in a minute.

6 Common Mistakes

These six errors are common in IELTS problem solution essays.

• Confusing problem and causes questions.
• Having too many ideas.
• Not developing your ideas.
• Not developing both sides of the argument equally.
• Not linking the problems and solutions.
• Not being specific enough.

It is common for an essay to consist of a list of problems and solutions without any of them being expanded on or linked to each other. Sometimes, a student will focus on just the problem or only the solution which leads to an unbalanced essay. Both these issues will result in a low score for task achievement.

You must choose just one or two problems and pick solutions directly linked to them. Explain them and give examples.

Another serious error is to write generally about the topic. You need to be very specific with your ideas. Analysing the question properly is essential to avoiding this mistake. I’ll show you how to do this.

Essay Structure

Now let’s look at a simple structure you can use to write IELTS problem solution essays. It’s not the only possible structure but it’s the one I recommend because it’s easy to learn and will enable you to quickly plan and write a high-level essay.

1)  Introduction

• Paraphrase the question
• State 1 key problem/cause and related solution

2)  Main body paragraph 1 – Problem or Cause

• Topic sentence – state the problem or cause
• Explanation – give detail explaining the problem or cause
• Example – give an example

3)  Main body paragraph 2 – Solution

• Topic sentence – state the solution
• Explanation – give detail explaining the solution

4)  Conclusion

• Summarise the key points 

This structure will give us a well-balanced essay with 4 paragraphs.

One Problem/Cause & Solution or Two?

Most questions will state problems, causes and solutions in the plural, that is, more than one. However, it is acceptable to write about just one.

This will give you an essay of just over the minimum 250 words. To write about two problems/causes and solutions will require you to write between 350 and 400 words which are a lot to plan and write in the 40 minutes allowed.

It is better to fully develop one problem/cause and solution than ending up with one idea missing an explanation or an example because you run out of time.

The step-by-step essay structure I’m going to show you includes one problem and solution but you can write about two if you feel able to or more comfortable doing so.

How To Plan IELTS Problem Solution Essays

Here’s the question we’re going to be answering in our model essay followed by the 3 steps of the planning process.

One problem faced by almost every large city is traffic congestion.

What do you think the causes are? What solutions can you sugge st?

• Analyse the question
• Generate ideas
• Identify vocabulary

# 1  Analyse the question

This is an essential step in the planning process and will ensure that you answer the question fully. It’s quick and easy to do. You just need to identify 3 different types of words:

1. Topic words

2.  Other keywords

3.  Instruction words

Topics words are the ones that identify the general subject of the question and will be found in the statement part of the question.

One problem faced by almost every large city is traffic congestion .

So, this question is about ‘ traffic congestion’ .

Many people will do this first step of the process and then write about the topic in general. This is a serious mistake and leads to low marks for task achievement.

What we need to do now that we know the general topic, is to understand exactly what aspect of traffic congestion we're being asked to write about.

The  other keywords  in the question tell you the specific topic you must write about. 

By highlighting these words, it’s easy to see that you are being asked to write about the problem of traffic congestion in large cities. Your essay must only include ideas relevant to these ideas.

The instruction words are the question itself. These tell you the type of IELTS problem solution essay you must write. This is a ‘causes and solutions’ question.

# 2  Generate ideas

The next task is to generate some ideas to write about.

There are several different ways to think up ideas. I cover them fully on the  IELTS Essay Planning  page.

We’re going to use the ‘friends technique’. This is the method I prefer as it allows you to take a step back from the stress of the exam situation and think more calmly.

Here’s how it works. Imagine that you are chatting with a friend over a cup of coffee and they ask you this question. What are the first thoughts to come into your head? Plan your essay around these ideas.

Doing this will help you to come up with simple answers in everyday language rather than straining your brain to think of amazing ideas using high-level language, which isn’t necessary.

You might want to try this yourself before reading on for my ideas.

Here are my ideas:

• Too many cars on the roads – increasing numbers of people own cars, more convenient than buses & trains
• Inadequate public transport – crowded, old & dirty
• Poor road layout
• Rush hour traffic – most people travel to & from work at the same times each day
• Car sharing, park-and-ride scheme, congestion charge
• Improve public transport – more frequent and better quality
• Improve infrastructure – bus lanes, cycle lanes will make it safer for people to cycle
• Flexible working hours

For each cause you think of, immediately write down a possible solution. This you will ensure that the problems and solutions you think of are linked.

You don’t need to spend long on this as you only need one or two ideas.

I’ve got more far more ideas here than I need as I spent more time thinking about it that I would in the real exam. I’m going to pick just one cause to develop in the essay and one or two solutions.

My advice on making your selection is to choose ideas you can quickly think of an example to illustrate.

Here are my choices:

Cause  – Too many cars on the roads.  Why? – increasing numbers of people own cars, more convenient than buses & trains

Solution  – Park-and-ride schemes

We’re almost ready to start writing our IELTS problem solution essay but first, we have one more task to do.

# 3  Vocabulary

During the planning stage, quickly jot down some vocabulary that comes to mind as you decide which cause and solution you are going to write about, especially synonyms of key words. This will save you having to stop and think of the right language while you’re writing. For example:

• traffic jam
• heavy traffic
• private transport
• infrastructure

With that done, we can focus on the first paragraph of the essay – the introduction.

How To Write an Introduction

Good  introductions to IELTS problem solution essays have a simple 2 part structure:

• State 1 key problem/cause and related solution/s (outline sentence)
• Have 2-3 sentences
• Be 40-60 words long
• Take 5 minutes to write

1)  Paraphrase the question

Start your introduction by paraphrasing the question.

Question: One problem faced by almost every large city is traffic congestion.

                  What do you think the causes are? What solutions can you suggest?

Paraphrased question:  

O ne of the most serious issues facing the majority of large urban areas is traffic jams.  

Note my use of synonyms to replace key words in the question statement. You don’t have to replace every key word but do so where possible whilst ensuring that your language sounds natural.

2)  Outline statement

Now we need to add an  outline statement  where we outline the two main points that we’ll cover in the rest of the essay, that is, the cause and the solution I chose earlier. Here they are again.

Cause  – Too many cars on the roads.  Why? – increasing numbers of people own cars, more convenient than buses & trains

And, this is one way to develop them into an outline sentence.

Outline statement:

The main reason for this is that there are too many private cars on the roads these days and a viable solution is to introduce more park-and-ride schemes.

So, let’s bring the two elements of our introduction together.

     Introduction

This introduction achieves three important functions:

• It shows the examiner that you understand the question.
• It acts as a guide to the examiner as to what your essay is about.
• It also helps to keep you focused and on track as you write.

The two ideas in your introduction will become your two main body paragraphs.

Main body paragraph 1  –  Too many cars on the roads  

Main body paragraph 2  –  Park-and-ride schemes

How To Write Main Body Paragraphs

Main body paragraphs in IELTS problem solution essays should contain 3 things:

• Topic sentence – outline the main idea
• Explanation – explain it and g ive more detail

Main Body Paragraph 1

The  topic sentence  summarises the main idea of the paragraph. That’s all it needs to do so it doesn’t have to be complicated.

It plays an important role in ensuring that your ideas flow logically from one to another. It does this by acting as a signpost for what is to come next, that is, what the paragraph will be about.

If you maintain a clear development of ideas throughout your essay, you will get high marks for task achievement and cohesion and coherence.

We’ll now take the idea for our first main body paragraph and create our topic sentence.

Obviously, we’re going to write about the cause of the problem first.

Main body paragraph 1  –  Too many cars on the roads 

Topic sentence:  

The number of people owning cars increases year on year, with most families now having more than one car. 

Next, we must write an  explanation sentence  that develops the idea.

Explanation sentence: 

Most people like the convenience of travelling at the time they want to rather than being restricted to public transport timetables, so they prefer to drive themselves around rather than taking the bus or train. This is despite the fact that they frequently have to sit in long traffic queues as they near the city centre.

Finally, we add an  example  to support our main point. If you can’t think of a real example, it’s fine to make one up, as long as it’s believable. The examiner isn’t going to check your facts. Alternative, you could add another piece of information to support your idea.

Example sentence:

Whenever I have to attend a meeting in the city, I always drive because it means that I can leave home when I want to rather than getting stressed about getting to the station in time to catch the train.

That’s the 3 parts of our first main body paragraph complete. Here’s the finished paragraph.

We now follow the same process for our second main body paragraph.

Main Body Paragraph 2

Main idea 2  –   Park-and-ride schemes

First, we write the  topic sentence  to summarise the main idea. 

Topic sentence:

A solution that is proving successful in many areas is park-and-ride schemes.

Now for the  explanation sentence  where we expand on this idea.

Explanation sentence:

This is where you park your car for free in a large car park on the outskirts of the city and take a bus for the final part of your journey. The fee you have to pay for the bus trip is usually very small and this public transport system is generally very regular, running every ten minutes or so.

Finally, an  example  to support this point.

A survey carried out in the city of Exeter showed that the rush hour congestion decreased by 10% when the council set up a park-and-ride scheme to the north of the city. There was an additional drop of another 10% in traffic volume when a second scheme began operating to the south.

That’s the 3 parts of our second main body paragraph complete. Here’s the finished paragraph.

Now we need a conclusion and our IELTS problem solution essay is done.

How To Write a Conclusion

The conclusion is a summary of the main points in your essay and can generally be done in a single sentence. It should never introduce new ideas.

If you're below the minimum 250 words after you’ve written your conclusion, you can add a prediction or recommendation statement.

Our essay is already over the minimum word limit so we don’t need this extra sentence  but you can learn more about how to write a prediction or recommendation statement for IELTS problem solution essays on the Task 2 Conclusions page.

The conclusion is the easiest sentence in the essay to write but one of the most important.

A good conclusion will:

• Neatly end the essay
• Link all your ideas together
• Sum up your argument or opinion
• Answer the question

If you achieve this, you’ll improve your score for both task achievement and cohesion and coherence which together make up 50% of the overall marks. Without a conclusion, you’ll score below band 6 for task achievement.

You can start almost any final paragraph of an IELTS problem solution essay with the words:

• In conclusion

        or

• To conclude

Now all you need to do is briefly summarise the main ideas into one sentence.

Here’s a top tip . Go back and read the introduction to the essay because this is also a summary of the essay. It outlines what you are going to write about.

To create a good conclusion, you simply have to paraphrase the introduction. 

Introduction:

Here is the same information formed into a conclusion.  I’ve also added a personal statement at the end to link back to one of my example sentences. You don’t have to do this but in this case, I think that it rounds the essay off better.

That’s it. We’ve completed our essay. Here it is with the 4 paragraphs put together.

Finished IELTS problem solution essay.

Go through this lesson as many times as you need to in order to fully understand it and put in lots of practice writing IELTS problem solution essays from past exam questions. Practice is the only way to improve your skills.

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More help with ielts problem solution essays & other task 2 essays.

IELTS Writing Task 2  – T he format, the 5 question types, the 5 step essay writing strategy & sample questions. All the key information you need to know.

The 5 Types of Task 2 Essay   – How to recognise the 5 different types of Task 2 essays. 15 sample questions to study and a simple planning structure for each essay type.

Understanding Task 2 Questions  – How to quickly and easily analyse and understand IELTS Writing Task 2 questions.

How To Plan a Task 2 Essay  – Discover why essay planning is essential & learn a simple 4 step strategy, the 4 part essay structure & 4 methods of generating ideas.

How To Write a Task 2 Introduction  – Find out why a good introduction is essential. Learn how to write one using a simple 3 part strategy & discover 4 common mistakes to avoid.

How To Write Task 2 Main Body Paragraphs  – Learn the simple 3 part structure for writing great main body paragraphs and also, 3 common mistakes to avoid. 

How To Write Task 2 Conclusions  – Learn the easy way to write the perfect conclusion for a Task 2 essay. Also discover 4 common mistakes to avoid.

Task 2 Marking Criteria  – Find out how to meet the marking criteria in Task 2. See examples of good and poor answers & learn some common mistakes to avoid.

The 5 Task 2 Essay Types:

Step-by-step instructions on how to plan & write high-level essays. Model answers & common mistakes to avoid.

   Opinion Essays

   Discussion Essays

  Problem Solution Essays

  Advantages & Disadvantages Essays

  Double Question Essays

Other Related Pages

IELTS Writing Test  – Understand the format & marking criteria, know what skills are assessed & learn the difference between the Academic & General writing tests.

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What are the causes and effects of traffic congestion

IELTS essay What are the causes and effects of traffic congestion

• Structure your answers in logical paragraphs
• ? One main idea per paragraph
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• Vary your linking phrases using synonyms
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No More Traffic Jams

       There is nothing worse than being trapped in your car, waiting in the middle of a traffic jam. It is frustrating, knowing that there is nothing you can do and that you are going to be late to work. Traffic jams often occur during rush hour or right after a large event because there are more cars on the road than normal. Traffic jams can also be caused by car accidents or road construction. They usually occur on major roads that many people use to travel to work or school. Traffic jams are a problem because they make people late for work or school, they can cause car accidents, and they are frustrating. How can we reduce the number of traffic jams? Possible solutions include carpooling or using public transportation. The best way to solve traffic jams is by using public transportation because it will be efficient, economical, and reliable.

       First, using public transportation is efficient. A bus is a very efficient way to move lots of people from one place to another using only one vehicle. Instead of having one vehicle for each person on the road, busses take many cars off the road as people ride together. Trains are even more efficient at reducing the number of cars on the road. Because trains have their own dedicated rail system to get people around, all of the cars are eliminated without adding any more traffic to the roads. Not only are busses and trains more efficient at carrying passengers, but time spent on a bus or a train is more efficient for the passenger. This encourages more people to use public transportation. It is easy to see how efficient public transportation is and the impact that it has on reducing traffic.

