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100 great medical ethics topics for a research project.

One of the most important aspects of writing a great assignment in medicine is coming up with a great topic. There are endless issues and debates that are worth discussing, but we know that students do not always have the time to find medical ethics topics that meet their requirements. This list of medical ethics topics that was put together by our academic experts can be modified to fit numerous situations.

Medical Ethics Essay Topics for College Students

The following medical ethics paper topics are suited for students that have mastered the skill of researching and writing. They are designed for college students that have the time and dedication to put in the work craft a great assignment:

• Doctor withholding information from families for extended periods.
• Testing fetuses for birth defects to determine abortion cases.
• The obligation to treat prisoners serving life-term sentences.
• The federal mandate to treat prisoners with degenerative diseases.
• Donating organs to relatives in lower need versus non-relatives with greater need.
• Privacy rights for minors getting abortions without parental consent.
• Patients’ rights to refuse treatment in any state.
• The right to refuse an organ donation without a medical reason.
• The point in which an unborn baby is considered alive.
• Importance of physical health in medical professionals to provide treatment.

Medical Ethics Topics for Essay in Graduate School

The following topics in medical ethics are catered to students at the graduate level. They will require a lot of research and may take several weeks to complete:

• Access to birth control for minors without parental consent.
• Terminating a pregnancy because of a birth defect.
• The ethics in allowing medical students to be more proactive.
• End-of-life care patients and access to nutrition.
• Advance directives and non-resuscitation orders.
• The negative impact a physician’s stress level can have on patients.
• The ethical way of using social media in medicine.
• How social media has enabled individuals to seek medical care.
• The impact online communication has on patient-physician relationships.
• Patient favor or gift exchange for special treatment.

Medical Ethics Research Paper Topics for Ph.D. Students

When you work on a Ph.D. you will likely be conduct research on what will become the foundation of your professional expertise. Consider these topics for a Ph.D. capstone project in your area of interest:

• The ethics of treating patients without insurance.
• The best way to address disparities in health care.
• Approaches to dealing with patients that do not want treatment.
• Methods for working with surrogate decision-makers.
• Required use of masks during pandemics.
• The Covid-19 vaccine and its implied risks.
• Malpractice cases and the right for doctors to return to work.
• The use of animals to test potentially harmful medications.
• Using technology to conduct open-heart surgery.
• Artificial intelligence to minimize human risk.

Current Medical Ethics Topics for 2023

These medical ethics topics for research papers are what are being discussed in the community today. From medical malpractice to Covid-19, you will find the latest issues here:

• Overtime payments and fees for doctors.
• Assisted suicide and affordable health.
• The risks of selective reproduction.
• Allowing technologies to monitor a patient’s health.
• Saving the life of a pregnant woman while putting an unborn child at risk.
• Human donor lists and the priority assigned to recipients.
• HIV/AIDS testing and counseling for teenagers.
• Challenges posed in family planning decisions.
• The quality of care for low-income families.
• Organ donation and ethnic preference.

Controversial Medical Ethics Topics in the News

Here are some medical debate topics ethics that are controversial and should generate a lot of interest from the reading community. Just be sure you conduct ample research to guarantee you are finding and using the latest information:

• The vaccine against Covid-19 should be mandatory.
• Criminal charges for accidental treatment deaths.
• The impact stem cell research has on curing diseases.
• The increase of biohackers around the world.
• The risk of having genetic and medical data stolen.
• Physician liability and legal responsibilities.
• Patient information and privacy laws.
• Patients’ rights to refuse types of treatment.
• Organ and tissue transplant oversight laws.
• The impact that bioterrorism has on people.

Medical Ethics Topics for Debate or Presentation

These medical ethics debate topics explore some more serious issues requiring students to think outside-of-the-box and to challenge themselves by developing logical and interesting presentations:

• Acquiring patient’s private data for predictive analysis.
• How to protect patient data through de-anonymization.
• Current regulations provide adequate privacy protection.
• Big data risks of exposing patient private information.
• Limitations of patient information gathered through databases.
• How to protect patients from inherent bias used in public health analysis.
• Concerns with forced immunization around the world.
• The effectiveness of the response to global pandemics.
• The differences in medical ethics around the world.
• International ethics in the global community.

Medical Law and Ethics Topics for 2023

Topics in medical law change drastically from year to year. We have gathered the current hot topics related to this field and trust that you will find something you like:

• Laws that protect the well-being of patients.
• Medical negligence in cases of death.
• The rights of patients undergoing surgery.
• Preliminary agreements before invasive surgery.
• Ethical dilemmas that arise when acknowledging patients’ requests.
• Ethical standards across the United States.
• The importance of medical ethics in today’s world.
• The best way to monitor ethics in the medical field.
• The challenges of practicing medicine internationally.
• Cultural differences in medical decisions and law.

Medical Ethics Topics for Discussion or Presentation

This medical ethics topics list is perfect for any student that has to participate in a round-table discussion or conduct a presentation on the impact that medical ethics has on society:

• The ethical question regarding preventative medicine.
• End-of-care decisions regarding patient comfort and care.
• Religious beliefs contradict medical decisions and put patients at risk.
• Medical ethics versus cultural bias across the United States.
• Ethical questions when treating the mentally disabled.
• How to deal with medical ethics in third-world countries.
• The moral and ethical questions of treating patients without healthcare.
• The connection between poor health and financial status.
• The cost of healthcare in developed countries versus undeveloped countries.
• The major factors that drive the costs of healthcare in the U.S.

Medical Ethics Issues Topics for a Quick Project

There are plenty of reasons why students would need to find a topic they can research and write about in a short amount of time. Consider these ideas for a quick turnaround:

• The right to attain complete medical information despite age.
• The obligation to report instances of alleged organ trafficking.
• The right for patients to have access to all medical records after the age of 15.
• Child vaccination is a mandatory requirement of all legal residents.
• The ethics behind using surrogate pregnancies on-demand versus health reasons.
• Giving the homeless population free healthcare across the United States.
• A patient’s right to refuse treatment for religious purposes.
• How to improve the selection process in which donor recipients are selected.
• Encouraging patients to use homeopathy remedies before medicine.
• Accepting eastern medical practices to help patient rehabilitation.

Medical Ethics Research Topics for a Dissertation

Dissertations are long projects that can take several months to several years to complete. Be sure to consider a topic that you know you can handle and one that will make working with your advisor a positive experience:

• Allowing patients to opt-in or opt-out of the donor system in specific circumstances.
• The legalization of doctor-assisted suicide is a federal right in the United States.
• The advancements in technology improve the accuracy of treatments.
• Patient confidentiality and treatment during the Covid-19 global pandemic.
• Genetic testing, precision medicine, patient privacy, and confidentially challenges.
• The extent to which people without healthcare should be provided services.
• The international medical community during times of war.
• Different examples of cultural humility and volunteerism around the world.
• Moral and ethical obligations physicians have to society regardless of country.
• The effect of data breaches on the doctor and patient relationship.

For more good medical ethics research topics, contact our support staff who can connect you with a qualified academic professional in this field. He or she can find topics for medical ethics paper to fit any situation and academic level. We are available to help 24/7 and can be reached conveniently by chat, email, and telephone.

Stanford Center for Biomedical Ethics

Core topics seminar.

SCBE hosts a Core Topics in Biomedical Ethics Seminar Series twice monthly. In Core Topics, fellows and faculty will present on fundamental topics in clinical and research ethics. The format of each seminar is roughly two “classic” readings circulated prior to the session with a short (30-minute) presentation that includes 3 discussion questions.

Research Ethics:

1.     Vulnerable Research Subjects 

2.    Do we Own Our Bodies?: Informed Consent, Ownership, and Use of Biological Samples

3.     Informed Consent: Approaches to Consent in Biospecimens and Data 

4.     Incidental/Secondary Findings in Research Settings

5.     First Use of Research Protocols in Humans

6.     The Ethics of Learning Healthcare Systems

7.     Human Gene Therapy or Gene Transfer

8.     Data Ethics

Clinical Ethics:

1.     Shared Decision-Making 

2.     Truth Telling in Medicine

3.     Confidentiality & Duty to Warn 

4.     Transplantation

5.     Rationing

6.     End of Life 

7.     Futility

8.     Physician-Aid-in-Dying (PAD) & Euthanasia

• Core Research Ethics Topics
• Core Clinical Ethics Topics

1.  Vulnerable Research Subjects

·   Kenneth Kipnis, “Vulnerability in Research Subjects: A Bioethical Taxonomy” 2006

·   Levine C, Faden R, Grady C, Hammerschmidt D, Eckenwiler L and Sugarman J, The Limitations of ‘Vulnerability’ as a Protection for Human Research Participants,” The American Journal of Bioethics Vol. 4, no. 3 (2004):44-49.

·   Susan M. Reverby, “Ethical Failures and History Lessons: The U.S. Public Health Service Research Studies in Tuskegee and Guatemala” Public Health Reviews Vol. 34, No 1, (2012):1-18.

·  Willowbrook chapter from Emanuel Oxford book

2.  Do We Own Our Bodies? Informed Consent, Ownership, and Use of Biological Samples

·   Nanibaa’ A. Garrison, “Genomic Justice for Native Americans: Impact of the Havasupai Case on Genetic Research” Sci Technol Human Values 38, no. 2 (2013): 201–223.

·   Michelle Huckaby Lewis, “Lessons from the Residual Newborn Screening Dried Blood Sample Litigation” JLME Vol. 43, (2015): 32-35.

·   R Alta Charo, “Body of Research — Ownership and Use of Human Tissue” NEJM Vol. 355 (2006): 1517-19.

·   Laura M. Beskow, “Lessons from HeLa Cells: The Ethics and Policy of Biospecimens” Annu Rev Genomics Hum Genet Vol. 17 (2016): 395–417.

·   Havasupai Tribe  v.  Arizona Bd. of Regents, 204 P.3d 1063 (Ariz. Ct. App. 2008)

·   Moore  v.  Regents of University of California, 793 P.2d 479 (Cal. 1990)

·   Washington University  v.  Catalona, 437 F. Supp. 2d 985 (E.D. Mo. 2006)

·  Beleno et al v. Texas Department of State Health Services et al Texas Western District Court, Case No. 5:09-cv-00188 

3.  Approaches to Consent in Biospecimens and Data

·   Rotimi C, et al. “Community Engagement and Informed Consent in the International HapMap Project” Community Genet Vol. 10 (2007):186–198.

·   Christine Grady, “Enduring and Emerging Challenges of Informed Consent” NEJM 372 (2015):855-62.

·   McGuire A and Beskow L, “Informed Consent in Genomics and Genetic Research” Annu Rev Genomics Hum Genet 11 (2010):361–81.

·   Lunshof JE, et al. “From Genetic Privacy to Open Consent” Nature Reviews Genetics Vol. 9 (2008): 406-11.

4.  Incidental/Secondary Findings in Research Settings

·      Susan Wolf, “The Continuing Evolution of Ethical Standards for Genomic Sequencing in Clinical Care: Restoring Patient Choice” J Law Med Ethics Vol. 45, no. 3 (September 2017): 333–340.

·      Wolf SM, et al. “Managing Incidental Findings in Human Subjects Research: Analysis and Recommendations” J Law Med Ethics Vol. 36, no. 2 (2008): 219-48.

·      Richardson HS and Cho MK, “Secondary Researchers' Duties to Return Incidental Findings and Individual Research Results: a Partial-Entrustment Account,” Genet Med Vol. 14, no. 4 (2012): 467-72.

·      Ande v. Rock 2002, Court of Appeals of Wisconsin

5.  First Use of Research Protocols in Humans

·  Rebecca Dresser, “First-in-Human Trial Participants: Not a Vulnerable Population, but Vulnerable Nonetheless” J Law Med Ethics 37, 1 (2009): 38–50.

·   Benjamin Freedman, “Equipoise and the Ethics of Clinical Research” NEJM 317 (1987): 141-145.

·   Miller FG and Brody H, “A Critique of Clinical Equipoise: Therapeutic Misconception in the Ethics of Clinical Trials” The Hastings Center Report , Vol. 33, no. 3 (2003):19-28.

·   Bartlett, R, et al, “Extracorporeal Circulation in Neonatal Respiratory Failure: A Prospective Randomized Study” Pediatric s 76 (1985): 479-87.

·   Rosenberger F and Lachin J, “The Use of Response-Adaptive Designs in Clinical Trials” Control Clin Trials 14, no. 6 (1993):471-84.

6.  The Ethics of Learning Healthcare Systems

·   Faden RR, Kass NE, Goodman SN, Pronovost P, Tunis S, Beauchamp TL, “An Ethics Framework for a Learning Health Care System: A Departure from Traditional Research Ethics and Clinical Ethics.” Hastings Center Report (2013):S16-27.

·   SUPPORT Study Group, “Target Ranges of Oxygen Saturation in Extremely Preterm Infants” New England Journal of Medicine Vol. 362 (2010):1959-69.

·   David Magnus, “The Support Trial and the Debate Over Research Within the Standard of Care” AJOB 13, no. 12 (2013):1-2.

·   Wilfond & Magnus et al. “The OHRP and SUPPORT” NEJM (2013):e36 (1-3).

·  Macklin et al. “The OHRP and SUPPORT — Another View” NEJM (2013): e3(1-3).

7.  Human Gene Therapy or Gene Transfer

·  Reading on Jesse Gelsinger

·    Robin Fretwell Wilson, “The Death of Jesse Gelsinger: New Evidence of the Influence of Money and Prestige in Human Research” Vol. 36 American Journal of Law and Medicine (2010): 295-325.

·   Gelsinger v. Trustees of the University of Pennsylvania

·   Gelsinger Complaint

·   Germ Line Editing

·    Lanphier E, Urnov F, Haecker SE, Werner M, and Smolenski J, “Don’t Edit the Human Germ Line” Nature Vol. 519, (2015):409-411.

