essay questions in mathematics

260 Interesting Math Topics for Essays & Research Papers

Mathematics is the science of numbers and shapes. Writing about it can give you a fresh perspective and help to clarify difficult concepts. You can even use mathematical writing as a tool in problem-solving.

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In this article, you will find plenty of interesting math topics. Besides, you will learn about branches of mathematics that you can choose from. And if the thought of letters and numbers makes your head swim, try our custom writing service . Our professionals will craft a paper for you in no time!

And now, let’s proceed to math essay topics and tips.

🔝 Top 10 Interesting Math Topics

✅ branches of mathematics, ✨ fun math topics.

• 🏫 Math Topics for High School
• 🎓 College Math Topics
• 🤔 Advanced Math
• 📚 Math Research
• ✏️ Math Education
• 💵 Business Math

🔍 References

• Number theory in everyday life.
• Logicist definitions of mathematics.
• Multivariable vs. vector calculus.
• 4 conditions of functional analysis.
• Random variable in probability theory.
• How is math used in cryptography?
• The purpose of homological algebra.
• Concave vs. convex in geometry.
• The philosophical problem of foundations.
• Is numerical analysis useful for machine learning?

What exactly is mathematics ? First and foremost, it is very old. Ancient Greeks and Persians were already utilizing mathematical tools. Nowadays, we consider it an interdisciplinary language.

Biologists, linguists, and sociologists alike use math in their work. And not only that, we all deal with it in our daily lives. For instance, it manifests in the measurement of time. We often need it to calculate how much our groceries cost and how much paint we need to buy to cover a wall.

Simply put, mathematics is a universal instrument for problem-solving. We can divide pure math into three branches: geometry, arithmetic, and algebra. Let’s take a closer look:

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• Geometry By studying geometry, we try to comprehend our physical surroundings. Geometric shapes can be simple, like a triangle. Or, they can form complicated figures, like a rhombicosidodecahedron.
• Arithmetic Arithmetic deals with numbers and simple operations: subtraction, addition, division, and multiplication.
• Algebra Algebra is used when the exact numbers are unclear. Instead, they are replaced with letters. Businesses often need algebra to predict their sales.

It’s true that most high school students don’t like math. However, that doesn’t mean it can’t be a fun and compelling subject. In the following section, you will find plenty of enthralling mathematical topics for your paper.

If you’re struggling to start working on your essay, we have some fun and cool math topics to offer. They will definitely engage you and make the writing process enjoyable. Besides, fun math topics can show everyone that even math can be entertaining or even a bit silly.

• The link between mathematics and art – analyzing the Golden Ratio in Renaissance-era paintings.
• An evaluation of Georg Cantor’s set theory.
• The best approaches to learning math facts and developing number sense.
• Different approaches to probability as explored through analyzing card tricks.
• Chess and checkers – the use of mathematics in recreational activities.
• The five types of math used in computer science .
• Real-life applications of the Pythagorean Theorem .
• A study of the different theories of mathematical logic .
• The use of game theory in social science.
• Mathematical definitions of infinity and how to measure it.
• What is the logic behind unsolvable math problems?
• An explanation of mean, mode, and median using classroom math grades.
• The properties and geometry of a Möbius strip.
• Using truth tables to present the logical validity of a propositional expression.
• The relationship between Pascal’s Triangle and The Binomial Theorem.
• The use of different number types: the history.
• The application of differential geometry in modern architecture.
• A mathematical approach to the solution of a Rubik’s Cube.
• Comparison of predictive and prescriptive statistical analyses.
• Explaining the iterations of the Koch snowflake.
• The importance of limits in calculus.
• Hexagons as the most balanced shape in the universe.
• The emergence of patterns in chaos theory.
• What were Euclid’s contributions to the field of mathematics?
• The difference between universal algebra and abstract algebra.

🏫 Math Essay Topics for High School

When writing a math paper, you want to demonstrate that you understand a concept. It can be helpful if you need to prepare for an exam. Choose a topic from this section and decide what you want to discuss.

• Explain what we need Pythagoras’ theorem for. 
• What is a hyperbola? 
• Describe the difference between algebra and arithmetic. 
• When is it unnecessary to use a calculator ? 
• Find a connection between math and the arts. 
• How do you solve a linear equation? 
• Discuss how to determine the probability of rolling two dice. 
• Is there a link between philosophy and math? 
• What types of math do you use in your everyday life? 
• What is the numerical data? 
• Explain how to use the binomial theorem. 
• What is the distributive property of multiplication? 
• Discuss the major concepts in ancient Egyptian mathematics . 
• Why do so many students dislike math? 
• Should math be required in school? 
• How do you do an equivalent transformation? 
• Why do we need imaginary numbers? 
• How can you calculate the slope of a curve? 
• What is the difference between sine, cosine, and tangent? 
• How do you define the cross product of two vectors? 
• What do we use differential equations for? 
• Investigate how to calculate the mean value. 
• Define linear growth. 
• Give examples of different number types. 
• How can you solve a matrix? 

🎓 College Math Topics for a Paper

Sometimes you need more than just formulas to explain a complex idea. That’s why knowing how to express yourself is crucial. It is especially true for college-level mathematics. Consider the following ideas for your next research project:

• What do we need n-dimensional spaces for?
• Explain how card counting works.
• Discuss the difference between a discrete and a continuous probability distribution .
• How does encryption work?
• Describe extremal problems in discrete geometry.
• What can make a math problem unsolvable?
• Examine the topology of a Möbius strip.

• What is K-theory?  
• Discuss the core problems of computational geometry. 
• Explain the use of set theory . 
• What do we need Boolean functions for? 
• Describe the main topological concepts in modern mathematics. 
• Investigate the properties of a rotation matrix. 
• Analyze the practical applications of game theory.  
• How can you solve a Rubik’s cube mathematically? 
• Explain the math behind the Koch snowflake. 
• Describe the paradox of Gabriel’s Horn. 
• How do fractals form? 
• Find a way to solve Sudoku using math. 
• Why is the Riemann hypothesis still unsolved? 
• Discuss the Millennium Prize Problems. 
• How can you divide complex numbers? 
• Analyze the degrees in polynomial functions. 
• What are the most important concepts in number theory? 
• Compare the different types of statistical methods . 

🤔 Advanced Topics in Math to Write a Paper on

Once you have passed the trials of basic math, you can move on to the advanced section. This area includes topology, combinatorics, logic, and computational mathematics. Check out the list below for enticing topics to write about:

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• What is an abelian group?
• Explain the orbit-stabilizer theorem.
• Discuss what makes the Burnside problem influential.
• What fundamental properties do holomorphic functions have?
• How does Cauchy’s integral theorem lead to Cauchy’s integral formula?
• How do the two Picard theorems relate to each other?
• When is a trigonometric series called a Fourier series?
• Give an example of an algorithm used for machine learning .
• Compare the different types of knapsack problems.
• What is the minimum overlap problem?
• Describe the Bernoulli scheme.
• Give a formal definition of the Chinese restaurant process.
• Discuss the logistic map in relation to chaos .
• What do we need the Feigenbaum constants for?
• Define a difference equation.
• Explain the uses of the Fibonacci sequence.
• What is an oblivious transfer?
• Compare the Riemann and the Ruelle zeta functions.
• How can you use elementary embeddings in model theory?
• Analyze the problem with the wholeness axiom and Kunen’s inconsistency theorem.
• How is Lie algebra used in physics ?
• Define various cases of algebraic cycles.
• Why do we need étale cohomology groups to calculate algebraic curves?
• What does non-Euclidean geometry consist of?
• How can two lines be ultraparallel?

📚 Math Research Topics for a Paper

Choosing the right topic is crucial for a successful research paper in math. It should be hard enough to be compelling, but not exceeding your level of competence. If possible, stick to your area of knowledge. This way your task will become more manageable. Here are some ideas:

• Write about the history of calculus.
• Why are unsolved math problems significant?
• Find reasons for the gender gap in math students.
• What are the toughest mathematical questions asked today?
• Examine the notion of operator spaces.
• How can we design a train schedule for a whole country?
• What makes a number big?

• How can infinities have various sizes?
• What is the best mathematical strategy to win a game of Go?
• Analyze natural occurrences of random walks in biology.
• Explain what kind of mathematics was used in ancient Persia.
• Discuss how the Iwasawa theory relates to modular forms.
• What role do prime numbers play in encryption ?
• How did the study of mathematics evolve?
• Investigate the different Tower of Hanoi solutions.
• Research Napier’s bones. How can you use them?
• What is the best mathematical way to find someone who is lost in a maze?
• Examine the Traveling Salesman Problem. Can you find a new strategy?
• Describe how barcodes function.
• Study some real-life examples of chaos theory. How do you define them mathematically?
• Compare the impact of various ground-breaking mathematical equations .
• Research the Seven Bridges of Königsberg. Relate the problem to the city of your choice.
• Discuss Fisher’s fundamental theorem of natural selection.
• How does quantum computing work?
• Pick an unsolved math problem and say what makes it so difficult.

✏️ Math Education Research Topics

For many teachers, the hardest part is to keep the students interested. When it comes to math, it can be especially challenging. It’s crucial to make complicated concepts easy to understand. That’s why we need research on math education.

• Compare traditional methods of teaching math with unconventional ones.
• How can you improve mathematical education in the U.S.?
• Describe ways of encouraging girls to pursue careers in STEM fields.
• Should computer programming be taught in high school?
• Define the goals of mathematics education .
• Research how to make math more accessible to students with learning disabilities .
• At what age should children begin to practice simple equations?
• Investigate the effectiveness of gamification in algebra classes.
• What do students gain from taking part in mathematics competitions?
• What are the benefits of moving away from standardized testing ?
• Describe the causes of “ math anxiety .” How can you overcome it?
• Explain the social and political relevance of mathematics education.
• Define the most significant issues in public school math teaching.
• What is the best way to get children interested in geometry?
• How can students hone their mathematical thinking outside the classroom?
• Discuss the benefits of using technology in math class.
• In what way does culture influence your mathematical education?
• Explore the history of teaching algebra .
• Compare math education in various countries.

• How does dyscalculia affect a student’s daily life?
• Into which school subjects can math be integrated?
• Has a mathematics degree increased in value over the last few years?
• What are the disadvantages of the Common Core Standards ?
• What are the advantages of following an integrated curriculum in math?
• Discuss the benefits of Mathcamp.

🧮 Algebra Topics for a Paper

The elegance of algebra stems from its simplicity. It gives us the ability to express complex problems in short equations. The world was changed forever when Einstein wrote down the simple formula E=mc². Now, if your algebra seminar requires you to write a paper, look no further! Here are some brilliant prompts:

• Give an example of an induction proof.
• What are F-algebras used for?
• What are number problems?
• Show the importance of abstract algebraic thinking .
• Investigate the peculiarities of Fermat’s last theorem.
• What are the essentials of Boolean algebra?
• Explore the relationship between algebra and geometry.
• Compare the differences between commutative and noncommutative algebra.
• Why is Brun’s constant relevant?
• How do you factor quadratics?
• Explain Descartes’ Rule of Signs.
• What is the quadratic formula?
• Compare the four types of sequences and define them.
• Explain how partial fractions work.
• What are logarithms used for?
• Describe the Gaussian elimination.
• What does Cramer’s rule state?
• Explore the difference between eigenvectors and eigenvalues.
• Analyze the Gram-Schmidt process in two dimensions.
• Explain what is meant by “range” and “domain” in algebra.
• What can you do with determinants?
• Learn about the origin of the distance formula.
• Find the best way to solve math word problems.
• Compare the relationships between different systems of equations.
• Explore how the Rubik’s cube relates to group theory .

📏 Geometry Topics for a Research Paper

Shapes and space are the two staples of geometry. Since its appearance in ancient times, it has evolved into a major field of study. Geometry’s most recent addition, topology, explores what happens to an object if you stretch, shrink, and fold it. Things can get pretty crazy from here! The following list contains 25 interesting geometry topics:

• What are the Archimedean solids? 
• Find real-life uses for a rhombicosidodecahedron. 
• What is studied in projective geometry? 
• Compare the most common types of transformations. 
• Explain how acute square triangulation works. 
• Discuss the Borromean ring configuration. 
• Investigate the solutions to Buffon’s needle problem. 
• What is unique about right triangles? 

• Describe the notion of Dirac manifolds.
• Compare the various relationships between lines.
• What is the Klein bottle?
• How does geometry translate into other disciplines, such as chemistry and physics?
• Explore Riemannian manifolds in Euclidean space.
• How can you prove the angle bisector theorem?
• Do a research on M.C. Escher’s use of geometry.
• Find applications for the golden ratio .
• Describe the importance of circles.
• Investigate what the ancient Greeks knew about geometry.
• What does congruency mean?
• Study the uses of Euler’s formula.
• How do CT scans relate to geometry?
• Why do we need n-dimensional vectors?
• How can you solve Heesch’s problem?
• What are hypercubes?
• Analyze the use of geometry in Picasso’s paintings.

➗ Calculus Topics to Write a Paper on

You can describe calculus as a more complicated algebra. It’s a study of change over time that provides useful insights into everyday problems. Applied calculus is required in a variety of fields such as sociology, engineering, or business. Consult this list of compelling topics on a calculus paper:

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• What are the differences between trigonometry, algebra, and calculus?
• Explain the concept of limits.
• Describe the standard formulas needed for derivatives.
• How can you find critical points in a graph?
• Evaluate the application of L’Hôpital’s rule.
• How do you define the area between curves?
• What is the foundation of calculus?

• How does multivariate calculus work?
• Discuss the use of Stokes’ theorem.
• What does Leibniz’s integral rule state?
• What is the Itô stochastic integral?
• Explore the influence of nonstandard analysis on probability theory.
• Research the origins of calculus.
• Who was Maria Gaetana Agnesi?
• Define a continuous function.
• What is the fundamental theorem of calculus?
• How do you calculate the Taylor series of a function?
• Discuss the ways to resolve Runge’s phenomenon.
• Explain the extreme value theorem.
• What do we need predicate calculus for?
• What are linear approximations?
• When does an integral become improper?
• Describe the Ratio and Root Tests.
• How does the method of rings work?
• Where do we apply calculus in real-life situations?

💵 Business Math Topics to Write About

You don’t have to own a company to appreciate business math. Its topics range from credits and loans to insurance, taxes, and investment. Even if you’re not a mathematician, you can use it to handle your finances. Sounds interesting? Then have a look at the following list:

• What are the essential skills needed for business math?
• How do you calculate interest rates?
• Compare business and consumer math.
• What is a discount factor?
• How do you know that an investment is reasonable?
• When does it make sense to pay a loan with another loan?
• Find useful financing techniques that everyone can use.
• How does critical path analysis work?
• Explain how loans work.
• Which areas of work utilize operations research?
• How do businesses use statistics?
• What is the economic lot scheduling problem?
• Compare the uses of different chart types.
• What causes a stock market crash?
• How can you calculate the net present value?
• Explore the history of revenue management .
• When do you use multi-period models?
• Explain the consequences of depreciation.
• Are annuities a good investment?
• Would the U.S. financially benefit from discontinuing the penny?
• What caused the United States housing crash in 2008?
• How do you calculate sales tax?
• Describe the notions of markups and markdowns.
• Investigate the math behind debt amortization.
• What is the difference between a loan and a mortgage?

With all these ideas, you are perfectly equipped for your next math paper. Good luck!

• What Is Calculus?: Southern State Community College
• What Is Mathematics?: Tennessee Tech University
• What Is Geometry?: University of Waterloo
• What Is Algebra?: BBC
• Ten Simple Rules for Mathematical Writing: Ohio State University
• Practical Algebra Lessons: Purplemath
• Topics in Geometry: Massachusetts Institute of Technology
• The Geometry Junkyard: All Topics: Donald Bren School of Information and Computer Sciences
• Calculus I: Lamar University
• Business Math for Financial Management: The Balance Small Business
• What Is Mathematics: Life Science
• What Is Mathematics Education?: University of California, Berkeley
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Essays About Math: Top 10 Examples and Writing Prompts 

Love it or hate it, an understanding of math is said to be crucial to success. So, if you are writing essays about math, read our top essay examples.  

Mathematics is the study of numbers, shapes, and space using reason and usually a special system of symbols and rules for organizing them . It can be used for a variety of purposes, from calculating a business’s profit to estimating the mass of a black hole. However, it can be considered “controversial” to an extent.

Most students adore math or regard it as their least favorite. No other core subject has the same infamy as math for generating passionate reactions both for and against it. It has applications in every field, whether basic operations or complex calculus problems. Knowing the basics of math is necessary to do any work properly. 

If you are writing essays about Math, we have compiled some essay examples for you to get started. 

1. Mathematics: Problem Solving and Ideal Math Classroom by Darlene Gregory 

2. math essay by prasanna, 3. short essay on the importance of mathematics by jay prakash.

• 4.  Math Anxiety by Elias Wong

5. Why Math Isn’t as Useless as We Think by Murtaza Ali

1. mathematics – do you love or hate it, 2. why do many people despise math, 3. how does math prepare you for the future, 4. is mathematics an essential skill, 5. mathematics in the modern world.

“The trait of the teacher that is being strict is we know that will really help the students to change. But it will give a stress and pressure to students and that is one of the causes why students begin to dislike math. As a student I want a teacher that is not so much strict and giving considerations to his students. A teacher that is not giving loads of things to do and must know how to understand the reasons of his students.”

Gregory discusses the reasons for most students’ hatred of math and how teachers handle the subject in class. She says that math teachers do not explain the topics well, give too much work, and demand nothing less than perfection. To her, the ideal math class would involve teachers being more considerate and giving less work. 

You might also be interested in our ordinal number explainer.

“Math is complicated to learn, and one needs to focus and concentrate more. Math is logical sometimes, and the logic needs to be derived out. Maths make our life easier and more straightforward. Math is considered to be challenging because it consists of many formulas that have to be learned, and many symbols and each symbol generally has its significance.”

In her essay, Prasanna gives readers a basic idea of what math is and its importance. She additionally lists down some of the many uses of mathematics in different career paths, namely managing finances, cooking, home modeling and construction, and traveling. Math may seem “useless” and “annoying” to many, but the essay gives readers a clear message: we need math to succeed. 

“In this modern age of Science and Technology, emphasis is given on Science such as Physics, Chemistry, Biology, Medicine and Engineering. Mathematics, which is a Science by any criterion, also is an efficient and necessary tool being employed by all these Sciences. As a matter of fact, all these Sciences progress only with the aid of Mathematics. So it is aptly remarked, ‘Mathematics is a Science of all Sciences and art of all arts.’”

As its title suggests, Prakash’s essay briefly explains why math is vital to human nature. As the world continues to advance and modernize, society emphasizes sciences such as medicine, chemistry, and physics. All sciences employ math; it cannot be studied without math. It also helps us better our reasoning skills and maximizes the human mind. It is not only necessary but beneficial to our everyday lives. 

4.   Math Anxiety by Elias Wong

“Math anxiety affects different not only students but also people in different ways. It’s important to be familiar with the thoughts you have about yourself and the situation when you encounter math. If you are aware of unrealistic or irrational thoughts you can work to replace those thoughts with more positive and realistic ones.”

Wong writes about the phenomenon known as “math anxiety.” This term is used to describe many people’s hatred or fear of math- they feel that they are incapable of doing it. This anxiety is caused mainly by students’ negative experiences in math class, which makes them believe they cannot do well. Wong explains that some people have brains geared towards math and others do not, but this should not stop people from trying to overcome their math anxiety. Through review and practice of basic mathematical skills, students can overcome them and even excel at math. 

“We see that math is not an obscure subject reserved for some pretentious intellectual nobility. Though we may not be aware of it, mathematics is embedded into many different aspects of our lives and our world — and by understanding it deeply, we may just gain a greater understanding of ourselves.”

Similar to some of the previous essays, Ali’s essay explains the importance of math. Interestingly, he tells a story of the life of a person name Kyle. He goes through the typical stages of life and enjoys typical human hobbies, including Rubik’s cube solving. Throughout this “Kyle’s” entire life, he performed the role of a mathematician in various ways. Ali explains that math is much more prevalent in our lives than we think, and by understanding it, we can better understand ourselves. 

Writing Prompts on Essays about Math

Math is a controversial subject that many people either passionately adore or despise. In this essay, reflect on your feelings towards math, and state your position on the topic. Then, give insights and reasons as to why you feel this way. Perhaps this subject comes easily to you, or perhaps it’s a subject that you find pretty challenging. For an insightful and compelling essay, you can include personal anecdotes to relate to your argument. 

It is well-known that many people despise math. In this essay, discuss why so many people do not enjoy maths and struggle with this subject in school. For a compelling essay, gather interview data and statistics to support your arguments. You could include different sections correlating to why people do not enjoy this subject.

In this essay, begin by reading articles and essays about the importance of studying math. Then, write about the different ways that having proficient math skills can help you later in life. Next, use real-life examples of where maths is necessary, such as banking, shopping, planning holidays, and more! For an engaging essay, use some anecdotes from your experiences of using math in your daily life.

Many people have said that math is essential for the future and that you shouldn’t take a math class for granted. However, many also say that only a basic understanding of math is essential; the rest depends on one’s career. Is it essential to learn calculus and trigonometry? Choose your position and back up your claim with evidence. 

Prasanna’s essay lists down just a few applications math has in our daily lives. For this essay, you can choose any activity, whether running, painting, or playing video games, and explain how math is used there. Then, write about mathematical concepts related to your chosen activity and explain how they are used. Finally, be sure to link it back to the importance of math, as this is essentially the topic around which your essay is based. 

If you are interested in learning more, check out our essay writing tips !

For help with your essays, check out our round-up of the best essay checkers

Martin is an avid writer specializing in editing and proofreading. He also enjoys literary analysis and writing about food and travel.

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Math Essay Ideas for Students: Exploring Mathematical Concepts

Are you a student who's been tasked with writing a math essay? Don't fret! While math may seem like an abstract and daunting subject, it's actually full of fascinating concepts waiting to be explored. In this article, we'll delve into some exciting math essay ideas that will not only pique your interest but also impress your teachers. So grab your pens and calculators, and let's dive into the world of mathematics!

• The Beauty of Fibonacci Sequence

Have you ever wondered why sunflowers, pinecones, and even galaxies exhibit a mesmerizing spiral pattern? It's all thanks to the Fibonacci sequence! Explore the origin, properties, and real-world applications of this remarkable mathematical sequence. Discuss how it manifests in nature, art, and even financial markets. Unveil the hidden beauty behind these numbers and show how they shape the world around us.

• The Mathematics of Music

Did you know that music and mathematics go hand in hand? Dive into the relationship between these two seemingly unrelated fields and develop your writing skills . Explore the connection between harmonics, frequencies, and mathematical ratios. Analyze how musical scales are constructed and why certain combinations of notes create pleasant melodies while others may sound dissonant. Explore the fascinating world where numbers and melodies intertwine.

• The Geometry of Architecture

Architects have been using mathematical principles for centuries to create awe-inspiring structures. Explore the geometric concepts that underpin iconic architectural designs. From the symmetry of the Parthenon to the intricate tessellations in Islamic art, mathematics plays a crucial role in creating visually stunning buildings. Discuss the mathematical principles architects employ and how they enhance the functionality and aesthetics of their designs.

• Fractals: Nature's Infinite Complexity

Step into the mesmerizing world of fractals, where infinite complexity arises from simple patterns. Did you know that the famous Mandelbrot set , a classic example of a fractal, has been studied extensively and generated using computers? In fact, it is estimated that the Mandelbrot set requires billions of calculations to generate just a single image! This showcases the computational power and mathematical precision involved in exploring the beauty of fractal geometry.

Explore the beauty and intricacy of fractal geometry, from the famous Mandelbrot set to the Sierpinski triangle. Discuss the self-similarity and infinite iteration that define fractals and how they can be found in natural phenomena such as coastlines, clouds, and even in the structure of our lungs. Examine how fractal mathematics is applied in computer graphics, art, and the study of chaotic systems. Let the captivating world of fractals unfold before your eyes.

• The Game Theory Revolution

Game theory isn't just about playing games; it's a powerful tool used in various fields, from economics to biology. Dive into the world of strategic decision-making and explore how game theory helps us understand human behavior and predict outcomes. Discuss in your essay classic games like The Prisoner's Dilemma and examine how mathematical models can shed light on complex social interactions. Explore the cutting-edge applications of game theory in diverse fields, such as cybersecurity and evolutionary biology. If you still have difficulties choosing an idea for a math essay, find a reliable expert online. Ask them to write me an essay or provide any other academic assistance with your math assignments.

• Chaos Theory and the Butterfly Effect

While writing an essay, explore the fascinating world of chaos theory and how small changes can lead to big consequences. Discuss the famous Butterfly Effect and how it exemplifies the sensitive dependence on initial conditions. Delve into the mathematical principles behind chaotic systems and their applications in weather forecasting, population dynamics, and cryptography. Unravel the hidden order within apparent randomness and showcase the far-reaching implications of chaos theory.