       Another reason that public transportation is the best solution to traffic jams is because it is so economical. People want to use public transportation instead of driving their own car because they can save money. Public transportation usually does not cost very much, especially for people who use it often. There are discounts for seniors and students, which makes it an even more economical way for these groups to travel around town. Using public transportation also eliminates the need to pay for parking, car insurance, and car maintenance, not to mention gasoline. All of the expenses related to owning a car are replaced with one simple fare. Because it is so economical, public transportation is a good solution to traffic jams by encouraging more people to travel together and reduce the number of cars on the road.

       Finally, public transportation is the best solution because it is reliable. Many people set up carpools to reduce traffic, but this is only a temporary solution. Every time someone has a change in their schedule, the carpool needs to be adjusted. For example, if someone has to go to the doctor or sleeps in, the carpool will not work that day. If someone changes jobs or transfers to a new school, the carpool will need to be adjusted again. Public transportation, on the other hand, is more reliable. The bus and train schedules don’t change every time that one rider needs to go to the doctor. The schedules are set and people can plan on them. People who use public transportation will find that it is reliable and can help limit the number of cars on the road.

       Because it is efficient, economical, and reliable, public transportation is the best way to reduce the number of traffic jams. There are other possible ways to address this problem, but using public transportation is clearly the best. Traffic jams during very busy hours on the road can be reduced and more people can get to work on time and avoid the frustration caused by sitting in the middle of a long line of cars. Cities and governments should consider ways to improve their public transportation system and encourage more people to use it. If they do, they will surely see fewer traffic jams on their roads and much happier drivers.

Exercise 1: Analyze an essay

Read one of the two Process Example Essays on the following pages to complete this exercise.

• Label the introduction paragraph, the body paragraphs, and the conclusion paragraph.
• Circle the hook.
• What is the general topic of the essay?
• Underline the thesis.
• Underline each of the topic sentences.
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• Does the conclusion paragraph start by restating the thesis?

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Air pollution and health risks due to vehicle traffic

a Division of Epidemiology, Human Genetics and Environmental Sciences, University of Texas School of Public Health, Houston, TX 77030, USA

Stuart Batterman

b Dept. of Environmental Health Sciences, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-2029, USA

Associated Data

Traffic congestion increases vehicle emissions and degrades ambient air quality, and recent studies have shown excess morbidity and mortality for drivers, commuters and individuals living near major roadways. Presently, our understanding of the air pollution impacts from congestion on roads is very limited. This study demonstrates an approach to characterize risks of traffic for on- and near-road populations. Simulation modeling was used to estimate on- and near-road NO 2 concentrations and health risks for freeway and arterial scenarios attributable to traffic for different traffic volumes during rush hour periods. The modeling used emission factors from two different models (Comprehensive Modal Emissions Model and Motor Vehicle Emissions Factor Model version 6.2), an empirical traffic speed–volume relationship, the California Line Source Dispersion Model, an empirical NO 2 –NO x relationship, estimated travel time changes during congestion, and concentration–response relationships from the literature, which give emergency doctor visits, hospital admissions and mortality attributed to NO 2 exposure. An incremental analysis, which expresses the change in health risks for small increases in traffic volume, showed non-linear effects. For a freeway, “U” shaped trends of incremental risks were predicted for on-road populations, and incremental risks are flat at low traffic volumes for near-road populations. For an arterial road, incremental risks increased sharply for both on- and near-road populations as traffic increased. These patterns result from changes in emission factors, the NO 2 –NO x relationship, the travel delay for the on-road population, and the extended duration of rush hour for the near-road population. This study suggests that health risks from congestion are potentially significant, and that additional traffic can significantly increase risks, depending on the type of road and other factors. Further, evaluations of risk associated with congestion must consider travel time, the duration of rush-hour, congestion-specific emission estimates, and uncertainties.

1. Introduction

Traffic on roads has significantly increased in the U.S. and elsewhere over the past 20 years ( Schrank and Lomax, 2007 ). In many areas, vehicle emissions have become the dominant source of air pollutants, including carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), volatile organic compounds (VOCs) or hydrocarbons (HCs), nitrogen oxides (NO x ), and particulate matter (PM) ( Transportation Research Board (TRB), 2002 ). The increasing severity and duration of traffic congestion have the potential to greatly increase pollutant emissions and to degrade air quality, particularly near large roadways. These emissions contribute to risks of morbidity and mortality for drivers, commuters and individuals living near roadways, as shown by epidemiological studies, evaluations of proposed vehicle emission standards, and environmental impact assessments for specific road projects ( World Health Organization (WHO), 2005 ; Health Effects Institute (HEI), 2010 ).

It is useful to separate traffic-associated pollutant impacts and risks into two categories. First, “congestion-free” impacts refer to impacts of traffic at volumes below the level that produces significant congestion. In this case, each additional vehicle added to the road does not substantially alter traffic patterns, e.g., the speed and travel time of other vehicles are unaffected, and thus vehicle emission factors do not depend on traffic volume. As a result, the marginal impact of an additional vehicle is equal to the average impact of the vehicle fleet. This is not necessarily true during congestion, the second category considered. While there are many definitions, congestion is often defined as periods when traffic volume exceeds road capacity. (Other definitions use a speed threshold, a percentage of free-flow speed of a roadway, or other indicator.) The present study focuses on what might be called “recurring congestion,” specifically, congestion caused by high traffic volumes during weekday peak “rush hour” periods. However, traffic volume is treated as a continuous variable, and strict definitions of congestion are not needed.

In the present analysis, “congestion-related” impacts incorporate multiple interactions that occur with congestion. First, congestion lowers the average speed, which increases travel time and exposure on a per vehicle basis. This effect can be considerable, e.g., the average annual travel delay for a traveler making rush hour trips in the U.S. was 38 h in 2005, based on 437 urban areas ( Schrank and Lomax, 2007 ). Second, congestion diminishes dispersion of vehicle-related pollutants since vehicle-induced turbulence depends on vehicle speed ( Benson, 1989 ). Thus, lower vehicle speeds can increase pollutant concentrations from roadway sources. Third, congestion can change driving patterns, resulting in an increased number of speedups, slowdowns, stops and starts, which increase emissions compared to “cruise” conditions, especially with high power acceleration. For example, Sjodin et al. (1998) showed up to 4-, 3- and 2-fold increases in CO, HC and NO x emissions, respectively, with congestion (average speed of 13 miles per hour, mph; 1 mph=1.61 km per hour) compared to uncongested conditions (average speed, 38–44 mph). Thus, it is important to separate congestion-free and congestion-related impacts since emissions, impacts and risks can differ greatly, and because such analyses can better inform decisions related to traffic and air quality management, as well as impact and risk assessments.

Few evaluations of congestion-related impacts have been undertaken, and available studies have essentially combined congestion and non-congestion related impacts. Tonne et al. (2008) predicted that the congestion charging zone in London, where drivers must pay fees when their vehicles enter this area, would gain 183 years-of-life per 100,000 population in the congestion charging zone itself and a total of 1,888 years-of-life in the greater London area. Eliasson et al. (2009) estimated that a similar zone in Stockholm would avoid 20–25 deaths annually due to traffic-related air pollution in the inner city, and 25–30 deaths annually in the metropolitan area, which contains 1.4 million inhabitants. Both studies indicate that congestion pricing is beneficial in reducing traffic-related health impacts, but congestion-free and congestion-related impacts were not separated. These European studies focused on congestion charging zones, which are uncommon in the U.S., and the vehicle mix and fleet emission characteristics may differ substantially from those in the U.S. Using a different approach that examined shifts in time activity patterns (TAPs: the amount of time spent at various locations and related activities) due to travel delays along with literature values of exposure concentrations in relevant microenvironments, we estimated that a 30 min day −1 travel delay accounted for 21±12% of the exposure to benzene and 14±8% of PM 2.5 for a typical working adult on weekdays ( Zhang and Batterman, 2009 ). Levy et al. (2010) estimated that the estimated public health cost of mortality attributable to congestion in 83 U.S. cities in 2000 was $31 billion (2007 dollars). This study used a macro-level approach to estimate traffic volume, which was then linked to the Motor Vehicle Emissions Factor Model 6.2 (MOBILE6.2) ( EPA, 2003 ), thus providing a snapshot of congestion. However, congestion is dynamic and varies with time, space, weather and other factors ( Downs, 2004 ). Overall, these studies suggest that congestion represents a substantial share of exposure to drivers and commuters, with potentially significant risks and impacts on health.

This study investigates the magnitude of air pollution impacts and health risks to on- and near-road populations that might occur due to recurring congestion, such as Monday through Friday rush hour traffic. Recurring congestion can result in repeated and chronic exposures, and an increase in long term health risks. “Incident congestion,” such as that caused by an accident or disabled vehicle, is not addressed, although such events may also be important for certain acute health outcomes, e.g., asthma exacerbation. This study utilizes predictive risk assessment techniques, namely, simulation models for traffic, emissions, pollutant dispersion and risk, and an incremental analysis that evaluates congestion-free and congestion-related impacts. After describing the approach, two case studies are used to analyze air pollution impacts and risks. A limited sensitivity analysis is conducted to examine impacts of key parameters on the estimated incremental risk. The merits of the various approaches that might be used to estimate congestion impacts conclude the analysis.

2.1. Approach

Risk assessment methods, depicted in Fig. 1 , are used to estimate health risks due to traffic for two scenarios. In brief, vehicle emissions are used as an input to a dispersion model to estimate concentrations, which are then multiplied by exposure time and a risk factor representing the concentration–response relationship. While some exposure and risk assessments utilize time activity patterns (TAPs) or human activity patterns, for simplicity we consider only exposure durations in traffic micro-environments, which include the delays due to traffic congestion. An incremental analysis is used to estimate the marginal impacts of increases in traffic volume. Such analyses are widely used in economic models to examine effects of small changes of an input on outcomes of interest; they also represent one of the classical “sensitivity analysis” techniques used to identify key variables in modeling systems ( Trueman, 2007 ). One difference here, however, is that a wide range of traffic flows is examined over which relationships are expected to vary considerably.

Diagram for modeling health risks due to traffic and congestion (CALINE4, the California Line Source Dispersion Model version 4 CMEM, the Comprehensive Modal Emissions Model; MOBILE6.2, the Motor Vehicle Emissions Factor Model version 6.2; TAP, time activity pattern).

2.2. Case studies

Two case studies or scenarios were developed to examine associations between traffic volume, exposures and health risks. The first, a freeway scenario, models an 8 km long segment of interstate I-94 in Ann Arbor, MI ( Fig. S1 ), which was selected for a field study in which instantaneous emission rates were modeled. This segment had a permanent traffic recorder (PTR) operated by the Michigan Department of Transportation (MDOT). The portion of the segment west of US-23 had two lanes in each direction; the segment to the east had three lanes in each direction. The annual average daily traffic (AADT) volumes for these segments were 78,300 and 91,300 vehicles day −1 in west and east directions, respectively ( MDOT, 2008 ). During the field study described in Zhang et al. (2011) , traffic volumes were 3099 and 4040 vehicles per hour (vph) in morning and afternoon rush hour periods, respectively. The vehicle mix (8% heavy duty trucks and 92% light duty vehicles) during rush hour was based on PTR records from October, 2007 ( Southeast Michigan Council of Governments (SEMCOG), 2006 ), and was assumed to be constant. The southeast Michigan vehicle age distribution was assumed to represent the fleet. The traffic volume in the incremental analysis was allowed to vary from 1000 to 10,000 vph. Given that design capacity is 2000 vehicles h −1 lane −1 for a freeway ( SEMCOG, 2004 ), the upper volume represents about 120% of road capacity. In addition to the freeway scenario with an incremental analysis, a scenario using observed volumes on I-94 during rush hour was modeled to demonstrate the spatial and temporal patterns of predicted pollutant levels.

An arterial scenario was also modeled. This used a segment along Grand River Boulevard (M-5) in Detroit, which is 8.5 km long and includes two lanes per direction and a central turning lane ( Fig. S2 ). The AADT volumes for the segment west of M-39 and east of M-39 were 23,800 and 19,200 vehicles day −1 , respectively ( MDOT, 2009 ). The regional vehicle mix and age distribution described above were used. Traffic volumes ranged from 1000 to 4000 vph (about 120% of road capacity; design capacity is 825 vehicles h −1 lane −1 for an arterial road; SEMCOG, 2004).

Exposures of drivers and commuters were estimated using several assumptions about their behavior, traffic, and in-vehicle concentrations. A driver or commuter was assumed to travel on the segments under a constant traffic volume in both morning and afternoon rush hours every weekday throughout the year. The in-vehicle concentration was assumed to be equal to predicted on-road concentrations.

Exposures of near-road residents were derived as follows. A uniform population density along both sides of the road was assumed. The (non-commuting) residents were assumed to stay at home, which was assumed to be located 100 m from the road, during rush hour every weekday. Obviously, time activity patterns and actual distances can vary considerably, although an estimated 11% of the US households are located within 100 m of a four lane highway ( Brugge et al., 2007 ). The average concentrations at upwind and downwind receptors (each at 100 m distance) were used, given the assumption of a uniform population density. Since indoor NO 2 concentrations (in homes without indoor sources) are about 50% of outdoor concentrations ( HEI, 2010 ), the indoor exposure concentration was assumed to be half that of predicted outdoor concentrations at the 100 m receptors.