·    Savulescu J, Pugh J, Douglas T, and Gyngell C, “The Moral Imperative to Continue Gene Editing Research on Human Embryos” Protein Cell Vol. 6, no. 7, (2015):476–479

·   CRISPR Babies

·    Jing-Bao Nie, “He Jiankui’s Genetic Misadventure: Why Him? Why China?” Hastings Center Bioethics Forum (December 2018) (Accessed July 2019)

·    Antonio Regalado, “Chinese Scientists Are Creating CRISPR Babies” MIT Technology Review, November 25, 2018. (Accessed June 2019)

8.  Data Ethics

·   Herman T. Tavoni, “Philosophical Theories of Privacy” Metaphilosophy Vol. 38, No. 1 (January 2007): 1-22.

·   McGuire A and Majumder MA, “Two Cheers for GINA?” Genome Medicine 1:6, (2009 ).

·   Mittelstadt BD and Floridi L, “The Ethics of Big Data: Current and Foreseeable Issues in Biomedical Contexts” Sci Eng Ethics 22 (2016):303–341.

·   Vayenne E and Blasimme A,“Biomedical Big Data: New Models of Control Over Access, Use and Governance” Bioethical Inquiry 14 (2017):501–513.

Policies and regulations

·    NIH Genomic Data Sharing Policy

1.  Shared Decision-Making 

·  Applebaum PS and Grisso T, “Assessing Patients’ Capacities to Consent to Treatment” NEJM 19 (1988):1635-8.

·  Childress JF and Siegler M, “Metaphors and Models of Doctor-Patient Relationships: Their Implications for Autonomy. Theor Med 5 (1984):17-30.

·  Thaddeus Pope, “Making Medical Decisions for Patients without Surrogates” NEJM 369(2013):1976-8.

·  Courtwright A and Rubin E, “Who Should Decide for the Unrepresented?” Bioethics 30 (2016):173-80.

·  Gutheil TG and Applebaum PS, “Substituted Judgement: Best Interest in Disguise,” Hastings Cent Rep 13(1983):8-11.

2.  Truth Telling in Medicine

·  Wu, et al., “To Tell the Truth to Patients: Ethical and Practical Issues in Disclosing Medical Mistakes to Patients”   J Gen Intern Med 12 (1997):770-5.

·  U.S. Supreme Court, Canterbury v. Spence

3.  Confidentiality & Duty to Warn

·  Mark Siegler, “Confidentiality in Medicine—A Decrepit Concept” NEJM 307 (1982):1518-1521.

·  California Supreme Court, Tarasoff v. Regents of the University of California

4.  Transplantation

·   Albert A. Jonson, “The God Squad and the Origins of Transplantation Ethics and Policy” The Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics 35, no. 2 (2007): 238-40.

5.  Rationing

·  Scheunemann LP and White DB, “The Ethics and Reality of Rationing in Medicine.” Chest 140(2011):1625-1632.

6.  End of Life

·   David Magnus, “A Defense of the Dead Donor Rule,” Hastings Center Report 48, S4 (2018): S36-S38.

·  Robert Truog, “Lessons from the case of Jahi McMath” Hastings Center Report 48, S4 (2018): S70-S73.

7.  Medical Futility

·  Bossle GT, Lo B, White DB, “An Official ATS/AACN/ACCP/ESICM/SCCM Policy Statement: Responding to Requests for Potentially Inappropriate Treatments in Intensive Care Units” Perspect Biol Med 60, no. 3, (2018):314-318.

·  AA Kon, et al., “Defining Futile and Potentially Inappropriate Interventions: A Policy Statement From the Society of Critical Care Medicine Ethics Committee” Crit Care Med 44, no. 9 (2016):1769-74.

·  California Court of Appeals, Bouvia v. Superior Court

·  U.S. Supreme Court, Cruzan v. Director, Missouri Dep’t of Health

8.  Physician-Aid-in-Dying (PAD) & Voluntary Active Euthanasia (VAC)

·  Dan Brock, “Voluntary Active Euthanasia” Hastings Center Report 22, no. 2 (1992): 10-22.

·  Bernat JL, Gert B, and Mogielnicki RP, “Patient Refusal of Hydration and Nutrition: An Alternative to Physician-Assisted Suicide or Voluntary Active Euthanasia” Arch Intern Med 153, 24 (1993):2723-8.

·  Vacco v. Quill

·   Washington v. Glucksberg

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Medical Ethics Issues: Position Papers & Resources

In addition to the ACP Ethics Manual, ACP publishes ethics position papers on a broad range of health care ethics issues including clinical ethics, professionalism, the delivery of health care, teaching, medical research, human rights and other topics. ACP ethics policy is approved by the Board of Regents and serves as the basis for the development of ACP ethics education and practice resources and legislative, regulatory and policy implementation activities.

Current ACP Ethics Policies and Resources

New determination of death and organ transplantation, position papers.

• Standards and Ethics Issues in the Determination of Death: A Position Paper From the American College of Physicians (September 4, 2023)
• Ethics, Determination of Death, and Organ Transplantation in Normothermic Regional Perfusion (NRP) with Controlled Donation after Circulatory Determination of Death (cDCD): American College of Physicians Statement of Concern (April 17, 2021)

Comments and Letters

• ACP letter to the Uniform Law Commission Committee about updating the Uniform Determination of Death Act (UDDA) (June 7, 2023)
• Does Normothermic Regional Perfusion Violate the Ethical Principles Underlying Organ Procurement? Yes. (Chest. 2022;162(2):288-90)
• Rebuttal From Dr. DeCamp et al. (Chest. 2022;162(2):292-3)

NEW Disability

• ACP Letter Regarding Discrimination on Basis of Disability in Health and Human Service Programs Proposed Rule 2023 (November 13, 2023)

NEW Electronic and Online Professionalism

Ethics manual, electronic patient-physician communication, electronic health records, telemedicine, and online professionalism.

• Initiating and Discontinuing the Patient–Physician Relationship
• The Medical Record
• Boundaries and Privacy

Case Studies

• Lab Results Reporting, Ethics, and the 21st Century Cures Act Rule on Information Blocking CME/MOC

Ethics, Electronic Health Record Integrity and the Patient-Physician Relationship CME/MOC (ACP Ethics Case Studies Series. CME and MOC by Medscape. 2021)

Ethics, Professionalism, and the Physician Social Media Influencer CME/MOC (ACP Ethics Case Studies Series. CME and MOC by Medscape. 2020)

”Doctor, Can’t You Just Phone a Prescription In?” and Other Ethical Challenges of Telemedicine Encounters CME/MOC (ACP Ethics Case Studies Series. MOC and CME by Medscape. 2019)

Maintaining Medical Professionalism Online: Posting of Patient Information CME (ACP Ethics Case Studies Series. CME by Medscape. 2018)

Addressing a Colleague's Sexually Explicit Facebook Post CME (ACP Ethics Case Studies Series. CME by Medscape. 2017)

Copied and Pasted and Misdiagnosed (or Cloned Notes and Blind Alleys) CME (ACP Ethics Case Studies Series. CME by Medscape. 2015)

American College of Physicians Ethical Guidance for Electronic Patient-Physician Communication: Aligning Expectations (J Gen Intern Med. published online 22 June 2020)

Ethical Implications of the Electronic Health Record: In the Service of the Patient (J Gen Intern Med. 2017;32:935-9)

Policy Recommendations to Guide the Use of Telemedicine in Primary Care Settings (Ann Intern Med. 2015;163:787-9)

Online Medical Professionalism: Patient and Public Relationships (Ann Intern Med. 2013;158:620-7)

NEW End-of-Life Care

• Care of Patients Near the End of Life
• Show Codes, Slow Codes, Full Codes, or No Codes: What Is a Doctor to Do? CME/MOC (ACP Ethic Case Studies Series, MOC and CME by Medsape. 2023)

2011 Letter and 2009 letter to Congressman Blumenauer regarding ACP’s support for legislation to pay for voluntary end-of-life care consultations (see H.R. 1898, the Life Sustaining Treatment Preferences Act of 2009).

• Ethics, Determination of Death, and Organ Transplantation in Normothermic Regional Perfusion (NRP) with Controlled Donation after Circulatory Determination of Death (cDCD): American College of Physicians Statement of Concern

End-of-Life (PEACE) Brochures (ACP. 2014) The PEACE brochures were developed by the Patient Education Work Group, which was convened in conjunction with the Consensus Panel project. Order copies of printed brochures

• Improving Your End-of-Life Care Practice
• Living with a Serious Illness: Talking with Your Doctor When the Future is Uncertain
• When You Have Pain at the End of Life
• Making Medical Decisions for a Loved One at the End of Life

ACP-ASIM End-of-Life Care Consensus Panel Papers (1999-2001) ACP convened this Greenwall Foundation supported consensus panel to develop ethical, policy, and clinical recommendations for physicians and other clinicians on end-of-life decisions.

Physician's Guide to End-of-Life Care Edited by Lois Snyder, JD, and Timothy Quill, MD, FACP (ACP Books. 2001)

Advance Directive Forms for Your State Contact Caring Connections, a program of the National Hospice and Palliative Care Organization (NHPCO).

National Healthcare Decisions Day, April 16 Details and resources on NHDD and the importance of advance care planning.

• Expert Witnesses

To Be or Not to Be: Should I Serve as an Expert Witness? CME (ACP Ethics Case Studies Series. CME by Medscape. 2014)

Guidelines for the Physician Expert Witness (Ann Intern Med. 1990;113:789)

NEW Family Caregivers

Ethical Guidance on Family Caregiving, Support, and Visitation in Hospitals and Residential Health Care Facilities, Including During Public Health Emergencies (J Gen Intern Med. 2023 Mar 20:1–8)

Family Caregivers, Patients and Physicians: Ethical Guidance to Optimize Relationships (J Gen Intern Med. 2010;25:255-60)

Family Caregivers, Patients and Physicians: Ethical Guidance to Optimize Relationships (ACP. 2009) (This publication is a longer version of the position paper above.)

Information Resources for Physicians Supporting Family Caregivers (ACP. 2010) This appendix of resources was developed in conjunction with the ACP position paper to help physicians manage relationships with patients and caregivers.

When the Family Caregiver Is a Physician: Negotiating the Ethical Boundaries CME/MOC (ACP Ethics Case Studies Series. CME and MOC by Medscape. 2020)

Genetic Testing and Precision Medicine

• Precision Medicine, Genetic Testing, Privacy, and Confidentiality

ACP Comments on privacy protection and human genome sequencing (May 24, 2012) ACP provided comments to the Presidential Commission for the Study of Bioethical Issues regarding the ethical implications of evolving notions of privacy and access in relation to the integration of large-scale human genome sequencing into research and clinical care.

Position Papers and Statements

Ethical Considerations in Precision Medicine and Genetic Testing in Internal Medicine Practice Ann Intern Med.2022;175:1322-1323

Genetic Testing and Reuniting Families (July 10, 2018)

Global Health Clinical Experiences

• Cultural Humility and Volunteerism

Ethical Obligations Regarding Short-Term Global Health Clinical Experiences (Ann Intern Med. 2018;168:651-7)

NEW Health and Human Rights

"Health and human rights are interrelated. When human rights are promoted, health is promoted ... Physicians have important roles in promoting health and human rights and addressing social inequities." (Ethics Manual, seventh edition).

• Obligations of the Physician to Society

Health as a Human Right (Ann Intern Med. doi:10.7326/M23-1900)

ACP's Human Rights Page : ACP policy statements and letters of support, as well as documents related to College advocacy for the humane treatment of prisoners and detainees.

NEW Health Information Privacy, Protection, and Use

• Confidentiality
• Research Sections within the Research chapter include “Use of Human Biological Materials in Research” and “Internet and Social Media Research”.

Maintaining Medical Professionalism Online: Posting of Patient Information (ACP Ethics Case Studies Series. CME by Medscape. 2018)

Confidentiality and Privacy: Beyond HIPAA to Honey, Can We Talk? (ACP Ethics Case Studies Series. CME by Medscape. 2018)

Ethical Guidance for Physicians and Health Care Institutions on Grateful Patient Fundraising: A Position Paper From the American College of Physicians (Ann Intern Med.doi:10.7326/M23-1691)

Health Information Privacy, Protection, and Use in the Expanding Digital Health Ecosystem: A Position Paper of the American College of Physicians (Ann Intern Med.2021;174:994-998)

NEW Pandemics and Ethics -->

Health care system catastrophes.

• The Patient-Physician Relationship and Health Care System Catastrophes
• Medical Risk to Physician and Patient

When Resources Are Limited During a Public Health Catastrophe: Nondiscrimination and Ethical Allocation Guidance CME/MOC (ACP Ethics Case Studies Series. MOC and CME by Medscape. 2023)

Pandemic Treatment Resource Allocation Ethics and Nondiscrimination (ACP Ethics Case Studies Series. CME and MOC by Medscape. 2020)

Stewardship of Health Care Resources: Allocating Mechanical Ventilators During Pandemic Influenza (ACP Ethics Case Studies Series. 2017)

ACP supports ACIP recommendation for additional mRNA COVID-19 vaccine dose and WHO call for equitable global vaccine distribution (August 17, 2021)

ACP Statement on Global COVID-19 Vaccine Distribution and Allocation: On Being Ethical and Practical (June 8, 2021)

ACP's Policy Statement on the Ethical Allocation of Vaccines During Pandemics Including COVID-19 (November 23, 2020)

A Wake-up Call for Healthcare Emerging Ethical Lessons from Covid-19 (Modern Healthcare, June 16, 2020)

Non-Discrimination in the Stewardship of Healthcare Resources in Health System Catastrophes, including COVID-19 Pandemic (March 26, 2020)

Internists Say Harassment Based on Race or Ethnic Origin is Never Okay (March 31, 2020)

Universal Do-Not-Resuscitate Orders, Social Worth, and Life-Years: Opposing Discriminatory Approaches to the Allocation of Resources During the COVID-19 Pandemic and Other Health System Catastrophes (Ann Intern Med.2020;173:230-232)

NEW Patient–Physician Relationship

Patient-physician relationship.