• The Mathematics Behind Cryptography

In an increasingly digital world, cryptography plays a vital role in ensuring secure communication and data protection. Did you know that the global cybersecurity market is projected to reach a staggering $248.26 billion by 2023? This statistic emphasizes the growing importance of cryptography in safeguarding sensitive information.

Explore the mathematical foundations of cryptography and how it allows for the creation of unbreakable codes and encryption algorithms. Discuss the concepts of prime numbers, modular arithmetic, and public-key cryptography. Delve into the fascinating history of cryptography, from ancient times to modern-day encryption methods. In your essay, highlight the importance of mathematics in safeguarding sensitive information and the ongoing challenges faced by cryptographers.

Writing a math essay doesn't have to be a daunting task. By choosing a captivating topic and exploring the various mathematical concepts, you can turn your essay into a fascinating journey of discovery. Whether you're uncovering the beauty of the Fibonacci sequence, exploring the mathematical underpinnings of music, or delving into the game theory revolution, there's a world of possibilities waiting to be explored. So embrace the power of mathematics and let your creativity shine through your words!

Remember, these are just a few math essay ideas to get you started. Feel free to explore other mathematical concepts that ignite your curiosity. The world of mathematics is vast, and each concept has its own unique story to tell. So go ahead, unleash your inner mathematician, and embark on an exciting journey through the captivating realm of mathematical ideas!

Tobi Columb, a math expert, is a dedicated educator and explorer. He is deeply fascinated by the infinite possibilities of mathematics. Tobi's mission is to equip his students with the tools needed to excel in the realm of numbers. He also advocates for the benefits of a gluten-free lifestyle for students and people of all ages. Join Tobi on his transformative journey of mathematical mastery and holistic well-being.

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Extended Essay: Group 5: Mathematics

• General Timeline
• Group 1: English Language and Literature
• Group 2: Language Acquisition
• Group 3: Individuals and Societies
• Group 4: Sciences
• Group 5: Mathematics
• Group 6: The Arts
• Interdisciplinary essays
• Brainstorming
• Pre-Writing
• Research Techniques
• The Research Question
• Paraphrasing, Summarising and Quotations
• Writing an EE Introduction
• Writing the main body of your EE
• Writing your EE Conclusion
• Six sub-categories for WSEE
• IB Interdisciplinary EE Assessment Guide
• Sources: Finding, Organising and Evaluating Them
• Conducting Interviews and Surveys
• Citing and Referencing
• Check-in Sessions
• First Formal Reflection
• Second Formal Reflection
• Final Reflection (Viva Voce)
• Researcher's Reflection Space (RRS) Examples
• Information for Supervisors
• How is the EE Graded?
• EE Online Resources
• Stavanger Public Library
• Exemplar Essays
• Extended Essay Presentations
• ISS High School Academic Honesty Policy

Mathematics

An extended essay (EE) in mathematics is intended for students who are writing on any topic that has a mathematical focus and it need not be confined to the theory of mathematics itself.

Essays in this group are divided into six categories:

• the applicability of mathematics to solve both real and abstract problems
• the beauty of mathematics—eg geometry or fractal theory
• the elegance of mathematics in the proving of theorems—eg number theory
• the history of mathematics: the origin and subsequent development of a branch of mathematics over a period of time, measured in tens, hundreds or thousands of years
• the effect of technology on mathematics:
• in forging links between different branches of mathematics,
• or in bringing about a new branch of mathematics, or causing a particular branch to flourish.

These are just some of the many different ways that mathematics can be enjoyable or useful, or, as in many cases, both.

For an Introduction in a Mathematics EE look HERE . 

Choice of topic

The EE may be written on any topic that has a mathematical focus and it need not be confined to the theory of mathematics itself.

Students may choose mathematical topics from fields such as engineering, the sciences or the social sciences, as well as from mathematics itself.

Statistical analyses of experimental results taken from other subject areas are also acceptable, provided that they focus on the modeling process and discuss the limitations of the results; such essays should not include extensive non-mathematical detail.

A topic selected from the history of mathematics may also be appropriate, provided that a clear line of mathematical development is demonstrated. Concentration on the lives of, or personal rivalries between, mathematicians would be irrelevant and would not score highly on the assessment criteria.

It should be noted that the assessment criteria give credit for the nature of the investigation and for the extent that reasoned arguments are applied to an appropriate research question.

Students should avoid choosing a topic that gives rise to a trivial research question or one that is not sufficiently focused to allow appropriate treatment within the requirements of the EE.

Students will normally be expected either to extend their knowledge beyond that encountered in the Diploma Programme mathematics course they are studying or to apply techniques used in their mathematics course to modeling in an appropriately chosen topic.

However, it is very important to remember that it is an essay that is being written, not a research paper for a journal of advanced mathematics, and no result, however impressive, should be quoted without evidence of the student’s real understanding of it.

Example and Treatment of Topic

Examples of topics

These examples are just for guidance. Students must ensure their choice of topic is focused (left-hand column) rather than broad (right-hand column

Treatment of the topic

Whatever the title of the EE, students must apply good mathematical practice that is relevant to the

chosen topic, including:

• data analysed using appropriate techniques

• arguments correctly reasoned

• situations modeled using correct methodology

• problems clearly stated and techniques at the correct level of sophistication applied to their solution.

Research methods

Students must be advised that mathematical research is a long-term and open-ended exploration of a set of related mathematical problems that are based on personal observations. 

The answers to these problems connect to and build upon each other over time.

Students’ research should be guided by analysis of primary and secondary sources.

A primary source for research in mathematics involves:

• data-gathering

• visualization

• abstraction

• conjecturing

• proof.

A secondary source of research refers to a comprehensive review of scholarly work, including books, journal articles or essays in an edited collection.

A literature review for mathematics might not be as extensive as in other subjects, but students are expected to demonstrate their knowledge and understanding of the mathematics they are using in the context of the broader discipline, for example how the mathematics they are using has been applied before, or in a different area to the one they are investigating.

Writing the essay

Throughout the EE students should communicate mathematically:

• describing their way of thinking

• writing definitions and conjectures

• using symbols, theorems, graphs and diagrams

• justifying their conclusions.

There must be sufficient explanation and commentary throughout the essay to ensure that the reader does not lose sight of its purpose in a mass of mathematical symbols, formulae and analysis.

The unique disciplines of mathematics must be respected throughout. Relevant graphs and diagrams are often important and should be incorporated in the body of the essay, not relegated to an appendix.

However, lengthy printouts, tables of results and computer programs should not be allowed to interrupt the development of the essay, and should appear separately as footnotes or in an appendix. Proofs of key results may be included, but proofs of standard results should be either omitted or, if they illustrate an important point, included in an appendix.

Examples of topics, research questions and suggested approaches

Once students have identified their topic and written their research question, they can decide how to

research their answer. They may find it helpful to write a statement outlining their broad approach. These

examples are for guidance only.

An important note on “double-dipping”

Students must ensure that their EE does not duplicate other work they are submitting for the Diploma Programme. For example, students are not permitted to repeat any of the mathematics in their IA in their EE, or vice versa.

The mathematics EE and internal assessment

An EE in mathematics is not an extension of the internal assessment (IA) task. Students must ensure that they understand the differences between the two.

• The EE is a more substantial piece of work that requires formal research
• The IA is an exploration of an idea in mathematics.

It is not appropriate for a student to choose the same topic for an EE as the IA. There would be too much danger of duplication and it must therefore be discouraged.

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25 Interesting Math Topics: How to Write a Good Math Essay

writing good math essay

Mathematics is a fascinating world of numbers, shapes, and patterns. 

Whether you are a student looking to grasp math concepts or someone who finds math intriguing, these topics will spark your curiosity and help you discover the beauty of mathematics straightforwardly and engagingly.

In this article, I will explore interesting math topics that make this subject not only understandable but also enjoyable.

Why Write About Mathematics

First, it helps demystify a subject that many find intimidating. By breaking down complex mathematical concepts into simple, understandable language, we can make math accessible to a wider audience, fostering greater understanding and appreciation.

Second, writing about mathematics allows us to showcase the practical applications of math in everyday life, from managing personal finances to solving real-world problems.

This helps readers recognize the relevance of math and its role in various fields and industries.

Additionally, writing about mathematics can inspire curiosity and a love for learning.

It encourages critical thinking and problem-solving skills, promoting intellectual growth and academic success.

Finally, mathematics is a universal language that transcends cultural and linguistic barriers.

After discussing math topics, we can connect with a global audience, fostering a sense of unity and collaboration in the pursuit of knowledge

 25 Interesting Math Topics to Write On

 Mathematics is a vast and intriguing field, offering a multitude of interesting topics to explore and write about.

Here are 25 such topics that promise to engage both math enthusiasts and those seeking a deeper understanding of this fascinating subject.

1. Fibonacci Sequence: Delve into the mesmerizing world of numbers with this sequence, where each number is the sum of the two preceding ones.

2. Golden Ratio: Explore the ubiquity of the golden ratio in art, architecture, and nature.

3. Prime Numbers: Investigate the mysterious properties of prime numbers and their role in cryptography.

4. Chaos Theory: Understand the unpredictability of chaotic systems and how small changes can lead to drastically different outcomes.

5. Game Theory: Examine the strategies and decision-making processes behind games and real-world situations.

6. Cryptography: Uncover the mathematical principles behind secure communication and encryption.

7. Fractals: Discover the self-replicating geometric patterns that occur in nature and mathematics.

8. Probability Theory: Dive into the world of uncertainty and randomness, where math helps us make informed predictions.

9. Number Theory: Explore the properties and relationships of integers, including divisibility and congruence.

10. Geometry of Art: Analyze how geometry and math principles influence art and design.

11. Topology: Study the properties of space that remain unchanged under continuous transformations, leading to the concept of “rubber-sheet geometry.”

12. Knot Theory: Investigate the mathematical study of knots and their applications in various fields.

13. Number Systems: Learn about different number bases, such as binary and hexadecimal, and their significance in computer science.

14. Graph Theory: Explore networks, relationships, and the mathematics of connections.

15. The Monty Hall Problem: Delight in this famous probability puzzle based on a game show scenario.

16. Calculus: Examine the principles of differentiation and integration that underlie a wide range of scientific and engineering applications.

17. The Riemann Hypothesis: Consider one of the most famous unsolved problems in mathematics involving the distribution of prime numbers.

18. Euler’s Identity: Marvel at the beauty of Euler’s equation, often described as the most elegant mathematical formula.

19. The Four-Color Theorem: Uncover the fascinating problem of coloring maps with only four colors without adjacent regions sharing the same color.

20. P vs. NP Problem: Delve into one of the most critical unsolved problems in computer science, addressing the efficiency of algorithms.

21. The Bridges of Konigsberg: Explore a classic problem in graph theory that inspired the development of topology.

22. The Birthday Paradox: Understand the surprising likelihood of shared birthdays in a group.

23. Non-Euclidean Geometry: Step into the world of geometries where Euclid’s parallel postulate doesn’t hold, leading to intriguing alternatives like hyperbolic and elliptic geometry.

24. Perfect Numbers: Learn about the properties of numbers that are the sum of their proper divisors.

25. Zero: The History of Nothing: Trace the historical and mathematical significance of the number zero and its role in the development of mathematics.

How to Write a Good Math Essay

Mathematics essays , though often perceived as daunting, can be a rewarding way to delve into the world of mathematical concepts, problem-solving, and critical thinking.

Whether you are a student assigned to write a math essay or someone who wants to explore math topics in-depth, this guide will provide you with the key steps to write a good math essay that is clear, concise, and engaging.

1. Understanding the Essay Prompt

Before you begin writing, it’s crucial to understand the essay prompt or question.

Analyze the specific topic, the scope of the essay, and any guidelines or requirements provided by your instructor.

Mostly, this initial step sets the direction for your essay and ensures you stay on topic.

2. Research and Gather Information

You need to gather relevant information and resources to write a strong math essay. This includes textbooks, academic papers, and reputable websites.

Make sure to cite your sources properly using a recognized citation style such as APA, MLA, or Chicago.

3. Structuring Your Math Essay

Start with a clear introduction that provides an overview of the topic and the main thesis or argument of your essay. This section should capture the reader’s attention and present a roadmap for what to expect.

The body of your essay is where you present your arguments, explanations, and evidence. Use clear subheadings to organize your ideas. Ensure that your arguments are logical and well-structured.

Begin by defining any important mathematical concepts or terms necessary to understand your topic.

Clearly state your main arguments or theorems. Please support them with evidence, equations, diagrams, or examples.

Explain the logical steps or mathematical reasoning behind your arguments. This can include proofs, derivations, or calculations.

Ensure your writing is clear and free from jargon that might confuse the reader. Explain complex ideas in a way that’s accessible to a broader audience.

Whenever applicable, include diagrams, graphs, or visual aids to illustrate your points. Visual representations can enhance the clarity of your essay.

Summarize your main arguments, restate your thesis, and offer a concise conclusion. Address the significance of your findings and the implications of your research or discussion.

4. Proofreading and Editing

Once you’ve written your math essay, take the time to proofread and edit it. Pay attention to grammar, spelling, punctuation, and the overall flow of your writing.

Ensure that your essay is well-organized and free from errors.

Consider seeking feedback from peers or an instructor to gain a fresh perspective.

5. Presentation and Formatting

A well-presented essay is more likely to engage the reader. Follow these formatting guidelines:

• Use a legible font (e.g., Times New Roman or Arial) in a standard size (12-point).
• Double-space your essay and include page numbers if required.
• Create a title page with your name, essay title, course information, and date.
• Use section headings and subheadings for clarity.
• Include a reference page to cite your sources appropriately.

6. Mathematical Notation and Symbols

Mathematics relies heavily on notation and symbols. Ensure that you use mathematical notation correctly and consistently.

If you introduce new symbols or terminology, define them clearly for the reader’s understanding.

7. Seek Clarification

If you encounter difficulties or ambiguities in your math essay, don’t hesitate to seek clarification from your instructor or peers.

Discussing complex mathematical concepts with others can help you refine your understanding and improve your essay.

8. Practice and Feedback

Writing math essays, like any skill, improves with practice. The more you write and receive feedback, the better you’ll become.

Take your time with initial challenges. Instead, view them as opportunities for growth and learning.

With dedication and attention to detail, you can craft a math essay that not only conveys your mathematical knowledge but also engages and informs your readers.

Josh Jasen or JJ as we fondly call him, is a senior academic editor at Grade Bees in charge of the writing department. When not managing complex essays and academic writing tasks, Josh is busy advising students on how to pass assignments. In his spare time, he loves playing football or walking with his dog around the park.

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Mathematics Extended Essay Topics for IB

Table of contents

• Writing Metier

Ever felt the exhilaration that comes with cracking a complex math problem? That’s the sheer beauty of mathematics – it’s a world where numbers dance, patterns emerge, and solutions await the keen observer. Felt that? Hah?

Now, imagine channeling that same enthusiasm and zest into your Math Extended essay. It might sound like a challenge, but isn’t that what we thrive on? With the right Math EE topic, you can showcase your mathematical prowess and leave an indelible mark on your IB evaluators following the general criteria. 

To help you with that, I’ve curated a list of Math extended essay ideas that span the spectrum from the accessible to the intricate. 

So, let’s begin.

IB Math extended essay ideas

These aren’t just topics; they’re gateways to exploration, understanding, and innovation. 

Ready to get started?

Easy-to-approach topics

For those looking for a gentler introduction to the Math Extended essay, below is a list of 10 engaging and manageable IB Math EE topic ideas, each with a research question and a brief description on how to approach it:

Patterns in Pascal’s Triangle

Research Question: 

How do patterns emerge in Pascal’s Triangle?

Description: 

Begin with the construction of Pascal’s Triangle, then delve into the exploration of its patterns, such as triangular numbers and the Fibonacci sequence.

Mathematics of Voting Systems

How do different voting systems weigh individual votes mathematically?

Introduce various voting systems, then analyze the mathematical principles behind each, discussing fairness and potential biases.

Geometry in Art

Research Question:  

How is geometry used to create visual appeal in art?

Explore various art pieces, highlighting the geometric principles employed, and discuss their impact on aesthetics.

The Math Behind Baking

How do ratios in baking recipes affect the final product?

Investigate the importance of maintaining specific ratios in baking recipes and experiment with variations to observe changes in outcomes.

Probability in Card Games

How does understanding probability enhance success in card games like Poker?

Delve into the rules of Poker and then analyze various hands and scenarios using probability principles.

Symmetry in Nature

How is symmetry exhibited in natural formations?

Explore the concept of symmetry mathematically and then identify and analyze its presence in various natural formations like leaves, flowers, and animals.

Mathematics of Music

How do mathematical patterns influence musical scales and rhythms?

Investigate the structure of musical scales, rhythms, and time signatures, highlighting the underlying mathematical patterns.

Simple Interest vs. Compound Interest

How do simple and compound interest methods impact savings over time?

Define both interest methods and then use mathematical modeling to compare their effects on savings over various periods.

The Golden Ratio in Architecture

How is the Golden Ratio applied in iconic architectural designs?

Introduce the concept of the Golden Ratio and then analyze its application in various famous architectural structures.

Mathematics of Juggling

How do mathematical patterns and sequences dictate juggling techniques?

Explore basic juggling techniques and patterns, analyzing the mathematical sequences that jugglers use to maintain rhythm and control.

Each of these topic ideas and RQs is approachable yet offers ample scope for exploration and analysis within the realm of mathematics.

Intermediate topics

For those seeking a bit more challenge without diving into the deep end, the topics below offer a balanced blend of complexity and accessibility.

Here’s a list of 10 average-difficulty IB Math Extended essay topics, each with a research question and a brief description of how to approach it:

Game Theory in Economics

How does game theory provide insights into competitive market behaviors?

Introduce game theory principles and use business world case studies to show strategic decision-making influenced by game theory.

Fractals and Nature

How do fractal patterns manifest in natural phenomena?

Description:  

Delve into the mathematical concept of fractals and explore their appearance in various natural settings, such as coastlines, mountains, and plants.

Mathematics of Population Growth Models

How do mathematical models accurately predict population growth in urban areas?

Introduce population growth models and use real urban area data to validate these models, discussing influencing factors.

Cryptography and Internet Security

How do modern cryptographic techniques ensure data security on the internet?

Explore the evolution of cryptography, focusing on modern techniques, and discuss their role in ensuring data security in online transactions.

Mathematical Modeling of Epidemics

How can mathematical models predict the spread of infectious diseases?

Introduce basic epidemiological models and analyze their effectiveness in predicting disease spread using real-world data.

Topology and Coffee Cups

How does topology explain the mathematical similarity between a coffee cup and a donut?

Dive into the basics of topology and use it to explain the often-cited comparison between coffee cups and donuts, emphasizing the concept of homeomorphism.

Chaos Theory and Weather Forecasting

How does chaos theory impact the accuracy of long-term weather forecasts?

Introduce chaos theory, then delve into its application in meteorology, discussing the challenges and limitations in predicting weather.

Mathematics Behind Neural Networks

How do mathematical algorithms drive the functioning of neural networks in artificial intelligence?

Explore the structure of neural networks and delve into the mathematical algorithms that enable their learning and functioning.

Optimization Problems in Logistics

How can mathematical optimization improve efficiency in supply chain logistics?

Investigate real-world logistics challenges and demonstrate how mathematical optimization techniques can offer solutions.

Number Theory in Modern Cryptography

How does advanced number theory underpin modern cryptographic techniques?

Delve into number theory concepts and their application in modern cryptographic methods, emphasizing their role in ensuring data security.

These topics and research questions offer a balanced blend of complexity and accessibility, making them suitable for students seeking a moderate challenge in their Math Extended essay.

Advanced topics (with potential for higher rewards)

For the brave hearts ready to dive deep, these topics are challenging but can yield impressive results when tackled effectively.

The list of 10 challenging IB Math Extended essay ideas, each with a research question and a brief description:

Navier–Stokes Existence and Smoothness

What are the mathematical implications of the unsolved Navier–Stokes existence and smoothness problem in fluid dynamics?

Delve deep into the Navier–Stokes equations, exploring their significance in fluid dynamics and the challenges surrounding their unsolved problems.

Riemann Hypothesis and Prime Numbers

How does the Riemann Hypothesis relate to the distribution of prime numbers?

Investigate the Riemann Hypothesis, its historical context, and its profound implications for the distribution of prime numbers.

Quantum Cryptography and Key Distribution

How does quantum cryptography enhance security in key distribution?

Explore the principles of quantum mechanics applied to cryptography, focusing on the advantages and challenges of quantum key distribution.

Elliptic Curves and Cryptography

How do elliptic curves underpin modern cryptographic techniques?

Dive into the mathematics of elliptic curves and their pivotal role in modern cryptographic algorithms.

Four Color Theorem and Graph Theory

How does the Four Color Theorem demonstrate the complexities of graph coloring?

Investigate the history and proof of the Four Color Theorem, discussing its implications and challenges in graph theory.

Complex Analysis in Quantum Mechanics

How does complex analysis influence the mathematical foundations of quantum mechanics?

Delve into the principles of complex analysis and explore their applications and significance in quantum mechanics.

Twin Prime Conjecture

What are the implications and challenges of the Twin Prime Conjecture in number theory?

Investigate the Twin Prime Conjecture, its history, and its significance in the realm of number theory.

Knot Theory and DNA Replication

How does knot theory provide insights into the process of DNA replication?

Explore the mathematical intricacies of knot theory and its applications in understanding the complexities of DNA replication.

Ergodic Theory and Thermodynamics

How does ergodic theory connect with the principles of statistical thermodynamics?

Dive deep into ergodic theory, exploring its foundational concepts and its connections to statistical thermodynamics.

Langlands Program and Number Theory

What is the Langlands Program, and how does it seek to unify different areas of mathematics?

Investigate the Langlands Program, its objectives, and its profound implications in unifying disparate areas of mathematics, particularly number theory.

These topics are undoubtedly challenging but can yield impressive results when tackled effectively. They offer a deep dive into complex mathematical concepts and theories, making them ideal for students aiming for the highest grades in their Math Extended essay.

Get extended essay help

Before continuing to the next block, I suggest our Math EE writing or editing services . Our company has been working with numerous IB students and helped them write custom IB extended essays.

Join a team of happy IB students who have followed the IB extended essay rubric and criteria and gained better results with Writing Metier and our Math assignments help !

Overused Math EE topics (proceed with caution)

While these topics are popular, they’ve been explored extensively. If you choose one, ensure you bring a fresh perspective:

• The Fibonacci Sequence in Nature.
• Pi and its Mysteries.
• The Monty Hall Problem.
• The Birthday Paradox.
• Exploring Pascal’s Triangle.
• The Mathematics of the Pyramids.
• The Tower of Hanoi Problem.
• Benford’s Law.
• The Four Color Theorem.
• The Mathematics of the Rubik’s Cube.

Keep in mind that selecting such a topic will require hard work to find a new custom angle of research and sometimes might not lead to higher grades .

In Conclusion

Alright, IB champs, that wraps up our curated selection of Math EE topics, each with its unique flavor and challenge. The topic is just the starting point. The real magic happens when you infuse it with your insights, analysis, and unique perspective. 

Mathematics isn’t just about numbers; it’s about stories and trips within the confines of equations and graphs. As you gear up to tackle your Extended essay, keep that passion alive, keep questioning, and most importantly, enjoy the process. 

Don’t forget to reserve extra space because it may take time to write an extended essay . And if you’re ever in doubt, remember that Writing Metier is here to guide you through every step of the process.

Free topic suggestions

Vasy kafidoff.

Vasyl Kafidoff is a co-founder and CEO at WritingMetier. He is interested in education and how modern technology makes it more accessible. He wants to bring awareness about new learning possibilities as an educational specialist. When Vasy is not working, he’s found behind a drum kit.