2.3. Emission modeling

Emission factors for a vehicle fleet traveling at different speeds were estimated using the Comprehensive Modal Emissions Model (CMEM) and MOBILE6.2. In this study, emissions were estimated for NO x since traffic is its major source, and both models can predict NO x while adjusting for speed effects. There are other important traffic-related pollutants, e.g., PM 2.5 ; however, CMEM does not estimate PM 2.5 , and MOBILE6.2 does not account for vehicle speed effects on PM 2.5 .

CMEM is a power-demand instantaneous model that can predict fuel consumption and emissions of CO, HC, NO x and CO 2 on a fine time scale, e.g., a second-by-second basis ( Scora and Barth, 2006 ; Zhang and Batterman, 2011 ). CMEM was used only in the freeway scenario because driving patterns were collected at this frequency only for this freeway segment. The CMEM estimates from Zhang and Batterman (2011) , which were based on the east-bound I-94 segment, were assumed to apply to both directions.

MOBILE6.2 is a widely used regulatory emission model ( Pierce et al., 2008 ) that estimates emissions of HC, CO, NO x , PM and air toxics like benzene on the basis of chassis dynamometer measurements and driving cycles designed for four road types: freeway, arterial, ramp and local road ( Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 2003 ; Pierce et al., 2008 ). Emission factors in summer and winter were estimated using MOBILE6.2 and the fleet mix, vehicle age distribution, and typical daily temperatures for different vehicle speeds. Annual average emission factors were approximated as the average of summer and winter predictions.

For both emission models, emission factors are a function of fleet speed, and speed is a function of traffic volume. Speeds corresponding to given traffic volumes were derived using the Bureau of Public Road (BPR) formula ( Dowling, 1997 ):

where s=predicted mean speed; s f =free-flow speed; v= volume per hour; c=practical capacity, estimated locally as 2000 vehicles h −1 lane −1 for freeways, and 825 vehicles h −1 lane −1 for urban arterials ( SEMCOG, 2004 ); a=scalar coefficient ranging from 0.05 to 1; and b=power coefficient ranging from 4 to 11. The latter two coefficients were obtained from a Detroit case study, which estimated a=0.1226 for the freeway, a=1.00 for the arterial, and b=4.688 ( Batterman et al., 2010 ). The posted speed limits are 70 and 35 mph for freeway and arterial segments, respectively, in the two case studies.

2.4. Dispersion modeling

Dispersion model predictions of NO x concentrations attributable to traffic emissions were given by the California Line Source Dispersion Model version 4 (CALINE4). This model uses a Gaussian-plume model for a line source of finite length, and a mixing zone to characterize thermal and mechanical turbulence (e.g., vehicle wake effects), which is defined as the region over the roadway (traffic lanes, not shoulders) plus 3 m on each side ( Benson, 1989 ). Both emissions and turbulence in the mixing zone are assumed to be uniformly distributed, while the decay of concentrations at more distant locations follows an empirical Gaussian line source equation ( Benson, 1989 ). Because CALINE4 was not designed to process hourly data for a full year, a simplified modeling approach was used ( Zhang and Batterman, 2010 ). In brief, the annual average concentration at a receptor was estimated as the sum of CALINE predictions for 16 wind sectors (each spanning 22.5°) and 15 wind speed classes (1 m s −1 for each bin, e.g., 0.5 to 1.5, 1.5 to 2.5, …), weighted by the joint probability of each wind sector/wind speed category during morning and afternoon rush hour periods, based on (hourly) meteorology from 2005. Model inputs included emission factors, traffic flows, receptor locations, and surface meteorological data for morning and afternoon rush hours (7–9 am and 4–6 pm) in 2005, measured at Detroit Metropolitan Airport (located 24 and 18 km from the freeway and arterial segments, respectively). Receptors were placed 0, 25, 50, 75, 100 and 150 m from both sides of a transect perpendicular to the center of the studied road segments.

Predicted NO x concentrations were converted into NO 2 levels in order to utilize NO 2 -based concentration–health response relationships. Nitric oxide (NO) emissions, which usually account for 90–95% of NO x emissions in traffic ( WHO, 2005 ), are rapidly converted into NO 2 by reaction with ozone and OH − radicals. Ambient concentrations of NO and NO 2 vary with distance from traffic and other factors, e.g., background ozone and NO 2 concentrations, sunlight and dispersion conditions ( HEI, 2010 ). In this study, NO 2 concentrations were predicted using an empirical model recommended by the UK Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (2003):

where NO 2(road) =annual mean NO 2 concentration attributable to the road; NO x(road) =annual mean NO x concentration attributable to the road; and NO x(background) =annual mean background NO x concentration. Eq. (2) gives NO 2 :NO x ratios from 0.25 at low NO x levels to 0.12 at high NO x concentrations. Although developed for long-term NO 2 :NO x ratios, Eq. (2) was assumed to hold for short term relationships. The NO x(road) concentration was taken from CALINE4 predictions, and the NO x(background) concentration was set to 28.7 μg m −3 , the 2004 average background level at a Detroit area monitor (East 7 Mile, northeast Detroit) ( Brown et al., 2007 ).

2.5. Exposure assessment

Daily and annual NO 2 exposures of on-road population were calculated as follows

where E d =adjusted daily exposures to NO 2 (μg m −3 day −1 ); E a = adjusted annual exposures to NO 2 (μg m −3 year −1 ); C on–road = predicted on-road concentrations (μg m −3 ); T=travel time (h), calculated by dividing the segment length over vehicle speed; 1/24=daily adjusted coefficient (h −1 day −1 ), a reciprocal of 24 h per day, which distributes in-vehicle exposures during travel over the day in order to be compatible with daily-average-based concentration–response relationships; and 255/365=annual adjusted coefficient given 255=weekdays per year and 365=days per year, thus distributing short-term exposures over a year, again to be comparable with the concentration–response relationships.

Exposures for near-road population were derived similarly to that just described, but with the following changes. In Eqs. (3) and (4) , on-road concentrations were replaced by one half of the near-road concentrations, and travel time was replaced by the rush hour duration, defined in Eq. (5) :

where T rush–hour =actual duration of rush hour; T free–flow =baseline duration of free-flow conditions (0.5 h); 0.5=a scale factor, which is used to account for some of road network dynamics (e.g., vehicles enter and leave a network at anytime during a rush hour); s f =free-flow speed (70 and 35 mph for freeway and arterial road, respectively); s= speed (mph). The rush hour duration is extended due to increased traffic volume. Residents were assumed to be at home during rush hours every weekday.

2.6. Risk characterization

Health risks were calculated by linking estimated exposures to the relevant concentration–response relationships from the literature. These relationships were assumed to hold for traffic-related air pollutants as indicated by NO 2 , and for both congestion and congestion-free conditions, which can be justified if the pollutant mixtures associated with these conditions are similar. Health outcomes of interest and available in the literature include short term morbidity, which represents emergency doctor visits and hospital admissions (EDA), and long term mortality. Both short- and long-term endpoints were selected, based on the strongest concentrations–response relationships in the literature as given by US Environmental Projection Agency (EPA) (2008) . Specifically, risks were estimated using exposures and the concentration–response intervals of 0.5–5.3% and 0–14.8% per 10 μg m −3 NO 2 concentration increase for EDA and all-cause mortality, respectively. These intervals represent the ranges of the mean estimates from different studies, and not statistical confidence intervals from a meta-analysis. EPA (2008) states that confidence intervals cannot be established since the underlying studies used different models, e.g., single and multi-pollutant models, different covariates, different cohorts, some studies only consider one age group, and other differences.

The incremental risks of increases in traffic volume were derived by dividing the differences of the risks corresponding to nearby traffic volumes by the differences of these traffic volumes. They represent the change (e.g., increase) in risk for an individual per each additional vehicle at a specific traffic volume. Thus, the incremental risk is the marginal risk for an individual given changes in traffic volume. The analysis addressed risks for individuals in traffic-related microenvironments, e.g., in vehicles and near major roads. Incremental risks might also change for populations in other environments due to emissions of primary pollutants, e.g., carbon monoxide and NO 2 , as well as the formation of secondary pollutants, e.g., ozone promoted by NO 2 emissions.

2.7. Sensitivity analysis

A limited sensitivity analysis examined impacts of key factors on predicted incremental risk, including speed, emission factors, and the NO 2 /NO x ratio. This analysis predicted incremental mortality risks for the on-road population during the morning rush hour using the freeway scenario under different conditions, speeds of 50, 55, 60, 65 and 70 mph with the constant emission factor (2.7 g mi −1 ) and NO 2 /NO x ratio (0.16), emission rates of 1.9, 2.1, 2.3, 2.5 and 2.7 g mi −1 at constant speed (70 mph) and NO 2 /NO x ratio (0.16), and NO 2 /NO x ratios of 0.12, 0.15, 0.18, 0.22 and 0.25 at constant emission factor (2.7 g mi −1 ) and speed (70 mph). Emission estimates were derived from MOBILE6.2.

3.1. Spatial–temporal patterns of predicted NO 2 levels

Fig. S3 shows how quickly predicted NO 2 levels decrease with distance from the highway, consistent with previous studies ( WHO, 2005 ). Although the afternoon rush hour traffic volume was 30% higher than that in the morning, morning and afternoon concentrations were similar, mainly due to poorer dispersion conditions in morning, specifically more frequent occurrences of low speed winds.

3.2. Air pollution impacts

Fig. 2 shows associations between traffic volume, speed and NO x emission factors for the freeway and arterial scenarios. For the freeway, speeds were constant up to volume of approximately 4400 vph, at which point speeds began to decrease. Emission factors from both CMEM and MOBILE6.2 were also constant at low volumes. At high volumes, CMEM’s predictions slightly increased while MOBILE6.2’s slightly decreased. For the arterial case, speed was constant at low traffic volumes, and dropped quickly after around 2000 vph ( Fig. 2A ). Emission factors were nearly constant at low volumes, and increased after 2500 vph when vehicle speeds are low ( Fig. 2B ).

Predicted speed and NO x emission factors versus traffic volumes for the freeway and arterial scenarios (green to red denotes free flow conditions to congestion).

Figs. 3A–B show NO 2 concentrations predicted for various emission estimates, traffic volume and rush hour periods in the freeway scenario. Concentrations based on CMEM estimates were nearly linearly associated with traffic volume ( Figs. 3A–B ); those based on MOBILE6.2 increased exponentially with traffic volume to 7000 vph, and then gradually leveled off ( Fig. 3A–B ). Figs. 3C–D show predicted NO 2 concentrations in the arterial scenario. NO 2 levels increased nearly linearly to about 3000 vph, and then increased sharply. These predictions included emissions from the road segment only, i.e., background levels of NO 2 attributable to other emissions were not included.

Predicted NO 2 concentrations versus traffic volume in the freeway and arterial scenarios (green to red, free flow conditions to congestion).

3.3. Health risks

Predicted short- and long-term health risks for the freeway scenario with traffic volumes from 1000 to 10,000 vph using CMEM and MOBILE6.2 emission estimates are shown in Tables 1 and ​ and2, 2 , respectively. Predicted total health risks increased with increased traffic volume, regardless of health outcome, road type and emission models. At the same traffic volume, traffic during the morning rush hour increased risks by 20 to 40% compared to afternoon rush hour, mainly due to the poorer dispersion conditions mentioned. Differences between results in Tables 1 and ​ and2 2 were mainly determined by the differences from two emission estimates and the empirical NO 2 –NO x relationship.

Predicted short- and long-term health risks for selected receptors in the freeway scenario for different traffic volumes using CMEM emission estimates (EDA, emergency doctor visit or hospital admissions; unit: probability×10 −6 day −1 person −1 for EDA and probability×10 −6 year −1 person −1 for mortality.).

Predicted short- and long-term health risks for selected receptors in the freeway scenario using MOBILE6.2 emission estimates (unit: probability×10 −6 day −1 person −1 for EDA and probability×10 −6 year −1 person −1 for mortality.).

Table 3 shows predicted health risks for the arterial scenario. Like the freeway results, the arterial scenario had higher risks during the morning rush hour.

Predicted short- and long-term health risks for selected receptors in the arterial scenario using MOBILE6.2 emission estimates (unit: probability×10 −6 day −1 person −1 for EDA and probability×10 −6 year −1 person −1 for mortality.).

3.4. Incremental health risk analysis

Fig. 4 shows incremental risks (increased risk for an individual per an additional vehicle) for the upper bound mortality outcomes in the freeway scenario. ( Figs. S4–S5 show incremental risks for EDA using CMEM and MOBILE6.2 emission estimates, which are proportional to the mortality risk.) The incremental risks for the on-road population in the morning rush hour period were 20 to 45% higher than those in the afternoon rush hour.

Predicted incremental risks per vehicle versus traffic volume for upper bound mortality in the freeway scenario (CMEM, estimated based on CMEM estimates; MOBILE6.2, estimated based on MOBILE6.2 estimates; near-road representing individuals living at 100 m to a highway; green to red, free flow conditions to congestion).

For the arterial scenario, incremental risks greatly increased at high traffic volumes ( Fig. 5 ). ( Fig. S6 shows incremental risks for EDA using MOBILE6.2 emission estimates, and again, incremental risks for EDA and mortality are proportional.) In the arterial scenario, speeds decreased substantially (from 35 to 10 mph) and emission factors increased markedly (from 1.7 to 2.3 g mi −1 ).

Predicted incremental risks per vehicle versus traffic volume for upper bound mortality in the arterial scenario.