• The Physician and the Patient
• Initiating and Discontinuing the Patient-Physician Relationship
• Third-Party Evaluations
• Providing Medical Care to One’s Self; Persons With Whom the Physician has a Preexisting Close Nonprofessional Relationship or a Reporting Relationship; and VIPs
• Sexual Contact between Physician and Patient
• Gifts from Patients

Confidentiality and privacy, disclosure of medical errors, and informed and surrogate decision making

• Informed Decision Making and Consent
• Making Decisions Near the End of Life

The Doctor Will See You Shortly. The Ethical Significance of Time for the Patient–Physician Relationship (J Gen Intern Med. 2005;20:1057-62)

Ethics and Time, Time Perception, and the Patient–Physician Relationship (ACP. March 2003) (This publication is a longer version of the position paper above.)

• Patient Prejudice? The Patient Said What?... and What Comes Next CME (ACP Ethics Case Studies Series. CME by Medscape. 2022)

Confidentiality and Privacy: Beyond HIPAA to Honey, Can We Talk? CME (ACP Ethics Case Studies Series. CME by Medscape. 2018)

Preventive Health Screening, Ethics, and the Cognitively Impaired Patient CME (ACP Ethics Case Studies Series. CME by Medscape. 2015)

The Difficult Patient: Should You End the Relationship? What Now? An Ethics Case Study CME (ACP Ethics Case Studies Series. CME by Medscape. 2014)

Must You Disclose Mistakes Made by Other Physicians? CME (ACP Observer. November 2003)

Physicians and Society

• Relation of the Physician to Government
• Strikes and Other Joint Actions by Physicians

Physician Work Stoppages and Political Demonstrations—Economic Self-Interest or Patient Advocacy? Where Is the Line? CME (ACP Ethics Case Studies Series. CME by Medscape. 2010)

• Physician-Assisted Suicide and Euthanasia
• Toolkit on Issues in Delivering Patient-Centered End-of-Life Care and Responding to a Request for Physician-Assisted Suicide (Member login)

Ethics and the Legalization of Physician-Assisted Suicide (Ann Intern Med. 2017;167:576-8)

Physician–Industry Relations

• Conflicts of Interest
• Sponsored Research

Physician Open Payments (Sunshine Rule) This ACP webpage provides guidance and related tools for physicians on the Physician Payment Sunshine Rule (also referred to as the National Physician Payment Transparency Program, or Open Payments). The Open Payments system, implemented by the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services (CMS) in 2015, provides a mechanism for the public reporting of physician and teaching hospital financial relationships with industry.

Physician–Industry Relations. Part 1: Individual Physicians (Ann Intern Med. 2002;136:396-402)

Physician–Industry Relations. Part 2: Organizational Issues (Ann Intern Med. 2002;136:403-6)

NEW Practice Models, the Business of Medicine and the Changing Practice Environment

• The Changing Practice Environment
• Financial Arrangements

Ethics, Professionalism, Physician Employment and Health Care Business Practices CME/MOC

Banning Harmful Health Behaviors as a Condition of Employment: Where There's Smoke There's Fired? CME (ACP Ethics Case Studies Series. CME by Medscape. 2018)

Wellness Programs and Patient Goals of Care CME (ACP Ethics Case Studies Series. CME by Medscape. 2017)

Obligations and Opportunities: The Role of Clinical Societies in the Ethics of Managed Care (J Am Geriatr Soc. 1998;46:378-80)

Ethical and Professionalism Implications of Physician Employment and Health Care Business Practices CME (Ann Intern Med. published online 15 March 2021)

Assessing the Patient Care Implications of “Concierge” and Other Direct Patient Contracting Practices (Ann Intern Med. 2015;163:949-52)

The Patient-Centered Medical Home: An Ethical Analysis of Principles and Practice (J Gen Intern Med. 2013;28:141-6)

Ethical Considerations for the Use of Patient Incentives to Promote Personal Responsibility for Health: West Virginia Medicaid and Beyond (ACP. 2010)

Pay-for-Performance Principles That Promote Patient-Centered Care: An Ethics Manifesto (Ann Intern Med. 2007;147:792-4)

Pay-for-Performance Principles that Ensure the Promotion of Patient Centered Care—An Ethics Manifesto (ACP. 2007) (This publication is a longer version of the position paper above.)

Medical Professionalism in the Changing Health Care Environment: Revitalizing Internal Medicine by Focusing on the Patient–Physician Relationship (ACP. 2005)

Ethics in Practice: Managed Care and the Changing Health Care Environment (Ann Intern Med. 2004;141:131-6)

Selling Products Out of the Office (Ann Intern Med. 1999;131:863-4)

Prescription Drug Abuse

Prescription Drug Abuse (Ann Intern Med. 2014;160:198-200)

NEW Professionalism

American College of Physicians Pledge (ACP. 1982 [updated; original 1924]) The ACP Pledge is taken by new Fellows at Convocation at each Internal Medicine annual meeting. The Pledge affirms the physician’s membership in an ethical and moral community dedicated to healing, comfort, and altruism.

Physician Charter on Professionalism

Medical Professionalism in the New Millennium: A Physician Charter (Ann Intern Med. 2002;136:243-6)

• Professionalism

Ethical and Professionalism Implications of Physician Employment and Health Care Business Practices (Ann Intern Med. published online 15 March 2021)

• ACP Professional Accountability Principles (ACP. March 2018)

Professional Attire and the Patient-Physician Relationship CME/MOC (ACP Ethics Case Studies Series. CME and MOC by Medscape. 2020)

Addressing a Colleague's Unprofessional Behavior During Sign-Out CME (ACP Ethics Case Studies Series. CME by Medscape. 2018)

Dealing with the "Disruptive" Physician Colleague CME (ACP Ethics Case Studies Series. CME by Medscape. 2009)

Professional Well-being and Ethics

• The Impaired Physician

Physician Suicide Prevention: The Ethics and Role of the Physician Colleague and the Healing Community CME/MOC

When an Aging Colleague Seems Impaired CME (ACP Ethics Case Studies Series. CME by Medscape. 2017)

Physician Suicide Prevention and the Ethics and Role of a Healing Community: An American College of Physicians Policy Paper (J Gen Intern Med. 2021 Sep;36(9):2829-2835)

Physician Impairment and Rehabilitation: Reintegration Into Medical Practice While Ensuring Patient Safety (Ann Intern Med. 2019;170(12):871-879.)

ACP’s Physician Well-being and Professional Satisfaction initiative aims to foster a culture of wellness, reduce administrative burdens on physicians, improve practice efficiency and enhance individual physician well-being. The project website includes tools and programs for individual members, their practices, and ACP Chapters.

Research Ethics and Human Subjects

Research Sections within the chapter include “Protection of Human Subjects,” “Use of Human Biological Materials in Research,” “Placebo Controls,” “Innovative Medical Therapies,” “Scientific Publication,” “Sponsored Research” and “Public Announcement of Research Discoveries.”

Responsible Conduct of Research (RCR) Project

Under a grant from the Association of American Medical Colleges and the DHHS Office of Research Integrity, ACP Ethics staff has implemented member education and support programs on the responsible conduct of office-based research. Workshops have been presented at ACP's annual meeting as well as at several ACP chapter meetings.

Research in the Physician's Office: Navigating the Ethical Minefield (Hastings Cent Rep. 2008)

Volunteering for a Research Study? Talk with Your Doctor About What You Should Know This patient education brochure provides information and guidance to patients who are considering volunteering for a research study. The brochures are designed to facilitate conversations between doctors and their patients. They are intended for distribution in doctors’ offices and come in packages of 50. Access the brochure order form .

Author! Author! Who Should Be Named in a Published Study? An Ethics Case Study CME (ACP Ethics Case Studies Series. CME by Medscape. 2014)

When are Industry-Sponsored Trials a Good Match for Community Doctors? CME (ACP-ASIM Observer. 2001)

Research Ethics Training Resources

• Revised Common Rule Educational Materials , Department of Health and Human Services
• The Research Clinic , Office of Research Integrity, Department of Health and Human Services
• Responsible Conduct of Research (RCR) , Research Ethics and Compliance Training, CITI Program
• Responsible Conduct of Research Training , Office of Intramural Research, National Institutes of Health
• HIPAA Training and Resources , Department of Health and Human Services
• Online Ethics Center for Engineering and Science , Center for Engineering Ethics and Society, National Academy of Engineering
• World Association of Medical Editors (WAME)
• Council of Science Editors (CSE)
• European Association of Science Editors (EASE)

ACP supports National Academies’ call for withdrawal of Notice of Proposed Rulemaking (NPRM) for ‘Common Rule’ and for appointing a new commission (Dec. 31, 2015) ACP issued a statement in support of the National Academies' call for withdrawal of the Common Rule NPRM and for appointing a new research ethics commission.

ACP Comments on Notice of Proposed Rule Making (NPRM) (Dec. 31, 2015) ACP submitted comments to the Office for Human Research Protections of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services on the Notice of Proposed Rule Making, "Federal Policy for the Protection of Human Subjects," also known as the Common Rule. ACP also submitted an earlier round of comments on the proposed rule making on Oct. 25, 2011.

Stewardship of Health Care Resources

"Physicians have a responsibility to practice effective and efficient health care and to use health care resources responsibly in practicing high-value care. Parsimonious care that utilizes the most efficient means to effectively diagnose a condition and treat a patient puts the patient first but also respects the need to use resources wisely and to help ensure that resources are equitably available" (Ethics Manual, seventh edition).

Conflicting duties? The physician's primary duty, first and foremost, is to the individual patient. She or he must advocate for the patient—in a health care system that grows more and more complex by the year—based on the best interests of the patient. But the physician also should use health care resources responsibly and efficiently. Are these duties in conflict? The Ethics Manual and ethics case studies explore these issues and provide help in sorting them out.

Is it rationing? Parsimonious care is not rationing. The goal of medical parsimony is to provide the care necessary for the patient's good on the basis primarily of evidence-based medicine. Although this may have the welcome side effect of preserving resources, reducing resource use is not the intent. It is this difference in intent and action that helps provide a foundation for the ethical distinction between parsimonious medicine and rationing.

• Resource Allocation

ACP’s High Value Care Project aims to improve health, avoid harms, and eliminate wasteful practices. The project website offers learning resources for clinicians and medical educators, clinical guidelines, best practice advice, case studies and patient resources on a wide variety of related topics.

Patient Requests for Specific Care: 'Surely You Can Explain to My Insurer That I Need Boniva?' CME (ACP Ethics Case Studies Series. CME by Medscape. 2018)

Who Should Get What? Mammography and the Stewardship of Health Care Resources CME (ACP Ethics Case Studies Series. CME by Medscape. 2012)

The following ethics case studies were developed through an award from the ABIM Foundation's Putting the Charter into Practice project. Watch a video report of the ACP's work on this project presented by Dr. David Fleming, former President of the College.

Stewardship of Health Care Resources: Allocating Mechanical Ventilators During Pandemic Influenza CME (ACP Ethics Case Studies Series. CME by Medscape. 2017)

Stewardship of Health Care Resources: Responding to a Patient's Request for Antibiotics (ACP Ethics Case Studies Series. CME by Medscape. 2014)

Teaching, Training and the Hidden Curriculum

• Attending Physicians and Physicians-in-Training

Resident Duty Hours: To Hand Over or Gloss Over? CME (ACP Ethics Case Studies Series. CME by Medscape. 2017)

Hidden Curricula, Ethics, and Professionalism: Optimizing Clinical Learning Environments in Becoming and Being a Physician (Ann Intern Med. 2018;168:506-8)

CME/MOC activities based on this ACP position paper are available:

Annals offers two CME/MOC activities:

Ethics, Professionalism, and the Hidden Curriculum (Click on “CME/MOC” on the left sidebar.)

Annals On Call – Hidden Curriculum

In this Curbsiders Podcast , Sanjay Desai, MD, coauthor of ACP’s position paper and Internal Medicine program director at Johns Hopkins, reviews several cases that illustrate how institutional norms can shape the practice of medicine. Detailed summaries of the cases discussed are available here .

Archived Ethics Position Papers

Health Information Technology & Privacy (July 2011)

Cognitively Impaired Subjects (November 1989)

• Ethics Position Papers by Publication Date

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Medical ethics.

Michael Young ; Angela Wagner .

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Last Update: November 28, 2022 .

• Continuing Education Activity

Familiarity with ethical principles on a basic level is necessary to practice medicine. However, most healthcare providers are unable to explain how or why medical ethics principles have come to be and justify how they apply medical ethics principles in a systematic fashion. Many different medical ethics guidelines are available, such as from the American Medical Association (AMA), American Osteopathic Association (AOA), and the American College of Physicians (ACP). Given the lack of definitive ethical standards and premises, let alone a hierarchy or algorithm for prioritizing them, clinicians still face challenges in achieving satisfactory solutions to ethical challenges for themselves, their patients, and other parties involved. Because medical ethics issues are not limited to physicians, this article is written to be useful for both physicians and non-physicians. The neutral term "healthcare provider" is used in circumstances that apply to both physicians and non-physicians.

• Describe the formation and functions of medical ethics principles.
• Summarize how law, science, religion, and non-medical ethics disciplines affect the discipline of medical ethics.
• Explain how to apply medical ethics principles when attempting to resolve a medical ethics dilemma.
• Outline how the interprofessional team can work together to advance medical ethics and patient outcomes.
• Introduction

Medical ethics is a required element of American physicians' formal training. Familiarity with ethical principles on a basic level is necessary to pass initial medical licensing examinations. However, many healthcare providers (HCPs) are unfamiliar with the list of ethical principles relevant to modern medical practice, explain how or why medical ethics principles have come to be, or integrate and prioritize medical ethics principles systematically. 

Many different medical ethics guidelines are available, such as from the American Medical Association (AMA), American Osteopathic Association (AOA), and the American College of Physicians (ACP). The AMA code is of historical interest since it originates from the world's first medical ethics code (written in 1847) intended to serve as an authority at a national level. It was revised in detail in 2016 with some minor alterations in 2019.

Although the AMA advertised its 2016 code as "designed to meet the ethical challenges of medical practice" and as "the medical profession’s authoritative voice," the first page of the code stated that the code was "not intended to establish standards of clinical practice." That language has been removed, leaving language that serves as a more authoritative standard with a system of hierarchy in the appropriateness of actions involving degrees of obligation, such as  must ,  should , and  may , with the flexibility provided depending on circumstances.