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She was more than a mathematician to the people she met and to the people she inspired. She even has managed to inspire people long after she has passed. Emmy Noether was born on March 23, 1882 in Bavaria Germany. Growing up she wanted to go to college but back then women weren’t allowed to … Read more

Bitopological Approximation Space with Application to Data Reduction in Multivalued Information Systems

Abstract: In this work we generalize Pawlak approximation space to bitopological approximation space. One binary relation can define two subbases of two topological spaces. Membership, equillity and inclusion relations using rough approximations are defined and studied in bitopological aapproximation space. Some new measures that measure the accuracy and the quality of approximations are defined and … Read more

Statistics overview

Statistics is a form of mathematical analysis that uses quantified models, representations and synopses for a given set of experimental data or real life studies. Statistical analysis involves the process of gathering and evaluating data and then summarizing the data into a mathematical form. Statistics is a term used to summarize a process that a … Read more

Numerical Weather Prediction

You turn on the television, and often the first channel that pops up is the weather. It’s going 24/7 with predictions that go from weekly all the way down to hourly, with conditions that go from humidity to temperature. But what goes on behind the scenes is heavily entrenched in mathematics– meteorology’s backbone is a … Read more

The Mathematics of Our Universe

Abstract In this report, we start by defining key aspects of classical Lagrangian mechanics including the principle of least action and how one can use this to derive the Euler-Lagrange equations. Momentum and Conservation laws shall also be introduced, deriving relations between position, momenta and the Lagrangian of a given system. Following this, we develop … Read more

Ideas for your next mathematics essay

Stuck for a title for your next essay? Here are some ideas to inspire you:

• The Mathematics of Music: Exploring the Relationship between Mathematics and Music – This essay would examine the connections between music and mathematics, including the use of mathematical concepts in musical composition and the study of the mathematics of sound.
• The Golden Ratio: A Mathematical and Aesthetic Marvel – This essay would discuss the concept of the golden ratio and its applications in art, architecture, and design. It would explore the beauty and symmetry of this mathematical principle.
• Mathematics in Sports: Analyzing the Numbers Behind Athletic Performance – This essay would explore the use of mathematics in sports, including the use of statistics and analytics to analyze athletic performance and predict outcomes.
• Chaos Theory: The Science of Nonlinear Systems – This essay would discuss the concept of chaos theory and its applications in various fields, such as meteorology, physics, and economics. It would explore the idea that small changes in initial conditions can have a significant impact on the final outcome of a system.
• The Mathematics of Cryptography: Securing Information in the Digital Age – This essay would examine the use of mathematics in cryptography, including the principles of encryption and decryption, and how these concepts are applied to secure information in the digital age.
• Fractals: The Beauty of Infinite Complexity – This essay would explore the concept of fractals and their applications in art, nature, and science. It would discuss the beauty and complexity of these repeating patterns found in nature and how they are used in various fields of study.
• Mathematical Models in Biology: Understanding the Complexities of Life – This essay would discuss the use of mathematical models in biology, including the modeling of population growth, the spread of disease, and the behavior of organisms. It would explore how these models help scientists understand the complex systems that make up living organisms.
• The Mathematics of Finance: Analyzing Investments and Markets – This essay would examine the use of mathematics in finance, including the principles of financial analysis, investments, and risk management. It would explore how mathematics is used to understand and predict market trends.
• Geometry in Art: The Intersection of Math and Creativity – This essay would discuss the use of geometry in art, including the use of shapes, patterns, and symmetry. It would explore how artists use mathematical concepts to create beautiful and compelling works of art.
• The History of Mathematics: From Ancient Times to Modern-Day Advances – This essay would trace the history of mathematics, from its origins in ancient civilizations to modern-day advancements in the field. It would explore the contributions of key mathematicians throughout history and the evolution of mathematical concepts and principles over time.

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SAT Essay Questions

We have a collection of the new SAT Essay Questions from March 2005 till the most recent test released by College Board.

October 2007

If you took the October 2007 SAT Reasoning Test, you would have been given one of the essay prompts below:

Think carefully about the issue presented in the following excerpt and the assignment below.

A person does not simply "receive" his or her identity. Identity is much more than the name or features one is born with. True identity is something people must create for themselves by making choices that are significant and that require a courageous commitment in the face of challenges. Identity means having ideas and values that one lives by.

Adapted from Thomas Merton, Contemplation in a World of Action

Assignment: Is identity something people are born with or given, or is it something people create for themselves? Plan and write an essay in which you develop your point of view on this issue. Support your position with reasoning and examples taken from your reading, studies, experience, or observations.

We value uniqueness and originality, but it seems that everywhere we turn, we are surrounded by ideas and things that are copies or even copies of copies. Writers, artists, and musicians seek new ideas for paintings, books, songs, and movies, but many sadly realize, "It's been done." The same is true for scientists, scholars, and businesspeople. Everyone wants to create something new, but at best we can hope only to repeat or imitate what has already been done.

Assignment: Can people ever be truly original? Plan and write an essay in which you develop your point of view on this issue. Support your position with reasoning and examples taken from your reading, studies, experience, or observations.

All people who have achieved greatness in something knew what they excelled at. These people identified the skills that made them special—good judgment, or courage, or a special artistic or literary talent—and focused on developing these skills. Yet most people achieve superiority in nothing because they fail to identify and develop their greatest attribute.

Adapted from Baltasar Gracián y Morales, The Art of Worldly Wisdom

Adapted from Stephen J. Carter, Integrity

Assignment: Do people achieve greatness only by finding out what they are especially good at and developing that attribute above all else? Plan and write an essay in which you develop your point of view on this issue. Support your position with reasoning and examples taken from your reading, studies, experience, or observations.

Having many admirers is one way to become a celebrity, but it is not the way to become a hero. Heroes are self-made. Yet in our daily lives we see no difference between "celebrities" and "heroes." For this reason, we deprive ourselves of real role models. We should admire heroes—people who are famous because they are great—but not celebrities—people who simply seem great because they are famous.

Adapted from Daniel Boorstin, The Image: A Guide to Pseudo-Events in America

Assignment: Should we admire heroes but not celebrities? Plan and write an essay in which you develop your point of view on this issue. Support your position with reasoning and examples taken from your reading, studies, experience, or observations.

More SAT essay prompts at SAT preparation.

We welcome your feedback, comments and questions about this site or page. Please submit your feedback or enquiries via our Feedback page.

Math Essay Examples and Topics

The importance of geometry in our daily life.

• Words: 1414

Leonardo Da Vinci and His Contribution to the Development of Mathematics

• Words: 1413

Statistics: Chi-Square Test and Regression Analysis

• Words: 1989

Mathematics: Discovered or Created?

Sofia kovalevskaya’s contributions to math, debate on mathematics: an art or a science.

• Words: 2719

Parabolas and Their Application in the Real Life

Reflection on statistics learning goals, problem solving process in mathematics, optimizing the cross section of a gutter, measurements’ standarts, history of algebra brief overview, the life and works of archimedes.

• Words: 2513

Spatial Modeling: Types, Pros and Cons

Oblique triangles in everyday life, mathematical analysis of the pyramid of the louvre.

• Words: 1523

Pizza Box Optimization: Packaging Problem

• Words: 1867

Arthur Cayley: Life, Career, and Achievements

Correlation.

• Words: 1036

Fourier Transform: The Behavior of the Image in the Frequency Domain

• Words: 2889

Pythagorean Theorem: History, Formula, and Proof

• Words: 1524

Pythagoras Theories

• Words: 1918

Statistics Abuse: How, Why, and When

• Words: 2836

t-Test Discussion

Correlation as a statistical analysis tool, the central limit theorem and its applications, mathematics – concept of multiplication.

• Words: 1161

Positive and negative association between variables

The discipline of criminal justice: the use of mathematics, the story “x number of possibilities” by joanna scott, math: factoring using the p-1 method, discrete probability distribution.

• Words: 1111

Calculus-Integration

• Words: 1074

The Use of Polynomials in the Real World

Statistically significant but not meaningful, a-level math aqa : specification.

• Words: 4304

Number Theory and Major Contributors to the Field

• Words: 1136

Fibonacci Sequence and Related Mathematical Concepts

• Words: 2144

Fundamental Theorem of Calculus in Modern World

Algebra in the real world and everyday life, qualitative research design and methods, implicit differentiation in the business sector, bouncing ball as an example of a conic section, roller coasters: mathematical simulation, the scientific method isn’t what it used to be.

• Words: 1100

Independent Samples t-test with SPSS

Symmetric & asymmetric algorithms, pierre de fermat: one of the most prominent mathematicians, mathematics and business relationship.

• Words: 2480

Linear Equations Comprehensive Study

History of pythagoras theorem.

• Words: 1370

Math Functions in Economics

• Words: 2443

Math Teachers’ Beliefs and Attitudes About the Use of Graphics Calculators

• Words: 13711

Real and Complex Numbers

Geometry, space, manipulative, and technology.

• Words: 2805

Charting a Career in Mathematics: From Teaching to Actuarial Practice

• Words: 1057

Navigating the Math Maze: A Strategic Policy Framework

• Words: 1226

Deduction in Ancient Greece and Egypt

Aspects of the mathematics problem solving.

• Words: 1154

The Life Accomplishments of John von Neumann

Report: tow tank statistical analysis.

• Words: 1409

Determining the Area of the Isosceles Triangles

Mathematical operations with positive and negative numbers.

• Words: 1460

Construction of Regular Polygons: Octagon

A random variable and binomial experiment, evaluating the effectiveness of an instructional design.

• Words: 1210

Determining the Strongest Predictors of Kappa Number in Kraft Pulp

The genesis of mathematics storytelling: god’s own, mathematical explorations: quantitative reasoning, multiple linear regression critique, importance of math during trip from us to japan, mathematics: problem-solving tasks, the spicp-ms approach: paraphrasing, articulation principle in solving algebra problems, using mathematics in trading metrics, math: a differential calculus lesson analysis, the formal mathematical language and its importance, using the weibull distribution to study failure intensity, the perfect square trinomial and the sum of cubes, a system of equations in a real-life problem, why casino always wins: a mathematician’s view, the pythagorean theorem and its application, finding a hypotenuse of an ipad pro tablet, functional mathematics implementation, the value of mathematics in antonsen’s ted talk, the pythagorean theorem and its origin, mathematical linear equations, the use of mathematics in advertisements, math: aspects of hiv modeling.

• Words: 1107

Order of Operations: Connecting to Real Life

Aspects of probability theory, researching of advanced forecasting methods, chapter 5 of weapons of math destruction by o’neil, the concept of coterminal angles, the exponential function in analytic algebra, sophie germain’s story of a woman mathematician, compound interest as mathematical fact.

• Words: 3827

A Real-World Linear Regression Model

• Words: 1400

Math: Compound Interest as a Future Problem

Mathematician john wilder tukey’s biography, dangers of false representation in mathematics.

• Words: 1438

Slope Desciption and Necessity

Thinking in terms of vectors in daily life, physiologically-structured population models and their ordinary differential equations reduction, mathematical biology: explaining population extinction, statistical and stochastic modeling applied to social processes.

• Words: 1666

Probability Theory: Descriptive Statistics

Mathematical and statistical investigation.

• Words: 1798

Math Assignment: Graph Visualization

Teaching math: number sense instruction.

• Words: 1191

Mathematical Models Addressing the COVID-19 Pandemic

“is-lm model” by dudley cooke, mathematical laws in the real world.

• Words: 1146

Mathematics: An Art or a Science

• Words: 1864

Geometry Web Quest for Soccer, Baseball, Basketball, Bowling, Golf, Volleyball and Pool

Mathematical and physical concepts, algebraic equations and graphical representations, mathematical knowledge power and benefits for adults, the concept of the derivative of a function.

• Words: 2257

Systems of Linear Equations – Cramer’s Rule

How to Choose an EE Topic (Mathematics)

The Extended Essay is undoubtedly one of the most feared components of the IB program. A 4,000 word research paper can, in fact, seem daunting to those who have only written 500-1000 word essays. Therefore, students should choose a topic that they can not only find sources for, but are also passionate about it.

Mathematics Extended Essays are rare — of the 87,519 Extended Essays submitted in the 2020 May Examination Session only 2,454 were done over Mathematics (2.8%) ( IB Statistical Bulletin 2020 ). Despite the rarity, I chose to write a Mathematics EE because maths is something that fascinates me. To many students, Mathematics EEs sound scary and barely consider writing one. There were many people that told me I was insane and that it was impossible. In the end, I put in the work to make it happen. 

I chose to write my paper on Game Theory and my research question was: “To what extent does Game Theory play a role in Modern Warfare?” 

I found this topic not unlike the way students writing History EEs find their own specific topics. Just as history has countless events in which one can write about, Mathematics is similar with its various branches. I chose a branch that interested me (Game Theory) and used it to solve a real-world problem (Modern Warfare). My economics teacher actually suggested this idea.  They said that, while Game Theory is primarily used in economics, it has numerous applications to maths when discussed alongside warfare. This qualified my essay as a Category 1 Mathematics Extended Essay, which is a paper that discusses “the applicability of mathematics to solve both real and abstract problems” (p. 96, IB Extended Essay Guide ). 

Writing the essay is where, I admit, it got challenging. During the process I had no peers to help me as only a few others had chosen a Mathematics EE, but none of their topics related to mine. Fortunately, my mentor was extremely helpful and I was able to find several books at my local university that were very useful.

Mathematics Extended Essays are bizarre in many ways as things such as word count, varied sentence structure, and high vocabulary do not matter. However, it should be noted that effective communication is key even if that’s done through mathematical expressions. Despite these challenges, I strongly believe that Mathematics EEs are doable, and more people would do them if there was not such a negative stigma about them. I encourage all future IB sessions to consider doing one as the feeling when you have finished is unlike any other. The pride and satisfaction I felt knowing that I took the path less travelled and still found success is something that I hope all future IB students will experience.

You may also like…

• Our Extended Essay series
• Tiffany’s tips for Mathematics HL

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260 Research Topics For Math Papers

Mathematics research topics span a range of categories that students are able to select. Some people think that doing research about math is boring. But math can be an amazing and exciting subject. Because mathematics is a language, universal mathematics can explain anything and anything, from galaxies that are orbiting each other to music.

But the vastness of this field of study also creates the task of selecting a research paper difficult. It's because students need to select topics that can convince teachers so that they can award them the highest marks. This article provides the top research paper topics for math. It's helpful because it encourages students to pick or choose subjects for their academic essays without much difficulty.

What Are The Different Types Of Math?

As you can see, mathematics is a broad subject that covers a range of disciplines. Here are the most common kinds of math:

• Geometry: It's a mathematical branch that deals with dimensions, shapes and positions of figures. Many consider geometry to be an appropriate math field due to the fact that it examines figures' sizes, shapes and the characteristics of different objects, such as solids, lines and surfaces, lines, angles, and solids.
• Algebra is helpful in solving problems and manipulating symbols. This branch assists students in representing the unknown with letters and applying them to numbers.
• Calculus, The area of calculus is essential in determining rates of change, including acceleration and velocity.
• Arithmetic: Arithmetic is the most popular and oldest maths discipline, which covers base operations with numbers. These include subtraction, divisions, additions multiplications, and some schools even shorten it to BODMAS.
• Statistics and Probability assist analyze numerical data in order to create predictions. Probability is about chance, while statistics is about managing different types of data by employing various methods.
• Trigonometry is a method of measuring the angles of angles and also distances between two points. It mostly deals with triangles' relationship to sides, angles, and curves.

Fun Math Topics

If you're struggling to begin creating your essay, here is an array of fun and interesting math-related topics for you to consider. They'll definitely keep you engaged and make writing enjoyable. Additionally, engaging math topics can demonstrate to everyone that math can be fun and even humorous.

• The relationship between art and mathematics - studying the Golden Ratio in Renaissance-era paintings.
• A review of the set theory developed by Georg Cantor.
• The best methods to learn math concepts and develop the ability to recognize numbers.
• Different ways to think about probability are examined through the analysis of card tricks.
• Chess and checkers use math in leisure activities.
• In computer science, there are five distinct forms of math.
• Practical applications to The Pythagorean Theorem.
• An examination of the various mathematical logic theories.
• Game theory is a key concept within social sciences.
• Mathematical definitions of the concept of infinity and the best way to quantify it.
• What's the rationale behind math problems that cannot be solved?
• A description of median, mean media, mode and mean using maths grades in the classroom.
• The geometry and properties of geometry and properties of a Mobius strip.
• Utilizing truth tables to demonstrate the logic behind the propositional phrase.
• The relation to Pascal's Triangle as well as The Binomial Theorem.
• The use of various numbers: the history.
• The use of differential geometry in contemporary architecture.
• A mathematical method to solve the problem of the Rubik's Cube.
• Comparative analysis of prescriptive and predictive statistical analysis.
• The explanation of the various iterations that comprise the Koch snowflake.
• The significance of calculation limits.
• Hexagons are the most balanced form throughout the world.
• The development of chaos theories' patterns.
• What were the contributions of Euclid to mathematics?
• The differences between abstract and universal algebra.

Math Essay Topics for High School

When you write a paper on math in order to prove that you are able to comprehend the concept, this can be beneficial in the event that you have to prepare for an examination. Pick a topic from this section and choose the topics you'd like to talk about.

• Define what we require in Pythagoras' theorem.
• What is hyperbola?
• Define the distinction between the two.
• What is the best time to make use of a calculator?
• Make connections with maths and arts.
• How can you solve the linear equation?
• Discuss the best way to calculate the probabilities that two dice will be rolled.
• Do you see a connection between math and philosophy?
• What maths do you employ in your daily routine?
• What is numeric data?
• Define how to use the binomial theory.
• What is the property of multiplication that is distributive?
• Explore the key concepts in ancient Egyptian mathematics.
• Why do so many students loathe math?
• Should mathematics be required in school?
• How do you do an equivalent transformation?
• Why do we require imaginary numbers?
• How do you determine the slope of an arc?
• What's the distinction between cosine, sine and the term tangent?
• What is the cross-product of two vectors?
• What are we using differential equations to solve?
• Find out ways to determine the value of the mean.
• Define linear growth.
• Give examples of various kinds of numbers.
• How do you find a solution to the problem of a matrix?

College Math Topics for a Paper

Sometimes you require more than just formulas and formulas to communicate a complex concept. Knowing how to present yourself is so important. This is especially important in college-level math.

• What are we looking for to use n-dimensional spaces?
• Define how counting cards is done.
• Define the difference between a discrete as well as a continuous distribution of probability.
• What is the function of encryption?
• Describe extremal problems in discrete geometry.
• What is the reason that makes the math problem insolvable?
• Study the topology of a Mobius strip.
• What is K-theory?
• Examine the fundamental issues of computational geometry.
• Discuss the application of set theory.
• What are we looking for in Boolean functions?
• Discuss the major topological concepts of modern math.
• Study what properties are inherent in a rotating matrix.
• Examine the practical applications of game theory.
• How do you solve a Rubik's Cube mathematically?
• Discuss the mathematics that lies behind the Koch snowflake.
• Define the paradox of Gabriel's Horn.
• How do fractals develop?
• Find a solution to Sudoku by using math.
• What is the reason why the Riemann hypothesis is not solved?
• Discuss the Millennium Prize Problems.
• How do you split complicated numbers?
• Examine the degree of polynomial functions.
• What are the most significant concepts of number theory?
• Examine the various types of statistical techniques.

Mathematical Advanced Topics to Write a Paper

If you've successfully completed the tests of basic math, then you are able to move on to the advanced portion. This is where you will find topology, combinatorics and mathematical logic , and computational math.

• What is an abelian group?
• Define the orbit-stabilizer theorem.
• Discuss the factors that make the Burnside issue significant.
• What are the fundamental characteristics that Holomorphic functions have?
• What is Cauchy's integral theorem? Result in the integral formula of Cauchy?
• What do the two Picard theorems connect to each with each
• What is known as one of the Fourier series?
• Give an example of an algorithm that you have used to aid in machine learning.
• Check out the different kinds of knapsack challenges.
• What is the minimal overlap problem?
• Explain your understanding of the Bernoulli scheme.
• Provide a formal definition of the Chinese restaurant procedure.
• Examine the map of logistics in connection to chaos.
• What do we require for the Feigenbaum constants?
• Define an equation of difference.
• Define the purpose of the Fibonacci sequence.
• What is an unintentional transfer?
• Examine Riemann with the Ruelle Zeta functions.
• How can you make use of elementary embeddings in the model theory?
• Examine the issue using the wholeness axiom, as well as Kunen's theory of inconsistency.
• What is Lie algebra applied in Physics?
• Define the various algebraic cycles.
• What is the reason we require cohomology groups that are stale in order to compute algebraic curves?
• What is non-Euclidean geometry made up of?
• How do two lines become ultraparallel?

Math Research Topics for a Paper

Selecting the right subject is essential for the success of your writing a research essay in mathematics. It must be challenging enough to convince you. However, it shouldn't exceed the limits of your knowledge. If possible, remain within your field of expertise.

• Write about the development of calculus.
• What makes math problems that aren't solved important?
• Find out the reasons behind that gender disparity in maths students.
• What are the most difficult mathematical questions that are asked in the present?
• Study the concept of spaces for the operator.
• What can we do to design the train schedules for all of the nation?
• What are the factors that make a number large?
• What is the best way to make infinities come in different sizes?
• What is the most effective mathematical strategy to be successful in the game Go?
• Examine natural patterns of random walks in biology.
• Define the type of math that was utilized in the ancient times of Persia.
• Discuss how the Iwasawa theory is related to the modular form.
• What are the roles of prime numbers in encryption?
• What was the process through which the field of mathematics developed?
• Explore the various options for Tower of Hanoi solutions.
• Find Napier's bones. How can you make use of them?
• What is the most mathematical method to locate someone who's lost in the maze?
• Examine the Traveling Salesman Problem. Can you find a new strategy?
• Explain how barcodes work.
• Examine some real-life instances of the chaos theory. What is the best way to define them mathematically?
• Check out the impact of different innovative mathematical equations.
• Research the Seven Bridges of Konigsberg. Link the issue to the city you prefer.
• Examine Fisher's basic theorem of natural selection.
• How does quantum computing work?
• Choose a math problem that isn't solved and explain why it is so difficult.

Math Education Research Topics

Many teachers find the most difficult task is keeping the students engaged. When math is involved, it can be particularly difficult. It is essential to make complex concepts simple to comprehend. That's why we must conduct research into math education.

• Examine traditional methods of teaching math with more innovative methods.
• How can you enhance mathematical educational opportunities in the U.S.?
• Discuss ways to encourage girls to take up jobs within STEM fields.
• Is it appropriate to have computer programming taught in high school?
• Determine the main goals for mathematics instruction.
• Find out how you can improve the accessibility of math for students with learning disabilities.
• When do children need to begin practicing simple math?
• Study the impact of gamification on algebra classes.
• What are the benefits students can gain by participating in math competitions?
• What are the advantages of a move away from standard tests?
• Define the root causes of "math anxiety." How do you get rid of it?
• Discuss the political and social significance of mathematics education.
• Define the most pressing concerns in math education for public schools.
• What is the most effective way to encourage children to learn about math?
• What can students do to improve their mathematical thinking outside of class?
• Discuss the advantages of using technology in math classes.
• In what ways is the culture influencing your math education?
• Learn about the history of teaching mathematics.
• Compare math education in various countries.
• What impact does dyscalculia have on students' lives?
• What school subjects could math be incorporated?
• Did a maths degree increase in value in the past few years?
• What are the negatives that come with the Common Core Standards?
• What are the benefits of a blended curriculum for math?
• Discussion of the benefits of Mathcamp.

Algebra Topics for a Paper

The beauty of algebra comes because of its simplicity. It allows us to explain complex issues in small equations.

• Provide an instance of an Induction Proof.
• What do F-algebras serve?
• What are the main issues?
• Highlight the importance of abstract algebra.
• Examine the peculiarities of Fermat's final theorem.
• What are the basic concepts of algebra?
• Examine the connection between geometry and algebra.
• Examine the different features of commutative and noncommutative algebra.
• Why is Brun's steady presence so important?
• How do you factor quadratics?
• Explain Descartes' Rule of Signs.
• What is the quadratic equation?
• Examine the four different types of sequences, and then define the four types of sequences and define.
• Discuss how fractions are divided.
• What is the purpose of logarithms?
• Explain what you mean by Gaussian elimination.
• What is Cramer's rule?
• Learn the distinction between eigenvectors and Eigenvalues.
• Examine your Gram-Schmidt procedure in 2 dimensions.
• Define what you mean by "range" and "domain" in algebra.
• What do you think you can do with determinates?
• Find out more about the history behind the formula for distance.
• Find out the best method to solve word problems in math.
• Check the relationship between the different models of solving equations.
• Find out how Rubik's Cube is related to the concept of group theory.

Geometry Topics for a Research Paper

Space and shapes are the two main components of geometry. Since its beginning in the earliest days, geometry has developed into a significant field of research. The most recent addition to Geometry, called topology, focuses on the effects on an object when you expand, shrink or fold it. It can be quite a wild ride from here.

• What is the nature of Archimedean solids?
• Find real-life uses for a rhombicosidodecahedron.
• What do we study in the field of projective geometry?
• Check out the most popular kinds of transformations.
• Define how acute square triangulation operates.
• Discuss the Borromean Ring configuration.
• Find solutions to Buffon's needle.
• What is special in right triangles?
• Define the concept of Dirac manifolds.
• Examine the different relations between lines.
• What exactly is what is the Klein bottle?
• What is the relationship between geometry and other disciplines, like the sciences of physics and chemistry?
• Explore Riemannian manifolds within Euclidean space.
• What is the best way to demonstrate the angle bisector theorem?
• Conduct a study on M.C. Escher's use of geometry in his.
• Find the right applications for the golden ratio.
• Explain the significance of circles.
• Find out what the ancient Greeks were aware of about geometry.
• What is congruency?
• Examine the various uses of Euler's formula.
• What do CT scans connect to the geometry?
• What is the reason we require the n-dimensional vectors?
• How do you resolve Heesch's issue?
• What are hypercubes?
• Study the use of geometric shapes in Picasso's paintings.

Calculus Topics to Write a Paper on

Calculus can be described as an even more complex algebra. It's a study of the evolution of a system in time, which provides valuable insights into everyday issues. Calculus applications are essential in many areas like sociology, engineering or business.