3.5. Sensitivity analysis

Fig. S7 shows effects of speed, emission factors and the NO 2 /NO x ratio on incremental mortality risks. Generally, incremental risks decreased as speed increased (or traffic volume decreased), and risks increased with higher emission factors and higher NO 2 /NO x ratios. The NO 2 /NO x ratio had the largest impact on incremental risks; its relative sensitivity was an order of magnitude higher than that for emission factors, and two orders higher than speed’s.

4. Discussion

This study demonstrates a methodology for analyzing the health risks attributable to traffic, specifically using a marginal analysis that shows the effect of incremental increases in traffic volume. To our knowledge, this appears to be the first study examining health risks attributable to congestion-related air pollution using this approach. Although the methodology employs several models that incorporate simplifying assumptions, the incremental analysis shows the effect of each additional vehicle. It highlights the key factors affecting risks due to congestion, which include traffic volume, speed, road type, emission factor and meteorology.

The key factors determining NO 2 concentration predictions include the emission model (MOBILE6.2 vs. CMEM), receptor location (on-road vs. near road), and road type (freeway vs. arterial road). In the freeway scenario, NO 2 concentration trends were determined by mainly traffic volume, emission factors and the empirical NO 2 –NO x relationship. MOBILE6.2 has slightly lower emission factors at lower speeds (high traffic volumes), thus NO 2 concentrations increase slowly at high volumes compared to a sharp increase at low volumes. Additionally, with the same traffic volume, concentrations predicted for the morning rush hour are 30 to 50% higher than those in afternoon rush hour period, which is mainly attributable to meteorological factors (more frequent lower winds and poor dispersion conditions). In the arterial road scenario, the predicted NO 2 trends can be explained by emission factors that are approximately constant at low volumes and thus traffics volume dominates the trend, while at high volumes, increasing emission factors make NO 2 levels rise more sharply ( Fig. 2 ).

The predicted incremental risk per vehicle in the freeway scenario suggests a U-shape pattern for the on-road population, and constant incremental risks at low traffic volume for near-road populations. This indicates that incremental risks may be variable, dependent on driving patterns and parameters that pertain to that specific road segment and population. These patterns can be explained by travel time (for the on-road population), emission estimates, and the empirical NO 2 –NO x relationship. The incremental risks derived using CMEM are used to explain the interactions of these factors. The on-road risks show U-shaped curves with traffic volume, as depicted in Fig. 4A and B : from 1000 to 4000 vph, trends are determined by the NO 2 /NO x empirical relationship because speed and emission factors are constant, while the proportion of NO 2 to NO x slightly decreases from 0.3 to 0.22 with higher volumes; from 5000 to 7000 vph, emission factors remain constant but speed decreases, resulting in longer travel times, and the NO 2 to NO x ratio slightly decreases (from 0.21 to 0.19), which together slightly increase incremental risks; and lastly, for volumes exceeding 8000 vph, incremental risks increase due to longer travel delays, higher emission factors, and slightly decreased NO 2 /NO x ratio. The near-road risks show smaller changes, but the pattern is similar. The variation in results around 7000 to 10,000 vph, a result of step changes in the underlying models, might be addressed by smoothing.

The dramatic changes in incremental risks in the arterial scenario suggest that congestion could pose risks to commuters on and residents near arterial roads that are greater than congestion risks associated with freeways, possibly because lower speeds might be associated with more acceleration/deceleration events than higher speeds and, to a lesser degree, because low speeds reduce vehicle-induced dispersion ( Benson, 1989 ).

In summary, the case studies indicated that incremental risks depend primarily on emission rates, empirical NO 2 –NO x relationships, and travel delay (for the on-road population). At the high traffic volumes often associated with congestion, emission rates dominate the factors affecting risk trends. The divergence between the two emission models further suggests the importance of the emission estimates, especially for congested conditions. Many other factors can influence risk results, as described below.

4.1. Relevance of the case studies

The case studies used two simplified and somewhat hypothetical scenarios. The volumes assumed for the study segments may be unrealistic, e.g., the observed freeway traffic volume was only 4040 vph in the afternoon rush hour, less than half of the highest volume (10,000 vph) simulated. The results of incremental risks are expected to vary with roads with different orientations, topography, meteorology, and population density. Further, only NO 2 was considered. It would be helpful to examine other traffic-related pollutants, such as diesel exhaust and PM 2.5 , given its health significance and differences in emission trends from NO x .

4.2. Emission uncertainties

The MOBILE6.2 and CMEM models yield different trends of emission factors against traffic volume, and the former model’s predictions are systematically higher. These models have many differences. CMEM simulates segment-specific driving behaviors using segment-specific second-by-second speed/acceleration profiles, while MOBILE6.2 assumes a generic driving pattern. Differences and uncertainties also occur due to the different approaches used to represent driving patterns, smoothing of speed and acceleration data used by CMEM, vehicle fleet assumptions, and difference in driving cycles and calibration database, among other reasons ( Zhang and Batterman, 2011 ). Smit (2006 , 2008) suggests that emission models based on average speeds, such as MOBILE6.2, do not explicitly account for congestion since input parameters representing congestion levels are not incorporated. MOBILE6.2 implicitly accounts for congestion because some urban driving patterns used in the model are associated with congestion. In contrast, driving pattern-based emission models, such as CMEM, predict emissions in congestion using instantaneous speed and acceleration/deceleration profiles as model inputs. However, predictions for congestion periods have not been fully validated ( Smit, 2006 ). Therefore, our scenarios used the default congestion levels in MOBILE6.2’s development and calibration.

There are many other sources of uncertainty in the emission models. For CMEM, key uncertainties result from the speed-profile smoothing and the car-floating technique used to develop these profiles. This approach likely reduced differences between congestion and free-flow predictions since actual acceleration/deceleration is underestimated. Additional uncertainties result from mapping CMEM to vehicle categories, and assuming that CMEM predictions applied to both road directions. For MOBILE6.2, a key uncertainty is whether the embedded driving cycles and speed adjustments reflect the actual driving patterns. As discussed, MOBILE6.2’s ability to predict congestion-related emissions for a specific road is limited. Other uncertainties include the lack of segment-specific vehicle mix and age distributions, and the performance of the BPR model that relates traffic flow and speed. Finally, both CMEM and MOBILE6.2 are deterministic models that do not represent uncertainties in both the structures and parameters of the models.

Roadway emissions can be estimated in other ways. The new EPA Motor Vehicle Emission Simulator (MOVES; EPA, 2009 ) has been calibrated using a larger database than CMEM, can consider user-specified driving patterns ( EPA, 2009 ), and provides (varying) PM 2.5 estimates. Emissions might also be determined using on-board monitoring or near-road emission/concentration measurements. While expensive, onboard monitoring links transient emissions to transient speed, acceleration and deceleration parameters, and thus can capture emissions that typify stop-and-go congestion. Because such relationships can vary dramatically among vehicles, generalizations to the whole fleet may be problematic. Near-road monitoring can be difficult to couple to transient driving parameter given instrumental limitations and changes in meteorological conditions and dispersion, among other reasons, although such measurements might provide the best estimate of congestion’s contribution to pollutant levels.

4.3. Dispersion modeling

The concentration predictions involved several uncertainties and limitations, the largest of which might arise from the use of the empirical NO 2 –NO x relationship. This relationship was derived from a UK study, whereas the case studies used US-based traffic compositions, vehicle technologies, and emission models. Actual NO 2 –NO x relationships depend on many factors, e.g., background levels of NO, NO 2 and O 3 , and meteorology ( Stedman et al., 2001 ). The empirical relationship was derived for long-term relationships. Here it was used for short-term concentrations. The background NO x level used might not reflect levels around the studied roads. Meteorological information driving the dispersion model was obtained at an open (unsheltered) (airport) site, while conditions near roads might be affected by buildings, trees and other factors ( Greco et al., 2007 ) that can reduce wind speed and increase turbulence. Because concentrations rapidly decrease at distances exceeding 150 m from the road, only near-road receptors were considered. This does not account for background concentrations that can be attributed to traffic. The dispersion model predictions are deterministic, and do not consider model uncertainty. Other limitations of CALINE4, e.g., its poor performance at low wind speeds, have been discussed elsewhere ( Zhang and Batterman, 2010 ).

4.4. Exposure assessment limitations

The scenarios demonstrate key factors affecting risk trends, which do not necessarily apply to actual commuting populations. For example, commuters usually travel for longer trips than the studied segments: US commuters spent an average of 81 min day −1 in vehicles in 2001 ( HEI, 2010 ). Such trips might include both congestion-free and congestion periods, and both freeway and arterial roads. Exposures for only two populations were examined (in-vehicle cabins for the on-road population, and in-homes for the near-road population). Dynamic adjustments to time activity patterns associated with travel delay were not considered ( Zhang and Batterman, 2009 ). Concentrations in vehicle cabins, which can be affected by opening car windows, the air intake location, air conditioning system operation, and other factors, may differ from on-road concentrations. Similar considerations apply to indoor concentrations for near-road residents.

4.5. Risk characterization

This study provides an analysis of the incremental risks of traffic-related air pollutants in on-road and near-road environments, e.g., in vehicle cabins and locations near roads. There are several related risks or risk trade-offs that fall beyond the scope of our analysis. For example, additional time in traffic will decrease the time spent in other microenvironments, most notably at home, which can represent a risk trade-off as analyzed previously by Zhang and Batterman (2009) . Second, changes in the emissions of traffic related air pollutants can promote the formation of secondary air pollutants, e.g., ozone and organic aerosols, that potentially affect a broader population, not just the near-road population. Finally, we did not evaluate risks related to “upstream” or process emissions (e.g., refining), climate change pollutants (e.g., associated with CO 2 emissions), or accidents.

Several issues in the risk characterization are worth pointing out. First, congestion-specific concentration–response relationships are unavailable. The literature data may inadequately represent risks related to congestion, which typically involve shorter exposure periods (typically less than several hours) than the daily or annual periods used in most studies. It is unclear how averaging to the annual level in the present study affects true risks. Still, the NO 2 concentration–response relationship used can be supported since congestion does not generate new pollutants, but simply changes concentrations of traffic-related pollutants. Also, NO 2 was used as a surrogate for congestion impacts, thus representing effects of NO 2 as well as other traffic-related pollutants, such as PM 2.5 . This might be justified given the high correlation between NO 2 and several co-pollutants ( EPA, 2008 ; Tonne et al., 2008 ).

Risks were calculated for individuals that were on-road and at a distance of 100 m, which incompletely accounts for the diversity of population exposures. An improved spatial analysis of traffic-related air pollutants is possible using actual population densities. Other potentially affected persons would include indoor and outdoor workers near roads.

4.6. Other approaches for estimating congestion-related health risks

Health risks from congestion might be estimated using epidemio-logical studies that include indicators for congestion. Such studies might provide tailored dose–response relationships that could be used in risk assessments. For example, congestion indicators such as time spent in congestion might be linked to health outcomes directly. This could help avoid the use of complicated and uncertain models.

4.7. Recommendations

Further research is needed to characterize exposures and risks attributable to traffic congestion. Concentration–response relationships using direct indicators of congestion are needed since previous epidemiological studies used only aggregate (and not congestion) indicators, e.g., daily traffic volume or traffic density within a buffer. Second, there is a need for emission models that directly account for congestion. The application of the new MOVES model would be useful in this context; this also requires the development of representative driving patterns portraying congestion. Third, populations living and working near roads must be known at finer resolution given that pollutant concentrations associated with traffic rapidly decrease with distance.

5. Conclusions

This study used an incremental analysis to estimate pollution impacts and characterize health risks caused by congestion, which appears to be the first of its type in the literature. Congestion can increase risks for individuals driving on freeways and arterial roads, and for individuals living or working near roads. The modeling analysis suggests that incremental risks have a “U” shaped pattern with increased traffic volume for on-road populations in the freeway case study, and a different pattern, dramatic increases at high traffic volumes, for the arterial road. Risk levels depend on many factors, including traffic volume, vehicle mix, road type and meteorology. While risks from congestion can be predicted and are potentially significant, uncertainties are also high, and thus additional information is required to confirm predictions. This study suggests that the marginal risks of additional vehicles vary, and that key risk determinants include emission factors in congestion, the NO 2 –NO x relationship, travel time changes, road type, and exposure location. Overall, the findings that marginal risks are not constant should be used to inform policy making related to traffic and air quality management.

• Congestion and additional traffic can significantly increase exposures and risks.
• Risks and exposures are not proportional to traffic volumes.
• Incremental risks depend on site-specific factors including road type.

Supplementary Material

Figures 1 - 7, acknowledgments.

Portions of this research were funded through the support of the National Science Foundation’s Materials Use: Science, Engineering, and Society Biocomplexity Program Grant (CMS-0329416) and the University of Michigan Risk Science Center through the support of a fellowship.

Appendix A. Supplementary data

Supplementary data to this article can be found online at http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2013.01.074 .

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Traffic jam is increasing, what are causes and solution?

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University students are increasingly studying abroad as part of their studies. Do the advantages of studying abroad outweight the disadvantages?

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Essay on Traffic Jam for Students and Children

500+ words essay on traffic jam.

Traffic jam is the situation when vehicles are stopped completely for some time period on the roads. Also, vehicles have to wait for a long time to move out of the jam. Sometimes it becomes like congestion in traffic. This happens in transport network due to the increasing vehicles and overuse of roads. Often it is due to slow speed, longer trip time and increased queues of vehicles. Therefore, traffic jam is becoming a major issue mostly in all cities.