Nevertheless, not all HCPs are held by other policy-making bodies to uphold the AMA code. Given a lack of definitive ethical standards and premises, let alone a hierarchy or algorithm for prioritizing or enforcing them, HCPs often still face great challenges in achieving satisfactory solutions to ethical challenges for themselves, their patients, and other parties involved. 

Goals for its practical application by physicians and other healthcare providers:

• To explain the formation and functions of medical ethics principles
• To demonstrate how law, science, religion, and non-medical ethics disciplines affect the discipline of medical ethics
• To illustrate how to apply medical ethics principles when attempting a resolution of a medical ethics dilemma
• Issues of Concern

Whereas moral instruction dates to Egyptian writings dating to before 2000 BCE, the first recorded systematic approach to defining a set of moral behaviors (ethics) derived from logic belongs to Aristotle (384-322 BCE). He referred to his work as the "ethikos," which means the "customs." The word denotes the concept of "habitual character and disposition." Multiple other Greek writers (such as Thucydides (c. 460-400 BCE), Plato (c. 426-347 BCE), and Luke (c. first century CE) also used this word.

Aristotle, an early authority on legal theory and biology, based his ethics system on a rational defense of what behavior was appropriate or inappropriate with practical intent, specifically to improve the quality of human lives. His principal concern was the nature of human well-being. 

Evolution of Ethics  

Concepts on the nature and function of ethics continue to evolve. Whereas the study of ethics (including Aristotle's) always attempts to distinguish good from bad, the concept of ethics among laypersons has become associated with the connotations of distinguishing right from wrong (and starting in the 1300s CE of distinguishing virtue from evil). Ethical evolution, like the evolution of many other disciplines, particularly the field of law, often starts as a reaction to a new event (a human action or inaction) that an author considers unacceptable. Although the action/inaction involves specific circumstances (such as time, place, and views of the people involved), the reaction attempts to establish that the action/inaction shall thenceforth become unacceptable for others in circumstances potentially very different from the original event.

Many factors, such as economics, affect a society's ethics in a manner akin to a feedback loop (or yin-yang), particularly with respect to laws and other forms of enforced policies. Ethicists' views that policymakers support eventually lead to the creation of a policy. The policy eventually leads to a dilemma, then a reaction to the dilemma, and then a new or revisited commentary by ethicists regarding what action or inaction is acceptable. The cycle repeats. Thus, ethical principles follow traceable lines of historical events and persons that have prevailed in influence. Looking at the history of an ethical principle (or law) can provide an understanding of why the ethical principle has risen to prominence (or why a law exists) and may enable a practical basis for accepting or rejecting it. This evolution of ethics and policy results in a potential source of HCP conflict, such as when a HCP trained in more current ethical concepts and policy disagrees with a HCP who believes in more dated ones (e.g., paternalism). Medical ethics principles evolve intertwined with principles in other fields of ethics.

Ethics as a Systematic Study

Ethics comprises numerous overlapping subdisciplines. Medical ethics can be classified as a subdivision of applied ethics, but it functions dependently on the following subdivisions of ethics as well (this list is not intended to be all-inclusive):

• Descriptive ethics: How do people behave?
• Normative ethics: How ought people to behave (to do good)?
• Meta-ethics: What is good behavior? How can we tell what is good from what is bad?
• Applied ethics: How do we apply descriptive, normative, and meta-ethics conclusions to real-life situations?
• Virtue ethics: How does a person gain the skills and knowledge to be virtuous and to do good?
• Group ethics: What factors enable and inhibit individuals from working together to do good? Is there one set of behaviors that yields the greatest likelihood of prosperity for a particular group?

Just as the application of knowledge in a branch of surgery can improve by understanding aspects of other surgical disciplines, the application of medical ethics can improve by understanding aspects of these other ethical subdivisions. Conversely, limited awareness of ethical principles and hierarchies can set up a HCP to conclude that "there is no right answer" for a situation in which a confident best answer could otherwise emerge. For example, it was a grasp of Aristotle's non-medical virtue ethics from the 300s BCE that enabled Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274; not a HCP) to propose the Principle of Double Effect, which is used by HCPs in clinical practice today.

When, where, who, and what are relatively easy questions to answer. How and why are the harder questions. Metaphysics, epistemology, history, and the "hard" sciences address how. In their most ambitious form, ethics, theology, and logic also attempt to address why.

Without the exploration of the why, a HCP has limited ability to apply ethical concepts to new, varied, and complex situations. HCPs who truly want to understand and apply ethics must be simultaneously like a child repeatedly asking the next why and a teacher continuing to supply an ever more cogent answer.

Authority in Ethics

An explanation for "why" that adults give children is "because I said so." This suffices only if the child holds the adult to have a satisfactory position of authority. It is practical when having a dialogue with yourself, with patients, or with others regarding what is or is not ethical to share and apply the written and unwritten opinions of all relevant authorities to reach a satisfactory consensus.

Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679), the "father of Western political philosophy." His ideas spurred the creation of lists of "inalienable rights" of persons, and he also discussed the functions of authority in society. However, America's founding fathers rejected Hobbes' idea that government can have absolute power, holding it to be "self-evident" truth that:

• Authority is not in and of itself adequate for establishing what is ethical.
• An ethical principle raised by a person in free speech may trump authority for authority's sake. 

As with scientific truth, where beliefs developed from "experience" are considered to be the worst level of evidence, deferring to "experience" or "years in the business" is not a reliable way to achieve the best decision in ethics. 

Nevertheless, a shortcut to not having to think through an ethical dilemma is to refer to what a common/shared authority has already said. From laws to policies, the following list serves as a relative weighting of authority on medical policy (in decreasing order) for American HCPs that may help a HCP determine a course of action.

• US law (statutory law, common laws, executive law)
• State law (same as above; potentially useful even from another state if one's state has no contradictory law)
• National policy issued for HCPs regardless of type (AMA/AOA policy)
• National policy issued for a specified type of HCP (board/society of practice or ACGME policy)
• Local policy issued for HCPs regardless of type (hospital policy)
• Local policy issued for a specified type of HCP (department or training program policy)

In a real ethical dilemma, if none of the authorities listed above provides what seems to be adequate guidance, then HCPs can turn to authorities from the Great Conversation. The Great Conversation refers to how voices of the past, like Aristotle and Hobbes, shared ideas that ring true across time and place and influence people of later generations, which includes practical matters affecting the health care of millions of people today. For example, Harry Blackmun (1908-1999), the justice writing the majority opinion in the 1973 Roe vs. Wade trial, justified his decision to all the world, not based primarily on prior American law, but based on the views of Aristotle, Plato, and Jewish and Christian non-scriptural/post-scriptural writers. Further demonstration that law is not always the highest authority in medical ethics: the ACP code of ethics committee, which attorney chairs, states, "Medical and professional ethics often establish positive duties (that is, what one should do) to a greater extent than the law."

Medical Ethics and Objectivity

On the one hand, Aristotle stipulated that an all-encompassing system of ethics cannot be condensed to precise proofs that demonstrate that action holds true in every situation. On the other hand, he stated that some actions should never be taken (exemplifying objective ethics, discussed below). Returning to the comparison of applied ethics with the law, a functional ideal for both systems is that decisions derived from meta-ethics and normative ethics are made and enforced while maintaining impartiality for persons with one particular characteristic versus another as much as possible.

Ethics and Science

On the one hand, science can "improve" understanding and use of ethics. Some hypotheses and patterns in ethics can be studied using the scientific method. The dependent variable of persons' moral decisions can be assessed after exposing them to an independent variable in a randomized fashion. To a degree, persons' beliefs and behaviors can be quantified. Objectivity is a goal shared by science and ethics (discussed below).

On the other hand, "science" can be a hindrance to the original goal of ethics (i.e., to improve quality of life). Scientific advances causing problems with the quality of life is a common theme that science fiction movies use and that many laws and policies (such as those of the AMA) battle against. Setting aside the intent of science and contemplating the method of science only, the latter also may be of no aid. Sometimes the scientific method explains a cause and effect relationship, but often it does not and results in more questions than answers, similar to what can occur when mulling over an ethical dilemma. Applying the scientific method may not prove that one theory or course of action is superior to another. How a scientist develops and conducts an experiment is subjective and variable. How scientists interpret and apply facts varies. Much of the work passed off by persons labeled as "scientists" are observational (i.e., it does not apply the actual scientific method at all) or violates David Hume's (1711-1776) is/ought problem, which warns against laying out observations using descriptive terms and then concluding with unsubstantiated prescriptive terms.

Objective Ethics

So-called objective ethics (also called ethical absolutism but distinct from "objectivist ethics" or "ethical objectivism") is the attempt to create a set of ethical rules that (almost) always holds true. For an ethical behavior to be truly objective, it must depend neither on values nor beliefs but must depend entirely on reason (logic) and observable true statements. An observable true statement is one that can be shown to be true in the way the concept in the sentence "the sun is larger than the earth" can be shown to be true. Epistemology is the study of how a person can know something is true and is beyond this article's scope.

Ways to improve objectivity in medical ethics:

• no self-interest in the outcome (is impartial) or
• no knowledge of the actual outcome of the decision (similar to "blinding" in a blinded experiment).
• Alternatively (or additionally), address the issue as if the decision-maker is the one who would be the one experiencing the primary outcome of the decision. The "father of duty ethics," Immanuel Kant (1724-1804), used both of these tactics.
• Decide in such a way that the choice does apply or could apply to many circumstances/persons over many time points or instances. This approach is in contrast to a more subjective alternative, which applies a decision only to one or several circumstances/persons or over a few time points or instances. This concept is akin to using a mathematical algorithm designed to increase the odds of achieving the desired outcome over many instances at the possible sacrifice of achieving the desired outcome for a particular instance.
• Define a marker/point of reference to serve as an objective standard. An example from science is how a unit for measuring temperature was defined as the difference between the temperate of freezing and boiling water at sea level divided into 100 equal parts. Once such a standard is chosen, based upon that standard, a behavior could be considered right or wrong in (almost) any situation, often regardless of the behavior's consequences, and thus (almost) always be an obligation to carry out. 

These methods (among others) can be used to formulate laws. The more real-world variables included and the less like a vacuum or a controlled laboratory environment an ethical dilemma is, the less the actual outcome may resemble the expected outcome. For an ethical system to be practical, it must be able to address variables and specific situations without a de novo analysis each time. It must also prevent extreme variety in outcomes by clinicians reaching different conclusions in identical situations.

Though it is not possible that normative ethics can be completely objective in the real world, attempts at maximizing an objective strategy for ethics can still be made, in an attempt at defying Hume's theory of emotivism, which is that ethics claims by their nature derive from emotion and not from fact. 

Ethical Spectra and Biases

It is important when evaluating the stance of an authority to understand both its biases and if it has one, its primary objective standard (as defined above). For example, think about how differently HCPs of different specialties might approach fever workup and treatment due to not sharing a reference standard:

• Surgery: First line is to image to find something to lance and leave to open drainage
• Rheumatology: First line is to look for serum inflammatory markers and treat with steroids
• Infectious disease: First line is to obtain tissues for culture to allow treatment with a specific drug
• Interventional radiology: The first line is to image to find something to put a catheter in
• Primary care: The first line is to treat empirically with broad-spectrum antibiotics
• Organ specialty/hematology: The first line is to think about what non-infectious problems could cause fever in their tissue of choice

The AMA Code of ethics originators themselves can serve as an example of bias in ethics. The formation of the AMA occurred, at least in part to (1) prevent economic competition from "less qualified" medical practitioners and (2) to define the obligations of the public to physicians. The founders of the AMA maintained the bias of preventing racial minorities and women from practicing medicine.

Listed below are the spectra (biases) of the different major Conversationalists in ethics (not intended to be all-inclusive). Awareness of these standards/reference points can help a HCP perceive the variety of ethical views that he or she will encounter from patients, colleagues, and others.

Theories of Ethical Standards

• Egoism: Serve yourself first.
• Subjective relativism: Each person decides for oneself what interest to serve.
• Cultural relativism: Serve your society’s (or other social groups') expectations of you first.
• Utilitarianism: Serve the greatest good for the most people. Something is "good" if it is useful.
• Act: Focus on the ends.
• Rule: Focus on means.
• Virtue ethics: Follow a defined list of virtues.
• Duty/deontological ethics: Whether or not your intentions/motives are good, act out of duty to the most relevant authority.

Medical ethics has included each of the above standards to different degrees in different times and places. A detailed discussion of these examples is beyond the scope of this article.

HCPs practicing medical ethics, from its ancient historical roots (in Egypt, Mesopotamia, and Greece) through the present day, have always primarily adhered to ethics of deontology, i.e., duty or obligation. The number of included duties is not magical or sacred; it differs depending on the source. Thomas Beauchamp (1939-) and James Childress (1940-) emphasized four, preferring to call them "principles" instead of "duties:"

• Nonmaleficence: "Not carrying badness," potentially the earliest written emphasis on ethics, can be traced particularly to the Egyptians.
• Beneficence: "Carrying good" can be traced to all early civilizations
• Respect for patient autonomy: "Self-rule," particularly stressed by Immanuel Kant; in some regards can be traced to the Greeks
• Distributive justice: Equality of rights among all persons; Equality in rights arguably may be traced to Guan Zhong (c. 650 BCE); in Western culture, it can be traced to the Stoics in thought, to first-century Christians in spiritual worth, and Thomas Hobbes in social rights.

Bernard Gert (1934-2011), Charles Culver (1934-2015), and Danner Clouser (1930-2000) provide a critical alternative to Beauchamp and Childress, both on a philosophical and on a practical level but also make many similar conclusions. They emphasize 10 duties for physicians:

• Do not kill.
• Do not cause pain.
• Do not disable.
• Do not deprive of freedom.
• Do not deprive of pleasure.
• Do not deceive.
• Keep your promises.
• Do not cheat.
• Obey the law.
• Do your duty.