• What are the main differences between trigonometry and algebra, and calculus?
• Define the notion of limits.
• Define the formulas that are standard to calculate derivatives.
• What are the most important elements in the graph?
• Assess the validity of L'Hopital's rules.
• What is the definition of the curves' area?
• What is the basis of calculus?
• What is multivariate calculus?
• Discuss the usage of Stokes Theorem.
• What do Leibniz's integral rules stipulate?
• What's the Ito stochastic integral?
• Examine the impact of non-standard analysis on probability theory.
• Study the history of calculus.
• Who was Maria Gaetana Agnesi?
• Define a continuous function.
• What is the most fundamental mathematical theorem in calculus?
• How do you determine your Taylor sequence of a given function?
• Discuss the best ways to fix Runge's issue.
• Discuss the extreme value theorem.
• What are we looking for the predicate calculus to do?
• Which are the linear approximations?
• What happens when an integral becomes in error?
• Describe the Ratio and Root Tests.
• How do rings function?
• Where can we apply math in real-world scenarios?

Business Math Topics to Write About

You don't need to be the owner of an enterprise to be able to appreciate business math. The topics include everything from credit and loans to insurance taxes and investments. Even even if you're no mathematician, you can still use it to manage your financial affairs. Do you find this intriguing?

• What are the most important abilities required to be a successful business manager?
• How do you calculate the interest rate?
• Compare consumer and business math.
• What's the definition of a discount percentage?
• How can you determine if an investment is a reasonable one?
• When is it appropriate to make a payment on a loan by taking another loan?
• Find financing options that anyone can benefit from.
• What is the process behind critical path analysis? Perform?
• Define how loans work.
• What areas of work use operations research?
• What do companies make of the use of statistics?
• What is the economic lot scheduling issue?
• Check out the various uses of chart types.
• What is the cause of a crash in the stock market?
• How do you determine the net value at present?
• Discover the rich history of revenue management.
• What are the best times to use multi-period models?
• Define the effects of depreciation.
• Are annuities an investment that is worth it?
• Could the U.S. financially benefit from eliminating the penny?
• What was the cause of what caused the United States housing crash in 2008?
• How should the sales tax be calculated?
• Explain the concept of markdowns and markups.
• Find out the maths behind debt amortization.
• What distinguishes a mortgage from a mortgage?

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Extended Essay Writers

Math Extended Essay Topics

Luke MacQuoid

A math extended essay (EE) is a research paper that is written by students who are enrolled in the International Baccalaureate (IB) program as a part of their Diploma. The Extended Essay is self-directed research that aims to provide students with the opportunity to explore a topic of their interest in depth, with a particular focus on the application of math concepts and skills. In order to pass the paper successfully, it is very important to choose the right topic for the Math Extended Essay Topics.

In an Group 5: Mathematics extended essay, students work independently under the guidance of a supervisor to plan and carry out a research project on a math-related topic . This research project should demonstrate the student’s ability to engage in independent research, apply critical thinking and problem-solving skills, and communicate their findings clearly and effectively.

The math extended essay has strict word count in length and should be written in a clear, concise, and formal style, it should also include an introduction, a body of discussion, a conclusion, and a bibliography.

The student is expected to demonstrate the ability to design and conduct a research project, use mathematical concepts and skills to analyze and interpret the data and discuss their findings in the context of relevant mathematical literature.

The math extended essay also allows students to explore a mathematical topic in a way that is not possible in the classroom, it also gives a chance to students to demonstrate their mathematical knowledge and skills and to develop a more global understanding of mathematics.

What’s the Purpose of IB Math Extended Essay?

The purpose of the IB math extended essay is to provide students with the opportunity to engage in independent research and to apply their mathematical knowledge and skills to a topic of their own choosing. The extended essay is designed to give students a chance to explore a topic in depth and to develop the following key skills:

Research skills : Students learn how to design and conduct a research project and how to collect, analyze, and interpret data.

Critical thinking skills : Students learn how to evaluate sources, make a clear and well-supported argument, and solve problems.

Communication skills : Students learn how to write a formal academic paper and how to present their findings and arguments clearly and effectively.

Time management skills:  Students learn how to plan their time effectively and manage their workload.

Subject-specific knowledge : Students get the opportunity to deepen their understanding of a particular area of mathematics and to explore the ways in which mathematical concepts and methods can be applied to solve problems.

The IB Math Extended Essay allows students to research and write about a specific mathematical topic that they find interesting. It also allows students to apply the knowledge and skills they have learned in the classroom to a real-world problem or scenario. 

Completing the extended essay is an important requirement for students to receive the International Baccalaureate Diploma, and it also provides students with the opportunity to develop important research and analytical skills which will be useful in the future, regardless of their chosen career path.

Need help with your IB Math extended essay?

You can also use our extended essay writers team’s services if you need assistance selecting a topic . Furthermore, we can also help you write your IB extended essay from scratch or edit your draft following the IB criteria.

IB Math Extended Essay Topics

An extended essay in mathematics provides students with an opportunity to explore an area of math that interests them in depth. Here are some potential topics for a math extended essay:

• Investigating the properties of a specific mathematical function and its applications.
• Examining the history of a particular mathematical concept or problem
• Investigating the relationship between different branches of mathematics, such as algebra and geometry.
• Investigating the properties and application of geometric shapes in different branches of mathematics.
• Applying mathematical modeling to a real-world problem, such as optimizing logistics or predicting weather patterns.
• Investigating the use of mathematical methods in computer science, such as complexity theory and algorithms.
• Exploring the application of number theory in cryptography and information security
• Investigating the role of statistics in decision-making and forecasting.
• Investigating the use of mathematical logic in Artificial Intelligence and machine learning
• Examining the applications of mathematical methods in the field of engineering and physics, such as fluid dynamics and mechanics.
• Investigating the properties of fractals and their applications in computer graphics and image processing.
• Exploring the concept of infinity and infinitesimals in calculus and their implications in other branches of mathematics.
• Investigating the application of graph theory in network analysis and computer science
• Examining the relationship between topology and other branches of mathematics such as algebra and analysis.
• Investigating the properties of mathematical knots and their applications in physics and biology.
• Exploring the application of game theory in economics and decision making
• Investigating the use of mathematical methods in the field of finance and financial modeling
• Examining the relationship between chaos theory and other areas of mathematics and science
• Investigating the use of mathematical methods in the field of cryptography, such as elliptic curve cryptography.
• Exploring the application of mathematical methods in the study of complexity in natural systems, such as studying the Mandelbrot set in the field of chaos theory.

Remember to check with your teacher or supervisor for guidelines or restrictions and pick a topic that you find interesting and engaging. Also, make sure you have a clear and testable research question as part of the planning and writing process.

Students can use these themes as a starting point for their research and then narrow down their focus to a specific problem or question related to the theme. For example, if a student is interested in investigating the properties of a specific mathematical function, they could begin by researching the history of the function, its key properties, and its applications. 

They could then narrow down their focus to a specific problem or question, such as “How does the shape of the graph of this function change as its parameters are varied?” or “What are the implications of this function’s properties for other areas of mathematics?”

Similarly, if a student is interested in exploring the concept of infinity in calculus, they could begin by researching the history of the concept and its implications in other branches of mathematics. They could then narrow down their focus to a specific question, such as “How does the concept of infinity affect the way we think about limits and continuity in calculus?”

Once a student has a specific problem or question in mind, they can begin to design and conduct their research. This will typically involve collecting data, analyzing it using mathematical methods, and interpreting their findings. They should also read and critically evaluate relevant literature on their topic and use it as a foundation to construct their own arguments.

It’s also important to mention that the research and writing process should be guided by the student’s supervisor and that the student should be able to clearly communicate the research question, methodology, findings, and conclusions in a formal academic paper.

Finally, the extended essay is an opportunity for students to demonstrate their ability to apply mathematical concepts and skills to a real-world problem and to communicate their findings in a clear and effective way, and this can be greatly beneficial for students who wish to pursue further studies or careers in fields related to mathematics and other sciences.

Some Tips to Help You Choose a Relevant Math EE Topic

Choosing a relevant and engaging topic for your math extended essay can be challenging, but by following these tips, you can make the process easier:

Start by identifying your interests: Think about the areas of math that you enjoy and find most interesting. These are likely to be the areas that you will find most engaging to research.

Consider the scope of the topic: Your topic should be narrow enough to be manageable within the 4,000-word limit of the extended essay but broad enough to allow for a thorough investigation.

Look for connections between different areas of mathematics: Often, the most interesting and relevant topics lie at the intersection of different areas of mathematics.

Talk to your supervisor: Your supervisor is a valuable resource and can provide guidance on choosing a relevant and manageable topic. They can also help you refine your research question and give you feedback on your ideas.

Make sure your topic is original: You want your extended essay to be unique and to make a meaningful contribution to the field. Avoid topics that have been extensively researched or that are too similar to other extended essays.

Think about the resources available: Consider whether the resources available to you (books, articles, data, etc.) are sufficient to allow you to conduct the research you want to do.

Consider the audience: Your Extended Essay is read by a group of examiners appointed by the International Baccalaureate, so consider the level of mathematical sophistication of your topic and the language used to communicate it.

Research to find a feasible topic: Once you have some ideas, research them to see if they are feasible, given the time, resources, and supervisor’s expertise you have.

In conclusion,  writing a math extended essay can be a challenging but rewarding experience. The key to success is to choose a relevant and engaging topic that aligns with your interests and allows you to showcase your understanding and skills in mathematics. By considering the tips provided, such as identifying your interests, talking to your supervisor, and making sure your topic is original, you will be able to choose a topic that is both manageable and meaningful. 

One way to ensure the success of their essay is to seek out professional assistance. Professional writers and editors can provide valuable feedback and guidance throughout the research and writing process, helping students to improve their understanding of the topic and to communicate their findings more effectively.

It could be a good idea to consider looking into reputable academic writing services where you can get help with your math extended essay and improve your chances of getting a good grade. They can also help ensure that the paper meets academic standards and requirement. However, always be sure to evaluate the source carefully and do your due diligence, as not all academic writing services are created equal.

Remember that the extended essay is an opportunity to conduct independent research and apply critical thinking and problem-solving skills to a topic of your own choosing. By following a systematic and well-structured approach, you will be able to successfully complete your math extended essay and demonstrate your knowledge and understanding of the subject.

Luke MacQuoid has extensive experience teaching English as a foreign language in Japan, having worked with students of all ages for over 12 years. Currently, he is teaching at the tertiary level. Luke holds a BA from the University of Sussex and an MA in TESOL from Lancaster University, both located in England. As well to his work as an IB Examiner and Master Tutor, Luke also enjoys sharing his experiences and insights with others through writing articles for various websites, including extendedessaywriters.com blog

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IB Math Extended Essay Topics: 20+ Ideas for Inspiration

by  Antony W

September 3, 2022

Do you feel stuck on searching for and choosing the best IB Math Extended Essay topics? Or maybe you already have a topic for consideration but it isn’t viable enough to fit the scope of the assignment?

You’ve come to the right place.

In this guide, we’ll give you 15+ IB Math ideas that you can use as inspiration to come up with your own topic or modify and investigate further in your extended essay.

What’s the Purpose of IB Math Extended Essay?

An extended essay in mathematics gives you the chance to demonstrate an understanding of any part of the subject.

You can give an expression on the beauty of mathematics in geometry or fractal theory, the elegance of mathematics in the proving of theorems, and the origin and subsequent development of a branch of mathematics over a period.

The extended essay also allows you to demonstrate the link between the different branches of mathematics and the powerful structures that enable many different problems to be solved by a single theory and the way in which mathematics is applied to real-world situations.

Your essay requires a well-defined and focused research question. An abstract is no longer necessary in an extended essay , but you’re welcome to include it if you believe it will summarizes your strategy to solving the research question and your findings

Math Extended Essay Writing Assistance

While Math opens up an opportunity to explore complex issues beyond the IB Diploma course , the subject can be extremely challenging for some IB students.

If you’re one of the students who chose Math for the Extended Essay project but you find the subject challenging, you can get help online from experts in the subject.

Help for Assessment offers the most  comprehensive Extended Essay help   in Mathematics, even on a topic that you would consider too complex to handle. With our help, you’ll find complex concepts easy to understand, not to mention you’ll get your Math assignment completed on time.

We understand that Math tasks can be costly and involving. However, we’ve made our writing service as affordable as possible, so you can get professional writing help.

We can write you first draft before the first reflection session with your supervisor and equally help you fine-tune the last draft for the final submission.

IB Math Extended Essay Topics

The following are examples of IB Math Extended Essay topics that you might find worth investigating further: 

• What is the return percentage of a certain three-reel slot machine?
• What are the alternatives to Euclidean geometry and what are their practical applications?
• Comparison of population growth models for Country X for the past n years, with projections for the future.
• The exploration of geometric series in musical instruments, such as the fret position on a guitar
• How many convex polygons can you construct from seven tangram pieces?
• An examination of the alteration of a message's truthful substance during transmission between persons
• Is there a connection between the golden ratio and human’s perception on natural beauty, with a focus on the human face and form?
• Is there a relationship between SAT scores and school test results/GPA?
• Leibniz and Newton independently developed calculus at around the same time. Compare their techniques and analyze which notation is currently more prevalent.
• What is the Binomial Theorem, and how has it contributed to human history?
• Complex number problem-solving techniques: What types of real-world issues do complex numbers assist solve?
• Applying Newton's Forward Difference Formula to predict the number of triangles created by subdividing the sides of an equilateral triangle n times.
• RSA Public Key Cryptography's use of modular arithmetic and huge prime integers to achieve anonymity
• Investigating the link between Pascal's Triangle and the Fibonacci sequence
• How can mathematical modeling that employs differential equations determine population growth patterns for a predator and its prey?
• How can the population of cells be determined throughout time? Which mathematical model approximates an actual experiment more precisely?
• A study of Riemann Sums (conventional integration to get areas) and Numerical Integration
• Vedic Mathematics: an investigation of its effectiveness and exploration of its applications
• How are Laplace transforms utilized in the solution of second-order differential equations?
• A statistical examination of the impact of background music on pupils' short-term memory ability
• Analytical and geometric formulations of parabolic and cubic Bezier curves as used in computer graphics software
• A quantitative analysis of the efficacy of two herbs for treating impetigo skin condition
• A study of the nature of beats and the relative consonance of pure-tone dyads
• The link between logical-mathematical intelligence and academic achievement at the undergraduate level
• A study of the link between a bond's coupon rate, yield to maturity, and its clean price
• Using the addition of sine curves to analyze the harmony of Chinese and Western musical scales
• The correlation between students' attitudes toward mathematics and their mathematical performance
• How near is the approximation of the Taylor Series to the original function
• What criteria determine whether the movement of employees on a building site achieves "equilibrium"?
• The efficacy of an English Tuition Program in enhancing the English skills of participants
• A statistical examination of the causes of fatal traffic accidents throughout the holiday season
• Does studying a third language have any influence on the short-term memory retention of lower secondary students?

Keep in mind that this list is not exhaustive by any means. So if none of these topic ideas appeals to you, doing additional research can make a difference.

Related Reading

• The Complete Guide for IB Math Extended Essay
• Get a List of Psychology Extended Essay Topics Here
• Learn More About Physics Extended Essay Assignment

Some Tips to Help You Choose a Relevant Math EE Topic

You can write an extended essay in math on any subject with a mathematical focus. Because IB doesn’t limit the assignment to mathematical theories, you may select mathematical themes from engineering, sciences, and the social sciences.

Statistical analyses of experimental results from other disciplines are also appropriate, as long as they focus on the modeling method and address the limits of the results.

A topic chosen from the history of mathematics may also be acceptable, provided you bring out a clear progression of mathematical growth.

Focusing on the lives of mathematicians or their personal rivalry would be irrelevant and would not score highly on the grading criteria.

Notably, the evaluation criteria provide points for the nature of the inquiry and the extent to which reasoned arguments are suitable for a research issue.

You need to avoid selecting a topic that generates a trivial research question or is insufficiently concentrated to permit suitable presentation in an essay of the right length.

Typically, you will have to challenge yourself to either extend their knowledge beyond the Diploma Program course or apply techniques learned in their mathematics course to the modeling of an adequately chosen topic.

Final Thoughts

One of the most important thing to keep in mind once you find a suitable Math EE topic is that you will be working on an essay, not a research article for a journal of advanced mathematics.

Also, no finding, no matter how remarkable, should appear in your work without proof of your actual understanding of it. 

About the author 

Antony W is a professional writer and coach at Help for Assessment. He spends countless hours every day researching and writing great content filled with expert advice on how to write engaging essays, research papers, and assignments.

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Math Essay Topics that Will Suit Your Taste

Here are some topics that you might find yourself interested in:

• Analysis of Functions and Complex Equations in Fractal Geometry
• Analysis of Topological Concepts in Today’s Mathematics
• An Overview of the Concept of Simultaneous Equations in Mathematics
• A Look at Probability and Its Mathematical Determination
• Understanding the Concept of Quartiles and Its Two Types in Mathematics
• Ancient Advances in Math and Their Impact on Modern Calculating System
• Evolution and Development of Mathematics over the Years
• A Description of Georg Cantor’s Works and His Contributions to the Mathematical Science
• An Analysis of Mathematics in Relation to Biology
• An Introduction to Fractal Geometry
• How to Solve and Check Math Equations
• Spirograph: Interesting Curves
• Distinguishing Knots Through Their Color Polynomials
• Statistical Methods: Calculating the Volumes
• Egyptian Forces and Fractions: Doing Arithmetic
• Plane Tessellations and Its Symmetries
• The Theory of Partitions: General Functions
• Distances of Countries Through Arithmetical Functions
• The Best Way of Calculating the Speed of Operating System of PC
• Legal Permutations on Rubik’s Cube

Check out sample essays for MBA or thesis papers, if you’re looking for the best tips for writing math essay. The format corresponds to all academic requirements. The projects samples that are performed at AcademicHelp.net can be at school level or for undergraduates. Ask us for free samples and see how well the papers are composed. Use our online editing services to check if the paper you compose is a top-notch essay. Explore our math extended essay topics that would impress your professor!

Math Extended Essay Topics & Editing Assistance at AcademicHelp.net

In some math courses, especially in college or university, the teacher may assign an essay paper project on math extended essay topics. At first, it may seem really daunting. Solving equations differ from writing about them, and initially, you will feel unfamiliar about the topics. But we are here to help you out with any challenging mathematical home assignment. It is a completely doable thing for our experts.

• We will make a solid plan for you. You may be wondering, why it is so necessary to write on math essay topics. While writing about the studied subject, students develop their critical thinking and analytical skills. It allows you to be directly engrossed in the learning process and apply your own experiences. Moreover, writing about mathematics can solidify the newly presented information in your mind. It boosts the overall understanding of the subject and allows you to dwell on concepts that were covered during the semester. The experts working for AcademicHelp.net will explore the materials you’ve written and will bring all the concepts together to show you what you have to cover in your piece.
• We will ensure you performed thorough research. When editing your writing about math issues, our editors will ensure you’ve read and analyzed the concepts developed by leading mathematicians properly. If you adapted some concepts to resolve real math problems, we will ensure you did that correctly. In other words, we ensure students communicate mathematical concepts and ideas to their readers the right way. Our experts at AcademicHelp.net will see if you performed in-depth research on the basis of fresh facts and ideas.
• We will supply you with great ideas. At the very beginning, students should find the right topic for their project. We’ll provide you with both – the easiest topics like the ones related to certain mathematicians or historical moment in the development of the science, and more difficult ones relevant to how algebra was created or how calculus was discovered. We may also recommend you to write an assignment paper on how someone can make a certain type of mistake. What is more, one can cover some applications of geometry in reality.
• We will edit the paper you’ve accomplished yourself. Even though it is not an English class project, a math paper still requires thorough editing. When the research and writing are done, students should cut out some time to proofread and edit their written work adequately. For editing, you can also reach our service which works 24/7. Our experts will check your paper and correct all mistakes.

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High School Mathematics at Work: Essays and Examples for the Education of All Students (1998)

Chapter: part one: connecting mathematics with work and life, part one— connecting mathematics with work and life.

Mathematics is the key to opportunity. No longer just the language of science, mathematics now contributes in direct and fundamental ways to business, finance, health, and defense. For students, it opens doors to careers. For citizens, it enables informed decisions. For nations, it provides knowledge to compete in a technological community. To participate fully in the world of the future, America must tap the power of mathematics. (NRC, 1989, p. 1)

The above statement remains true today, although it was written almost ten years ago in the Mathematical Sciences Education Board's (MSEB) report Everybody Counts (NRC, 1989). In envisioning a future in which all students will be afforded such opportunities, the MSEB acknowledges the crucial role played by formulae and algorithms, and suggests that algorithmic skills are more flexible, powerful, and enduring when they come from a place of meaning and understanding. This volume takes as a premise that all students can develop mathematical understanding by working with mathematical tasks from workplace and everyday contexts . The essays in this report provide some rationale for this premise and discuss some of the issues and questions that follow. The tasks in this report illuminate some of the possibilities provided by the workplace and everyday life.

Contexts from within mathematics also can be powerful sites for the development of mathematical understanding, as professional and amateur mathematicians will attest. There are many good sources of compelling problems from within mathematics, and a broad mathematics education will include experience with problems from contexts both within and outside mathematics. The inclusion of tasks in this volume is intended to highlight particularly compelling problems whose context lies outside of mathematics, not to suggest a curriculum.

The operative word in the above premise is "can." The understandings that students develop from any encounter with mathematics depend not only on the context, but also on the students' prior experience and skills, their ways of thinking, their engagement with the task, the environment in which they explore the task—including the teacher, the students, and the tools—the kinds of interactions that occur in that environment, and the system of internal and external incentives that might be associated with the activity. Teaching and learning are complex activities that depend upon evolving and rarely articulated interrelationships among teachers, students, materials, and ideas. No prescription for their improvement can be simple.

This volume may be beneficially seen as a rearticulation and elaboration of a principle put forward in Reshaping School Mathematics :

Principle 3: Relevant Applications Should be an Integral Part of the Curriculum.

Students need to experience mathematical ideas in the context in which they naturally arise—from simple counting and measurement to applications in business and science. Calculators and computers make it possible now to introduce realistic applications throughout the curriculum.

The significant criterion for the suitability of an application is whether it has the potential to engage students' interests and stimulate their mathematical thinking. (NRC, 1990, p. 38)

Mathematical problems can serve as a source of motivation for students if the problems engage students' interests and aspirations. Mathematical problems also can serve as sources of meaning and understanding if the problems stimulate students' thinking. Of course, a mathematical task that is meaningful to a student will provide more motivation than a task that does not make sense. The rationale behind the criterion above is that both meaning and motivation are required. The motivational benefits that can be provided by workplace and everyday problems are worth mentioning, for although some students are aware that certain mathematics courses are necessary in order to gain entry into particular career paths, many students are unaware of how particular topics or problem-solving approaches will have relevance in any workplace. The power of using workplace and everyday problems to teach mathematics lies not so much in motivation, however, for no con-

text by itself will motivate all students. The real power is in connecting to students' thinking.

There is growing evidence in the literature that problem-centered approaches—including mathematical contexts, "real world" contexts, or both—can promote learning of both skills and concepts. In one comparative study, for example, with a high school curriculum that included rich applied problem situations, students scored somewhat better than comparison students on algebraic procedures and significantly better on conceptual and problem-solving tasks (Schoen & Ziebarth, 1998). This finding was further verified through task-based interviews. Studies that show superior performance of students in problem-centered classrooms are not limited to high schools. Wood and Sellers (1996), for example, found similar results with second and third graders.

Research with adult learners seems to indicate that "variation of contexts (as well as the whole task approach) tends to encourage the development of general understanding in a way which concentrating on repeated routine applications of algorithms does not and cannot" (Strässer, Barr, Evans, & Wolf, 1991, p. 163). This conclusion is consistent with the notion that using a variety of contexts can increase the chance that students can show what they know. By increasing the number of potential links to the diverse knowledge and experience of the students, more students have opportunities to excel, which is to say that the above premise can promote equity in mathematics education.

There is also evidence that learning mathematics through applications can lead to exceptional achievement. For example, with a curriculum that emphasizes modeling and applications, high school students at the North Carolina School of Science and Mathematics have repeatedly submitted winning papers in the annual college competition, Mathematical Contest in Modeling (Cronin, 1988; Miller, 1995).

The relationships among teachers, students, curricular materials, and pedagogical approaches are complex. Nonetheless, the literature does supports the premise that workplace and everyday problems can enhance mathematical learning, and suggests that if students engage in mathematical thinking, they will be afforded opportunities for building connections, and therefore meaning and understanding.

In the opening essay, Dale Parnell argues that traditional teaching has been missing opportunities for connections: between subject-matter and context, between academic and vocational education, between school and life, between knowledge and application, and between subject-matter disciplines. He suggests that teaching must change if more students are to learn mathematics. The question, then, is how to exploit opportunities for connections between high school mathematics and the workplace and everyday life.

Rol Fessenden shows by example the importance of mathematics in business, specifically in making marketing decisions. His essay opens with a dialogue among employees of a company that intends to expand its business into

Japan, and then goes on to point out many of the uses of mathematics, data collection, analysis, and non-mathematical judgment that are required in making such business decisions.