Problems arising due to Traffic Jam

Traffic Jam has a tremendous impact on the life of people. It is one of the most serious problems in big cities that people have to deal in daily life. Since most of the people have to deal with it on a daily basis they may get psychologically affected. It also negatively affects work, education and personal life of people and finally to the progress of the country.

Let us discuss some major problems that arise due to high traffic:

• Traffic is one of the major problems in cities and has made the lives of people really difficult. Obviously, it results in non-productive activity.
• People experience delays for their important work. This may even result in personal as well as professional losses.
• It is also the main cause of wastage of fuels and air pollution.
• It increases stress and frustration among motorists and passengers.
• Unsafe driving is the main impact of traffic jam which may lead to road mishaps and hence injuries.
• Traffic jams can also have a negative impact on the mind of a person. The traffic congestion and constant blowing of horns create excessive noise pollution.

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Disadvantages of Traffic Jam:

Let us have a look at some chief disadvantages of traffic jams in detail below:

• Unproductive time is the major disadvantage of traffic jam.
• The other negative effect of much traffic is the emission of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere leading to the issue of global warming .
• Businesses nowadays provide home delivery services. Such time bond businesses are strongly affected by the traffic jam.
• The frequent breaking and accelerating the vehicles in traffic jams burns more fuel. Hence it is the additional loss.
• Road rage is the absurd reaction of commuters that is very common during traffic jams. People often use bad language and drive aggressively that can lead to accidents.
• Emergency vehicles like fire brigade and ambulance get stuck up in traffic jams that cause a delay in reaching the location.

Suggestions:

Some suggestions to solve the traffic jam problem are as follows:

• People should use public transport as much as possible.
• The government must increase the facilities of public transport as per the need of the population.
• Everyone should avoid the unnecessary collection of vehicles.
• People should use carpool and vehicle sharing to decrease the vehicles on the road.
• Conditions of the road in India is not good. Authorities must improve this situation.
• Vehicle registration and motor driving license policy must be strictly implemented.
• People must be aware of traffic rules and also be motivated to follow strictly.
• Mixed traffic on the roads is also a big reason for it. So, it must be banned.

Conclusion:

Thus, traffic jam is a serious issue in every big city that causes several problems for common people. It consumes so much of time and energy unnecessarily and hence the loss of the nation. Therefore, serious measures have to be taken by the authorities to control traffic and promote the use of public transport. Development of public transport network at economical rates is essential. Implementation of traffic safety rules by traffic police is a must. People should drive more sensibly and responsibly. Hence we all can work in this way to solve the big threat of the current time.

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Sample essay - reason solution (writing task 2).

  Question

Nowadays, traffic jams are common across all the cities in the world. Why is it so? What can be some possible solutions?

Traffic congestion is becoming increasingly frequent in urban regions all over the world, because of a variety of reasons, which need to be identified so that this problem can be solved.

There are a number of reasons for the increasing traffic jams. Firstly, inadequate public transport is one of the reasons that most people choose to travel using private vehicles and the usage of these private vehicles leads to an increase in traffic on the roads. Secondly, office timings are usually the same and there is a lot of rush hour traffic in the mornings and evenings. Thirdly, it is becoming easier and cheaper to get car loans by the day because of which more people are buying cars. Fourthly, there are potholes on roads in many cities because the roads are poorly maintained which slow down the traffic. Lastly, in some places, there is insufficient staff in the traffic police. Therefore, people do not obey the traffic rules leading to chaotic and slow traffic.

However, certain measures can help solve this problem of traffic jams. To begin with, authorities should make a good public transport system a priority. Increased usage of public transport will not only reduce traffic jams, but it will also have the added benefit of a decrease in air pollution. Moreover, the government can have rules which do not allow one household to have more than two cars. Another option is to increase the taxes on the purchase of private vehicles. Furthermore, offices can have flexible timings for their employees and if possible, the employees should have the option of working from home. Last but not least, more well-trained police personnel and better maintenance of roads would go a long way in better management of traffic.

To sum up, traffic jams are a major issue worldwide, but this can be solved with the combined effort of the individuals and the government.

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The New York Times

Magazine | how segregation caused your traffic jam, how segregation caused your traffic jam.

By KEVIN M. KRUSE AUG. 14, 2019

In some of America’s most congested cities, roadways were designed to keep people “in their place.”

What does a traffic jam in Atlanta have to do with segregation? Quite a lot.

By Kevin M. Kruse AUG. 14, 2019

Atlanta has some of the worst traffic in the United States. Drivers there average two hours each week mired in gridlock, hung up at countless spots, from the constantly clogged Georgia 400 to a complicated cluster of overpasses at Tom Moreland Interchange, better known as “Spaghetti Junction.” The Downtown Connector — a 12-to-14-lane megahighway that in theory connects the city’s north to its south — regularly has three-mile-long traffic jams that last four hours or more. Commuters might assume they’re stuck there because some city planner made a mistake, but the heavy congestion actually stems from a great success. In Atlanta, as in dozens of cities across America, daily congestion is a direct consequence of a century-long effort to segregate the races.

For much of the nation’s history, the campaign to keep African-Americans “in their place” socially and politically manifested itself in an effort to keep them quite literally in one place or another. Before the Civil War, white masters kept enslaved African-Americans close at hand to coerce their labor and guard against revolts. But with the abolition of slavery, the spatial relationship was reversed. Once they had no need to keep constant watch over African-Americans, whites wanted them out of sight. Civic planners pushed them into ghettos, and the segregation we know today became the rule.

At first the rule was overt, as Southern cities like Baltimore and Louisville enacted laws that mandated residential racial segregation. Such laws were eventually invalidated by the Supreme Court, but later measures achieved the same effect by more subtle means. During the New Deal, federal agencies like the Home Owners’ Loan Corporation and the Federal Housing Administration encouraged redlining practices that explicitly marked minority neighborhoods as risky investments and therefore discouraged bank loans, mortgages and insurance there. Other policies simply targeted black communities for isolation and demolition. The postwar programs for urban renewal, for instance, destroyed black neighborhoods and displaced their residents with such regularity that African-Americans came to believe, in James Baldwin’s memorable phrase , that “urban renewal means Negro removal.”

This intertwined history of infrastructure and racial inequality extended into the 1950s and 1960s with the creation of the Interstate highway system . The federal government shouldered nine-tenths of the cost of the new Interstate highways, but local officials often had a say in selecting the path. As in most American cities in the decades after the Second World War, the new highways in Atlanta — local expressways at first, then Interstates — were steered along routes that bulldozed “blighted” neighborhoods that housed its poorest residents, almost always racial minorities. This was a common practice not just in Southern cities like Jacksonville, Miami, Nashville, New Orleans, Richmond and Tampa, but in countless metropolises across the country, including Chicago, Cincinnati, Denver, Detroit, Indianapolis, Los Angeles, Milwaukee, Pittsburgh, St. Louis, Syracuse and Washington.

While Interstates were regularly used to destroy black neighborhoods , they were also used to keep black and white neighborhoods apart. Today, major roads and highways serve as stark dividing lines between black and white sections in cities like Buffalo, Hartford, Kansas City, Milwaukee, Pittsburgh and St. Louis. In Atlanta, the intent to segregate was crystal clear. Interstate 20, the east-west corridor that connects with I-75 and I-85 in Atlanta’s center, was deliberately plotted along a winding route in the late 1950s to serve, in the words of Mayor Bill Hartsfield, as “the boundary between the white and Negro communities” on the west side of town. Black neighborhoods, he hoped, would be hemmed in on one side of the new expressway, while white neighborhoods on the other side of it would be protected. Racial residential patterns have long since changed, of course, but the awkward path of I-20 remains in place.

By razing impoverished areas downtown and segregating the races in the western section, Atlanta’s leaders hoped to keep downtown and its surroundings a desirable locale for middle-class whites. Articulating a civic vision of racial peace and economic progress, Hartsfield bragged that Atlanta was the “City Too Busy to Hate.” But the so-called urban renewal and the new Interstates only helped speed white flight from Atlanta. Over the 1960s, roughly 60,000 whites left the city, with many of them relocating in the suburbs along the northern rim. When another 100,000 whites left the city in the 1970s, it became a local joke that Atlanta had become “The City Too Busy Moving to Hate.”

As the new suburbs ballooned in size, traffic along the poorly placed highways became worse and worse. The obvious solution was mass transit — buses, light rail and trains that would more efficiently link the suburbs and the city — but that, too, faced opposition, largely for racial reasons. The white suburbanites had purposefully left the problems of the central city behind and worried that mass transit would bring them back.

Accordingly, suburbanites waged a sustained campaign against the Metropolitan Atlanta Rapid Transit Authority (MARTA) from its inception. Residents of the nearly all-white Cobb County resoundingly rejected the system in a 1965 vote. In 1971, Gwinnett and Clayton Counties, which were then also overwhelmingly white, followed suit, voting down a proposal to join MARTA by nearly 4-1 margins, and keeping MARTA out became the default position of many local politicians. (Emmett Burton, a Cobb County commissioner, won praise for promising to “stock the Chattahoochee with piranha” if that were needed to keep MARTA away.) David Chesnut, the white chairman of MARTA, insisted in 1987 that suburban opposition to mass transit had been “90 percent a racial issue.” Because of that resistance, MARTA became a city-only service that did little to relieve commuter traffic. By the mid-1980s, white racists were joking that MARTA, with its heavily black ridership, stood for “Moving Africans Rapidly Through Atlanta.”

[ To get updates on The 1619 Project, and for more on race from The New York Times, sign up f or our weekly Race/Related newsletter .]

Even as the suburbs became more racially diverse, they remained opposed to MARTA. After Gwinnett voted the system down again in 1990, a former Republican legislator later marveled at the arguments given by opponents. “They will come up with 12 different ways of saying they are not racist in public,” he told a reporter. “But you get them alone, behind a closed door, and you see this old blatant racism that we have had here for quite some time.”

Earlier this year, Gwinnett County voted MARTA down for a third time. Proponents had hoped that changes in the county’s racial composition, which was becoming less white, might make a difference. But the March initiative still failed by an eight-point margin. Officials discovered that some nonwhite suburbanites shared the isolationist instincts of earlier white suburbanites. One white property manager in her late 50s told a reporter that she voted against mass transit because it was used by poorer residents and immigrants, whom she called “illegals.” “Why should we pay for it?” she asked. “Why subsidize people who can’t manage their money and save up a dime to buy a car?”

In the end, Atlanta’s traffic is at a standstill because its attitude about transit is at a standstill, too. Fifty years after its Interstates were set down with an eye to segregation and its rapid-transit system was stunted by white flight, the city is still stalled in the past.

Kevin M. Kruse is a professor of history at Princeton University and the author of “White Flight: Atlanta and the Making of Modern Conservatism.”

More on NYTimes.com

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Ielts writing task 2 sample 892 - nowadays traffic is a serious problem in big cities, ielts writing task 2/ ielts essay:, nowadays, traffic is a serious problem in big cities. why this is so and what effects does it bring.

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Today’s front page, Tuesday, April 9, 2024

Manila Traffic: How to Decongest the Metro

• BusinessMirror
• May 19, 2022
• 4 minute read

Table of Contents Hide

1. lack of infrastructures, 2. economic boom, 3. centralization of the economy, 4. poor public transport, 5. flood-prone geography of metro manila, additional pollution, poor public health, lost time and revenue, more fuel expenditure and vehicle maintenance costs, 1. carpooling, 2. implementation of road infrastructure projects, 3. limited sale of vacant public lands for commercial development, 4. better manila traffic monitoring, 5. raised taxes on motor vehicles, 6. stricter traffic fines, metro manila traffic is only a facet of a wider social problem in manila.

Manila is well-known all over the world for its bustling city life and a plethora of tourist attractions that showcase the rich culture of the Philippines. But aside from the impressive display of hospitality and the wide array of delicious food sold in kiosks and various Filipino restaurants all over the metro, Manila is also infamous for one other thing: traffic congestion. With millions of cars and public utility vehicles traveling to and from the city on a daily basis, motorists and commuters are subjected to Manila traffic daily during the rush hours, with travel time taking up to 2 hours.

With Metro Manila being subjected to hellish traffic conditions, local government units, as well as traffic authorities, have experimented with various solutions to decongesting traffic in Metro Manila . These include number coding schemes and rerouting of public utility vehicles. However, with millions of private vehicles (which is still on the increase) still circulating the congested streets of Manila, these solutions only work as a band-aid solution. In this article, we will discuss what the probable causes of Metro Manila traffic is, its effects on citizens and the economy, and possible solutions that can put an end to the city’s traffic problems.

What Are the Most Common Causes of Traffic in the Philippines?

With traffic congestion being one of the most pertinent problems in Metro Manila and in other major cities in the country, it might still be a mystery for some what really causes the hours-long traffic jams. From overpopulation to unreliable public transportation, there are numerous reasons why Manila traffic is just a worsening problem even with numerous proposed solutions.

While Metro Manila is home to impressive skylines and high-rise buildings that can attest to the advancement of the metropolitan area, the same cannot be said about the road infrastructures developed in the cities.

The number of motor vehicles plying Metro Manila’s roads continues to increase, but the road network in the metropolis has hardly increased. According to some estimates, the NCR road network of 4,755 kilometers should be doubled to accommodate the vehicle population. That means that the additional roads that are being built or widened are eaten up by existing demand, which continues to outpace infrastructure development.