Not altering Beauchamp and Childress' duties per se but also hoping to improve upon the practicality of their analysis, Albert Jonsen (1931-), Mark Siegler (1941-), and William Winslade (1941-) identified four topics intrinsic to every clinical encounter for organizing and prioritizing facts of a particular case:

• Medical indications: Diagnosis, prognosis, treatment options, physical treatment goals
• Patient preferences: Including patient values
• Patient quality of life: As experienced and determined by the patient
• Contextual features: Family, law, culture, hospital policy, insurance companies, other financial issues, among others.

The ACP ethics code includes Beauchamp and Childress's four principles by name. The 2016 AMA code defends all four principles to varying degrees. It does not address non-maleficence and beneficence using those terms but advises physicians to behave to maximize patient benefits and minimize harm. As mentioned previously, it emphasizes beneficence: "The practice of medicine... arises from the imperative... to alleviate suffering." The section on organ procurement supports distributive justice. 

Although the AMA code shifted from using the language of “duties of physicians” in 1847 to “principles of medical ethics” in 1957, the code still implies that medical ethics are by nature shaped predominantly by duty (as opposed to by virtue or by utilitarianism).

Conflicts in Medical Ethics

Conflicts of interest in carrying out these duties are inherent to the profession and are the norm, not the exception. Conflict can occur between essentially any two ethical principles or duties. Numerous medical ethics texts explore these conflicts for a given clinical scenario, particularly conflicts between autonomy and beneficence, between distributive justice and beneficence, and between the "lesser of two evils" application of non-maleficence. The rest of this section will examine a much less commonly addressed conflict between beneficence and non-maleficence: not which is the lesser of two evils, but which is the greater good and which is more fundamental to the practice of medicine.

Beneficence is a Greater Good than and Primary to Non-Maleficence

Although non-maleficence serves as "out-of-bounds lines" in medicine, beneficence should remain cemented as the goal. This view directly opposes that of Gert, who argued that a physician has no moral obligation to be beneficent other than to meet whatever minimum duty of beneficence is required of the physician to keep his or her job. He argued that non-maleficence is morally obligatory but that beneficence of any kind is not.   Gert was a very rational thinker but was neither a HCP nor a student of medical history, never delving into what HCPs of the past said in the Great Conversation. Gert's view contradicts thousands of years of medical practice, the current AMA position, and many people's moral compass as directed by their spiritual/religious convictions (discussed below).

The 2016 AMA code of ethics' opening line (i.e., its version of "Four score and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on this continent a new nation..." or "When, in the course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bonds which have connected them with another...") is:

"The practice of medicine, and its embodiment in the clinical encounter between a patient and a physician, is fundamentally a moral activity that arises from the imperative to care for patients and to alleviate suffering." (AMA code 1.1.1).

The text continues in the same vein about putting patients' health above the physicians' needs. There is no mention of any notion pertaining to "do no harm" until Section 1.1.7, and the authors of chapter 1 never fully develop the idea of non-maleficence. That the primary purpose of doctoring is altruism is supported by the Hippocratic Oath, in which "I will use treatment to help the sick according to my ability and judgment" precedes a discussion of avoiding harm. The concept "first do no harm" dates to Auguste Francois Chomel (1788-1858).

The mainstream perspective of natural law theorists, psychologists, and the public is that humans normally are expected to exhibit some beneficence (altruism). The controversy in law, philosophy, and business are how to defend rationally the degree to which beneficence is required.

An attempt to create an objective formula for when some human attempt at beneficence should be expected is:

A person (or group of people) P has an obligation to perform an act of beneficence aB to some other person Op whenever:

• Op is at risk R of significant loss of or damage to some basic interest.
• aB is definitely necessary or likely necessary to prevent R.
• aB does not present a significant R to P. In other words, The expected benefit to Op outweighs the expected burden to P.

Contrary to Gert's assertion that such behavior is not morally rational, this kind of behavior is supported by moral teaching in the form of a command, e.g., the parable of the Good Samaritan (Luke 10:25-37)..."Go and do likewise."

The notion that business persons' economic motivation commonly trumps their altruism is testified, not only by anyone who has ever "been taken advantage of" or experienced a glaringly inadequate "quality of service" by a business but also in ethics philosophy literature. Adam Smith was Hume's successor and influenced the field of business ethics. Smith (1723-1790) argued that the well-being of persons depends on social cooperation but not on businesses' benevolence to customers and that it is nonsensical to expect businesses to show benevolence. However, William Nickels (1939-) and Kellie McElhaney (1966-) have provided contemporary arguments that "charity" and "social responsibility," both forms of beneficence, are usually good for business (i.e., financial gain and influence) in the long run (analogous to some observations supported by game theory). Bartlett reviewed cost-benefit analyses of patient education techniques in a variety of settings and concluded that certain techniques in educating patients result in cost savings on a systems level. [1]  However, many HCPs do not educate patients because they receive no direct financial reward. 

Persons like-minded to Gert believe that beneficence is nothing more than commendable. Some HCPs share this view or some version of it; their obligation is only to make some minimal effort to prevent harm but not even to attempt to relieve suffering. HCPs tend to exhibit this behavior/view as they evolve from their early days in medical training and obtain positions in which they are more concerned with money. Businesses and/or HCPs in authority that embrace the mantras of Smith and Gert not uncommonly go so far as directly to impede other HCPs from carrying out the very altruism that first inspired them to become HCPs.

Both the medical and military professions are also based on the ancient Greek virtue of "arete"- a commitment to excellence. Whereas the duty of the soldier is always foremost to protect his fellow soldiers, the duty of the HCP is always foremost to protect the patient. Persons who enter these professions often feel a "higher" calling to serve others that compels them to serve beyond meeting a minimum standard. Gert was married to his childhood sweetheart for over 50 years before being separated by death. Although a union of that sort can be achieved out of "duty," it usually requires and derives its meaning from another fundamental trait of humanity that can also be the driving force of a HCP's behavior: love (Greek "agape").

Gert convincingly argued that a person cannot impartially do good for all persons at all times. In this way, he unintentionally promoted distributive justice. Nevertheless, it is essentially unheard of to find a member of the Great Conversation, a statute of law, or an ethical code pertaining to the practice of medicine that argues that distributive justice dominates beneficence as a rule. Instead, the beneficence-justice dilemma is discussed only in the context of emergencies.

Unfortunately, Gert did not define how to carry out duty practically when there are opposing forces, specifically, a duty to the patient, to the nurse, to one's colleagues, to one's administrator, to one's medical student, and to one's risk manager. Codes of medical ethics indicate that the physician's duty to the patient supersedes the physician's duties to all others. Gert agreed that healthcare organization administrators should optimize physicians' time spent for beneficence while still meeting expectations of patients and policy requirements by using mid-level providers and/or assistants to, for example, reduce physician time spent on tasks not required for a physician to accomplish, such as patient education, data gathering, correspondence, procedure organization, and other logistics.

Proposed Hierarchy of Beneficence, Autonomy, Non-Maleficence, and Justice

Non-Emergency Setting

• Proceed to do what you believe good for the patient, assuming that the patient agrees there is not a better option (beneficence and respect for autonomy).
• If the patient does not agree that your plan is the best option, then stop (respect for autonomy).
• If you or someone else is contemplating that you proceed to act in a way that you know could harm the patient, then stop (non-maleficence). The exception to this is if 1) the intent of the action that could harm the patient is beneficence 2) the plan of action is the least threatening/most desirable means to an end available (beneficence), and 3) the patient agrees with the action after having informed consent (respect for autonomy). If these three conditions are met, then proceed.

Emergency Setting

Ration beneficence evenly among patients (distributive justice); otherwise, proceed as for non-emergency settings.

Although successfully performing each of these tasks to the satisfaction of every patient is impossible, the AMA states the physician must make a good-faith attempt.

Medical Ethics' Link to Theology and Religion

Whereas writings on morals extend historically to the Egyptians before 2000 BCE, approaches to normative ethics began to act independently from the field of theology only around the mid-1700s. In other words, only in the last 5% to 10% of history has the approach to the public dissemination of mainstream moral thought involved taking God out entirely of the equation; a similar mainstream approach in medical ethics dates to an even later time. The major Greek philosophers (Aristotle) and Hippocratic physicians believed in a higher power than humanity. The 1847 AMA code drafting committee chairperson Dr. John Bell (1796-1872) wrote that "medical ethics, as a branch of general ethics, must rest on the basis of religion..." Dr. George Wood (1797-1879), AMA president in 1853, advised every physician to have access to the AMA ethics code because "next to Holy Scripture and the grace of God, it would serve most effectually to guard him from evil."

In 2017, over 70% of Americans identified as belonging to an Abrahamic religion (Christianity, Islam, and Judaism). About 2% identified as belonging to one of the other two major world religions of Hinduism or Buddhism, and about 6% identified as atheist or agnostic. At least approximately 20% of American hospital beds remain in a religion-affiliated hospital.

None of the primary principles of medical ethics either began with or are unique to Abrahamic writers. The norm in the United States is now enforcement of moral principles by secular authorizing bodies (government, professional societies, places of business). Nevertheless, it is historically inaccurate and incomplete to neglect the influence of a belief in God on the establishment of these principles, as argued by Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900). An informed application of the imperatives that modern medical ethics codes prescribe cannot exclude concepts from monotheistic theology and theodicy when applied to many patients. American HCPs routinely encounter patients and family members who ascribe ethical authority to texts that they believe come with directives from God and often serve as their highest ethical authority.

• Clinical Significance

Aristotle envisioned ethics as a means for the improvement of human life in concert with the practice of medicine. He pointed out that without having a standard for knowing what the right reason is, a person cannot master ethics, just as a student of medicine cannot master medicine if the student can only say that the right treatment to administer is one that someone else told the student to administer but can name no standard other than this.

Medical ethics remains an evolving field. Its application using a system of principles with varying hierarchies is relatively recent. The first code of medical ethics was not written until after the inventions of antiseptic technique and the stethoscope and around the same time as the invention of general anesthetics. In 1980, the AMA reduced its code of ethics from its original four chapters extending for 20 pages to seven minimally elaborated principles. By this time, state legislatures and hospitals had taken over doctors' political agendas that were a significant part of the original concern of the AMA. Not yet had ethicists' reactions to the civil rights movement of the 1960s and 1970s and the medical technology revolution of the last half of the 20th century taken effect at the level of the AMA. In 1998, for the 150th anniversary of the original code, the AMA re-expanded the code to nine chapters over 150 pages. In 2016 the AMA further expanded the code to eleven chapters spanning over 200 pages.

Article IV of the 1980 AMA Code added the language of "patient rights:" 

"A physician shall respect the rights of patients, of colleagues, and of other health professionals."

The 2016 code expanded patient rights to a whole page. Patient rights are still not a national uniform doctrine [2] . The United States Congress proposed and then rejected the concept of making such a doctrine in 2002. It may still be an upcoming horizon that is crossed after following the lead of other countries or regional authorities.

Medical ethics continues to expand in terms of authorship and scope. By 2017, twelve journals indexed in PubMed that are devoted to medical ethics had reached a citation index factor of at least 1.0, such as The American Journal of Bioethics , BMC Medical Ethics , Journal of Medical Ethics , Bioethics , and The Hastings Center Report .

Primary research and review articles continue to discuss new concepts in the ethics of issues such as:

• Use of medical technology [3]
• Medical treatment of populations [4]
• Human reproduction [5]
• Mental health [6]
• Organ donation [7]
• Surrogate decision making [8]
• Suicide and assisted death [9]  and
• Limits in the extent of services of critical care medicine.  [10]

And as with Henry Beecher's reports in 1966  [11] [12] [13]  that marked a turning point in the United States' government's involvement in medical ethics, ethics applications in clinical trials also continue to evolve  [14] .

The field of medical ethics will continue to impact the fields of law (with new medical ethics-based laws passing yearly across the states) and science. In turn, these fields will continue to impact medical ethics. HCPs must not lose sight of changes that have occurred recently and that are yet occurring in order to practice medicine according to modern principles of medical ethics.