In his essay, Thomas Bailey suggests that vocational and academic education both might benefit from integration, and cites several trends to support this suggestion: change and uncertainty in the workplace, an increased need for workers to understand the conceptual foundations of key academic subjects, and a trend in pedagogy toward collaborative, open-ended projects. Further-more, he observes that School-to-Work experiences, first intended for students who were not planning to attend a four-year college, are increasingly being seen as useful in preparing students for such colleges. He discusses several such programs that use work-related applications to teach academic skills and to prepare students for college. Integration of academic and vocational education, he argues, can serve the dual goals of "grounding academic standards in the realistic context of workplace requirements and introducing a broader view of the potential usefulness of academic skills even for entry level workers."

Noting the importance and utility of mathematics for jobs in science, health, and business, Jean Taylor argues for continued emphasis in high school of topics such as algebra, estimation, and trigonometry. She suggests that workplace and everyday problems can be useful ways of teaching these ideas for all students.

There are too many different kinds of workplaces to represent even most of them in the classrooms. Furthermore, solving mathematics problems from some workplace contexts requires more contextual knowledge than is reasonable when the goal is to learn mathematics. (Solving some other workplace problems requires more mathematical knowledge than is reasonable in high school.) Thus, contexts must be chosen carefully for their opportunities for sense making. But for students who have knowledge of a workplace, there are opportunities for mathematical connections as well. In their essay, Daniel Chazan and Sandra Callis Bethell describe an approach that creates such opportunities for students in an algebra course for 10th through 12th graders, many of whom carried with them a "heavy burden of negative experiences" about mathematics. Because the traditional Algebra I curriculum had been extremely unsuccessful with these students, Chazan and Bethell chose to do something different. One goal was to help students see mathematics in the world around them. With the help of community sponsors, Chazen and Bethell asked students to look for mathematics in the workplace and then describe that mathematics and its applications to their classmates.

The tasks in Part One complement the points made in the essays by making direct connections to the workplace and everyday life. Emergency Calls (p. 42) illustrates some possibilities for data analysis and representation by discussing the response times of two ambulance companies. Back-of-the-Envelope Estimates (p. 45) shows how quick, rough estimates and calculations

are useful for making business decisions. Scheduling Elevators (p. 49) shows how a few simplifying assumptions and some careful reasoning can be brought together to understand the difficult problem of optimally scheduling elevators in a large office building. Finally, in the context of a discussion with a client of an energy consulting firm, Heating-Degree-Days (p. 54) illuminates the mathematics behind a common model of energy consumption in home heating.

Cronin, T. P. (1988). High school students win "college" competition. Consortium: The Newsletter of the Consortium for Mathematics and Its Applications , 26 , 3, 12.

Miller, D. E. (1995). North Carolina sweeps MCM '94. SIAM News , 28 (2).

National Research Council. (1989). Everybody counts: A report to the nation on the future of mathematics education . Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

National Research Council. (1990). Reshaping school mathematics: A philosophy and framework for curriculum . Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

Schoen, H. L. & Ziebarth, S. W. (1998). Assessment of students' mathematical performance (A Core-Plus Mathematics Project Field Test Progress Report). Iowa City: Core Plus Mathematics Project Evaluation Site, University of Iowa.

Strässer, R., Barr, G. Evans, J. & Wolf, A. (1991). Skills versus understanding. In M. Harris (Ed.), Schools, mathematics, and work (pp. 158-168). London: The Falmer Press.

Wood, T. & Sellers, P. (1996). Assessment of a problem-centered mathematics program: Third grade. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education , 27 (3), 337-353.

1— Mathematics as a Gateway to Student Success

DALE PARNELL

Oregon State University

The study of mathematics stands, in many ways, as a gateway to student success in education. This is becoming particularly true as our society moves inexorably into the technological age. Therefore, it is vital that more students develop higher levels of competency in mathematics. 1

The standards and expectations for students must be high, but that is only half of the equation. The more important half is the development of teaching techniques and methods that will help all students (rather than just some students) reach those higher expectations and standards. This will require some changes in how mathematics is taught.

Effective education must give clear focus to connecting real life context with subject-matter content for the student, and this requires a more ''connected" mathematics program. In many of today's classrooms, especially in secondary school and college, teaching is a matter of putting students in classrooms marked "English," "history," or "mathematics," and then attempting to fill their heads with facts through lectures, textbooks, and the like. Aside from an occasional lab, workbook, or "story problem," the element of contextual teaching and learning is absent, and little attempt is made to connect what students are learning with the world in which they will be expected to work and spend their lives. Often the frag-

mented information offered to students is of little use or application except to pass a test.

What we do in most traditional classrooms is require students to commit bits of knowledge to memory in isolation from any practical application—to simply take our word that they "might need it later." For many students, "later" never arrives. This might well be called the freezer approach to teaching and learning. In effect, we are handing out information to our students and saying, "Just put this in your mental freezer; you can thaw it out later should you need it." With the exception of a minority of students who do well in mastering abstractions with little contextual experience, students aren't buying that offer. The neglected majority of students see little personal meaning in what they are asked to learn, and they just don't learn it.

I recently had occasion to interview 75 students representing seven different high schools in the Northwest. In nearly all cases, the students were juniors identified as vocational or general education students. The comment of one student stands out as representative of what most of these students told me in one way or another: "I know it's up to me to get an education, but a lot of times school is just so dull and boring. … You go to this class, go to that class, study a little of this and a little of that, and nothing connects. … I would like to really understand and know the application for what I am learning." Time and again, students were asking, "Why do I have to learn this?" with few sensible answers coming from the teachers.

My own long experience as a community college president confirms the thoughts of these students. In most community colleges today, one-third to one-half of the entering students are enrolled in developmental (remedial) education, trying to make up for what they did not learn in earlier education experiences. A large majority of these students come to the community college with limited mathematical skills and abilities that hardly go beyond adding, subtracting, and multiplying with whole numbers. In addition, the need for remediation is also experienced, in varying degrees, at four-year colleges and universities.

What is the greatest sin committed in the teaching of mathematics today? It is the failure to help students use the magnificent power of the brain to make connections between the following:

• subject-matter content and the context of use;
• academic and vocational education;
• school and other life experiences;
• knowledge and application of knowledge; and
• one subject-matter discipline and another.

Why is such failure so critical? Because understanding the idea of making the connection between subject-matter content and the context of application

is what students, at all levels of education, desperately require to survive and succeed in our high-speed, high-challenge, rapidly changing world.

Educational policy makers and leaders can issue reams of position papers on longer school days and years, site-based management, more achievement tests and better assessment practices, and other "hot" topics of the moment, but such papers alone will not make the crucial difference in what students know and can do. The difference will be made when classroom teachers begin to connect learning with real-life experiences in new, applied ways, and when education reformers begin to focus upon learning for meaning.

A student may memorize formulas for determining surface area and measuring angles and use those formulas correctly on a test, thereby achieving the behavioral objectives set by the teacher. But when confronted with the need to construct a building or repair a car, the same student may well be left at sea because he or she hasn't made the connection between the formulas and their real-life application. When students are asked to consider the Pythagorean Theorem, why not make the lesson active, where students actually lay out the foundation for a small building like a storage shed?

What a difference mathematics instruction could make for students if it were to stress the context of application—as well as the content of knowledge—using the problem-solving model over the freezer model. Teaching conducted upon the connected model would help more students learn with their thinking brain, as well as with their memory brain, developing the competencies and tools they need to survive and succeed in our complex, interconnected society.

One step toward this goal is to develop mathematical tasks that integrate subject-matter content with the context of application and that are aimed at preparing individuals for the world of work as well as for post-secondary education. Since many mathematics teachers have had limited workplace experience, they need many good examples of how knowledge of mathematics can be applied to real life situations. The trick in developing mathematical tasks for use in classrooms will be to keep the tasks connected to real life situations that the student will recognize. The tasks should not be just a contrived exercise but should stay as close to solving common problems as possible.

As an example, why not ask students to compute the cost of 12 years of schooling in a public school? It is a sad irony that after 12 years of schooling most students who attend the public schools have no idea of the cost of their schooling or how their education was financed. No wonder that some public schools have difficulty gaining financial support! The individuals being served by the schools have never been exposed to the real life context of who pays for the schools and why. Somewhere along the line in the teaching of mathematics, this real life learning opportunity has been missed, along with many other similar contextual examples.

The mathematical tasks in High School Mathematics at Work provide students (and teachers) with a plethora of real life mathematics problems and

challenges to be faced in everyday life and work. The challenge for teachers will be to develop these tasks so they relate as close as possible to where students live and work every day.

Parnell, D. (1985). The neglected majority . Washington, DC: Community College Press.

Parnell, D. (1995). Why do I have to learn this ? Waco, TX: CORD Communications.

D ALE P ARNELL is Professor Emeritus of the School of Education at Oregon State University. He has served as a University Professor, College President, and for ten years as the President and Chief Executive Officer of the American Association of Community Colleges. He has served as a consultant to the National Science Foundation and has served on many national commissions, such as the Secretary of Labor's Commission on Achieving Necessary Skills (SCANS). He is the author of the book The Neglected Majority which provided the foundation for the federally-funded Tech Prep Associate Degree Program.

2— Market Launch

ROL FESSENDEN

L. L. Bean, Inc.

"OK, the agenda of the meeting is to review the status of our launch into Japan. You can see the topics and presenters on the list in front of you. Gregg, can you kick it off with a strategy review?"

"Happy to, Bob. We have assessed the possibilities, costs, and return on investment of opening up both store and catalog businesses in other countries. Early research has shown that both Japan and Germany are good candidates. Specifically, data show high preference for good quality merchandise, and a higher-than-average propensity for an active outdoor lifestyle in both countries. Education, age, and income data are quite different from our target market in the U.S., but we do not believe that will be relevant because the cultures are so different. In addition, the Japanese data show that they have a high preference for things American, and, as you know, we are a classic American company. Name recognition for our company is 14%, far higher than any of our American competition in Japan. European competitors are virtually unrecognized, and other Far Eastern competitors are perceived to be of lower quality than us. The data on these issues are quite clear.

"Nevertheless, you must understand that there is a lot of judgment involved in the decision to focus on Japan. The analyses are limited because the cultures are different and we expect different behavioral drivers. Also,

much of the data we need in Japan are simply not available because the Japanese marketplace is less well developed than in the U.S. Drivers' license data, income data, lifestyle data, are all commonplace here and unavailable there. There is little prior penetration in either country by American retailers, so there is no experience we can draw upon. We have all heard how difficult it will be to open up sales operations in Japan, but recent sales trends among computer sellers and auto parts sales hint at an easing of the difficulties.

"The plan is to open three stores a year, 5,000 square feet each. We expect to do $700/square foot, which is more than double the experience of American retailers in the U.S. but 45% less than our stores. In addition, pricing will be 20% higher to offset the cost of land and buildings. Asset costs are approximately twice their rate in the U.S., but labor is slightly less. Benefits are more thoroughly covered by the government. Of course, there is a lot of uncertainty in the sales volumes we are planning. The pricing will cover some of the uncertainty but is still less than comparable quality goods already being offered in Japan.

"Let me shift over to the competition and tell you what we have learned. We have established long-term relationships with 500 to 1000 families in each country. This is comparable to our practice in the U.S. These families do not know they are working specifically with our company, as this would skew their reporting. They keep us appraised of their catalog and shopping experiences, regardless of the company they purchase from. The sample size is large enough to be significant, but, of course, you have to be careful about small differences.

"All the families receive our catalog and catalogs from several of our competitors. They match the lifestyle, income, and education demographic profiles of the people we want to have as customers. They are experienced catalog shoppers, and this will skew their feedback as compared to new catalog shoppers.

"One competitor is sending one 100-page catalog per quarter. The product line is quite narrow—200 products out of a domestic line of 3,000. They have selected items that are not likely to pose fit problems: primarily outerwear and knit shirts, not many pants, mostly men's goods, not women's. Their catalog copy is in Kanji, but the style is a bit stilted we are told, probably because it was written in English and translated, but we need to test this hypothesis. By contrast, we have simply mailed them the same catalog we use in the U.S., even written in English.

"Customer feedback has been quite clear. They prefer our broader assortment by a ratio of 3:1, even though they don't buy most of the products. As the competitors figured, sales are focused on outerwear and knits, but we are getting more sales, apparently because they like looking at the catalog and spend more time with it. Again, we need further testing. Another hypothesis is that our brand name is simply better known.

"Interestingly, they prefer our English-language version because they find it more of an adventure to read the catalog in another language. This is probably

a built-in bias of our sampling technique because we specifically selected people who speak English. We do not expect this trend to hold in a general mailing.

"The English language causes an 8% error rate in orders, but orders are 25% larger, and 4% more frequent. If we can get them to order by phone, we can correct the errors immediately during the call.

"The broader assortment, as I mentioned, is resulting in a significantly higher propensity to order, more units per order, and the same average unit cost. Of course, paper and postage costs increase as a consequence of the larger format catalog. On the other hand, there are production efficiencies from using the same version as the domestic catalog. Net impact, even factoring in the error rate, is a significant sales increase. On the other hand, most of the time, the errors cause us to ship the wrong item which then needs to be mailed back at our expense, creating an impression in the customers that we are not well organized even though the original error was theirs.

"Final point: The larger catalog is being kept by the customer an average of 70 days, while the smaller format is only kept on average for 40 days. Assuming—we need to test this—that the length of time they keep the catalog is proportional to sales volumes, this is good news. We need to assess the overall impact carefully, but it appears that there is a significant population for which an English-language version would be very profitable."

"Thanks, Gregg, good update. Jennifer, what do you have on customer research?"

"Bob, there's far more that we need to know than we have been able to find out. We have learned that Japan is very fad-driven in apparel tastes and fascinated by American goods. We expect sales initially to sky-rocket, then drop like a stone. Later on, demand will level out at a profitable level. The graphs on page 3 [ Figure 2-1 ] show demand by week for 104 weeks, and we have assessed several scenarios. They all show a good underlying business, but the uncertainty is in the initial take-off. The best data are based on the Italian fashion boom which Japan experienced in the late 80s. It is not strictly analogous because it revolved around dress apparel instead of our casual and weekend wear. It is, however, the best information available.

FIGURE 2-1: Sales projections by week, Scenario A

FIGURE 2-2: Size distributions, U.S. vs. Japan

"Our effectiveness in positioning inventory for that initial surge will be critical to our long-term success. There are excellent data—supplied by MITI, I might add—that show that Japanese customers can be intensely loyal to companies that meet their high service expectations. That is why we prepared several scenarios. Of course, if we position inventory for the high scenario, and we experience the low one, we will experience a significant loss due to liquidations. We are still analyzing the long-term impact, however. It may still be worthwhile to take the risk if the 2-year ROI 1 is sufficient.

"We have solid information on their size scales [ Figure 2-2 ]. Seventy percent are small and medium. By comparison, 70% of Americans are large and extra large. This will be a challenge to manage but will save a few bucks on fabric.

"We also know their color preferences, and they are very different than Americans. Our domestic customers are very diverse in their tastes, but 80% of Japanese customers will buy one or two colors out of an offering of 15. We are still researching color choices, but it varies greatly for pants versus shirts, and for men versus women. We are confident we can find patterns, but we also know that it is easy to guess wrong in that market. If we guess wrong, the liquidation costs will be very high.

"Bad news on the order-taking front, however. They don't like to order by phone. …"

In this very brief exchange among decision-makers we observe the use of many critically important skills that were originally learned in public schools. Perhaps the most important is one not often mentioned, and that is the ability to convert an important business question into an appropriate mathematical one, to solve the mathematical problem, and then to explain the implications of the solution for the original business problem. This ability to inhabit simultaneously the business world and the mathematical world, to translate between the two, and, as a consequence, to bring clarity to complex, real-world issues is of extraordinary importance.

In addition, the participants in this conversation understood and interpreted graphs and tables, computed, approximated, estimated, interpolated, extrapolated, used probabilistic concepts to draw conclusions, generalized from

small samples to large populations, identified the limits of their analyses, discovered relationships, recognized and used variables and functions, analyzed and compared data sets, and created and interpreted models. Another very important aspect of their work was that they identified additional questions, and they suggested ways to shed light on those questions through additional analysis.

There were two broad issues in this conversation that required mathematical perspectives. The first was to develop as rigorous and cost effective a data collection and analysis process as was practical. It involved perhaps 10 different analysts who attacked the problem from different viewpoints. The process also required integration of the mathematical learnings of all 10 analysts and translation of the results into business language that could be understood by non-mathematicians.

The second broad issue was to understand from the perspective of the decision-makers who were listening to the presentation which results were most reliable, which were subject to reinterpretation, which were actually judgments not supported by appropriate analysis, and which were hypotheses that truly required more research. In addition, these business people would likely identify synergies in the research that were not contemplated by the analysts. These synergies need to be analyzed to determine if—mathematically—they were real. The most obvious one was where the inventory analysts said that the customers don't like to use the phone to place orders. This is bad news for the sales analysts who are counting on phone data collection to correct errors caused by language problems. Of course, we need more information to know the magnitude—or even the existance—of the problem.

In brief, the analyses that preceded the dialogue might each be considered a mathematical task in the business world:

• A cost analysis of store operations and catalogs was conducted using data from existing American and possibly other operations.
• Customer preferences research was analyzed to determine preferences in quality and life-style. The data collection itself could not be carried out by a high school graduate without guidance, but 80% of the analysis could.
• Cultural differences were recognized as a causes of analytical error. Careful analysis required judgment. In addition, sources of data were identified in the U.S., and comparable sources were found lacking in Japan. A search was conducted for other comparable retail experience, but none was found. On the other hand, sales data from car parts and computers were assessed for relevance.
• Rates of change are important in understanding how Japanese and American stores differ. Sales per square foot, price increases,
• asset costs, labor costs and so forth were compared to American standards to determine whether a store based in Japan would be a viable business.
• "Nielsen" style ratings of 1000 families were used to collect data. Sample size and error estimates were mentioned. Key drivers of behavior (lifestyle, income, education) were mentioned, but this list may not be complete. What needs to be known about these families to predict their buying behavior? What does "lifestyle" include? How would we quantify some of these variables?
• A hypothesis was presented that catalog size and product diversity drive higher sales. What do we need to know to assess the validity of this hypothesis? Another hypothesis was presented about the quality of the translation. What was the evidence for this hypothesis? Is this a mathematical question? Sales may also be proportional to the amount of time a potential customer retains the catalog. How could one ascertain this?
• Despite the abundance of data, much uncertainty remains about what to expect from sales over the first two years. Analysis could be conducted with the data about the possible inventory consequences of choosing the wrong scenario.
• One might wonder about the uncertainty in size scales. What is so difficult about identifying the colors that Japanese people prefer? Can these preferences be predicted? Will this increase the complexity of the inventory management task?
• Can we predict how many people will not use phones? What do they use instead?

As seen through a mathematical lens, the business world can be a rich, complex, and essentially limitless source of fascinating questions.

R OL F ESSENDEN is Vice-President of Inventory Planning and Control at L. L. Bean, Inc. He is also Co-Principal Investigator and Vice-Chair of Maine's State Systemic Initiative and Chair of the Strategic Planning Committee. He has previously served on the Mathematical Science Education Board, and on the National Alliance for State Science and Mathematics Coalitions (NASSMC).

3— Integrating Vocational and Academic Education

THOMAS BAILEY

Columbia University

In high school education, preparation for work immediately after high school and preparation for post-secondary education have traditionally been viewed as incompatible. Work-bound high-school students end up in vocational education tracks, where courses usually emphasize specific skills with little attention to underlying theoretical and conceptual foundations. 1 College-bound students proceed through traditional academic discipline-based courses, where they learn English, history, science, mathematics, and foreign languages, with only weak and often contrived references to applications of these skills in the workplace or in the community outside the school. To be sure, many vocational teachers do teach underlying concepts, and many academic teachers motivate their lessons with examples and references to the world outside the classroom. But these enrichments are mostly frills, not central to either the content or pedagogy of secondary school education.

Rethinking Vocational and Academic Education

Educational thinking in the United States has traditionally placed priority on college preparation. Thus the distinct track of vocational education has been seen as an option for those students who are deemed not capable of success in the more desirable academic track. As vocational programs acquired a reputation

as a ''dumping ground," a strong background in vocational courses (especially if they reduced credits in the core academic courses) has been viewed as a threat to the college aspirations of secondary school students.

This notion was further reinforced by the very influential 1983 report entitled A Nation at Risk (National Commission on Excellence in Education, 1983), which excoriated the U.S. educational system for moving away from an emphasis on core academic subjects that, according to the report, had been the basis of a previously successful American education system. Vocational courses were seen as diverting high school students from core academic activities. Despite the dubious empirical foundation of the report's conclusions, subsequent reforms in most states increased the number of academic courses required for graduation and reduced opportunities for students to take vocational courses.

The distinction between vocational students and college-bound students has always had a conceptual flaw. The large majority of students who go to four-year colleges are motivated, at least to a significant extent, by vocational objectives. In 1994, almost 247,000 bachelors degrees were conferred in business administration. That was only 30,000 less than the total number (277,500) of 1994 bachelor degree conferred in English, mathematics, philosophy, religion, physical sciences and science technologies, biological and life sciences, social sciences, and history combined . Furthermore, these "academic" fields are also vocational since many students who graduate with these degrees intend to make their living working in those fields.

Several recent economic, technological, and educational trends challenge this sharp distinction between preparation for college and for immediate post-high-school work, or, more specifically, challenge the notion that students planning to work after high school have little need for academic skills while college-bound students are best served by an abstract education with only tenuous contact with the world of work:

• First, many employers and analysts are arguing that, due to changes in the nature of work, traditional approaches to teaching vocational skills may not be effective in the future. Given the increasing pace of change and uncertainty in the workplace, young people will be better prepared, even for entry level positions and certainly for subsequent positions, if they have an underlying understanding of the scientific, mathematical, social, and even cultural aspects of the work that they will do. This has led to a growing emphasis on integrating academic and vocational education. 2
• Views about teaching and pedagogy have increasingly moved toward a more open and collaborative "student-centered" or "constructivist" teaching style that puts a great deal of emphasis on having students work together on complex, open-ended projects. This reform strategy is now widely implemented through the efforts of organizations such as the Coalition of Essential Schools, the National Center for Restructuring Education, Schools, and Teaching at
• Teachers College, and the Center for Education Research at the University of Wisconsin at Madison. Advocates of this approach have not had much interaction with vocational educators and have certainly not advocated any emphasis on directly preparing high school students for work. Nevertheless, the approach fits well with a reformed education that integrates vocational and academic skills through authentic applications. Such applications offer opportunities to explore and combine mathematical, scientific, historical, literary, sociological, economic, and cultural issues.
• In a related trend, the federal School-to-Work Opportunities Act of 1994 defines an educational strategy that combines constructivist pedagogical reforms with guided experiences in the workplace or other non-work settings. At its best, school-to-work could further integrate academic and vocational learning through appropriately designed experiences at work.
• The integration of vocational and academic education and the initiatives funded by the School-to-Work Opportunities Act were originally seen as strategies for preparing students for work after high school or community college. Some educators and policy makers are becoming convinced that these approaches can also be effective for teaching academic skills and preparing students for four-year college. Teaching academic skills in the context of realistic and complex applications from the workplace and community can provide motivational benefits and may impart a deeper understanding of the material by showing students how the academic skills are actually used. Retention may also be enhanced by giving students a chance to apply the knowledge that they often learn only in the abstract. 3
• During the last twenty years, the real wages of high school graduates have fallen and the gap between the wages earned by high school and college graduates has grown significantly. Adults with no education beyond high school have very little chance of earning enough money to support a family with a moderate lifestyle. 4 Given these wage trends, it seems appropriate and just that every high school student at least be prepared for college, even if some choose to work immediately after high school.

Innovative Examples

There are many examples of programs that use work-related applications both to teach academic skills and to prepare students for college. One approach is to organize high school programs around broad industrial or occupational areas, such as health, agriculture, hospitality, manufacturing, transportation, or the arts. These broad areas offer many opportunities for wide-ranging curricula in all academic disciplines. They also offer opportunities for collaborative work among teachers from different disciplines. Specific skills can still be taught in this format but in such a way as to motivate broader academic and theoretical themes. Innovative programs can now be found in many vocational

high schools in large cities, such as Aviation High School in New York City and the High School of Agricultural Science and Technology in Chicago. Other schools have organized schools-within-schools based on broad industry areas.

Agriculturally based activities, such as 4H and Future Farmers of America, have for many years used the farm setting and students' interest in farming to teach a variety of skills. It takes only a little imagination to think of how to use the social, economic, and scientific bases of agriculture to motivate and illustrate skills and knowledge from all of the academic disciplines. Many schools are now using internships and projects based on local business activities as teaching tools. One example among many is the integrated program offered by the Thomas Jefferson High School for Science and Technology in Virginia, linking biology, English, and technology through an environmental issues forum. Students work as partners with resource managers at the Mason Neck National Wildlife Refuge and the Mason Neck State Park to collect data and monitor the daily activities of various species that inhabit the region. They search current literature to establish a hypothesis related to a real world problem, design an experiment to test their hypothesis, run the experiment, collect and analyze data, draw conclusions, and produce a written document that communicates the results of the experiment. The students are even responsible for determining what information and resources are needed and how to access them. Student projects have included making plans for public education programs dealing with environmental matters, finding solutions to problems caused by encroaching land development, and making suggestions for how to handle the overabundance of deer in the region.