Together with roads with insufficient vehicle capacity, the constant road repairs and the ongoing completion of road projects to ease traffic congestion means that it will become worse before it becomes better. However, while inadequate road infrastructure is a big issue behind the traffic congestion in the metropolis, the inadequacy is brought about by other factors.

As one of the fastest-growing economies in the world, the Philippines has seen significant growth in the demand for automobiles. Low inflation, low interest and easy access to credit enabled the domestic automotive industry to increase sales by more than 24 percent in 2016, with total sales of 359,572 units.

In 2016 a total of 11.2 million motor vehicles were registered with the Land Transportation Office (LTO), of which 2.5 million (28.7 percent) were in the National Capital Region (NCR) and 8.7 million (71.27 percent) were in other parts of the country.

While the pandemic caused a significant crash in vehicle sales in 2020, it has now since picked up with almost 300,000 automobile sales documented in 2021. As more and more Filipinos in Metro Manila secure private vehicles, we can expect worse traffic in Manila as the slow infrastructure developments in the city cannot accommodate the increase in vehicle density.

Metro Manila is hailed as the main center of commerce and education in the Philippines, with millions of people flocking to the region in search of a job and educational opportunities. With multinational companies and established institutions taking root in the Philippine capital, people from the provinces choose to relocate and secure jobs in this economic center. Not only does this mean that more people are residing in the cities of Metro Manila, but more people are also expected to commute and travel around the cities during rush hour. This in turn translates to denser Manila traffic and more vehicles on the road.

One of the reasons why Metro Manila traffic continues to worsen is due to the poor management of public transport, which pushes public utility vehicles and jeepneys to compete for passengers. From jam-packed buses and jeepneys to constant breakdowns of the railway systems, more and more citizens are opting on using alternative transportation services or investing in their own private vehicles for easier and more comfortable daily travel. Because of this problem, one possible solution is for cars to be limited, and public mass transportation be given priority on Metro Manila roads.

Philippines is a flood-prone country, thanks to the 20 or so typhoons that hit us every year. Because of Manila’s geography and low altitude, as well as the rising sea level, the city is subjected to worsening floods in certain parts of Metro Manila after rain showers or storms. Because of these flood-prone locations and main roads where motorists need to pass, Manila traffic becomes worse, and motorists are forced to either go through flooded roads or find alternate routes.

How Does Manila Traffic Affect the Economy and Business?

Manila traffic affects millions of people in Metro Manila, from workers trying to clock in on time at their offices to students travelling to their universities for their classes. The social effects of traffic congestions are undeniable, with studies showing that the average Filipino wastes about 188 hours per year stuck in traffic during rush hours – this adds up to 28,000 hours in traffic. Considering that the average productive life of an individual is 30 years, this means more than 10 percent of your working years is lost in traffic.

Unfortunately, that is only the tip of the iceberg. There are a multitude of other costs and problems that is brought about by the horrendous daily traffic situation in Manila. Aside from these, Manila traffic also affects safety, the economy, and the utilization of the country’s most important resources. In 2014, Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) estimated the country’s loss due to traffic at about PHP2.4 billion. In 2022, it’s predictable that the losses have now increased drastically as the traffic problem still has not been solved. Here’s how Manila traffic may be causing more harm than you know:

With the global awareness of the detrimental effects of continuous pollution from burning fossil fuels and carbon emissions, it has now become more apparent how congested traffic negatively affects the environment through increased vehicle emissions and harmful chemicals.

The longer you are on the road, the more emission your public transport or private vehicle emits. Additionally, the efficiency of engines tends to be less when it is on idle or at slow speed since incomplete combustion is more likely – which is what more or less happens when motorists and passengers are stuck in Manila traffic. Naturally, the more pollutants the population is exposed to, the more effects it has on the general public health, leading to more medical bills and a shorter life span.

The Manila population’s constant exposure to emissions and air pollution has taken its toll on public health. The inefficient Manila traffic scheme and constant exposure to road emissions from both public since the longer you are on the road, the more emission your public transport or private vehicle emits. Naturally, the more pollutants the population is exposed to, the more effects it has on the general public health, leading to more medical bills and a shorter life span.

Public transport, delivery trucks and shuttle services are also victims of the perpetual traffic in Metro Manila. Instead of being able to do three or four round trips, they are lucky to be able to do two, which translates to lost revenues and, in many cases, a shift from profitable operations to a losing business. Public service also suffers in that the available schedules become less frequent, and the waiting time becomes longer.

Without a doubt, the public, transport companies and businesses are all losing time and money, even the government is losing taxes because of the lost revenues from the traffic situation.

With the skyrocketing gas prices and inefficient traffic conditions in Metro Manila, it’s now becoming more and more challenging for people to budget in gas expenditure in their day-to-day expenses. Unfortunately, Manila traffic only adds to this due to the perennial traffic situation. Because of constant traffic standstills, your fuel bills go up since you will be travelling at less efficient speeds or going nowhere while your engine is consuming fuel.

Not only that, but the additional wear and tear of Manila traffic on vehicles that are on standstill or moving at a snail’s pace is also much higher. In a hot country like ours, the additional burden of lack of air flow increases the engine temperature to dangerously high levels, such that seeing cars stalled in heavy traffic situations is not uncommon.

What Are the Possible Solutions for Traffic in the Philippines?

While traffic congestion in Metro Manila has been a problem for years, there are certain solutions that can help decongest Manila traffic through strategic monitoring, stricter government policies, and improved transportation systems. While decongesting Metro Manila may be an issue that will require years to solve, here are a few possible solutions that the government and citizens can take part in to further improve Metro Manila traffic:

Carpooling is a practice wherein motorists try to pool passengers together with the same destination. Not only does carpooling help allow commuters a safe and efficient transportation option, but it also lessens the need for more private vehicles to ply through Manila roads during rush hours.

The government needs to allocate adequate budgeting to road infrastructure projects, from modernizing road plans to increasing road capacity for the streets of Manila. As Manila still continuously increases its population and the vehicle density and a decongestion of the city is still far into the future (if not at all), improving traffic systems and building better roads should be at the forefront of the government’s response to Manila traffic.

In recent years, the government has taken it upon itself to sell public vacant spaces to corporations to raise close to billions for public funding as a revenue-generation measure. It seemed the government had declared a policy against making these vacant spaces into green public parks.

Selling vacant spaces to developers means transforming the vacant spaces into malls, office buildings and other commercial structures, which further aggravate the shortage in road infrastructure. While the government might have rejoiced in raising additional funding, the roads that would need to be developed to accommodate rising commercial spaces will far exceed the budget.

To solve this, the government needs to avoid the sale of vacant public lands for commercial development, but they need to allocate these to developing more open and green parks for the people.

Traffic monitoring is a crucial part of planning for both companies and government traffic authorities. With effective techniques for monitoring traffic , authorities can easily plan out and tailor traffic policies for better mobility, while commercial companies can design roadways into their businesses better so that it will be easier for motorists to access their business without causing significant traffic congestion.

Raising taxes on motor vehicles may be seen by some people as restrictive, but other countries with fewer traffic problems than the Philippines are actually imposing more restrictive measures.

Singapore, one of the most advanced countries in the world, and which probably has the most efficient and modern transportation system in Southeast Asia, announced last week that no more extra vehicles would be allowed beginning February 2018. The measure complements the government’s efforts to further improve the public transport system.

Today, the Philippine government I starting to raise taxes on cars, which will, hopefully, slow down car sales by some degree. Under the proposed reforms, the vehicle excise tax would be doubled from 2 percent to 4 percent for vehicles worth P600,000 or below, or raised to P24,000 plus 40 percent of value in excess of P600,000 for vehicles worth P600,000 but not more than P1.1 million; and P224,000 plus 100 percent of value in excess of P1.1 million for vehicles worth over P1.1 million but not more than P2.1 million. The excise tax will also be at P1.224 million plus 200 percent of value in excess of P2.1 million for vehicles worth P2.1 million or higher.

Owning vehicles and driving one requires high levels of skill and responsibility on the open roads. With one of the reasons for congested Manila traffic being irresponsible drivers who don’t follow traffic rules, stricter traffic regulations need to be put in place to reprimand erring drivers. This may include paying fines for traffic violations to a system that may lead to license suspension after repeat violations.

Metro Manila traffic congestion and the woes of daily commuters and motorists have been a constant issue whenever the topic of Metro Manila management comes up. With commuters losing precious hours in their days just to navigate through different modes of transportation to get to their destination, that in itself offers a rough reflection of how middle-class workers and citizens in Metro Manila suffer through traffic because the government officials are not giving enough importance to trying to solve traffic congestions, simply because it doesn’t necessarily affect them.

In this article, we’ve discussed the various causes of traffic congestion in the Philippines and possible solutions to how this can be solved through achievable strategies. However, as long as the government, traffic enforcers and supervisors gloss over the issues in traffic and the lack of effective transportation and travel utilities, Manila traffic will remain horrendous and continue to affect generations of workers and students traveling to the country’s capital and costing all of us three years of our lives.

Image credits: Aldar Darmaev | Dreamstime.com

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I am utterly disappointed that you forgot to mention a solution to our traffic problem that works in the top industrialized cities in the world.

Are we still analyzing number of cars and available roads until today? That is a worsening problem every week. There is no way even the richest countries in the world can build more roads faster than our obsession with cars.

There is only one word to fix our traffic problem – trains. If we have to build roads, they need to be efficient per square meter of use. Even a 10km LRT/MRT/Subway is 10x better than any road used by single occupant vehicle. Build mass transportation facility so that even those with cars will opt to leave them at home and ride trains instead.

more train lines,bike lanes, and large sidewalk in the city should be constructed.

There is another simplistic solution we have not experienced nor have we validated its effectiveness or otherwise. It is this: remove all parked cars on all roads and streets, suspend all LGUs parking schemes that use our roads and streets. This has not been done. For example all the roads and streets leading to Araneta commercial Center within a 60-km radius should be free of all parked vehicles. Let us see the effects of these changes. Former MMDA Bayani Fernando said we have enough roads for all the motor vehicles to use. Then let us see if this works.

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Essay on Traffic Jam in English for Children and Students

Table of Contents

Essay on Traffic Jam: Traffic congestion is a condition caused by the increasing number of vehicles on the road resulting in congestion, road blockage, slower speed, longer route time and the loss of valuable time. Traffic jam occurs when the vehicles have to completely stop or move at a snail’s pace for a certain period of time. It is an issue of serious concern in every city these days. Traffic jam leads to sheer waste of productive time.

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People get delayed for their offices, for important business meetings along with late delivery of business goods affecting the overall economy of a Nation. Occurrence of a traffic jam depends on several reasons – narrow road ahead, making it difficult for the vehicles to pass through simultaneously; a broken road, a fallen tree or some other impediment; an unexpected and sudden brawl between two commuters ahead of the road; a slow moving procession or an accident. Whatever the reason of the traffic jams maybe, it is must that we don’t lose our patience and deal with the situation composedly.

Long and Short Essay on Traffic Jam in English

Below we have provided Long and short Essay on Traffic Jam in English, of varying length for your knowledge.

Traffic congestion is when vehicles come to a complete stop on the roads, and they have to wait for a long time before they can start moving again. This happens when there are too many vehicles on the road, and the roads get really crowded.

These unique and simple Traffic Jam essay will widen your knowledge on the subject, giving you an insight of the causes, effects and solutions of Traffic Jam.

You can use the information gathered from these essays during your school or college essay writing/debate/group discussions on traffic jam, relevant issues or quiz competitions related on this topic.

We hope, you will enjoy reading these interesting essays:

Short Essay on Traffic Jam 200 words

Traffic jam occurs when movement of vehicles is hampered at a particular place for some reasons over a certain period of time. If the number of vehicles plying on a street or road is increased than the maximum capacity it is build to sustain, it results in traffic jams. Traffic jam or traffic congestion is an everyday affair in big cities. It is the result of growing population and the increase in use of personal, public as well as commercial transport vehicles.

The congestion mostly occurs on the main roads during peak hours when people commute to work or on their way back home. But there is no fix time and an unprecedented surge in the number of vehicles on roads have made traffic jams anytime affair. The Industrial development in the recent years has only aided to the problem of traffic jam by increasing number of on road transport vehicles.

The loss of the valuable time caused by the traffic jams is not at all good for a Nation’s economical growth. In addition, it results in more wastage of fuel by stationary vehicles only contributing more to the environmental pollution . There is also an increased possibility for road mishaps as the vehicles need to stand or move in close proximity to each other and also because of aggressive driving by frustrated drivers. Overall, the time wasted in traffic jams also leads to the economic loss of the country.

Various measures need to be taken to control the traffic congestion and further develop the public transport system. People should follow the traffic rules and use public transport when possible.

Essay on Problems of Traffic Jams – 300 words

Traffic jam is a condition in which the vehicles get stuck in a jam for a certain period of time. Traffic jams are frustrating and waste a lot of time causing unnecessary delays in reaching one’s destination. Traffic congestion is a problem that occurs with the increasing use of vehicles characterized by slower movement and increase in travel time leading to longer vehicle queues.

Traffic Problem in India

India is a country with second largest network of roads in the world, Out of 5.4 million km long network of road, 97,991 km is covered by national highways. It is a huge challenge for Indian government to provide high-class road transport networks due to steep increase in commercial vehicles.

There is increase in number of private vehicles and the roads are overburdened in almost all big cities of India. It is a day to day affair and pain to deal with traffic, pollution and aggressive drivers on the roads causing a major mental and physical stress for people these days. On an average, a person spends around 30 min to 2 hours in their day driving. Most of this time is spent in traffic jams. Indian cities still have poor public transport and a majority of people have to depend on private transport.