• Other Issues

Non-PubMed Indexed References In Order of Citation

• American Medical Association Council on Ethical and Judicial Affairs. AMA Code of Medical Ethics . Chicago, IL: American Medical Association; 2017. https://www.ama-assn.org/delivering-care/ama-code-medical-ethics. Accessed November 15, 2018.
• American Medical Association Council on Ethical and Judicial Affairs.  AMA Code of Medical Ethics . Chicago, IL: American Medical Association; 2019. https://www.ama-assn.org/about/publications-newsletters/code-medical-ethics-preface-preamble. Accessed November 6, 2020.
• American College of Physicians. ACP Ethics Manual 6th ed. https://www.acponline.org/clinical-information/ethics-and-professionalism/acp-ethics-manual-sixth-edition/acp-ethics-manual-sixth-edition. Accessed November 15, 2018.
• American Osteopathic Association. AOA code of ethics. https://osteopathic.org/about/leadership/aoa-governance-documents/code-of-ethics/. Accessed November 15, 2018.
• American Medical Association. https://www.ama-assn.org/delivering-care/ama-code-medical-ethics. Accessed November 15, 2018.
• American Medical Association. https://www.ama-assn.org/ama-publishes-updated-code-medical-ethics-contemporary-medicine. Accessed November 15, 2018.
• Aristotle. Politics . 1295a36.
• "Ethic." Merriam-Webster.com. Merriam-Webster, 2018. https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/ethic. Accessed November 15, 2018.
• Kraut R. Aristotle's Ethics. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy , 2018 edition. Zalta E. (ed.), https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2018/entries/aristotle-ethics/. Accessed November 15, 2018.
• Thomas Aquinas. Summa Theologiae . Part II-II, question 64, article 7.
• OCEBM Levels of Evidence Working Group*. “The Oxford Levels of Evidence 2”. Oxford Centre for Evidence-Based Medicine. https://www.cebm.net/index.aspx?o=5653. Accessed November 15, 2018.
• Thomas Hobbes. Leviathan . Part 2, chapters 17-31.
• Hutchins R. The great conversation: the substance of a liberal education. Encyclopædia Britannica. Chicago, IL; 1955.
• Roe v Wade, 410 U.S. 113 (1973).
• Aristotle. Nicomachean Ethics. I. III 1094b.
• David Hume. A Treatise on Human Nature. Book 3, part 1, section 1.
• Immanuel Kant. Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals . 4:428-9.
• Jonsen A. A Short History of Medical Ethics.  Oxford, England: Oxford University Press; 1999. ProQuest Ebook Central. Accessed November 15, 2018.
• Beauchamp T, Childress J. Principles of Medical Ethics . New York, NY: Oxford University Press; 1979.
• Gert B, Culver C, Clouser KD. Bioethics: A Return to Fundamentals . New York, NY: Oxford University Press; 1997.
• Jonsen A, Siegler M, Winslade W. Clinical Ethics . New York, NY: MacMillain; 1982.
• American Medical Association. Code of Ethics of the American Medical Association . Philadelphia, PA: Collins and Collins; 1848.
• American Medical Association. Principles of Medical Ethics. Appendix F. 1957:355–257. In: Baker RB ed. The American Medical Ethics Revolution . Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press; 1999.
• Gert B. Common Morality . New York, NY: Oxford University Press; 2004.
• Hooker W. Physician and Patient . New York, NY: Baker and Scribner; 1847: 219.
• David Hume. An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals. Section 4, part 1 .
• Adam Smith. Wealth of Nations . Book 1, chapter 2.
• Nickels W, McHugh J, McHugh S. Understanding Business , 11th Edition. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill; 2015.
• McElhaney K. Just Good Business: The Strategic Guide to Aligning Corporate Responsibility and Brand . Oakland, CA. Berrett-Koehler Publishers; 2008.
• Gert B. Bioethics: A Systematic Approach , 2nd Edition. Oxford University Press; 2006.
• Morenz S.  Egyptian Religion . Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press; 1973.
• Bell J. Introduction to the Code of Medical Ethics. In: Baker RB, Porter R, Porter R. (eds.), The Codification of Medical Morality, vol. 2. London, England: Kluwer Academic Publishers; 1995: 65-72.
• Wood G. Editorial [letter]. Transactions of the AMA (9); 1856: 61.
• Cox D, Jones RP.  America’s Changing Religious Identity, 2016 American Values Atlas . Public Religion Research Institute; 9 June 2017.
• Kaye J, Amiri B Melling L, Dalven J. Health Care Denied . American Civil Liberties Union; 2016.
• Nietzsche F. On the Genealogy of Morality: A Polemic . Leipzig, Germany: CG Naumann; 1887.
• Aristotle. Nicomachean Ethics . VI. I 1138b18–34.
• Beauchamp T. The Principle of Beneficence in Applied Ethics. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy , 2013 edition. Zalta E. (ed.), https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/principle-beneficence/. Accessed November 15, 2018.
• American Medical Association. Code of Medical Ethics. Chicago, IL: American Medical Association; 1980. 
• American Medical Association. AMA Code of Ethics . Chicago, IL: American Medical Association; 1997.
• Bipartisan Patient Protection Act. S.1052 (2002) .
• Enhancing Healthcare Team Outcomes

Familiarity with ethical principles is necessary to practice medicine safely. Given the lack of definitive ethical standards and premises, clinical teams often still face great challenges in achieving satisfactory solutions to ethical challenges for themselves, their patients, and other parties involved. Working together as an interprofessional team to provide the best patient care in an ethical manner will result in the best outcomes. [Level 5]

• Review Questions
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Disclosure: Michael Young declares no relevant financial relationships with ineligible companies.

Disclosure: Angela Wagner declares no relevant financial relationships with ineligible companies.

This book is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0) ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ ), which permits others to distribute the work, provided that the article is not altered or used commercially. You are not required to obtain permission to distribute this article, provided that you credit the author and journal.

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• Cases in Medical Ethics: Student-Led Discussions
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Cases in Medical Ethics

Student-led discussions.

A selection of medical ethics cases designed to help determine whether medicine is the correct calling for pre-medical students.

I was a Hackworth Fellow for the Markkula Center for Applied Ethics at Santa Clara University. I was also a pre-medical student, and am currently attending the Loyola University Chicago Stritch School of Medicine. During my senior year at Santa Clara, I led discussions on medical ethics with students interested in medicine. The purpose of these discussions was two-fold. First, they were created to help bring current ethical issues onto our campus. Second, they were intended to help students who were interested in a career in the health sciences determine whether or not medicine is their correct calling. Most of the discussions followed a simple format. One to two cases were formulated for the students to read. Then I presented the students with various questions related to some of the ethical issues contained in the situations described. The following cases are the ones that I presented to the groups. Each case also has a short history and summary of the ethical issues being reviewed. The questions I asked of the students are included as well. These cases and questions are public domain, and can be re-used or modified for educational purposes. I hope that you find them useful, and that they spawn the same thoughtful enjoyment in you as they did in me.

Note: The cases were not based on specific events. However, it is possible that they share similarities with actual events. These similarities were not intended.

Autonomy essentially means "self rule," and it is a patient's most basic right. As such, it is a health care worker's responsibility to respect the autonomy of her patients. However, at times this can be difficult because it can conflict with the paternalistic attitude of many health care professionals. The following two cases address patient autonomy. The first involves the rights of an individual to decide her own fate, even against her physicians' judgments. The second case involves the rights of a parent to care for her child in the manner that she sees fit.

A woman enters the emergency room with stomach pain. She undergoes a CT scan and is diagnosed with an abdominal aortic aneurysm, a weakening in the wall of the aorta which causes it to stretch and bulge (this is very similar to what led to John Ritter's death). The physicians inform her that the only way to fix the problem is surgically, and that the chances of survival are about 50/50. They also inform her that time is of the essence, and that should the aneurysm burst, she would be dead in a few short minutes. The woman is an erotic dancer; she worries that the surgery will leave a scar that will negatively affect her work; therefore, she refuses any surgical treatment. Even after much pressuring from the physicians, she adamantly refuses surgery. Feeling that the woman is not in her correct state of mind and knowing that time is of the essence, the surgeons decide to perform the procedure without consent. They anesthetize her and surgically repair the aneurysm. She survives, and sues the hospital for millions of dollars. Questions for Case 1:

Do you believe that the physician's actions can be justified in any way?

Is there anything else that they could have done?

Is it ever right to take away someone's autonomy? (Would a court order make the physicians' decisions ethical?)

What would you do if you were one of the health care workers?

You are a general practitioner and a mother comes into your office with her child who is complaining of flu-like symptoms. Upon entering the room, you ask the boy to remove his shirt and you notice a pattern of very distinct bruises on the boy's torso. You ask the mother where the bruises came from, and she tells you that they are from a procedure she performed on him known as "cao gio," which is also known as "coining." The procedure involves rubbing warm oils or gels on a person's skin with a coin or other flat metal object. The mother explains that cao gio is used to raise out bad blood, and improve circulation and healing. When you touch the boy's back with your stethoscope, he winces in pain from the bruises. You debate whether or not you should call Child Protective Services and report the mother.

Questions for Case 2:

Should we completely discount this treatment as useless, or could there be something gained from it?

When should a physician step in to stop a cultural practice? (If someone answers "when it harms the child" remind that person that there is some pain in many of our medical procedures, for example, having one's tonsils removed)

Should the physician be concerned about alienating the mother and other people of her ethnicity from modern medicine?

Do you think that the physician should report the mother?

Autonomy Part 2 Maintenance of patient autonomy is one of the major ethical focuses of physicians. Therefore, a second discussion was also held that focused primarily on patient autonomy. This discussion also took a superficial look at euthanasia. For this discussion, a 58 minute video, Dax's Case (produced by Unicorn Media, for Concern for Dying ; produced by Donald Pasquella, Keith Burton ; directed by Donald Pasquella New York : Filmmakers Library, c1984) was used. The video tells the story of Dax Cowart, a man who was severely burned by an accidental propane explosion. The burns disabled Dax, and the physicians forced treatment on him. Though he survived the treatment, he still argues that he should have been allowed to refuse it so that he could die. The video is very useful; however, the videos of Dax's burn treatments are very graphic and the video should be reviewed before it is shown to a group of students.

In the video, one of the physicians says that burn patients are incompetent to make decisions when they first enter the hospital because they are in such a great deal of pain. However, patients such as Dax can be in a great deal of pain for a very long time. In such cases, what should be done to determine competence, and when should this be done?

Do you think the fact that Dax could not see a future for himself should have been taken into account when determining his competency? Could this have clouded his judgment? (He thought that he would end up on the street corner selling pencils)

Do you think that the fact that Dax was going to recover, and had the possibility of living a happy life, made not treating Dax like suicide… or murder? What if he did not have this possibility?

After his recovery, Dax attempted suicide. Should the physicians have let him die? Is it ever correct for a doctor to allow a patient to kill himself?

Do you ever think that it is correct for a physician to break a competent patient's autonomy? If so, is this one of those cases?

Do you think that in this case, that the ends justified the means?

The word "euthanasia" draws its roots from Greek meaning "good death." As it is used in this discussion, it means "the act of ending the life of a person suffering from either a terminal illness, or an incurable disease." The AMA is against physicians assisting in euthanasia. There is currently only one state in the US that allows for euthanasia, and that is Oregon, where in 1997, the "Death With Dignity Act" went into effect. Euthanasia advocates stress that it should be allowed as an extension of a person's autonomy. Those who are against euthanasia often say that it can lead to the devaluation of human life, and to a slippery slope in which the old and disabled will be killed on the whims of healthy people. We examined one case and the Oregon law to view the ethics of euthanasia.

Case One: A woman was diagnosed with motor neurone disease (the same disease that Stephen Hawking has) 5 years ago. This is a condition that destroys motor nerves, making control of movement impossible, while the mind is virtually unaffected. People with motor neurone disease normally die within 4 years of diagnosis from suffocation due to the inability of the inspiratory muscles to contract. The woman's condition has steadily declined. She is not expected to live through the month, and is worried about the pain that she will face in her final hours. She asks her doctor to give her diamorphine for pain if she begins to suffocate or choke. This will lessen her pain, but it will also hasten her death. About a week later, she falls very ill, and is having trouble breathing.

Questions for Case 1:

Does she have a right to make this choice, especially in view of the fact that she will be dead in a short while (say six hours)? Is this choice an extension of her autonomy?

Is the short amount of time she has to live ethically relevant? Is there an ethical difference between her dying in 6 hours and dying in a week? What about a year, and how do you draw this distinction?

Is the right for a patient's self-determination powerful enough to create obligations on the part of others to aid her so that she can exercise her rights? She clearly cannot kill herself. She can't move, but should someone be FORCED to help her, or to find someone to help her?

Should the money used to care for this woman be taken into account when she is being helped? Do you think that legalizing euthanasia could create conflicts of interest for the patient/ or the doctor? Will people feel that they need to end their lives earlier to save money?

Ask each student: If you were the physician, what would you do? Note: if you would pass her off to another doctor knowing he or she would do it, does this free you from you ethical obligations?

Oregon's Death With Dignity Act: We discussed the following questions pertaining to the Death With Diginity Act.

Death With Dignity Questions:

Look at the requirements for the request. Do you see any problems with them? (The woman from case 1 would not qualify.)

Why would they put in these guidelines? Should they be there, if they keep a competent person like the woman above from living her autonomy? (Is it to protect the doctors so they will not have to GIVE the medication?)

Is there a moral difference between prescribing the drug and actually giving it to the patient? If not, why put in the rules?

Why do you think they wouldn't let a person who is terminally ill and in pain with possibly more than 6 months receive assistance in dying? Say someone is diagnosed with HIV?

Does the justification of euthanasia necessarily justify the assisted suicide of a healthy person?

Do you think a weakness of this law is the probability of patients being influenced by family members? (For example, for financial or other reasons?) Note: Approximately 60% of Oregonians in 2000 said (before they died) that they used the prescription at least in some part due to fear of being a burden on their family.

The AMA says that euthanasia is fundamentally incompatible with the physician's role as healer. What do you think about this statement? Why should a physician have to be the one who does this?

Assisted Reproduction:

This is a difficult subject because it involves reproductive issues. In our culture, reproductive liberty, the freedom to decide when and where to conceive a child is highly protected, and this can make these cases much more difficult.

Case 1: There are two types of surrogacy. One type involves a surrogate mother who uses her own egg and carries the baby for someone else. The other type is a "gestational surrogacy" in which the mother has no genetic tie to the child she carries. In the case presented, a gestational surrogate is used.

A woman, after a bout with uterine cancer had a hysterectomy (surgical removal of the uterus). Before, its removal, however, she had several eggs removed for possible fertilization in the future. Now married, the woman wishes to have a child with her husband. Obviously she cannot bear the child herself, so the couple utilizes a company to find a surrogate mother for them. The husband's sperm is used to fertilize one of the wife's eggs, and is implanted in the surrogate mother. The couple pays all of the woman's pregnancy-related expenses and an extra $18,000 as compensation for her surrogacy. After all expenses are taken into account the couple pays the woman approximately $31,000 and the agency approximately $5,000. Though the surrogate passed stringent mental testing to ensure she was competent to carry another couple's child, after carrying the pregnancy to term, the surrogate says that she has become too attached to "her" child to give it up to the couple. A legal battle ensues.

In the United States it is illegal to pay a person for non-replenishable organs. The fear is that money will influence the poor to harm their bodies for the benefit of the rich. Do you see a parallel between this case and this law? Can allowing surrogate mothers to be paid for their troubles allow poorer women to be oppressed?

Does paying the surrogate harm her and/or the child's dignity?

Is it selfish/conceited for this couple to want children of their own genetic make-up? If yes, does this change if you can "easily" have a child? (Note: Over 100,000 children in the U.S. are waiting to be adopted. However, most are older, have several siblings, or have special needs.)

On their website, the AMA says "that surrogacy contracts [when the surrogate uses her own egg], while permissible, should grant the birth mother the right to void the contract within a reasonable period of time after the birth of the child. If the contract is voided, custody of the child should be determined according to the child's best interests." Do you see any problems with this? (What's a reasonable time? In a way can you steal the surrogate's child?)

One of the main arguments against the use of surrogate mothers is that carrying and giving birth to a child is such an emotional event that it is impossible to determine if the surrogate will be able to give up the child. Though adults enter into the contract, the child could ultimately suffer if a long custody battle ensues (as it could in states where surrogacy contracts hold no legal value, such as Virginia). With the possibility of such battles, do you think it is acceptable for parents to use a surrogate mother?