These examples suggest the potential that a more integrated education could have for all students. Thus continuing to maintain a sharp distinction between vocational and academic instruction in high school does not serve the interests of many of those students headed for four-year or two-year college or of those who expect to work after high school. Work-bound students will be better prepared for work if they have stronger academic skills, and a high-quality curriculum that integrates school-based learning into work and community applications is an effective way to teach academic skills for many students.

Despite the many examples of innovative initiatives that suggest the potential for an integrated view, the legacy of the duality between vocational and academic education and the low status of work-related studies in high school continue to influence education and education reform. In general, programs that deviate from traditional college-prep organization and format are still viewed with suspicion by parents and teachers focused on four-year college. Indeed, college admissions practices still very much favor the traditional approaches. Interdisciplinary courses, "applied" courses, internships, and other types of work experience that characterize the school-to-work strategy or programs that integrate academic and vocational education often do not fit well into college admissions requirements.

Joining Work and Learning

What implications does this have for the mathematics standards developed by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM)? The general principle should be to try to design standards that challenge rather than reinforce the distinction between vocational and academic instruction. Academic teachers of mathematics and those working to set academic standards need to continue to try to understand the use of mathematics in the workplace and in everyday life. Such understandings would offer insights that could suggest reform of the traditional curriculum, but they would also provide a better foundation for teaching mathematics using realistic applications. The examples in this volume are particularly instructive because they suggest the importance of problem solving, logic, and imagination and show that these are all important parts of mathematical applications in realistic work settings. But these are only a beginning.

In order to develop this approach, it would be helpful if the NCTM standards writers worked closely with groups that are setting industry standards. 5 This would allow both groups to develop a deeper understanding of the mathematics content of work.

The NCTM's Curriculum Standards for Grades 9-12 include both core standards for all students and additional standards for "college-intending" students. The argument presented in this essay suggests that the NCTM should dispense with the distinction between college intending and non-college intending students. Most of the additional standards, those intended only for the "college intending" students, provide background that is necessary or beneficial for the calculus sequence. A re-evaluation of the role of calculus in the high school curriculum may be appropriate, but calculus should not serve as a wedge to separate college-bound from non-college-bound students. Clearly, some high school students will take calculus, although many college-bound students will not take calculus either in high school or in college. Thus in practice, calculus is not a characteristic that distinguishes between those who are or are not headed for college. Perhaps standards for a variety of options beyond the core might be offered. Mathematics standards should be set to encourage stronger skills for all students and to illustrate the power and usefulness of mathematics in many settings. They should not be used to institutionalize dubious distinctions between groups of students.

Bailey, T. & Merritt, D. (1997). School-to-work for the collegebound . Berkeley, CA: National Center for Research in Vocational Education.

Hoachlander, G . (1997) . Organizing mathematics education around work . In L.A. Steen (Ed.), Why numbers count: Quantitative literacy for tomorrow's America , (pp. 122-136). New York: College Entrance Examination Board.

Levy, F. & Murnane, R. (1992). U.S. earnings levels and earnings inequality: A review of recent trends and proposed explanations. Journal of Economic Literature , 30 , 1333-1381.

National Commission on Excellence in Education. (1983). A nation at risk: The imperative for educational reform . Washington, DC: Author.

T HOMAS B AILEY is an Associate Professor of Economics Education at Teachers College, Columbia University. He is also Director of the Institute on Education and the Economy and Director of the Community College Research Center, both at Teachers College. He is also on the board of the National Center for Research in Vocational Education.

4— The Importance of Workplace and Everyday Mathematics

JEAN E. TAYLOR

Rutgers University

For decades our industrial society has been based on fossil fuels. In today's knowledge-based society, mathematics is the energy that drives the system. In the words of the new WQED television series, Life by the Numbers , to create knowledge we "burn mathematics." Mathematics is more than a fixed tool applied in known ways. New mathematical techniques and analyses and even conceptual frameworks are continually required in economics, in finance, in materials science, in physics, in biology, in medicine.

Just as all scientific and health-service careers are mathematically based, so are many others. Interaction with computers has become a part of more and more jobs, and good analytical skills enhance computer use and troubleshooting. In addition, virtually all levels of management and many support positions in business and industry require some mathematical understanding, including an ability to read graphs and interpret other information presented visually, to use estimation effectively, and to apply mathematical reasoning.

What Should Students Learn for Today's World?

Education in mathematics and the ability to communicate its predictions is more important than ever for moving from low-paying jobs into better-paying ones. For example, my local paper, The Times of Trenton , had a section "Focus

on Careers" on October 5, 1997 in which the majority of the ads were for high technology careers (many more than for sales and marketing, for example).

But precisely what mathematics should students learn in school? Mathematicians and mathematics educators have been discussing this question for decades. This essay presents some thoughts about three areas of mathematics—estimation, trigonometry, and algebra—and then some thoughts about teaching and learning.

Estimation is one of the harder skills for students to learn, even if they experience relatively little difficulty with other aspects of mathematics. Many students think of mathematics as a set of precise rules yielding exact answers and are uncomfortable with the idea of imprecise answers, especially when the degree of precision in the estimate depends on the context and is not itself given by a rule. Yet it is very important to be able to get an approximate sense of the size an answer should be, as a way to get a rough check on the accuracy of a calculation (I've personally used it in stores to detect that I've been charged twice for the same item, as well as often in my own mathematical work), a feasibility estimate, or as an estimation for tips.

Trigonometry plays a significant role in the sciences and can help us understand phenomena in everyday life. Often introduced as a study of triangle measurement, trigonometry may be used for surveying and for determining heights of trees, but its utility extends vastly beyond these triangular applications. Students can experience the power of mathematics by using sine and cosine to model periodic phenomena such as going around and around a circle, going in and out with tides, monitoring temperature or smog components changing on a 24-hour cycle, or the cycling of predator-prey populations.

No educator argues the importance of algebra for students aiming for mathematically-based careers because of the foundation it provides for the more specialized education they will need later. Yet, algebra is also important for those students who do not currently aspire to mathematics-based careers, in part because a lack of algebraic skills puts an upper bound on the types of careers to which a student can aspire. Former civil rights leader Robert Moses makes a good case for every student learning algebra, as a means of empowering students and providing goals, skills, and opportunities. The same idea was applied to learning calculus in the movie Stand and Deliver . How, then, can we help all students learn algebra?

For me personally, the impetus to learn algebra was at least in part to learn methods of solution for puzzles. Suppose you have 39 jars on three shelves. There are twice as many jars on the second shelf as the first, and four more jars on the third shelf than on the second shelf. How many jars are there on each shelf? Such problems are not important by themselves, but if they show the students the power of an idea by enabling them to solve puzzles that they'd like to solve, then they have value. We can't expect such problems to interest all students. How then can we reach more students?

Workplace and Everyday Settings as a Way of Making Sense

One of the common tools in business and industry for investigating mathematical issues is the spreadsheet, which is closely related to algebra. Writing a rule to combine the elements of certain cells to produce the quantity that goes into another cell is doing algebra, although the variables names are cell names rather than x or y . Therefore, setting up spreadsheet analyses requires some of the thinking that algebra requires.

By exploring mathematics via tasks which come from workplace and everyday settings, and with the aid of common tools like spreadsheets, students are more likely to see the relevance of the mathematics and are more likely to learn it in ways that are personally meaningful than when it is presented abstractly and applied later only if time permits. Thus, this essay argues that workplace and everyday tasks should be used for teaching mathematics and, in particular, for teaching algebra. It would be a mistake, however, to rely exclusively on such tasks, just as it would be a mistake to teach only spreadsheets in place of algebra.

Communicating the results of an analysis is a fundamental part of any use of mathematics on a job. There is a growing emphasis in the workplace on group work and on the skills of communicating ideas to colleagues and clients. But communicating mathematical ideas is also a powerful tool for learning, for it requires the student to sharpen often fuzzy ideas.

Some of the tasks in this volume can provide the kinds of opportunities I am talking about. Another problem, with clear connections to the real world, is the following, taken from the book entitled Consider a Spherical Cow: A Course in Environmental Problem Solving , by John Harte (1988). The question posed is: How does biomagnification of a trace substance occur? For example, how do pesticides accumulate in the food chain, becoming concentrated in predators such as condors? Specifically, identify the critical ecological and chemical parameters determining bioconcentrations in a food chain, and in terms of these parameters, derive a formula for the concentration of a trace substance in each link of a food chain. This task can be undertaken at several different levels. The analysis in Harte's book is at a fairly high level, although it still involves only algebra as a mathematical tool. The task could be undertaken at a more simple level or, on the other hand, it could be elaborated upon as suggested by further exercises given in that book. And the students could then present the results of their analyses to each other as well as the teacher, in oral or written form.

Concepts or Procedures?

When teaching mathematics, it is easy to spend so much time and energy focusing on the procedures that the concepts receive little if any attention. When teaching algebra, students often learn the procedures for using the quadratic formula or for solving simultaneous equations without thinking of intersections of curves and lines and without being able to apply the procedures in unfamiliar settings. Even

when concentrating on word problems, students often learn the procedures for solving "coin problems" and "train problems" but don't see the larger algebraic context. The formulas and procedures are important, but are not enough.

When using workplace and everyday tasks for teaching mathematics, we must avoid falling into the same trap of focusing on the procedures at the expense of the concepts. Avoiding the trap is not easy, however, because just like many tasks in school algebra, mathematically based workplace tasks often have standard procedures that can be used without an understanding of the underlying mathematics. To change a procedure to accommodate a changing business climate, to respond to changes in the tax laws, or to apply or modify a procedure to accommodate a similar situation, however, requires an understanding of the mathematical ideas behind the procedures. In particular, a student should be able to modify the procedures for assessing energy usage for heating (as in Heating-Degree-Days, p. 54) in order to assess energy usage for cooling in the summer.

To prepare our students to make such modifications on their own, it is important to focus on the concepts as well as the procedures. Workplace and everyday tasks can provide opportunities for students to attach meaning to the mathematical calculations and procedures. If a student initially solves a problem without algebra, then the thinking that went into his or her solution can help him or her make sense out of algebraic approaches that are later presented by the teacher or by other students. Such an approach is especially appropriate for teaching algebra, because our teaching of algebra needs to reach more students (too often it is seen by students as meaningless symbol manipulation) and because algebraic thinking is increasingly important in the workplace.

An Example: The Student/Professor Problem

To illustrate the complexity of learning algebra meaningfully, consider the following problem from a study by Clement, Lockhead, & Monk (1981):

Write an equation for the following statement: "There are six times as many students as professors at this university." Use S for the number of students and P for the number of professors. (p. 288)

The authors found that of 47 nonscience majors taking college algebra, 57% got it wrong. What is more surprising, however, is that of 150 calculus-level students, 37% missed the problem.

A first reaction to the most common wrong answer, 6 S = P , is that the students simply translated the words of the problems into mathematical symbols without thinking more deeply about the situation or the variables. (The authors note that some textbooks instruct students to use such translation.)

By analyzing transcripts of interviews with students, the authors found this approach and another (faulty) approach, as well. These students often drew a diagram showing six students and one professor. (Note that we often instruct students to draw diagrams when solving word problems.) Reasoning

from the diagram, and regarding S and P as units, the student may write 6 S = P , just as we would correctly write 12 in. = 1 ft. Such reasoning is quite sensible, though it misses the fundamental intent in the problem statement that S is to represent the number of students, not a student.

Thus, two common suggestions for students—word-for-word translation and drawing a diagram—can lead to an incorrect answer to this apparently simple problem, if the students do not more deeply contemplate what the variables are intended to represent. The authors found that students who wrote and could explain the correct answer, S = 6 P , drew upon a richer understanding of what the equation and the variables represent.

Clearly, then, we must encourage students to contemplate the meanings of variables. Yet, part of the power and efficiency of algebra is precisely that one can manipulate symbols independently of what they mean and then draw meaning out of the conclusions to which the symbolic manipulations lead. Thus, stable, long-term learning of algebraic thinking requires both mastery of procedures and also deeper analytical thinking.

Paradoxically, the need for sharper analytical thinking occurs alongside a decreased need for routine arithmetic calculation. Calculators and computers make routine calculation easier to do quickly and accurately; cash registers used in fast food restaurants sometimes return change; checkout counters have bar code readers and payment takes place by credit cards or money-access cards.

So it is education in mathematical thinking, in applying mathematical computation, in assessing whether an answer is reasonable, and in communicating the results that is essential. Teaching mathematics via workplace and everyday problems is an approach that can make mathematics more meaningful for all students. It is important, however, to go beyond the specific details of a task in order to teach mathematical ideas. While this approach is particularly crucial for those students intending to pursue careers in the mathematical sciences, it will also lead to deeper mathematical understanding for all students.

Clement, J., Lockhead, J., & Monk, G. (1981). Translation difficulties in learning mathematics. American Mathematical Monthly , 88 , 286-290.

Harte, J. (1988). Consider a spherical cow: A course in environmental problem solving . York, PA: University Science Books.

J EAN E. T AYLOR is Professor of Mathematics at Rutgers, the State University of New Jersey. She is currently a member of the Board of Directors of the American Association for the Advancement of Science and formerly chaired its Section A Nominating Committee. She has served as Vice President and as a Member-at-Large of the Council of the American Mathematical Society, and served on its Executive Committee and its Nominating Committee. She has also been a member of the Joint Policy Board for Mathematics, and a member of the Board of Advisors to The Geometry Forum (now The Mathematics Forum) and to the WQED television series, Life by the Numbers .

5— Working with Algebra

DANIEL CHAZAN

Michigan State University

SANDRA CALLIS BETHELL

Holt High School

Teaching a mathematics class in which few of the students have demonstrated success is a difficult assignment. Many teachers avoid such assignments, when possible. On the one hand, high school mathematics teachers, like Bertrand Russell, might love mathematics and believe something like the following:

Mathematics, rightly viewed, possesses not only truth, but supreme beauty—a beauty cold and austere, like that of sculpture, without appeal to any part of our weaker nature, without the gorgeous trappings of painting or music, yet sublimely pure, and capable of a stern perfection such as only the greatest art can show. … Remote from human passions, remote even from the pitiful facts of nature, the generations have gradually created an ordered cosmos, where pure thought can dwell as in its nature home, and where one, at least, of our nobler impulses can escape from the dreary exile of the natural world. (Russell, 1910, p. 73)

But, on the other hand, students may not have the luxury, in their circumstances, of appreciating this beauty. Many of them may not see themselves as thinkers because contemplation would take them away from their primary

focus: how to get by in a world that was not created for them. Instead, like Jamaica Kincaid, they may be asking:

What makes the world turn against me and all who look like me? I won nothing, I survey nothing, when I ask this question, the luxury of an answer that will fill volumes does not stretch out before me. When I ask this question, my voice is filled with despair. (Kincaid, 1996, pp. 131-132)

Our Teaching and Issues it Raised

During the 1991-92 and 1992-93 school years, we (a high school teacher and a university teacher educator) team taught a lower track Algebra I class for 10th through 12th grade students. 1 Most of our students had failed mathematics before, and many needed to pass Algebra I in order to complete their high school mathematics requirement for graduation. For our students, mathematics had become a charged subject; it carried a heavy burden of negative experiences. Many of our students were convinced that neither they nor their peers could be successful in mathematics.

Few of our students did well in other academic subjects, and few were headed on to two- or four-year colleges. But the students differed in their affiliation with the high school. Some, called ''preppies" or "jocks" by others, were active participants in the school's activities. Others, "smokers" or "stoners," were rebelling to differing degrees against school and more broadly against society. There were strong tensions between members of these groups. 2

Teaching in this setting gives added importance and urgency to the typical questions of curriculum and motivation common to most algebra classes. In our teaching, we explored questions such as the following:

• What is it that we really want high school students, especially those who are not college-intending, to study in algebra and why?
• What is the role of algebra's manipulative skills in a world with graphing calculators and computers? How do the manipulative skills taught in the traditional curriculum give students a new perspective on, and insight into, our world?
• If our teaching efforts depend on students' investment in learning, on what grounds can we appeal to them, implicitly or explicitly, for energy and effort? In a tracked, compulsory setting, how can we help students, with broad interests and talents and many of whom are not college-intending, see value in a shared exploration of algebra?

An Approach to School Algebra

As a result of thinking about these questions, in our teaching we wanted to avoid being in the position of exhorting students to appreciate the beauty or utility of algebra. Our students were frankly skeptical of arguments based on

utility. They saw few people in their community using algebra. We had also lost faith in the power of extrinsic rewards and punishments, like failing grades. Many of our students were skeptical of the power of the high school diploma to alter fundamentally their life circumstances. We wanted students to find the mathematical objects we were discussing in the world around them and thus learn to value the perspective that this mathematics might give them on their world.

To help us in this task, we found it useful to take what we call a "relationships between quantities" approach to school algebra. In this approach, the fundamental mathematical objects of study in school algebra are functions that can be represented by inputs and outputs listed in tables or sketched or plotted on graphs, as well as calculation procedures that can be written with algebraic symbols. 3 Stimulated, in part, by the following quote from August Comte, we viewed these functions as mathematical representations of theories people have developed for explaining relationships between quantities.

In the light of previous experience, we must acknowledge the impossibility of determining, by direct measurement, most of the heights and distances we should like to know. It is this general fact which makes the science of mathematics necessary. For in renouncing the hope, in almost every case, of measuring great heights or distances directly, the human mind has had to attempt to determine them indirectly, and it is thus that philosophers were led to invent mathematics. (Quoted in Serres, 1982, p. 85)

The "Sponsor" Project

Using this approach to the concept of function, during the 1992-93 school year, we designed a year-long project for our students. The project asked pairs of students to find the mathematical objects we were studying in the workplace of a community sponsor. Students visited the sponsor's workplace four times during the year—three after-school visits and one day-long excused absence from school. In these visits, the students came to know the workplace and learned about the sponsor's work. We then asked students to write a report describing the sponsor's workplace and answering questions about the nature of the mathematical activity embedded in the workplace. The questions are organized in Table 5-1 .

Using These Questions

In order to determine how the interviews could be structured and to provide students with a model, we chose to interview Sandra's husband, John Bethell, who is a coatings inspector for an engineering firm. When asked about his job, John responded, "I argue for a living." He went on to describe his daily work inspecting contractors painting water towers. Since most municipalities contract with the lowest bidder when a water tower needs to be painted, they will often hire an engineering firm to make sure that the contractor works according to specification. Since the contractor has made a low bid, there are strong

TABLE 5-1: Questions to ask in the workplace

financial incentives for the contractor to compromise on quality in order to make a profit.

In his work John does different kinds of inspections. For example, he has a magnetic instrument to check the thickness of the paint once it has been applied to the tower. When it gives a "thin" reading, contractors often question the technology. To argue for the reading, John uses the surface area of the tank, the number of paint cans used, the volume of paint in the can, and an understanding of the percentage of this volume that evaporates to calculate the average thickness of the dry coating. Other examples from his workplace involve the use of tables and measuring instruments of different kinds.

Some Examples of Students' Work

When school started, students began working on their projects. Although many of the sponsors initially indicated that there were no mathematical dimensions to their work, students often were able to show sponsors places where the mathematics we were studying was to be found. For example, Jackie worked with a crop and soil scientist. She was intrigued by the way in which measurement of weight is used to count seeds. First, her sponsor would weigh a test batch of 100 seeds to generate a benchmark weight. Then, instead of counting a large number of seeds, the scientist would weigh an amount of seeds and compute the number of seeds such a weight would contain.

Rebecca worked with a carpeting contractor who, in estimating costs, read the dimensions of rectangular rooms off an architect's blueprint, multiplied to find the area of the room in square feet (doing conversions where necessary), then multiplied by a cost per square foot (which depended on the type of carpet) to compute the cost of the carpet. The purpose of these estimates was to prepare a bid for the architect where the bid had to be as low as possible without making the job unprofitable. Rebecca used a chart ( Table 5-2 ) to explain this procedure to the class.

Joe and Mick, also working in construction, found out that in laying pipes, there is a "one by one" rule of thumb. When digging a trench for the placement of the pipe, the non-parallel sides of the trapezoidal cross section must have a slope of 1 foot down for every one foot across. This ratio guarantees that the dirt in the hole will not slide down on itself. Thus, if at the bottom of the hole, the trapezoid must have a certain width in order to fit the pipe, then on ground level the hole must be this width plus twice the depth of the hole. Knowing in advance how wide the hole must be avoids lengthy and costly trial and error.

Other students found that functions were often embedded in cultural artifacts found in the workplace. For example, a student who visited a doctor's office brought in an instrument for predicting the due dates of pregnant women, as well as providing information about average fetal weight and length ( Figure 5-1 ).

TABLE 5-2: Cost of carpet worksheet

FIGURE 5-1: Pregnancy wheel

While the complexities of organizing this sort of project should not be minimized—arranging sponsors, securing parental permission, and meeting administrators and parent concerns about the requirement of off-campus, after-school work—we remain intrigued by the potential of such projects for helping students see mathematics in the world around them. The notions of identifying central mathematical objects for a course and then developing ways of identifying those objects in students' experience seems like an important alternative to the use of application-based materials written by developers whose lives and social worlds may be quite different from those of students.

Chazen, D. (1996). Algebra for all students? Journal of Mathematical Behavior , 15 (4), 455-477.

Eckert, P. (1989). Jocks and burnouts: Social categories and identity in the high school . New York: Teachers College Press.

Fey, J. T., Heid, M. K., et al. (1995). Concepts in algebra: A technological approach . Dedham, MA: Janson Publications.

Kieran, C., Boileau, A., & Garancon, M. (1996). Introducing algebra by mean of a technology-supported, functional approach. In N. Bednarz et al. (Eds.), Approaches to algebra , (pp. 257-293). Kluwer Academic Publishers: Dordrecht, The Netherlands.

Kincaid, J. (1996). The autobiography of my mother . New York: Farrar, Straus, Giroux.

Nemirovsky, R. (1996). Mathematical narratives, modeling and algebra. In N. Bednarz et al. (Eds.) Approaches to algebra , (pp. 197-220). Kluwer Academic Publishers: Dordrecht, The Netherlands.

Russell, B. (1910). Philosophical Essays . London: Longmans, Green.

Schwartz, J. & Yerushalmy, M. (1992). Getting students to function in and with algebra. In G. Harel & E. Dubinsky (Eds.), The concept of function: Aspects of epistemology and pedagogy , (MAA Notes, Vol. 25, pp. 261-289). Washington, DC: Mathematical Association of America.

Serres, M. (1982). Mathematics and philosophy: What Thales saw … In J. Harari & D. Bell (Eds.), Hermes: Literature, science, philosophy , (pp. 84-97). Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins.

Thompson, P. (1993). Quantitative reasoning, complexity, and additive structures. Educational Studies in Mathematics , 25 , 165-208.

Yerushalmy, M. & Schwartz, J. L. (1993). Seizing the opportunity to make algebra mathematically and pedagogically interesting. In T. A. Romberg, E. Fennema, & T. P. Carpenter (Eds.), Integrating research on the graphical representation of functions , (pp. 41-68). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

D ANIEL C HAZAN is an Associate Professor of Teacher Education at Michigan State University. To assist his research in mathematics teaching and learning, he has taught algebra at the high school level. His interests include teaching mathematics by examining student ideas, using computers to support student exploration, and the potential for the history and philosophy of mathematics to inform teaching.

S ANDRA C ALLIS B ETHELL has taught mathematics and Spanish at Holt High School for 10 years. She has also completed graduate work at Michigan State University and Western Michigan University. She has interest in mathematics reform, particularly in meeting the needs of diverse learners in algebra courses.

Emergency Calls

A city is served by two different ambulance companies. City logs record the date, the time of the call, the ambulance company, and the response time for each 911 call ( Table 1 ). Analyze these data and write a report to the City Council (with supporting charts and graphs) advising it on which ambulance company the 911 operators should choose to dispatch for calls from this region.

TABLE 1: Ambulance dispatch log sheet, May 1–30

This problem confronts the student with a realistic situation and a body of data regarding two ambulance companies' response times to emergency calls. The data the student is provided are typically "messy"—just a log of calls and response times, ordered chronologically. The question is how to make sense of them. Finding patterns in data such as these requires a productive mixture of mathematics common sense, and intellectual detective work. It's the kind of reasoning that students should be able to do—the kind of reasoning that will pay off in the real world.

Mathematical Analysis

In this case, a numerical analysis is not especially informative. On average, the companies are about the same: Arrow has a mean response time of 11.4 minutes compared to 11.6 minutes for Metro. The spread of the data is also not very helpful. The ranges of their distributions are exactly the same: from 6 minutes to 19 minutes. The standard deviation of Arrow's response time is a little longer—4.3 minutes versus 3.4 minutes for Metro—indicating that Arrow's response times fluctuate a bit more.