Increase in the Population density in cities is the major factor responsible for the pressure on street capacity. The overuse of urban roads also degrades the quality of roads. Increasing traffic hinders the development of new roads. In addition, air pollution and noise pollution has grown drastically due to traffic jams in the recent years. The recent pollution level in Delhi was an alarming incident for the country. The odd-even scheme was designed by the Delhi CM to deal with the issue.

Various measures need to be taken to improve the public transport network and infrastructure. Car pooling and bike pooling should be exercised more often by people. New plans and schemes should be devised and implemented effectively to solve the traffic issue.

Essay on Traffic Jam in Delhi – 400 words

One of the most common problems that one faces in Delhi is getting caught up in traffic jams. Commuting on the roads of Delhi is becoming more time consuming and exhausting day by day. Poor public transportation, infrastructure and increasing population in the city are the major reasons for traffic on Delhi roads. Our National Capital has become one of the top ten cities in the world for having worst traffic congestions.

Major Reasons of Traffic Jam in Delhi

Here are some of the major reasons for traffic jams in Delhi:

• One of the chief reasons for traffic jam is the increasing number of vehicles on the roads. Poor infrastructure is not at par with the growing population. During peak hours there are longer queues and research shows that more than one lakh vehicles travel everyday on the busy roads of Delhi.
• Another major reason is growing population in Delhi, which results in growing number of workforce.
• Inadequate public transport network in Delhi is also one of the reasons for traffic jams. Transport system is unable to keep pace with the growing population which results in greater number of private vehicles on the roads that causes traffic congestion.
• Another reason is mixed traffic which includes cars, buses, two-wheelers, pedestrians, etc which makes it difficult to manage traffic and leads to traffic congestion.

Problems Due to Traffic Jams

• Traffic jam results in unnecessary delays that are not preferred by anyone. It results in non-productivity as people get caught up in traffic congestions.
• Commuting on the roads of Delhi has become unsafe and has resulted in the increasing number of road fatalities. Traffic jams are known to increase these mishaps. Delhi is known for the highest number of road accidents in the country.
• There is an increase in noise pollution and air pollution due to traffic jams.
• The other problems caused due to traffic jams on Delhi roads are road rage, wastage of fuel, wear and tear on vehicles.
• Emergency vehicles such as fire brigade and ambulance get stuck up due to traffic jams.

Effective implementation of intelligent transport system can bring about sustainable traffic solution. Proper implementation of ITS can lead to traffic efficiency, less traffic congestion, safety to drivers and improved energy efficiency. Other measures that need to be taken are to develop and improve public transport network, improve transport infrastructure, improve traffic safety, create awareness about traffic rules and safety and develop cost-effective public transport facilities. The effectiveness of such measures also depends on the people of Delhi and proper imposition of laws.

Essay on Traffic Problems in Big Cities – 500 words

Population in India is increasing day by day. More and more people are moving to urban areas. So, with the increase in population and urbanization the problem of traffic is becoming more severe in big cities. The pressure of traffic also results in increasing numbers of road accidents. In addition, there are people who have little road sense and often break the traffic rules. This too has resulted in road mishaps.

The major reason of traffic jams is obviously more private cars and vehicles on the road. Poor road management and lack of proper infrastructure also leads to traffic congestion. Besides, the work areas of people are often located far away from the residential areas, which is why they need to travel to work daily. These are the major factors responsible for traffic in big cities and cause several problems.

Problem Arising Due to Traffic in Big Cities

Let’s have a look at some major problems that arise due to traffic in big cities:

• Traffic is one of the major problems in big cities and has made the lives of people really difficult. It is an everyday problem people need to deal with. It wastes time of commuters and motorists. As it is a non productive activity, it also effects our economic growth negatively.
• People experience delays which result in reaching late for meetings, work, schools and so on. This may even result in personal losses.
• It also results in waste of fuels that causes air pollution and emission of green house gases.
• It increases stress and frustration among the motorists and passengers encouraging aggressive driving and annoyed behavior resulting in reduced health of passengers. It may also include verbal insults and intentionally driving in an aggressive and unsafe manner that may lead to road mishaps which can cause injuries and deaths.
• Traffic congestion may interfere with the route of emergency vehicles that need to move quickly.
• It is usually not possible for the drivers to estimate the travel time. It takes more time to travel to the destination and results in less productive activities.
• Traffic jams can also have psychological impact on the mind of a person. The traffic congestion and constant blowing of horns creates excessive noise pollution that leads to aggressive behavior. The delay in work performance and the sense of loss due to less productivity constantly hangs heavy on their heads.
• Traffic jams hinder the progress of individuals, firms and the nation as a whole. These are not favored by anybody in this fast paced world. Not only do they impact people but also adversely affect our environment and overall economic growth and development.

Traffic problem is one of the major problems that need serious attention. There should be more public transport facility at affordable rates and better infrastructure to encourage people to use public transport. The citizens also need to act in a responsible manner and use public transport or share transport more often to reduce the traffic. Measures also need to be taken to control population which is the major cause of increasing number of vehicles on the roads.

Long Essay on Traffic Jam Disadvantages – 600 words

Traffic jam is the condition when vehicles are stopped completely for some time period and have to wait for a long time to move out of the jam. Whereas traffic congestion refers to the condition of transport network that occurs due to increasing use of roads often attributed with slow speed, longer trip time and increased queues of vehicles. People are negatively affected due to traffic jams. Traffic jam and traffic congestion is a major issue mostly in big cities.

Traffic jams and congestion have tremendous impact on the life of people. It is one of the most serious problems in big cities that people have to deal with in their day to day life. This results in a lot of unproductive time. Since most of the people have to deal with it on daily basis they may psychologically get affected to some extent. It also affects work, education and personal life of people.

Disadvantages of Traffic Jams

Let us have a look at some chief disadvantages of traffic jams in detail below:

• Unproductive time is the major disadvantage of traffic jam. People simply get stuck up in traffic jams and wait to go for work. People who have to travel long distance for work or the students who have to rush to school or college may get caught up in traffic jams. This impacts their productivity at work place/ school.
• The other negative effect of population is the emission of green house gases in the atmosphere leading to the issue of global warming which has negative impact on the health of people and our environment.
• The businesses nowadays provide home delivery services. This requires delivery boy to deliver products on time but if the delivery boy is stuck up in traffic jams the delivery will be delayed and this can lead to unsatisfied customers.
• The other effect of traffic jams is inability to estimate travel time. Those who regularly travel through the traffic areas have an idea of approximately how long it usually takes to reach their particular destination. But in case, they get stuck in traffic jams more than the usual time, they get late to reach where they need to head.
• The breaking and accelerating of the vehicles in traffic jams burns more fuel. More use of fuel costs more to the commuters. And the delay in productivity leads to additional loss.
• Road rage is the absurd reaction of commuters that is common due to traffic jams. The constant thought of getting late and the loss due to waste of time annoy people. In such a situation if someone is driving slower and blocking the way of person behind him or if someone is overtaking the other driver, it results in aggressive behavior. People often use abusive language and drive aggressively that can lead to accidents. It is basically the outburst by the frustrated drivers stuck in traffic jams.
• Emergency vehicles get stuck up in traffic jams that causes delay in reaching the location where they need to reach urgently. This may lead to serious loss for some people.

Thus, traffic jam is a serious issue in every big city that causes several problems for commuters on day to day basis. It consumes so much of time and energy unnecessarily and is not preferred by anyone. Serious measures need to be taken to control traffic and promote the use of public transport. Development of public transport network at economical rates is essential. Traffic safety rules should be effectively implemented for the safety of the commuters. People should drive more responsibly, use public transport and opt for car pool whenever possible.

Essay on Traffic Jam FAQs

What is corruption in an essay.

Corruption in an essay refers to the act of dishonesty or misuse of power for personal gain, often involving bribery, embezzlement, or unethical behavior.

How do you write a corruption essay?

To write a corruption essay, start with an introduction, discuss its forms and impact, provide real-life examples, and conclude with solutions to tackle this issue.

What is corruption in 200 words?

Corruption is a dishonest act where individuals misuse their authority for personal benefit, leading to societal harm and mistrust. It includes bribery, fraud, and embezzlement.

What are the points of corruption in India?

Corruption in India involves bribery, political scandals, irregularities in government contracts, and a lack of transparency, leading to social and economic problems.

What is corruption in India in simple words?

Corruption in India means people in power using their position for personal gain, leading to unfairness and inequality.

What is corruption in very simple words?

Corruption, in the simplest terms, is when people with authority do bad things for their own benefit, causing harm to others and breaking the rules.

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Traffic Jam Essay for Class 8 Students

Essay on traffic jam for class 8 students.

Traffic Jam is critical congestion on roads where a number of vehicles are stalled at the same time hindering motion and increasing the time to reach the destination. It is a recurring and non-recurring situation on the roads. The reason for Traffic Jams these days is because of the rapid development of urbanization and the increase in the number of vehicles. Another reason for Traffic congestion is the road capacity, which means when the number of vehicles exceeds the capacity of the road. Traffic Jam has become a major issue for all commuters. A Traffic Jam occurs when a large number of cars are on the road and become stopped in one location. It is destructive in many ways, and we waste time, petrol, and a variety of other resources as a result of it. It bothers us and also pollutes the air and noise.

Causes of Traffic Jam

The main causes of Traffic congestion are:

The capacity of roads is one of the main reasons for congestion. When the road capacity reaches a saturation point then congestion takes place

Traffic Jams occur due to a lack of planning of city roads.

Due to constructions of buildings, offices, flyovers, metro the roadways are blocked, diverting the Traffic to other routes causes Traffic Jams.

When accidents or breakdowns of any vehicle occur then the movements of all vehicles become slow or stalled for a certain period of time. This leads to congestion on roads.

Climatic conditions like heavy rainfall and snow (in some countries) also play a major role in Jamming on the roads.

Potholes and damaged roads lead to Traffic Jams. 

Many times the flow of the Traffic gets disrupted because of bad and arrogant behaviors of the drivers and Traffic violations.

Stopping at toll gates also causes the delay of movement of the vehicles. The vehicles have to get into a queue to pay the toll fees and receive the receipts, causing congestion.

Malfunctioning of Traffic signals causes major Traffic Jams on the city roads.

Pedestrians crossing the road when they are not supposed to cause disruption in the movement of the roads.

Sometimes cattle walking haphazardly on the roads create congestion because they slow the moving vehicles.

Street hawkers sit on the curbs of the road. They encroach a major portion of the road, which leads to Traffic Jams.

Many drivers are unaware of the rules and laws that govern driving. Many others, on the other hand, are unwilling to follow Traffic laws. Then. On the same roadways, vehicles of various speeds ply, and the speed discrepancies produce considerable Traffic congestion.

Children with special needs have often stated how transportation restrictions have a significant impact on their life.

Disadvantages of Traffic Jam

Following are the disadvantages of Traffic Jam:

The major disadvantage is unproductive time. A lot of time is wasted during the commute when there are Traffic Jams.

People don’t reach offices at the right time and so their important work or meetings get delayed. This may also lead to setbacks in their profession.

So many vehicles more than the road capacity lead to the emission of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere causing pollution.

Daily Traffic Jams or congestion increases the stress levels of the commuters. Frustration and irritation build up.

To avoid the Jam, sometimes people drive very unsafely and that leads to accidents or injuries.

Continuous honking of vehicles stalled in the Jam creates an impact on the mind of a person. This also leads to noise pollution.

Wastage of petrol and diesel when motor vehicles are stuck in the Jam.

Emergency vehicles like ambulances and fire brigade get delayed due to Traffic Jams and they are unable to reach the destination on time. This may lead to major mishaps.

Daily office goers and students have completely drained out their energy and they are unable to give productive time at home.

Increase in use of narrow lanes to avoid congestion on the main roads.

Inability to predict travel time so the drivers are spending more time traveling than needed compromising on their productive time.

High chance of collision due to tight spacing between the vehicles.

Wear and tear of vehicles because of frequent acceleration and braking leading to more repairs and replacements.

Suggestions to Reduce Traffic Jam

If everyone follows certain guidelines while commuting then congestion or Jam can be avoided on roads.

Use more public transport.

People should practice carpooling if their destination is the same.

Every family should avoid buying more than one car.

Proper planning of the roads within the city limits.

The government must take adequate measures to improve the quality of roads. They should repair the potholes and damaged roads.

The government should avoid all the construction work during the peak time.

People must follow the Traffic signals and not violate the Traffic rules.

There should be proper parking space allotted before the shops.

Street hawkers should not encroach the roads. They should be allotted proper space. 

Dedicated lanes should be provided for vehicles in order to improve Jams.

Cities with limited roads should provide alternative routes to compensate for the narrowness. Take the new Mumbai Trans Harbour Link (MTHL), which is 22.8 kilometres long and links Mumbai and Navi Mumbai. Many Traffic problems in Mumbai have been alleviated as a result of it. In the same way, alternate routes to minimize traffic congestion in crowded locations should be investigated.

Some autos or vehicles generate Traffic Jams owing to a lack of mechanical servicing.

Finally, because it is dependable, public transit is the greatest option. To minimize Traffic, many individuals form carpools, however, this is only a temporary solution. 

Ridesharing or linking your car with people driving in the same direction is an excellent strategy to cut down on the number of vehicles on the road. You save money and gasoline by splitting the expense among your partners in this way. The administration's odd-even effort in Delhi NCR was a wonderful move in the right direction in terms of reducing traffic congestion.