Do you think that if the surrogate is awarded the baby, this could cause emotional harm to the child?

Who do you think should receive the child, and why?

A married couple wishes to have a child; however, the 32 year old mother knows that she is a carrier for Huntington's disease (HD). HD is a genetic disorder that begins showing signs at anywhere from 35-45 years of age. Its symptoms begin with slow loss of muscle control and end in loss of speech, large muscle spasms, disorientation and emotional outbursts. After 15-20 years of symptoms HD ends in death. HD is a dominant disorder which means that her child will have a 50% chance of contracting the disorder. Feeling that risking their baby's health would be irresponsible, the couple decides to use in vitro fertilization to fertilize several of the wife's eggs. Several eggs are harvested, and using special technology, only eggs that do not have the defective gene are kept to be fertilized. The physician then fertilizes a single egg, and transfers the embryo to the mother. Approximately 9 months later, the couple gives birth to a boy who does not carry the gene for the disorder.

Is this a case of eugenics? "Eugenics" is defined as "the hereditary improvement of the human race controlled by selective breeding" (dictionary.com)

Would it be acceptable for the parents to select for sex as well, or should they only select an embryo that does not have HD? How would this be different?

Is it ethical for this couple to have a baby when the mother could begin showings signs of HD when the baby is just a few years old?

With this technology possible, would it be ethical for this couple to have a child without genetically ensuring it would not have the disease? What if we did not have this technology, would it be ethical for a known carrier to have a child? (If not, how far should this carry? a carrier for cystic fibrosis ( which is recessive)? )

Weighing everything we have discussed, do you believe the couple acted ethically?

Response To Bio-Terrorism

The possibility of terrorists using biological weapons on the citizens of the United States has been a major topic in the press for the last several years. Smallpox has been speculated to be the perfect biological terror agent because of the potency of the virus, and because of the lack of herd immunity present in the US population. The following case presents a possible way in which the virus could be released in the population and a possible response. The questions following the case involve the ethics surrounding the government's response.

Smallpox Facts:

Smallpox initially has flu-like symptoms, which are recognizable 7-19 days after exposure. After 2-4 days of flu-like symptoms, the fever begins to decrease, and pox will form.

An infected person is contagious one day before the characteristic pox appear.

Approximately 30-50% of unvaccinated people exposed to smallpox will contract the disease.

The mortality rate for smallpox was approximately 20-40%.

The vaccine that was used was approximately 90% effective.

It is possible that if terrorists were to use the smallpox virus, that they would genetically modify it. If this were the case, then the vaccine may not prevent all of the disease symptoms for those vaccinated.

Facts gathered from: http://www.vbs.admin.ch/ls/e/current/fact_sheet/pocken/

Date: June 22, 2005. A 27-year-old man is brought into a New York City emergency room with a 101-degree fever, and what he believes is chickenpox (Varicella). After a brief examination, the 35-year-old physician is puzzled because the pox do not appear to be typical of the varicella-zoster virus. Worried, he calls in another physician for her opinion. She takes one look at the patient, determines he has small pox, and immediately orders him to be quarantined. She notifies the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and asks them what should be done. While doing background on the patient, he tells the physicians that he is a flight attendant and that he has flown to Orlando, FL, Los Angeles, CA, Chicago, IL, and Seattle, WA in the past few weeks while working. Though he is given excellent treatment, and had been in perfect health a few days earlier, the patient dies 7 hours after admittance to the hospital.

The CDC decides that mandatory small pox vaccines will be administered to all workers in the NYC hospital, and to all patients who were in the ER. His co-workers are all given mandatory vaccines as well, as are all people living in his apartment complex. They also ship stored quantities of the vaccine to all of the cities where the man had flown to for work. The vaccines are offered to citizens of these cities. Finally, all people, along with their families who had been on the man's flights in the weeks preceding the appearance of the disease are forced to receive the vaccine.

Questions: Note: The flight attendant was most likely given small pox by a bio terrorist who flew on his plane sometime during the past week/week and a half. The terrorist would have been contagious but would not have shown symptoms. Virtually every person the man came into contact with would have gotten the virus.

Is it ethical for the CDC to force people to get the vaccine?

An LA woman on the flight is religiously opposed to vaccines. Under California law she can normally refuse vaccines on religious or personal grounds. However, the government says she must receive the vaccine or face mandatory quarantine. What do you think of this?

Do you think that for more common diseases, for example measles, that it is ethical for the state to allow people to refuse vaccines (even for religious grounds)? What if their refusal can harm others who cannot have the vaccine, such as people who are immunocompromised like AIDS patients?

Is it ethical for someone to refuse the vaccine?

You had driven down to Los Angeles 5 days ago to visit a friend for the weekend. While in town, you visited many tourist attractions. You are worried and you try to get the vaccine, but are denied it because of limited resources. What do you think of this?

Citizens begin calling for the mandatory quarantining of people directly exposed to the victim, i.e those living in his apartment complex, those working in the ER, those who flew on the plane in the prior week. What do you think of this?

The smallpox vaccine, like many other vaccines (example: oral polio vaccine) can actually transmit the virus to others. In light of this, is it ethical for people to get the vaccine? (Note: they are vaccinating those who may not want to be vaccinated)

Today, should health care workers be allowed/forced to get the smallpox vaccine? What about non-health care worker citizens?

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Medical Ethics

The field of ethics studies principles of right and wrong. There is hardly an area in medicine that doesn't have an ethical aspect. For example, there are ethical issues relating to :

• End of life care : Should a patient receive nutrition ? What about advance directives and resuscitation orders?
• Abortion : When does life begin? Is it ethical to terminate a pregnancy with a birth defect?
• Genetic and prenatal testing: What happens if you are a carrier of a defect? What if testing shows that your unborn baby has a defect?
• Birth control : Should it be available to minors?
• Is it ethical to harvest embryonic stem cells to treat diseases?
• Organ donation : Must a relative donate an organ to a sick relative?
• Your personal health information: who has access to your records ?
• Patient rights : Do you have the right to refuse treatment?
• When you talk with your doctor , is it ethical for her to withhold information from you or your family?
• End of Life Care (AGS Health in Aging Foundation)

• Organ Transplantation (Hastings Center)
• Psychiatric Advance Directives: Getting Started (National Resource Center on Psychiatric Advance Directives)
• Use of Opiates to Manage Pain in the Seriously and Terminally Ill Patient (American Hospice Foundation)

Journal Articles References and abstracts from MEDLINE/PubMed (National Library of Medicine)

• Article: The medical licensing assessment will fall short of determining whether a...
• Article: Andrew Conway Ivy, MD: The Missouri Physician Who Coauthored the Nuremberg...
• Article: End-of-life in the operational functioning of public healthcare: ethical and legal...
• Medical Ethics -- see more articles

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Medical Ethics

Understand medical ethics with this simple guide to the four pillars of ethics and three ethical frameworks that apply to Medicine.

You Guide To Medical Ethics

• Understand the four pillars of medical ethics
• See how to apply them to ethical dilemmas
• Learn about other ethical concepts
• Get tips for discussing ethics at your interview

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Medical ethics: beneficence.

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You need to understand medical ethics and be ready to answer ethics questions or tackle MMI stations that focus on this topic. This guide outlines the four pillars of medical ethics and introduces three ethical frameworks that you should know about.

Ethics in Medicine

Medical ethics describes the moral principles by which a Doctor must conduct themselves. You need to understand the concept of medical ethics when you’re applying for Medical School, but you aren’t expected to be an expert.

It’s worth being aware that medical ethics is a changing ideal. Something that might have been considered ethical 30 years ago may not be today – and what we think is ethical right now may change in the future.

Why Is Medical Ethics Important?

Medical professionals frequently find themselves facing moral questions and ethical dilemmas in their line of work. Medical ethics provide a framework to help them make judgement calls which are morally sound and right for the patient in question.

It’s essential for aspiring Doctors to have a good moral compass and a solid grasp of medical ethics so they can consistently do what is best for their patients.

Four Pillars of Medical Ethics

The four pillars of medical ethics are:

• Beneficence (doing good)
• Non-maleficence (to do no harm)
• Autonomy (giving the patient the freedom to choose freely, where they are able)
• Justice (ensuring fairness)

These four principles represent a framework for analysing the best action to take in a given situation. To use this approach, you must consider whether your actions are in compliance with each of the four pillars.

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Example Ethical Dilemma

A good example of an ethical dilemma relating to Medicine is that of surgery.

Imagine that a patient has appendicitis and the surgeons believe that surgery is necessary. Technically, making an incision into the patient’s skin is causing “harm” to the patient; however, this is done with good intent as removing the inflamed appendix eliminates the risk of progression to rupture and peritonitis.

Surgery would be offered to the patient based on their clinical need and they will have the right to make an informed decision. The four principles would, therefore, support performing this surgery.

Medical Ethics Concept: Consequentialism

Consequentialism is an ethical ideology that states the morality of an action is dependent purely on its consequences. A simpler way to phrase this would be that the “ends justify the means”. If your action has an overall benefit, then it does not matter about the action itself.

Example: Your patient has a terminal illness and is not likely to survive the operation she is about to undertake. Just as she is about to be anaesthetised, she asks you: “Doctor, will I be okay?” A consequentialist ideology supports that lying in this circumstance is acceptable, even though lying itself is not a moral action.

Medical Ethics Concept: Utilitarianism

Utilitarianism says the best action is that one that brings about the best increase in utility (benefit). Utility is generally considered on a broad scale, often taking into consideration wider society and not just the patient in question. It’s a form of consequentialism.

Example: You have a sum of money to either fund a very expensive treatment for one patient with a rare disease or five patients with a very common and easy-to-treat disease. Utilitarian ethics dictates that treating the five patients is morally superior as a greater overall benefit is achieved.

Medical Ethics Concept: Deontology

Deontology is also known as “duty-based ethics”. This ideology states that the correct course of action is dependent on what your duties and obligations are. It means that the morality of an action is based on whether you followed the rules, rather than what the consequence of following them was.

This is in direct contrast with consequentialism.

Example: If your terminally ill patient asks if they’ll be ok after a surgery they’re unlikely to survive, a deontological approach would suggest you don’t lie to comfort them. That’s because according to this concept, lying isn’t morally acceptable because it’s our obligation not to lie – no matter the consequences.

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Generally speaking, consequentialism may be the most relevant guide to thinking about the broad aims of healthcare – and deontology-based guidance is the one most commonly seen in Medicine.

How To Develop Medical Ethics Knowledge

One of the best ways to develop your understanding of medical ethics is to practice analysing situations using ethical frameworks and ideologies. You can do this on your own, with a teacher, or with a fellow Medical School applicant who could give you their perspective and share ideas. Try to compare the outcomes given by different frameworks and consider the implications of this.

Make sure you stay up-to-date with the latest health news – and see how these ethical frameworks apply to what’s currently in the news.

Medical Ethics Examples

At Medical School interviews, medical ethics is a big part of the selection process. It’s highly likely that you’ll be asked ethics questions or face an MMI station designed to test your understanding of these concepts.

Some key medical ethics examples that you should be aware of for your interview are:

• The Charlie Gard and Alfie Evans cases
• Medicinal cannabis
• The handling of the COVID-19 pandemic
• Organ donation

When you answer ethics questions, you don’t have to list each of the four principles of ethics and outline these concepts – instead, pick a couple that are really relevant to show the interviewer that you’re aware of medical ethics in general.

And remember – you may not be expected to make decisions yet. The key thing to do in your interview is to show you understand the issues by discussing how the key ethical principles relate to the question. If the interviewer pushes you for an opinion, make sure you can back up what you choose with some ethical reasoning.

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Professional Ethics Topics

Explore compelling and relevant professional ethics topics for presentation. Elevate your discourse on ethical dilemmas, values, and responsibilities in the workplace.

Hey, fellow seekers of ethical wisdom and professional prowess! Get ready to dive headfirst into the captivating world of professional ethics topics – where the tango between integrity and career takes the center stage.

Whether you’re a savvy pro on a quest to fine-tune your moral compass or a student gearing up to wow the crowd with your presentation skills, hold on tight – because we’re about to unravel a tapestry of insights that’s as enlightening as it is entertaining.

In a world flooded with data and decisions, professional ethics isn’t just a rulebook; it’s your backstage pass to a thriving career. It’s what keeps you grounded, respected, and trusted in the hustle and bustle of your professional journey.

So, gear up for this exhilarating ride! We’re about to journey through the very foundations of ethical principles, and we’ll also tackle the real-world puzzles that professionals face, all while having a blast.

Ready to join the adventure? Grab your ethical compass and let’s navigate the exhilarating twists and turns of professional ethics topics, where learning meets excitement in the most fantastic way possible!

Understanding the Importance

Table of Contents

Alright, let’s talk about why professional ethics are like the secret sauce in the world of careers and businesses. You know, that thing that adds a dash of trust, a sprinkle of credibility, and a whole lot of “I want to work with them again” vibes. Strap in, because we’re about to uncover why understanding the importance of professional ethics is a game-changer.

Building Trust

Picture this: You’re working with someone new, whether it’s a client, a colleague, or a partner. What’s the first thing you’re secretly hoping for? Yep, it’s trust. Professional ethics are the trust-building foundation. When you stick to ethical standards, you’re basically saying, “Hey, you can count on me to do the right thing, even when no one’s watching.” And that trust? It’s worth its weight in gold.

2. Legal Compliance

Here’s the cool thing about professional ethics – they often hold hands with the law. While not every ethical rule is a legal one, many of them are. So, when you’re all about ethical behavior, you’re also playing it safe on the legal front. Double win, anyone?

3. Enhancing Reputation

Reputation is like your personal brand, and you want it to be top-notch, right? Enter professional ethics. When you rock those ethical standards, your reputation gets a serious boost. People start seeing you as the pro who doesn’t just talk the talk but walks the ethical walk. It’s like having a spotlight on you in a sea of professionals.