Graphs of the response times (Figures 1 and 2 ) reveal interesting features. Both companies, especially Arrow, seem to have bimodal distributions, which is to say that there are two clusters of data without much data in between.

FIGURE 1: Distribution of Arrow's response times

FIGURE 2: Distribution of Metro's response times

The distributions for both companies suggest that there are some other factors at work. Might a particular driver be the problem? Might the slow response times for either company be on particular days of the week or at particular times of day? Graphs of the response time versus the time of day (Figures 3 and 4 ) shed some light on these questions.

FIGURE 3: Arrow response times by time of day

FIGURE 4: Metro response times by time of day

These graphs show that Arrow's response times were fast except between 5:30 AM and 9:00 AM, when they were about 9 minutes slower on average. Similarly, Metro's response times were fast except between about 3:30 PM and 6:30 PM, when they were about 5 minutes slower. Perhaps the locations of the companies make Arrow more susceptible to the morning rush hour and Metro more susceptible to the afternoon rush hour. On the other hand, the employees on Arrow's morning shift or Metro's afternoon shift may not be efficient. To avoid slow responses, one could recommend to the City Council that Metro be called during the morning and that Arrow be called during the afternoon. A little detective work into the sources of the differences between the companies may yield a better recommendation.

Comparisons may be drawn between two samples in various contexts—response times for various services (taxis, computer-help desks, 24-hour hot lines at automobile manufacturers) being one class among many. Depending upon the circumstances, the data may tell very different stories. Even in the situation above, if the second pair of graphs hadn't offered such clear explanations, one might have argued that although the response times for Arrow were better on average the spread was larger, thus making their "extremes" more risky. The fundamental idea is using various analysis and representation techniques to make sense of data when the important factors are not necessarily known ahead of time.

Back-of-the-Envelope Estimates

Practice "back-of-the-envelope" estimates based on rough approximations that can be derived from common sense or everyday observations. Examples:

• Consider a public high school mathematics teacher who feels that students should work five nights a week, averaging about 35 minutes a night, doing focused on-task work and who intends to grade all homework with comments and corrections. What is a reasonable number of hours per week that such a teacher should allocate for grading homework?
• How much paper does The New York Times use in a week? A paper company that wishes to make a bid to become their sole supplier needs to know whether they have enough current capacity. If the company were to store a two-week supply of newspaper, will their empty 14,000 square foot warehouse be big enough?

Some 50 years ago, physicist Enrico Fermi asked his students at the University of Chicago, "How many piano tuners are there in Chicago?" By asking such questions, Fermi wanted his students to make estimates that involved rough approximations so that their goal would be not precision but the order of magnitude of their result. Thus, many people today call these kinds of questions "Fermi questions." These generally rough calculations often require little more than common sense, everyday observations, and a scrap of paper, such as the back of a used envelope.

Scientists and mathematicians use the idea of order of magnitude , usually expressed as the closest power of ten, to give a rough sense of the size of a quantity. In everyday conversation, people use a similar idea when they talk about "being in the right ballpark." For example, a full-time job at minimum wage yields an annual income on the order of magnitude of $10,000 or 10 4 dollars. Some corporate executives and professional athletes make annual salaries on the order of magnitude of $10,000,000 or 10 7 dollars. To say that these salaries differ by a factor of 1000 or 10 3 , one can say that they differ by three orders of magnitude. Such a lack of precision might seem unscientific or unmathematical, but such approximations are quite useful in determining whether a more precise measurement is feasible or necessary, what sort of action might be required, or whether the result of a calculation is "in the right ballpark." In choosing a strategy to protect an endangered species, for example, scientists plan differently if there are 500 animals remaining than if there are 5,000. On the other hand, determining whether 5,200 or 6,300 is a better estimate is not necessary, as the strategies will probably be the same.

Careful reasoning with everyday observations can usually produce Fermi estimates that are within an order of magnitude of the exact answer (if there is one). Fermi estimates encourage students to reason creatively with approximate quantities and uncertain information. Experiences with such a process can help an individual function in daily life to determine the reasonableness of numerical calculations, of situations or ideas in the workplace, or of a proposed tax cut. A quick estimate of some revenue- or profit-enhancing scheme may show that the idea is comparable to suggesting that General Motors enter the summer sidewalk lemonade market in your neighborhood. A quick estimate could encourage further investigation or provide the rationale to dismiss the idea.

Almost any numerical claim may be treated as a Fermi question when the problem solver does not have access to all necessary background information. In such a situation, one may make rough guesses about relevant numbers, do a few calculations, and then produce estimates.

The examples are solved separately below.

Grading Homework

Although many component factors vary greatly from teacher to teacher or even from week to week, rough calculations are not hard to make. Some important factors to consider for the teacher are: how many classes he or she teaches, how many students are in each of the classes, how much experience has the teacher had in general and has the teacher previously taught the classes, and certainly, as part of teaching style, the kind of homework the teacher assigns, not to mention the teacher's efficiency in grading.

Suppose the teacher has 5 classes averaging 25 students per class. Because the teacher plans to write corrections and comments, assume that the students' papers contain more than a list of answers—they show some student work and, perhaps, explain some of the solutions. Grading such papers might take as long as 10 minutes each, or perhaps even longer. Assuming that the teacher can grade them as quickly as 3 minutes each, on average, the teacher's grading time is:

This is an impressively large number, especially for a teacher who already spends almost 25 hours/week in class, some additional time in preparation, and some time meeting with individual students. Is it reasonable to expect teachers to put in that kind of time? What compromises or other changes might the teacher make to reduce the amount of time? The calculation above offers four possibilities: Reduce the time spent on each homework paper, reduce the number of students per class, reduce the number of classes taught each day, or reduce the number of days per week that homework will be collected. If the teacher decides to spend at most 2 hours grading each night, what is the total number of students for which the teacher should have responsibility? This calculation is a partial reverse of the one above:

If the teacher still has 5 classes, that would mean 8 students per class!

The New York Times

Answering this question requires two preliminary estimates: the circulation of The New York Times and the size of the newspaper. The answers will probably be different on Sundays. Though The New York Times is a national newspaper, the number of subscribers outside the New York metropolitan area is probably small compared to the number inside. The population of the New York metropolitan area is roughly ten million people. Since most families buy at most one copy, and not all families buy The New York Times , the circulation might be about 1 million newspapers each day. (A circulation of 500,000 seems too small and 2 million seems too big.) The Sunday and weekday editions probably have different

circulations, but assume that they are the same since they probably differ by less than a factor of two—much less than an order of magnitude. When folded, a weekday edition of the paper measures about 1/2 inch thick, a little more than 1 foot long, and about 1 foot wide. A Sunday edition of the paper is the same width and length, but perhaps 2 inches thick. For a week, then, the papers would stack 6 × 1/2 + 2 = 5 inches thick, for a total volume of about 1 ft × 1 ft × 5/12 ft = 0.5 ft 3 .

The whole circulation, then, would require about 1/2 million cubic feet of paper per week, or about 1 million cubic feet for a two-week supply.

Is the company's warehouse big enough? The paper will come on rolls, but to make the estimates easy, assume it is stacked. If it were stacked 10 feet high, the supply would require 100,000 square feet of floor space. The company's 14,000 square foot storage facility will probably not be big enough as its size differs by almost an order of magnitude from the estimate. The circulation estimate and the size of the newspaper estimate should each be within a factor of 2, implying that the 100,000 square foot estimate is off by at most a factor of 4—less than an order of magnitude.

How big a warehouse is needed? An acre is 43,560 square feet so about two acres of land is needed. Alternatively, a warehouse measuring 300 ft × 300 ft (the length of a football field in both directions) would contain 90,000 square feet of floor space, giving a rough idea of the size.

After gaining some experience with these types of problems, students can be encouraged to pay close attention to the units and to be ready to make and support claims about the accuracy of their estimates. Paying attention to units and including units as algebraic quantities in calculations is a common technique in engineering and the sciences. Reasoning about a formula by paying attention only to the units is called dimensional analysis.

Sometimes, rather than a single estimate, it is helpful to make estimates of upper and lower bounds. Such an approach reinforces the idea that an exact answer is not the goal. In many situations, students could first estimate upper and lower bounds, and then collect some real data to determine whether the answer lies between those bounds. In the traditional game of guessing the number of jelly beans in a jar, for example, all students should be able to estimate within an order of magnitude, or perhaps within a factor of two. Making the closest guess, however, involves some chance.

Fermi questions are useful outside the workplace. Some Fermi questions have political ramifications:

• How many miles of streets are in your city or town? The police chief is considering increasing police presence so that every street is patrolled by car at least once every 4 hours.
• When will your town fill up its landfill? Is this a very urgent matter for the town's waste management personnel to assess in depth?
• In his 1997 State of the Union address, President Clinton renewed his call for a tax deduction of up to $10,000 for the cost of college tuition. He estimates that 16.5 million students stand to benefit. Is this a reasonable estimate of the number who might take advantage of the tax deduction? How much will the deduction cost in lost federal revenue?

Creating Fermi problems is easy. Simply ask quantitative questions for which there is no practical way to determine exact values. Students could be encouraged to make up their own. Examples are: ''How many oak trees are there in Illinois?" or "How many people in the U.S. ate chicken for dinner last night?" "If all the people in the world were to jump in the ocean, how much would it raise the water level?" Give students the opportunity to develop their own Fermi problems and to share them with each other. It can stimulate some real mathematical thinking.

Scheduling Elevators

In some buildings, all of the elevators can travel to all of the floors, while in others the elevators are restricted to stopping only on certain floors. What is the advantage of having elevators that travel only to certain floors? When is this worth instituting?

Scheduling elevators is a common example of an optimization problem that has applications in all aspects of business and industry. Optimal scheduling in general not only can save time and money, but it can contribute to safety (e.g., in the airline industry). The elevator problem further illustrates an important feature of many economic and political arguments—the dilemma of trying simultaneously to optimize several different needs.

Politicians often promise policies that will be the least expensive, save the most lives, and be best for the environment. Think of flood control or occupational safety rules, for example. When we are lucky, we can perhaps find a strategy of least cost, a strategy that saves the most lives, or a strategy that damages the environment least. But these might not be the same strategies: generally one cannot simultaneously satisfy two or more independent optimization conditions. This is an important message for students to learn, in order to become better educated and more critical consumers and citizens.

In the elevator problem, customer satisfaction can be emphasized by minimizing the average elevator time (waiting plus riding) for employees in an office building. Minimizing wait-time during rush hours means delivering many people quickly, which might be accomplished by filling the elevators and making few stops. During off-peak hours, however, minimizing wait-time means maximizing the availability of the elevators. There is no reason to believe that these two goals will yield the same strategy. Finding the best strategy for each is a mathematical problem; choosing one of the two strategies or a compromise strategy is a management decision, not a mathematical deduction.

This example serves to introduce a complex topic whose analysis is well within the range of high school students. Though the calculations require little more than arithmetic, the task puts a premium on the creation of reasonable alternative strategies. Students should recognize that some configurations (e.g., all but one elevator going to the top floor and the one going to all the others) do not merit consideration, while others are plausible. A systematic evaluation of all possible configurations is usually required to find the optimal solution. Such a systematic search of the possible solution space is important in many modeling situations where a formal optimal strategy is not known. Creating and evaluating reasonable strategies for the elevators is quite appropriate for high school student mathematics and lends itself well to thoughtful group effort. How do you invent new strategies? How do you know that you have considered all plausible strategies? These are mathematical questions, and they are especially amenable to group discussion.

Students should be able to use the techniques first developed in solving a simple case with only a few stories and a few elevators to address more realistic situations (e.g., 50 stories, five elevators). Using the results of a similar but simpler problem to model a more complicated problem is an important way to reason in mathematics. Students

need to determine what data and variables are relevant. Start by establishing the kind of building—a hotel, an office building, an apartment building? How many people are on the different floors? What are their normal destinations (e.g., primarily the ground floor or, perhaps, a roof-top restaurant). What happens during rush hours?

To be successful at the elevator task, students must first develop a mathematical model of the problem. The model might be a graphical representation for each elevator, with time on the horizontal axis and the floors represented on the vertical axis, or a tabular representation indicating the time spent on each floor. Students must identify the pertinent variables and make simplifying assumptions about which of the possible floors an elevator will visit.

This section works through some of the details in a particularly simple case. Consider an office building with six occupied floors, employing 240 people, and a ground floor that is not used for business. Suppose there are three elevators, each of which can hold 10 people. Further suppose that each elevator takes approximately 25 seconds to fill on the ground floor, then takes 5 seconds to move between floors and 15 seconds to open and close at each floor on which it stops.

Scenario One

What happens in the morning when everyone arrives for work? Assume that everyone arrives at approximately the same time and enters the elevators on the ground floor. If all elevators go to all floors and if the 240 people are evenly divided among all three elevators, each elevator will have to make 8 trips of 10 people each.

When considering a single trip of one elevator, assume for simplicity that 10 people get on the elevator at the ground floor and that it stops at each floor on the way up, because there may be an occupant heading to each floor. Adding 5 seconds to move to each floor and 15 seconds to stop yields 20 seconds for each of the six floors. On the way down, since no one is being picked up or let off, the elevator does not stop, taking 5 seconds for each of six floors for a total of 30 seconds. This round-trip is represented in Table 1 .

TABLE 1: Elevator round-trip time, Scenario one

Since each elevator makes 8 trips, the total time will be 1,400 seconds or 23 minutes, 20 seconds.

Scenario Two

Now suppose that one elevator serves floors 1–3 and, because of the longer trip, two elevators are assigned to floors 4–6. The elevators serving the top

TABLE 2: Elevator round-trip times, Scenario two

floors will save 15 seconds for each of floors 1–3 by not stopping. The elevator serving the bottom floors will save 20 seconds for each of the top floors and will save time on the return trip as well. The times for these trips are shown in Table 2 .

Assuming the employees are evenly distributed among the floors (40 people per floor), elevator A will transport 120 people, requiring 12 trips, and elevators B and C will transport 120 people, requiring 6 trips each. These trips will take 1200 seconds (20 minutes) for elevator A and 780 seconds (13 minutes) for elevators B and C, resulting in a small time savings (about 3 minutes) over the first scenario. Because elevators B and C are finished so much sooner than elevator A, there is likely a more efficient solution.

Scenario Three

The two round-trip times in Table 2 do not differ by much because the elevators move quickly between floors but stop at floors relatively slowly. This observation suggests that a more efficient arrangement might be to assign each elevator to a pair of floors. The times for such a scenario are listed in Table 3 .

Again assuming 40 employees per floor, each elevator will deliver 80 people, requiring 8 trips, taking at most a total of 920 seconds. Thus this assignment of elevators results in a time savings of almost 35% when compared with the 1400 seconds it would take to deliver all employees via unassigned elevators.

TABLE 3: Elevator round-trip times, Scenario three

Perhaps this is the optimal solution. If so, then the above analysis of this simple case suggests two hypotheses:

• The optimal solution assigns each floor to a single elevator.
• If the time for stopping is sufficiently larger than the time for moving between floors, each elevator should serve the same number of floors.

Mathematically, one could try to show that this solution is optimal by trying all possible elevator assignments or by carefully reasoning, perhaps by showing that the above hypotheses are correct. Practically, however, it doesn't matter because this solution considers only the morning rush hour and ignores periods of low use.

The assignment is clearly not optimal during periods of low use, and much of the inefficiency is related to the first hypothesis for rush hour optimization: that each floor is served by a single elevator. With this condition, if an employee on floor 6 arrives at the ground floor just after elevator C has departed, for example, she or he will have to wait nearly two minutes for elevator C to return, even if elevators A and B are idle. There are other inefficiencies that are not considered by focusing on the rush hour. Because each floor is served by a single elevator, an employee who wishes to travel from floor 3 to floor 6, for example, must go via the ground floor and switch elevators. Most employees would prefer more flexibility than a single elevator serving each floor.

At times when the elevators are not all busy, unassigned elevators will provide the quickest response and the greatest flexibility.

Because this optimal solution conflicts with the optimal rush hour solution, some compromise is necessary. In this simple case, perhaps elevator A could serve all floors, elevator B could serve floors 1-3, and elevator C could serve floors 4-6.

The second hypothesis, above, deserves some further thought. The efficiency of the rush hour solution Table 3 is due in part to the even division of employees among the floors. If employees were unevenly distributed with, say, 120 of the 240 people working on the top two floors, then elevator C would need to make 12 trips, taking a total of 1380 seconds, resulting in almost no benefit over unassigned elevators. Thus, an efficient solution in an actual building must take into account the distribution of the employees among the floors.

Because the stopping time on each floor is three times as large as the traveling time between floors (15 seconds versus 5 seconds), this solution effectively ignores the traveling time by assigning the same number of employees to each elevator. For taller buildings, the traveling time will become more significant. In those cases fewer employees should be assigned to the elevators that serve the upper floors than are assigned to the elevators that serve the lower floors.

The problem can be made more challenging by altering the number of elevators, the number of floors, and the number of individuals working on each floor. The rate of movement of elevators can be determined by observing buildings in the local area. Some elevators move more quickly than others. Entrance and exit times could also be measured by students collecting

data on local elevators. In a similar manner, the number of workers, elevators, and floors could be taken from local contexts.

A related question is, where should the elevators go when not in use? Is it best for them to return to the ground floor? Should they remain where they were last sent? Should they distribute themselves evenly among the floors? Or should they go to floors of anticipated heavy traffic? The answers will depend on the nature of the building and the time of day. Without analysis, it will not be at all clear which strategy is best under specific conditions. In some buildings, the elevators are controlled by computer programs that "learn" and then anticipate the traffic patterns in the building.

A different example that students can easily explore in detail is the problem of situating a fire station or an emergency room in a city. Here the key issue concerns travel times to the region being served, with conflicting optimization goals: average time vs. maximum time. A location that minimizes the maximum time of response may not produce the least average time of response. Commuters often face similar choices in selecting routes to work. They may want to minimize the average time, the maximum time, or perhaps the variance, so that their departure and arrival times are more predictable.

Most of the optimization conditions discussed so far have been expressed in units of time. Sometimes, however, two optimization conditions yield strategies whose outcomes are expressed in different (and sometimes incompatible) units of measurement. In many public policy issues (e.g., health insurance) the units are lives and money. For environmental issues, sometimes the units themselves are difficult to identify (e.g., quality of life).

When one of the units is money, it is easy to find expensive strategies but impossible to find ones that have virtually no cost. In some situations, such as airline safety, which balances lives versus dollars, there is no strategy that minimize lives lost (since additional dollars always produce slight increases in safety), and the strategy that minimizes dollars will be at $0. Clearly some compromise is necessary. Working with models of different solutions can help students understand the consequences of some of the compromises.

Heating-Degree-Days

An energy consulting firm that recommends and installs insulation and similar energy saving devices has received a complaint from a customer. Last summer she paid $540 to insulate her attic on the prediction that it would save 10% on her natural gas bills. Her gas bills have been higher than the previous winter, however, and now she wants a refund on the cost of the insulation. She admits that this winter has been colder than the last, but she had expected still to see some savings.

The facts: This winter the customer has used 1,102 therms, whereas last winter she used only 1,054 therms. This winter has been colder: 5,101 heating-degree-days this winter compared to 4,201 heating-degree-days last winter. (See explanation below.) How does a representative of the energy consulting firm explain to this customer that the accumulated heating-degree-days measure how much colder this winter has been, and then explain how to calculate her anticipated versus her actual savings.

Explaining the mathematics behind a situation can be challenging and requires a real knowledge of the context, the procedures, and the underlying mathematical concepts. Such communication of mathematical ideas is a powerful learning device for students of mathematics as well as an important skill for the workplace. Though the procedure for this problem involves only proportions, a thorough explanation of the mathematics behind the procedure requires understanding of linear modeling and related algebraic reasoning, accumulation and other precursors of calculus, as well as an understanding of energy usage in home heating.

The customer seems to understand that a straight comparison of gas usage does not take into account the added costs of colder weather, which can be significant. But before calculating any anticipated or actual savings, the customer needs some understanding of heating-degree-days. For many years, weather services and oil and gas companies have been using heating-degree-days to explain and predict energy usage and to measure energy savings of insulation and other devices. Similar degree-day units are also used in studying insect populations and crop growth. The concept provides a simple measure of the accumulated amount of cold or warm weather over time. In the discussion that follows, all temperatures are given in degrees Fahrenheit, although the process is equally workable using degrees Celsius.

Suppose, for example, that the minimum temperature in a city on a given day is 52 degrees and the maximum temperature is 64 degrees. The average temperature for the day is then taken to be 58 degrees. Subtracting that result from 65 degrees (the cutoff point for heating), yields 7 heating-degree-days for the day. By recording high and low temperatures and computing their average each day, heating-degree-days can be accumulated over the course of a month, a winter, or any period of time as a measure of the coldness of that period.

Over five consecutive days, for example, if the average temperatures were 58, 50, 60, 67, and 56 degrees Fahrenheit, the calculation yields 7, 15, 5, 0, and 9 heating-degree-days respectively, for a total accumulation of 36 heating-degree-days for the five days. Note that the fourth day contributes 0 heating-degree-days to the total because the temperature was above 65 degrees.

The relationship between average temperatures and heating-degree-days is represented graphically in Figure 1 . The average temperatures are shown along the solid line graph. The area of each shaded rectangle represents the number of heating-degree-days for that day, because the width of each rectangle is one day and the height of each rectangle is the number of degrees below 65 degrees. Over time, the sum of the areas of the rectangles represents the number of heating-degree-days accumulated during the period. (Teachers of calculus will recognize connections between these ideas and integral calculus.)

The statement that accumulated heating-degree-days should be proportional to gas or heating oil usage is based primarily on two assumptions: first, on a day for which the average temperature is above 65 degrees, no heating should be required, and therefore there should be no gas or heating oil usage; second, a day for which the average temperature is 25 degrees (40 heating-degree-days) should require twice as much heating as a day for which the average temperature is 45

FIGURE 1: Daily heating-degree-days

degrees (20 heating-degree-days) because there is twice the temperature difference from the 65 degree cutoff.

The first assumption is reasonable because most people would not turn on their heat if the temperature outside is above 65 degrees. The second assumption is consistent with Newton's law of cooling, which states that the rate at which an object cools is proportional to the difference in temperature between the object and its environment. That is, a house which is 40 degrees warmer than its environment will cool at twice the rate (and therefore consume energy at twice the rate to keep warm) of a house which is 20 degrees warmer than its environment.

The customer who accepts the heating-degree-day model as a measure of energy usage can compare this winter's usage with that of last winter. Because 5,101/4,201 = 1.21, this winter has been 21% colder than last winter, and therefore each house should require 21% more heat than last winter. If this customer hadn't installed the insulation, she would have required 21% more heat than last year, or about 1,275 therms. Instead, she has required only 5% more heat (1,102/1,054 = 1.05), yielding a savings of 14% off what would have been required (1,102/1,275 = .86).

Another approach to this would be to note that last year the customer used 1,054 therms/4,201 heating-degree-days = .251 therms/heating-degree-day, whereas this year she has used 1,102 therms/5,101 heating-degree-days = .216 therms/heating-degree-day, a savings of 14%, as before.

How good is the heating-degree-day model in predicting energy usage? In a home that has a thermometer and a gas meter or a gauge on a tank, students could record daily data for gas usage and high and low temperature to test the accuracy of the model. Data collection would require only a few minutes per day for students using an electronic indoor/outdoor thermometer that tracks high and low temperatures. Of course, gas used for cooking and heating water needs to be taken into account. For homes in which the gas tank has no gauge or doesn't provide accurate enough data, a similar experiment could be performed relating accumulated heating-degree-days to gas or oil usage between fill-ups.

It turns out that in well-sealed modern houses, the cutoff temperature for heating can be lower than 65 degrees (sometimes as low as 55 degrees) because of heat generated by light bulbs, appliances, cooking, people, and pets. At temperatures sufficiently below the cutoff, linearity turns out to be a good assumption. Linear regression on the daily usage data (collected as suggested above) ought to find an equation something like U = -.251( T - 65), where T is the average temperature and U is the gas usage. Note that the slope, -.251, is the gas usage per heating-degree-day, and 65 is the cutoff. Note also that the accumulation of heating-degree-days takes a linear equation and turns it into a proportion. There are some important data analysis issues that could be addressed by such an investigation. It is sometimes dangerous, for example, to assume linearity with only a few data points, yet this widely used model essentially assumes linearity from only one data point, the other point having coordinates of 65 degrees, 0 gas usage.

Over what range of temperatures, if any, is this a reasonable assumption? Is the standard method of computing average temperature a good method? If, for example, a day is mostly near 20 degrees but warms up to 50 degrees for a short time in the afternoon, is 35 heating-degree-days a good measure of the heating required that day? Computing averages of functions over time is a standard problem that can be solved with integral calculus. With knowledge of typical and extreme rates of temperature change, this could become a calculus problem or a problem for approximate solution by graphical methods without calculus, providing background experience for some of the important ideas in calculus.