The carpool timetable must be changed whenever someone's schedule changes. On the other hand, public transit is more dependable. The bus and rail timetables do not alter just because one of the passengers has to visit the doctor. The timetables have been established, and individuals may plan accordingly. People who utilize public transit will find it to be dependable and useful in reducing the number of vehicles on the road.

Benefits of Levying High Taxes for Traffic Congestion

One of the initial advantages of Traffic Jams is that high taxes would deter automobile owners from driving since driving would become prohibitively expensive.

This would imply that people would begin to use public transportation instead, lowering car congestion and pollution.

An additional advantage would be that if public transportation were upgraded, it would be used much more frequently. Public transportation in cities is frequently inadequate. We frequently see old and tampered buses and trains, for example, that people would prefer not to use. High taxes would produce sufficient funds to implement the necessary improvements.

However, there are disadvantages to such a method. Once and foremost, this would place a significant burden on motorists. For many people, taxes are already expensive, and any more taxes would merely mean less profit at the end of the month for those who may have no choice but to drive every day. Furthermore, this form of tax would most likely be imposed at a fixed rate. This would mean that people with less money would be hit harder, whereas the wealthy would most likely be able to pay it. As a result, it is not just a tax.

In Germany, there is a Traffic congestion sensor. Congestion has a number of undesirable consequences:

Automobilists and riders wasting time ("opportunity cost"). For the most part, it is regarded as a waste of time. Congestion has a negative impact on regional economic health.

Halts, which may result in being late for work, meetings, and teaching, causing doomed anxiety. disciplinary action or some other form of personal loss.

Failure to accurately calculate journey time. requiring drivers to allocate additional clips "just in case" Less emphasis is placed on constructive tasks.

Due to increased inactivity, squandered fuel increases air pollution and CO 2 emissions. 

Automobilists who are stressed and defeated encourage road rage and decrease automobilists; health. 

Unforeseen events: halted Traffic may obstruct the transfer of emergency vehicles to their destinations, where they are vitally needed. 

As alternate routes are sought, spillover occurs from clogged main arteries to secondary roads and side streets. This may have an impact on neighbourhood amenities and real estate monetary prices. 

Traffic congestion levels in the future can be greatly influenced by city planning and urban design trends. Despite the fact that they are only relevant for short-term change, Fused Grid Route Web Geometry is included in grid plans, instead of a network topology that resembles a tree and branches into cul-de-sacs.

The Principle of Triple Convergence

A triple convergence concept does not rule out the possibility of increasing the capacity of a crowded route. The route can now transport more cars per hour than previously, regardless of how crowded it is, allowing more people to commute during those more attractive times. Additionally, peak congestion periods may be shorter, and gridlock on other routes may be less. Those are all advantages, yet that route will still have periods of extreme congestion on a regular basis.

Other proposed solutions to Traffic congestion are hampered by triple convergence. In principle, if a given number of workers are able to commute non - peak busy times of the day, space on previously packed routes will be freed up. However, once Traffic flows more quickly on certain roads during prime times, other drivers from other routes, times, and modes will be enticed to switch to the upgraded roadways. Coherence will soon entirely counterbalance the absence of the staggered working-hours drivers. Although Traffic patterns in every region's total transportation networks develop almost automatic self-adjusting linkages among different routes, times, and modes, this phenomenon happens.

A major commuter road, for example, can be so crowded in the morning that Traffic crawls for at least thirty minutes. If the capacity of the highway were doubled overnight, Traffic would flow more quickly the next day since the same number of cars would have twice as much road space. However, the news would quickly spread that this roadway was no longer clogged. Drivers who had previously avoided congestion by using that route before and after peak hours would now be forced to use it during peak hours.

Other motorists who had previously used alternate routes would now switch to this more convenient freeway.

During rush hour, even commuters who had previously relied on the metro or trains would begin driving on this route. Traffic congestion generates social costs more than what the individual driver bears including fuel costs, time, driver stress, and impacts on both physical and mental health.

Traffic Jam has become a major issue in all major cities. It is creating a very negative impact on the health of the people. It is just not a loss for people’s productive time but also for the nation. It is very important to take corrective measures to control Traffic. It wastes a significant amount of energy, and as a result, the country suffers. As a result, authorities must make strong efforts to manage Traffic and promote the use of such public transportation. It is critical to expand the public transportation network at a cost-effective rate. The enforcement of Traffic safety requirements by Traffic cops is essential. Individuals should be more cautious and responsible when driving. As a result, we can all work together to tackle the present major threat.

FAQs on Traffic Jam Essay for Class 8 Students

1. What is a short term solution to the Traffic problem?

If you're planning an event, the above signage should be used in combination with simple terms transportation rules. When it comes to short-term Traffic control, you must:

Evaluate the dangers of lane changes.

Entry and departure locations should be clear, especially for emergency vehicles.

People and automobiles should be separated.

Reduce the need for reversal.

If terrible precipitation is predicted, consider alternative driving routes.

Create a Traffic control system that includes another circuit.

2. What are the consequences of a Traffic Jam?

Traffic congestion pollutes the air because it prevents people from turning off their vehicles, resulting in the production of toxic CFC gases and pollutants.

It also wastes natural resources such as gasoline and other fuels.

People become annoyed as a result of the Traffic congestion and arrive late at work, which reduces their productivity and has an impact on their career.

Because of Traffic challenges, people suffer and are labelled as latecomers in their jobs or institutions.

The answer to this dilemma is to levy high fees on automobile owners and utilise the proceeds to improve public transportation.

3. What is a traffic jam?

A traffic jam is a congestion of vehicles on the road for some time.

4. Mention any two causes of traffic jams.

Two causes of traffic jams are:

Potholes and damaged roads

Traffic violations by the drivers.

5. Mention any two advantages of traffic jams.

Two disadvantages of traffic jams are the impact on the health conditions of people and the emission of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.

6. How can the government take measures to prevent traffic jams?

The government must encourage the usage of public transport and take corrective measures to repair the potholes and damaged roads.

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A primer to traffic congestion in the Philippines: The causes, effects, and possible solutions

Updated Oct 14, 2020 | Same topic: Survive driving in the Philippines

In recent times, the traffic demand in Metro Manila is around 12.8 million trips. While 69% of that amount is made using our available public transportation like jeepneys, buses, the LRT and the MRT, a significantly lesser portion is done through driving or riding private vehicles.

And yet this mode of transport, the private mode, takes up 78% of road space. Now why is that? And what will happen because of that? This article on Philkotse.com will seek to find answers.

Traffic Congestion: What does it mean?

Traffic congestion is a state wherein transport is slowed, and more vehicles are queueing on a given road. Though congestion is a possibility regardless of what mode of transport you’re using, we’ll focus only on the current automobile road traffic here in the Philippines.

There’s also a mathematical definition or meaning wherein congestion is perceived as the number of vehicles passing through a road in a given window of time, or simply a stream. And that stream will come with its own properties like speed, density, and flow.

And one major pathway to those places is of course EDSA.

Now those places we’ve listed have a few condos and even fewer apartments located within their respective areas. And those are expensive. As such, it is common for people to live outside those business centers. As such many people commute to and from these business centers daily.

Working in BGC while living as far away as Fairview is common. 

2. Economic Theory

• Roads here in the Philippines is a perfect example of “the tragedy of the commons.” Our roads, like EDSA, is free to use. Hence, there is little incentive for people who own cars not to use the hell out of it. The same goes for other roads of course.

• According to Anthony Downs, an Economist, rush hour traffic congestion is unavoidable. It is the direct consequence of having the standard work schedule that we all know too well. He also says that roads are like goods in a capitalist economy. They can either be had by paying or through a first-come first-serviced policy. Traffic congestion of course is akin to the latter.
• According to researchers from London School of Economics and University of Toronto, there exists a “fundamental law of road congestion” wherein building and widening new roads will also cause traffic density to rises up once again to previous levels. This was done by determining the number of vehicle-kilometers traveled or VKT which they saw increases proportionally to the lane-kilometers available on roads.

3. Urban Planning Problems

As we’ve mentioned in our post on 5 major causes of traffic in the Philippines , urban planning here in our country isn’t that good.

The layout of Metro Manila, Metro Cebu, Davao City and Cagayan de Oro lacks the foresight to account for the massive increase in density of population. And yes, they also didn’t think to account for the future increase of both PUVs and private vehicles which was of course a result of better jobs due to better education, etc.

There's also the lack of basic stuff like drainage and sewers to handle events like flooding.

In Metro Manila’s case, urban areas within the capital saw a 1.8% population growth back in 2000-2001. Most assuredly, that growth was much more significant in the years leading up to the present. This was a result of people from nearby towns and provinces coming to the Metro to get better jobs, better health care, etc.

Also, there’s a large dependence on road-based public transport, both public and private. Why? Well the MRTs and LRTs are always so full so who could blame people on using these right?

Uneasy experiences when it comes to publis transport as well

>>> For your further reference:

• The PUV Modernization Program in the Philippines: Facts You Need to Know
• 5 facts you should know about the Philippines PUJ Moderniz ation Program

4. Mathematical theories

According to many traffic engineers, vehicular traffic is like fluid. As such, that means that fluid dynamics can be applied to traffic flow. One example of this is when heavy but still flowing traffic is suddenly jammed due to small events from a lane stealing driver to a broken-down car. The consequences of those will flow down the road just like a ripple on water.

The Simple Solution to Traffic

Traffic congestion: Negative Effects

Here are a number of negative effects of traffic congestion:

Fender-benders and collisions are more prevalent due to the constant stop and go traffic as well as the tight spacing.

Opportunity Cost or the waste of time as you cannot be productive while stuck for traffic. As such, the economic health of a region is reduced.

Traffic from main roads like EDSA will sometimes spillover to secondary roads and many of these are residential roads. This will affect the peace and quiet of a neighborhood and will sometimes even negatively impact real estate prices .

Delays. Due to traffic, it is common to see the delivery of goods arriving late, late students, and of course, late employees. The very worst example of this however is the delayed response times of emergency services like firetrucks and ambulances because if you delay these, it will result in deaths .

Being stuck in traffic also causes wastage of fuel which in turn contributes to more carbon dioxide emissions . Cars typically burn more fuel when accelerating from a stop afterall.

Road rage . We Filipinos are especially familiar with road rage. Some instances will start innocuously enough with rude gestures but this will sometimes result in aggressive unsafe driving. More often than not, when an opportunity for it is presented, those under the effects of road rage will become implicated in assaults, vehicular collisions, and even outright murder. Shootings here to due road rage is common.

Economic Loss is also a huge negative effect of traffic congestion. According to the Japan International Cooperation Agency or JICA, Cebu will lose as much as Php 3.5 billion everyday if their traffic problem isn’t remedied. Currently Metro Manila is losing around Php 3 billion each day.

A screenshot of one of the best road rage duels ever captured on video. 

Traffic Congestion: Solutions

Here in the Philippines, there are already a number of schemes being enacted as potential solutions of our traffic congestion problem. One is the Unified Vehicular Volume Reduction Program or number coding scheme .

Another is the continuous operation of the Metropolitan Manila Development Authority (MMDA) who currently is handling transport and traffic management. There’s also the U-turn scheme and a number of others.

As of 2019 though, we need new solutions for tackling traffic congestion here in the country as it appears that those, we’ve listed above have either lost their effectiveness, or are simply not enough.

1. Urban Planning and design

• Impose car free days in specific areas of major cities.
• Zoning laws which makes mixed-use development mandatory especially on business centers. For example, build more affordable housing within Ortigas CBD. This encourages people to not buy more cars. This might also encourage the establishment of cycling infrastructure.
• While it might be too late, using a grid plan including a fused grid road network topology rather than the messy network topology that Metro Manila currently uses. This will help reduce traffic on arterial roads like EDSA.

Acquiring the right of way for an EDSA expansion project would be next to impossible though.

2. Reduction of demand (i.e. motivations for using cars)

• More parking restrictions.
• Road pricing, for examples, implementing a toll on EDSA.
• Incentives to use public transport.
• Incentives to use bicycling or motorcycles.
• Impose flexible work schedules and telecommuting.
• Promotion of online shopping.

If you have Wifi, you can work from anywhere. Yeah!!!!

3. Increase of Supply (more roads and capacity enhancement)

4. Traffic Management

Congestion can also be reduced by using Intelligent Transportation Systems. These include:

• Parking guidance and information systems.
• Automatic highway systems. (Very futuristic and not likely to happen anytime soon)
• Automatic Traffic congestion detectors

Make sure to visit our website every day for more tips and advice with regards to driving here in the Philippines.

Critical Mass – Ball, Philip, ISBN 0-09-945786-5

"Busina: Current State, Alternatives and Emerging Filipino Values on Metro Manila Traffic | Chester Cabalza". Academia.edu. 1970-01-01.

B.S. Kerner, The Physics of Traffic, Springer, Berlin, New York 2004

"Philippine Population Density (Based on the 2015 Census of Population) | Philippine Statistics Authority". Psa.gov.ph. 2016-09-01.

"Understanding urban planning, land use, transportation and traffic - The Manila Times Online". www.manilatimes.net.

Cesar G.B. Miguel

Cesar Guiderone B. Miguel was born and raised in Iligan City, Lanao Del Norte. He graduated in 2010 with a Bachelor of Arts in English degree from Mindanao State University - Iligan Institute of Technology. He previously worked as a freelance writer for various websites, as a member of the Iligan City Disaster Risk Reduction Management's training staff, and as a medical sales representative.

Facebook:  https://www.facebook.com/goridus.goridus

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