4. Fostering Client Confidence

If you’re in the business of helping clients – be it with legal advice, health care, or financial wizardry – client confidence is your holy grail. Think about it: Would you want someone who’s just “meh” on ethics handling your important matters? Nope. When you weave professional ethics into your game plan, you’re telling clients, “Hey, I’ve got your back, and I’ll do right by you.”

5. Navigating Ethical Dilemmas

Life loves throwing curveballs, and sometimes, they’re ethical ones. You know, those moments where you’re like, “Wait, what’s the right thing to do here?” Professional ethics are like your compass in these situations. They give you a roadmap to tackle those dilemmas head-on, without losing your integrity along the way.

6. Long-Term Success

Sure, quick wins are nice, but what about long-term success that stands the test of time? That’s where professional ethics shine. When you’re all about ethics, you’re not just in it for the short haul. You’re building relationships that last, gaining repeat business, and becoming the go-to pro that everyone recommends.

Hold onto your hats because we’re diving deeper into the world of professional ethics. We’re talking ethical frameworks, industry codes, and all the tricky ethical stuff professionals like you face. Armed with this knowledge, you’ll be a pro at making not just legally sound decisions, but downright ethically awesome ones too. Let’s roll!

professional ethics topics for presentation

Have a close look at professional ethics topics for presentation:-

Foundational Professional Ethics Topics

• Introduction to Professional Ethics
• The Importance of Ethical Conduct
• Historical Perspectives on Professional Ethics
• Ethical Theories and Frameworks
• Codes of Ethics
• Ethical Decision-Making Models
• Ethics and Personal Values
• Professional Ethics vs. Personal Ethics
• Ethical Leadership Traits
• Ethical Dilemmas in Everyday Life
• Ethical Decision-Making in a Global Context
• The Role of Moral Courage in Professional Ethics
• Ethical Responsibilities in Public Service
• Ethics in Journalism and Media
• The Ethics of Whistleblowing
• Ethical Considerations in Healthcare Administration
• Ethics in Scientific Research
• Ethics in Nonprofit Organizations
• Ethical Considerations in Marketing and Advertising
• Ethics in the Arts and Creative Industries

Industry-Specific Professional Ethics Topics

Medical ethics.

• Patient Confidentiality in Telemedicine
• Ethical Challenges in Organ Transplants
• Ethical Issues in Genetic Testing
• End-of-Life Care and Medical Ethics
• Healthcare Resource Allocation Ethics
• Ethical Considerations in Medical Research with Human Subjects
• Physician-Assisted Suicide and Ethical Debates
• Medical Ethics in Pandemic Response
• Ethical Implications of Artificial Organs
• Ethical Dilemmas in Clinical Trials

Legal Ethics

• Confidentiality and Attorney-Client Privilege
• Ethics in Criminal Defense
• Conflicts of Interest in Legal Practice
• Legal Ethics in Corporate Law
• Professional Responsibility in Courtroom Behavior
• Ethics in Alternative Dispute Resolution
• The Role of Ethics in Intellectual Property Law
• Ethics in Environmental Law
• Legal Ethics in Immigration Law
• Ethical Challenges in Cybersecurity Law

Business Ethics

• Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) Reporting
• Ethical Leadership in Business
• Ethical Decision-Making in Marketing
• Supply Chain Ethics
• Workplace Diversity and Inclusion Ethics
• Environmental Sustainability and Business Ethics
• Business Ethics in the Age of AI
• Ethical Considerations in Corporate Governance
• Ethical Issues in Product Development
• Whistleblowing Policies in Corporations

Ethics in Technology

• Ethical Considerations in Data Mining
• Bias and Fairness in AI Algorithms
• Ethical Hacking and Cybersecurity
• AI and Healthcare Ethics
• Ethical Implications of Autonomous Vehicles
• Ethics in Social Media Data Usage
• Privacy and Surveillance Ethics
• The Role of Ethics in Space Exploration
• Ethical Use of Biotechnology
• Transparency and Accountability in Tech Companies

Ethical Leadership

• Ethical Challenges in Leadership Transitions
• The Ethical Dimensions of Decision-Making
• Ethical Leadership in Nonprofit Organizations
• Ethical Leadership in Educational Institutions
• The Role of Empathy in Ethical Leadership
• Ethical Communication in Leadership
• Ethical Decision-Making in Crisis Management
• Ethical Considerations in Change Management
• The Ethics of Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) Leadership
• Gender and Diversity in Ethical Leadership

Ethical Challenges

• The Psychology of Ethical Decision-Making
• Ethical Dilemmas in the Age of Social Media
• Ethical Issues in Artificial Intelligence Development
• Ethical Challenges in Human Resources Management
• Ethical Considerations in Global Supply Chains
• Environmental Ethics and Corporate Sustainability
• The Ethics of Marketing to Children
• Ethical Implications of Emerging Technologies
• Ethical Leadership vs. Ethical Followership
• Ethical Implications of Workplace Automation

Ethical Training and Education

• Integrating Ethics into School Curricula
• Professional Ethics Workshops and Training
• Ethics in Leadership Development Programs
• Ethical Decision-Making Exercises
• The Role of Ethics in Lifelong Learning
• Ethics in Higher Education Accreditation
• The Impact of Ethical Education on Career Development
• Teaching Business Ethics in MBA Programs
• Ethical Training for Healthcare Professionals
• The Ethics of Online Education and E-Learning

These expanded categories offer a diverse range of professional ethics topics that can be explored in presentations, discussions, and research within various fields and industries.

What are some good ethics topics?

Have a close look at some of good ethics topics:-

AI’s Moral Maze

Dive into the fascinating world of Artificial Intelligence and its ethical quandaries, from self-driving car dilemmas to robot rights.

Pandemic Predicaments

Explore the ethical tightrope of healthcare decisions during global crises , such as resource allocation and vaccine distribution.

Planet or Profit

Engage in the debate over environmental ethics, asking whether sustainability should trump corporate profits and how to tackle climate change responsibly.

Digital Business Dilemmas

Uncover the ethical shadows in the digital realm, including data privacy, online marketing tactics, and the ethics of AI-driven decision-making.

Gene Editing and You

Delve into the ethical storm surrounding genetic engineering, from designer babies to curing diseases by rewriting our DNA.

Life and Death Debates

Navigate the complex ethical waters of healthcare, from end-of-life choices and assisted suicide to organ transplants and the right to refuse treatment.

AI as Doctors

Probe the ethical implications of AI in healthcare, where algorithms diagnose, treat, and care for patients, raising questions about trust and bias.

Human Clones, Real Questions

Contemplate the ethical frontiers of human cloning, exploring the possibilities, limits, and moral dilemmas.

Privacy Under Siege

Discuss the battle between personal privacy rights and the needs of national security in an age of constant surveillance and data collection.

Self-Driving Dilemmas

Take a ride into the ethical landscape of autonomous vehicles, where machines make life-or-death choices during accidents.

These engaging twists on ethical topics not only spark curiosity but also invite readers and listeners to dive into the ethical complexities of our modern world.

What is an example of a professional ethical issue?

Imagine you’re a financial advisor. You help people make smart investment choices to secure their future. But here’s the twist: What if you stand to make a pretty penny from recommending a specific investment option? That’s where the conflict of interest comes into play.

A conflict of interest arises when your personal interests clash with your professional duty. In this case, your duty is to provide the best financial advice for your clients. But if you’re tempted by a fat commission for pushing a certain investment, things get a bit murky.

On one hand, you want your clients to thrive financially. On the other hand, your wallet is whispering, “Hey, recommend that investment, and I’ll pad your bank account.” See the dilemma?

Now, picture this scenario across various professions: lawyers, doctors, journalists – you name it. Whenever personal gain butts heads with professional duty, you’re wading into the waters of a potential ethical issue.

Ethics guidelines and codes of conduct exist to help professionals navigate these tricky situations. They often require transparency – like letting your clients know about potential conflicts – and taking steps to put their interests front and center, even if it means passing up on personal gains.

So, the next time you hear “conflict of interest,” think of it as a tug of war between doing what’s right and what’s personally tempting – a true test of professional integrity.

What are the topics for ethics and human values?

Have a close look at the topics for ethics and human values.

Ethical Dilemmas in Pop Culture

Ever thought about the tough choices characters make in your favorite movies or TV shows? Let’s discuss the moral dilemmas faced by superheroes, antiheroes, and beloved characters.

Would You Push the Button?

Imagine a train headed for disaster, and you have the power to divert it, but it would mean sacrificing something or someone else. This classic ethical dilemma, the trolley problem, sparks lively debates.

Your Right to Choose: When it comes to end-of-life decisions, should individuals have the right to choose how and when they pass away? This topic raises profound questions about autonomy and compassion.

The Price of Fashion

Ethical fashion explores the impact of your clothing choices, from fair labor practices to sustainability. Can you look stylish while supporting ethical brands?

The Power of Persuasion

Ethical marketing isn’t just about selling products; it’s about selling ideas. Explore the ethics of advertising, from emotional manipulation to truth in advertising.

Breaking Bad in Healthcare

From organ trafficking to medical experimentation, some real-life medical stories blur the line between healing and harm. What’s the ethical prescription?

Leadership Beyond the Boardroom

Ethical leaders aren’t just in the corner office. They guide teams, communities, and nations. What traits define an ethical leader, and how do they navigate complex moral terrain?

The Gene Editing Frontier

CRISPR technology allows us to edit genes. But where’s the line between curing genetic diseases and designing “perfect” babies? Ethics meets science fiction.

Tech Titans and Ethical Responsibility

The giants of the tech industry shape our digital lives. But what happens when their power clashes with ethical responsibility? We’ll dissect the ethical side of Silicon Valley.

The Ethics of Giving

Explore the ethics of philanthropy, charitable giving, and the responsibility of those with means to make the world a better place.

These engaging ethical topics touch on everyday dilemmas, thought-provoking scenarios, and complex moral questions that we encounter in our lives and the world around us. Let’s delve into these discussions with enthusiasm and curiosity!

What are some ethical issues in today’s society?

Absolutely, let’s dive into some of the most gripping ethical issues buzzing in today’s society:

Privacy vs. Data Goldmine

In a world where our every click is tracked, the ethical dilemma of balancing our right to privacy with data-hungry corporations and governments sparks heated debates.

AI Bias and Fairness

Imagine AI making life-altering decisions, yet it inherits biases from its creators. This raises ethical eyebrows on fairness, especially in areas like hiring and lending.

Fake News Frenzy

The explosive spread of misinformation on social media leaves us questioning the ethical responsibilities of platforms and our role in curbing the chaos.

Climate Change Crunch

Ethical alarms ring as we confront the dire consequences of climate change. Balancing our carbon footprint with the planet’s survival is a moral imperative.

Social Justice Shake-Up

The battle against systemic racism, income inequality, and discrimination forces us to reevaluate our ethical stance on justice, equity, and human rights.

Digital Health Data Dilemma

Health apps and wearables promise insights, but the ethical quandary lies in who controls our health data and how it’s used.

End-of-Life Crossroads

The right to die with dignity collides with cultural, religious, and medical ethics, leading to profound conversations on euthanasia and assisted suicide.

Gene Editing Quandary

CRISPR technology lets us edit genes, but the line between curing diseases and playing god sparks ethical debates.

Robot Right

As AI advances, questions arise about the rights of humanoid robots – are they property or autonomous beings with ethical considerations?

Mental Health Taboo

Breaking the stigma surrounding mental health demands ethical reflections on how we address, support, and advocate for those affected.

These captivating ethical topics remind us that our rapidly evolving world poses complex challenges that require both empathy and critical thinking to navigate. Let’s engage in discussions that shape our ethical compass and inspire positive change.

In wrapping up our journey through the world of professional ethics topics for presentation, it’s abundantly clear that these issues aren’t just dry subjects in a conference room; they’re the heartbeat of our professional lives.

We’ve delved into the tech-driven ethical puzzles of the 21st century, where artificial intelligence wrestles with bias, and privacy tiptoes on a razor’s edge. We’ve traversed the treacherous terrain of environmental ethics, where our planet’s health hinges on our moral choices.

We’ve probed the very soul of business ethics, where profit meets responsibility, and we’ve dared to contemplate the delicate matters of life and death in healthcare ethics.

As we conclude, it’s not just about closing a presentation but recognizing that professional ethics are the bedrock of trust, integrity, and progress in our society. They’re the compass that guides us through murky waters, ensuring our actions reflect the values we hold dear.

So, let’s remember that professional ethics aren’t just words on a screen; they’re the legacy we leave, the principles we uphold, and the beacon that lights our path to a better, fairer, and more ethical tomorrow.

Frequently Asked Questions

What is the significance of professional ethics in modern society.

Professional ethics underpin trust, legal compliance, and reputation, making them vital in today’s interconnected world.

Can professional ethics vary between industries?

Yes, professional ethics are shaped by industry-specific codes and practices, leading to variations.

What are the consequences of ignoring professional ethics?

Ignoring professional ethics can lead to legal trouble, reputational damage, and loss of trust.

How can individuals develop their ethical decision-making skills?

Developing ethical decision-making skills involves self-awareness, education, and practice.

Are there cases where ethical dilemmas have no clear solution?

Yes, ethical dilemmas often involve conflicting values, making it challenging to find a straightforward solution.

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World Medical Ethics Day

World medical ethics day presentation, free google slides theme and powerpoint template.

September 18 is World Medical Ethics Day, a date that pays tribute to the ethical principles by which health professionals are governed. If you want to join the celebration, take a look at this template with geometric shapes and blue background, the color par excellence of healthcare. Explain what this date consists of, what is the code of ethics that doctors promise and how to celebrate this important day.

Features of this template

• 100% editable and easy to modify
• 35 different slides to impress your audience
• Contains easy-to-edit graphics such as graphs, maps, tables, timelines and mockups
• Includes 500+ icons and Flaticon’s extension for customizing your slides
• Designed to be used in Google Slides and Microsoft PowerPoint
• 16:9 widescreen format suitable for all types of screens
• Includes information about fonts, colors, and credits of the resources used

How can I use the template?

Am I free to use the templates?

How to attribute?

Attribution required If you are a free user, you must attribute Slidesgo by keeping the slide where the credits appear. How to attribute?

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