Students could also investigate actual savings after insulating a home in their school district. A customer might typically see 8-10% savings for insulating roofs, although if the house is framed so that the walls act like chimneys, ducting air from the house and the basement into the attic, there might be very little savings. Eliminating significant leaks, on the other hand, can yield savings of as much as 25%.

Some U.S. Department of Energy studies discuss the relationship between heating-degree-days and performance and find the cutoff temperature to be lower in some modern houses. State energy offices also have useful documents.

What is the relationship between heating-degree-days computed using degrees Fahrenheit, as above, and heating-degree-days computed using degrees Celsius? Showing that the proper conversion is a direct proportion and not the standard Fahrenheit-Celsius conversion formula requires some careful and sophisticated mathematical thinking.

Traditionally, vocational mathematics and precollege mathematics have been separate in schools. But the technological world in which today's students will work and live calls for increasing connection between mathematics and its applications. Workplace-based mathematics may be good mathematics for everyone.

High School Mathematics at Work illuminates the interplay between technical and academic mathematics. This collection of thought-provoking essays—by mathematicians, educators, and other experts—is enhanced with illustrative tasks from workplace and everyday contexts that suggest ways to strengthen high school mathematical education.

This important book addresses how to make mathematical education of all students meaningful—how to meet the practical needs of students entering the work force after high school as well as the needs of students going on to postsecondary education.

The short readable essays frame basic issues, provide background, and suggest alternatives to the traditional separation between technical and academic mathematics. They are accompanied by intriguing multipart problems that illustrate how deep mathematics functions in everyday settings—from analysis of ambulance response times to energy utilization, from buying a used car to "rounding off" to simplify problems.

The book addresses the role of standards in mathematics education, discussing issues such as finding common ground between science and mathematics education standards, improving the articulation from school to work, and comparing SAT results across settings.

Experts discuss how to develop curricula so that students learn to solve problems they are likely to encounter in life—while also providing them with approaches to unfamiliar problems. The book also addresses how teachers can help prepare students for postsecondary education.

For teacher education the book explores the changing nature of pedagogy and new approaches to teacher development. What kind of teaching will allow mathematics to be a guide rather than a gatekeeper to many career paths? Essays discuss pedagogical implication in problem-centered teaching, the role of complex mathematical tasks in teacher education, and the idea of making open-ended tasks—and the student work they elicit—central to professional discourse.

High School Mathematics at Work presents thoughtful views from experts. It identifies rich possibilities for teaching mathematics and preparing students for the technological challenges of the future. This book will inform and inspire teachers, teacher educators, curriculum developers, and others involved in improving mathematics education and the capabilities of tomorrow's work force.

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Essays on Mathematics

Math Extended Essay Topics. Let's Make Yours Stand Out!

Table of contents.

Introduction – What is an IB Math Extended Essay?

An extended essay (EE) is a research paper of up to 4,000 words for the International Baccalaureate (IB) program. It is an independent study done by the student in a chosen subject, and it is a requirement for all IB diploma students. An IB Math EE is an individual project done by a student that explores a mathematical concept, question or problem. Students are asked to explain their understanding of the concept and develop their own argument(s) surrounding it.

Before you start your EE, it is important to understand exactly what the assignment entails. First and foremost, you should understand how the IB Math EE relates to the general subject of mathematics. The EE should be focused around a specific question or hypothesis related to mathematics. The aim of the essay is to explore this particular topic, conduct research and analysis, and draw conclusions based on the evidence provided.

The essay should also demonstrate the student’s in-depth knowledge of mathematical concepts, and the ability to apply that knowledge in a rigorous academic setting. It provides an opportunity for students to showcase their skills and hone their expertise in mathematics. Lastly, it is a great way for students to practice their research and independent study skills.

IB Maths Extended Essay Process – Step-by-Step Guide

Writing an International Baccalaureate (IB) Maths extended essay can be a challenging, yet rewarding experience. Many students often find the process to be daunting, but with the right plan of action and understanding, you can make it through with ease.

The first step in the process is to determine the essay topic and type of essay you will be writing . Make sure the topic you choose is relevant to IB Maths and that you can back up any claims you make. Once you have chosen your essay topic , you will need to create an outline or plan of action for yourself. This includes setting individual deadlines and goals for yourself in order to stay on track.

Next, you will need to begin researching and gathering resources for your essay. This is the time where you will look for books, articles, and other materials to support your thesis statement. Be sure to take precise notes and cite your sources as you go to avoid plagiarism.

Find someone to act as your supervisor, who can help guide you through the extended essay process. Your supervisor should be available to answer any questions, provide feedback, and help you stay focused on the task at hand. It is important to establish a good relationship with your supervisor in order to ensure timely and effective communication.

Beforehand, it’s important to familiarize yourself with the assessment criteria and rubric for the extended essay . This will give you a clearer understanding of what is expected from you and how you will be evaluated. Having this knowledge will allow you to create a better structure for your essay that meets the required standards.

Now, you are ready to start writing your essay. Use the plan you created for yourself along with the research you gathered to construct the body of your essay. As you write, be sure to reference all sources correctly, double check for grammar and spelling errors and keep your essay on track. Once you have finished, you are all done.

By following this step-by-step guide and understanding each part of the IB Maths extended essay process, you will make the process easier and less intimidating. Keep in mind the key points discussed throughout the guide and make it a priority to respect deadlines and be organized throughout.

Choosing a Good Extended Essay Topic

When it comes to the IB Maths Extended Essay , one of the most important steps is choosing a good topic. A good topic should be interesting and challenging, but not too complex for you to handle. It should also relate directly to IB Maths, so you can use your knowledge to write the essay.

Here are some criteria to consider when selecting an appropriate topic:

• Does the topic have relevance to your field of study?
• Is the topic researchable and easy to access resources?
• Will the data you need be available?
• Is the scope of the topic manageable?
• Is the topic interesting enough to keep you motivated to finish it?

Some examples of good topics for an IB Maths Extended Essay include:

• The Impact of Advanced Mathematics on Financial Markets
• The Benefits of Using Probability In Business Decisions
• The Use of Calculus in Medicine
• The Role of Algebra in Cryptography
• The History of Numbers

Exploring a few topics before settling on one will give you a better understanding of what kind of topic will work best for your essay. Consider your interests and the resources you have access to, and choose a topic that you will be passionate about. Once you’ve selected a topic, you can begin researching and preparing for the essay!

Preparing the Extended Essay – Resources, Planning and Researching

Once you have chosen your topic for your Maths Extended Essay, the next step is to prepare for it. This involves compiling a list of resources that you will need in order to carry out research and complete the essay. These could include books, research papers, articles and any other material that is relevant to your topic.

You will then need to plan how you want to go about researching and writing your essay. This planning process should involve breaking down the process into manageable steps, such as researching the topic, planning how to structure the essay, writing the first draft and then editing and proofreading. By breaking down the process into smaller chunks, it can be easier to manage and track your progress.

The next step is to carry out the research which your EE will require. Depending on your topic, this could involve looking through textbooks, reading articles and papers, interviewing people or conducting other experiments or surveys. It’s important in the research stage to keep track of where you found each piece of information so that you can cite it correctly later on.

Finally, when you have finished researching and written your first draft, you can start the process of refining and editing the EE. This involves making sure that everything is presented correctly and that all grammar, spelling and punctuation are perfect. Once you are happy with the essay, you can submit it for evaluation.

Supervisors & The Roles They Play

The supervisor plays a crucial role when it comes to your IB Maths Extended Essay. It’s important to find a supervisor who is knowledgeable and experienced in the field of mathematics, as they will help guide you through the process of researching and writing the essay.

Your supervisor should be able to provide you with guidance and advice, as well as setting you deadlines for completing your essay. Depending on the type of Extended Essay you are writing, your supervisor may also have the opportunity to read drafts of the essay and provide feedback along the way, helping to ensure the EE meets all of the assessment criteria.

A supervisor will also typically be responsible for giving the final grade for the Extended Essay, which means that it is essential to develop a good working relationship with them. This can be achieved by attending meetings regularly and using the resources available from your supervisor to ensure you’re making steady progress.

In any event, it is important to remember that your supervisor is there to help you throughout the writing of the EE. They can offer a wealth of knowledge, experience and support so make sure to take advantage of the opportunity.

Evaluation – Possible assessment criteria & EE rubrics

Once you have completed your extended essay for math, it is important to evaluate your work based on the assessment criteria. This means checking how well your essay aligns with the criteria set out by the International Baccalaureate (IB). Different aspects of the essay will be marked separately and then combined to generate a final score.

Here are some of the criteria that you might need to consider for your math extended essay:

• Clarity: Is the essay easy to read and understand? Are there any points that could be interpreted differently?
• Research and Analysis: Has enough research been undertaken in order to support the discussion? Does the analysis of this research accurately reflect the original source?
• Approach: Is the essay structured correctly? Has the argument been logically built, using appropriate evidence?

The IB provides several rubrics which can help you to evaluate your own essay. These rubrics are designed to show you what the IB is looking for when they mark your work. Make sure you familiarise yourself with the rubrics before you submit your essay so that you know what to expect from the evaluation process.

It’s important to be aware of the evaluation criteria for your maths extended essay, as it will help you to understand why certain sections of your essay may score higher or lower than others. This in turn will help you to improve your writing and ensure that you submit the best possible essay.

Example topics to get started – Highlighting five example topics related to IB Maths

When starting your IB Maths extended essay, it can be daunting to think of a suitable topic. To help you get started, here are five example topics you may want to consider:

• Exploring the Relationship Between Fibonacci Numbers and the Golden Ratio – Investigate how the Fibonacci sequence relates to the golden ratio and its applications in mathematics.
• Analysis of Different Methods Used to Solve Quadratic Equations – Analyze different methods of solving quadratic equations and discuss their advantages and disadvantages.
• Explaining the Fundamental Theorems of Algebra – Study the theorems of algebra and explain their importance in mathematical theory.
• A Study on the Mechanics of Number Theory – Analyze the various concepts and principles of number theory and describe its applications.
• Understanding the Geometry of Non-Euclidean Geometry – Examine the different principles of non-Euclidean geometry, including hyperbolic geometry.

These are just five examples to get you started – there are endless other possibilities for topics in IB Maths. Remember to choose a topic that you find interesting and make sure it is relevant to your course of study.

Presenting Essential Content

Having chosen a topic for your IB Maths Extended Essay, it is time to begin writing. Having an outline of what you are going to discuss in each section and thinking about the themes you will focus on can help to guide and structure your essay.

When it comes to presenting the core information that needs to be included, this is where brainstorming and researching helps to create the ‘meat’ of the essay.

Think carefully about which topics could be explored in each section, as well as looking at any suggested themes or topics that examiners may look for. You can create a draft outline of each section if this helps.

You may want to consider the following when planning the content of your essay:

• The aim of the essay
• What evidence will be provided to support your arguments
• Any potential counter-arguments and how to rebut them with evidence
• How to develop a balanced discussion, using comparison and contrast
• Key theories and concepts that need to be discussed
• Insightful quotes from reliable sources
• Any numerical information or data that can be used to support arguments

It is always a good idea when creating your essay to refer back to the main research question or aim of the assignment to ensure that you remain focused.

By doing this, you can be sure that you have included all the essential content needed to answer the research question properly, as well as demonstrating your understanding of the topic.

Referencing correctly

Correct referencing is very important when it comes to writing an IB Maths Extended Essay. It’s how you show the examiner where you’ve got your research from, and how you demonstrate the ideas that you’re presenting in your essay are backed up with evidence.

When it comes to referencing, there are a few main types: in-text citations (where references are mentioned within the body of the essay), endnote citations (where references are included in an endnotes section), and bibliographies (where sources are listed alphabetically at the end of the essay).

In-text citations and endnote citations should include the author’s name, the year of publication, the title of the document, and the page number (if possible) of the reference you are citing. Bibliographies should list the title, author’s name, publication date and URL of any webpages cited. It’s also important to make sure that you’re consistent with the style of referencing – for example, if you’ve used Harvard referencing for one source, make sure you use it for all sources.

It’s also worth noting that some examiners prefer that referencing isn’t done inline – in other words, each reference should be listed in an endnote or bibliographic section at the end of the essay. If you’re unsure of which style to use, it’s best to check with your supervisor – they will be able to give you more advice on the specifics.

In summary, when including references and citations in your IB Maths Extended Essay, make sure they are accurate and consistent. Remember to include all relevant information such as author, year of publication, title and page number (if applicable), and make sure that you are consistent with the referencing style used. Your supervisor will be able to provide more advice on the specifics.

Editing & Proofreading Tips

Writing an extended essay on an IB Maths topic can be a challenging task – especially when it comes to the editing and proofreading stage. The whole process involves careful attention to several areas of the essay, which can make all the difference when it comes to achieving a high grade.

Here are a few tips to help you prepare your essay for submission:

• Start Early: Make sure to give yourself plenty of time to go through each part of the essay and make the necessary revisions.
• Check Your Sources: Check to ensure that all the sources you used are accurate and up-to-date.
• Check Grammar and Spelling: One of the most important aspects of editing is making sure that your grammar and spelling are correct. Use a spell checker before submitting your essay.
• Check for Clarity: Read your essay through from start to finish to check for clarity of thought and make sure everything ties together in the conclusion.
• Get a Second Opinion: Consider getting someone else to read your essay and give their opinion on it. This can help to spot any errors or points that need improvement.

Doing all of the above will ensure your essay is well polished and ready for submission. Taking these steps will also help you to become a better writer and ensure that you receive the best possible grade for your efforts.

The completion of an International Baccalaureate Math Extended Essay (EE) is a challenging task that requires a great deal of research, preparation and dedication. In this guide, we have discussed the process from start to finish, as well as some tips and tricks to make it easier. We began by introducing what an EE entails in the context of IB Maths, then progressed through the process step by step. This included topics such as choosing an appropriate EE topic, preparing the essay, and getting it assessed correctly.

We discussed some example topics to get you started on your own EE, and important elements such as structuring the essay and presenting essential content. Referencing correctly was also highlighted so you can be sure your essay is academically sound. Finally, we rounded off with some proofreading tips to ensure your work is error free.

To conclude, it is worth mentioning that the EE process can be daunting. But with the guidance presented within this guide, you should be able to complete a top-notch EE with ease. Good luck!

Including Reference Links and External Sources

Having access to helpful resources is a key part of putting together an excellent extended essay. There is usually a wealth of relevant material available, covering a range of topics related to IB Math. It’s important to reference these sources correctly, so that you can demonstrate the breadth and depth of your research.

Here are some useful tips for collecting appropriate sources and referencing them correctly:

• Collect Appropriate Sources – Use a range of academic sources such as books, journal articles, websites, and other types of documents. Don’t forget to check out online databases for extra research material.
• Use Reliable Sources – Ensure that the sources you use are reliable and up-to-date. Try to use recent published sources where possible.
• Cite Accurately – When citing the sources you use, be sure to include the author’s name, year of publication, and the page number (if relevant).
• Avoid Plagiarism – As mentioned above, it’s important to cite any sources you use. Plagiarism should be avoided at all costs as it can result in a loss of points.

By following these tips, you can ensure that your extended essay makes good use of external sources, and that you cite and reference them correctly. Taking the time to look through a range of materials will also help you to form a well-informed opinion, which is essential for a successful paper.

FAQs about IB Math Extended Essay Topics

• Q: What is an IB Mathematics Extended Essay? A: An IB Mathematics Extended Essay (EE) is an in-depth, project-based essay, which requires a student to explore a topic and present their findings. The Extended Essay should be related to and reflect the knowledge of Mathematics learned in the IB program.
• Q: How difficult is a Mathematics EE? A: Writing an EE is no small task. It requires considerable commitment and hard work as well as dedication to the research, writing and presentation process. However, with adequate preparation, guidance, and support, a student will be able to create a successful extended essay.
• Q: What steps are involved in the process of creating a Mathematics EE? A: The process of crafting a Mathematics EE involves the following steps: selecting a topic, conducting the research, gathering evidence, writing an outline and the draft, proofreading and editing, planning for submission.
• Q: How does one select a suitable topic for a Mathematics EE? A: When selecting a topic for a Mathematics EE, students should consider their interests, display their mathematical knowledge, and choose something that can be researched thoroughly. Additionally, they may find it helpful to review example topics and assess their suitability and feasibility.
• Q: Who is responsible for supervising the Mathematics EE? A: An experienced teacher should provide supervision throughout the EE process and guide the student in proper methodology, accuracy in content, format and presentation of the completed essay.
• Q: How are Mathematics EEs evaluated? A: A Mathematics EE is generally evaluated on the student’s ability to demonstrate relevant content and thorough research, as well as their mastery of the subject, attention to detail and accuracy, originality and creativity.
• Q: What structure is typically used when writing a Mathematics EE? A: A MathematicsEE typically has a conventional structure, which includes the introduction, body and conclusion. In the body, the research problem and approach, main focus and findings should be addressed.
• Q: What type of information is needed to include in a Mathematics EE? A: Mathematical EEs should include mathematical terms and formulas, clear explanations of processes, correct notation and symbols, as well as authentic research.
• Q: What tips can help a student prepare for the EE submission? A: A student can edit and proofread their EE to ensure that all sections are accurate, concise and organized. They should double check all numbers, formulas, citations and references. Moreover, they may want to get feedback from their supervisor and peers.
• Q: How can external sources help a student create a successful EE? A: External sources may provide up-to-date information regarding formatting, research methods, mathematical tools, etc., which a student can use to expand their knowledge and create a comprehensive EE.

Valerie Green

Valerie Green is a dedicated educator who spends her time helping high school and college students succeed. She writes articles and guides for various online education projects, providing students with the tools they need to excel in their studies. Friendly and approachable, she is committed to making a difference in the lives of students.

Tips for Creating a Compelling Research Question for Your IB EE

By following these tips, you can create a research question that not only meets the criteria of the IB Extended Essay, but also sets you up for a rewarding research experience. Remember that a well-conceived research question is the first step towards a successful and insightful Extended Essay.

How Do You Select the Perfect Supervisor for Your Extended Essay?

Choosing the perfect Extended Essay supervisor is a crucial step in your IB path, offering a blend of academic insight, moral support and critical feedback. This article will guide you through the essential criteria for choosing a supervisor who can inspire, challenge, and guide you toward a high-quality Extended Essay. Learn how expertise, commitment, and a supportive relationship can transform your EE writing experience.

What Is IB Reflective Project?

The Reflective Project is an in-depth study where students select an ethical issue related to their career-related studies to research and analyze through various lenses. This research is not a mere academic exercise; it is a rigorous, reflective process that encourages students to connect their findings with their own beliefs, values, and experiences.

What’s the Ideal Number of Sources for Your IB EE?

What’s the ideal number of sources for my EE? The answer, nuanced and subject-specific, depends on striking the perfect balance between breadth and depth of research. As a seasoned IB writer, I’ve seen how this balance varies across disciplines — a History EE might thrive on many sources to construct a well-rounded argument, while a Math EE might depend on a few texts for its foundational theory.

How Much Does It Cost to Order a Custom Extended Essay Online?

When tackling the International Baccalaureate program, students often wonder about the cost of ordering a custom extended essay online. As an experienced IB writer, I can tell you that several factors influence this cost. These include the essay’s length, its complexity, the urgency of your deadline, and the writer’s expertise.

Pros and Pitfalls of Using Internet-Sourced EE Topics

In the ever-evolving landscape of academic research, the Internet has emerged as a significant resource for students undertaking the challenging task of the IB Extended Essay (EE). As an experienced IB writer, I’ve observed the transformative impact of Internet-sourced EE topics. This article aims to highlight both the benefits and challenges of this modern approach to research.

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Home » Education , WAEC ANSWERS » 2023/2024 WAEC GCE Mathematics (ESSAY & OBJ) Questions And Answers (25th November 2023)

2023/2024 WAEC GCE Mathematics (ESSAY & OBJ) Questions And Answers (25th November 2023)

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(25th November 2023) 2023/2024 WAEC GCE Mathematics (ESSAY & OBJ) Questions And Answers.

Waec gce 2023 mathematics (essay & obj) questions and answers.

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Waec GCE 2023 Mathematics (ESSAY & OBJ)

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PAST WAEC GCE MATHEMATICS ESSAY AND OBJ ANSWERS

Section I [Objective] Answer all questions in Part I.Write your answers on the answer booklet provided.

MATHEMATICS ESSAY-ANSWERS

Question 1.

In the diagram, L.PTQ = L.PSR = 900, /PQ/ = 10 ern, /PS/ = 14.4 cm and /TQ/ = 6 cm.

Calculate the area of quadrilateral QRST.

(b) Two opposite sides of a square are each decreased by 10% while the other two are each increased by 15% to form a rectangle. Find the ratio of the area of the rectangle to that of the square.

Math GCE Observation.

We advise that students should always remember to apply the concept of similar triangles correctly.

Furthermore, students should try and recognize the quadrilateral as a trapezium, this will help in finding its area.

Part (b) Candidates were expected to show that:

/PT/ = …./102 – 62 = 8 cm. m: =!J2L i.e ~ = 14.4.Hence, /SR/ = 10.8 cm.

/TO/ /SR/ 6 /SR/

Area of quadrilateral QRST = Yz (6 + 10.8) x 6.4 = 53.76 cm2. Don't subtract the area of triangle PQT from triangle PRS.

This was also in order. In part (b) if the side of the square was y, then new breadth = 90 x y = 0.9 y .

New length = 115 x Y = 1.15y. New area = 1.15y x 0.9y = 1.035/.

Hence, ratio = 1.035y² : y² = 1.035 : 1 or 207:200 .

In a class of 40 students, 18 passed Mathematics, 19 passed Accounts, 16 passed Economics, 5 passed Mathematics and Accounts only, 6 passed Mathematics only, 9 passed Accounts only, 2 Accounts and Economics only. If each student offered at least one of the subjects, (a) How many students failed in all the subjects? (b) Find the percentage number who failed in at least one of Economics and Mathematics. (c) Calculate the probability that a student selected at random failed in Accounts.

Question 2.

(a) Copy and complete the table of values for the relation V = -X² + X + 2 for -3 ≤ x ≥ 3.

(b) Using scales of 2 cm to 1 unit on the x-axis and 2 cm to 2 units on the v-axis, draw a graph of the relation

y = -X² + X + 2.

(c) From the graph, find the:

(i)Minimum value of y;

(ii)Roots of the equation X² – x -2 = 0;

(iii)Gradient of the curve at x = -0.5.

3. (a) P varies directly as Q and inversely as the square of R.  If P = 1 when Q = 8 and R = 2, find the value of Q when P = 3 and R = 5. (b) An aeroplane flies from town A(20oN, 60oE) to town B(20oN, 20oE). (i) If the journey takes 6 hours, calculate, correct to 3 significant figures, the average speed of the aeroplane. (ii) If it then flies due north from town B to town C, 420 km away, calculate, correct to the nearest degree, the latitude of town C. [Take radius of the earth = 6400 km and  π = 3.142]

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Math and AI Fueled Career, Financial Trailblazer Says

Marty Chavez speaks with students following his talk at the Orchard Conference Center, Tuesday, March 12, 2024.

Photo by David J. Hawkins/CSUN

Marty Chavez answers a question posed by event emcee and CSUN Foundation Board member Richard Schweitzer ’87.

Marty Chavez takes a question from a student in the audience.

R. Martin “Marty” Chavez (left) shakes hands with Chandra Subramaniam, dean of the David Nazarian College of Business and Economics, Tuesday, March 12 2024.

“I’m the most tenacious person I’ve ever met.”  

So replied financial trailblazer R. Martin “Marty” Chavez when a CSUN student asked what set him apart from others during his education and career.  

That tenacity certainly carried him through his bachelor’s degree studies in biochemical sciences and his master’s degree in computer science at Harvard, as well as his doctorate in medical information sciences from Stanford University. Chavez credited his parents for emphasizing education and working hard to finance his early education at a private prep school in Albuquerque, New Mexico. 

“There was this fancy private prep school that was clearly not meant for Hispanics. My parents didn’t care,” he said. Chavez said they made the payments by leveraging the equity in their home. 

“Refinancing was a constant topic at our kitchen table because it happened about every two years,” Chavez quipped. “Vacations and clothes and stuff like that were for other people. The only thing my parents cared about, they were very specific, ‘we do education, we do music and we do church.'” 

Chavez, partner and vice chairman of global investment firm Sixth Street, spoke last month to a large crowd of students, faculty and staff at the Orchard Conference Center, as part of the Younes Nazarian Distinguished Speaker Series for the David Nazarian College of Business and Economics. Chavez talked about his wide-ranging experience in finance and his interest in artificial intelligence which fueled his work on furthering the development of software in finance. All of this, he said, was sparked by his early passion for math. 

Chavez spoke to those gathered about his career path, which has included roles at established companies as well as his own startups. Prior to Sixth Street, he served in C-suite roles including chief information officer and chief financial officer at the global investment banking firm Goldman Sachs. 

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Photo Essay: CSUN’s 39th Annual Assistive Technology Conference

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