teaching critical thinking with technology

Distance Learning

Using technology to develop students’ critical thinking skills.

by Jessica Mansbach

What Is Critical Thinking?

Critical thinking is a higher-order cognitive skill that is indispensable to students, readying them to respond to a variety of complex problems that are sure to arise in their personal and professional lives. The  cognitive skills at the foundation of critical thinking are  analysis, interpretation, evaluation, explanation, inference, and self-regulation.  

When students think critically, they actively engage in these processes:

• Communication
• Problem-solving

To create environments that engage students in these processes, instructors need to ask questions, encourage the expression of diverse opinions, and involve students in a variety of hands-on activities that force them to be involved in their learning.

Types of Critical Thinking Skills

Instructors should select activities based on the level of thinking they want students to do and the learning objectives for the course or assignment. The chart below describes questions to ask in order to show that students can demonstrate different levels of critical thinking.

*Adapted from Brown University’s Harriet W Sheridan Center for Teaching and Learning

Using Online Tools to Teach Critical Thinking Skills

Online instructors can use technology tools to create activities that help students develop both lower-level and higher-level critical thinking skills.

• Example: Use Google Doc, a collaboration feature in Canvas, and tell students to keep a journal in which they reflect on what they are learning, describe the progress they are making in the class, and cite course materials that have been most relevant to their progress. Students can share the Google Doc with you, and instructors can comment on their work.
• Example: Use the peer review assignment feature in Canvas and manually or automatically form peer review groups. These groups can be anonymous or display students’ names. Tell students to give feedback to two of their peers on the first draft of a research paper. Use the rubric feature in Canvas to create a rubric for students to use. Show students the rubric along with the assignment instructions so that students know what they will be evaluated on and how to evaluate their peers.
• Example: Use the discussions feature in Canvas and tell students to have a debate about a video they watched. Pose the debate questions in the discussion forum, and give students instructions to take a side of the debate and cite course readings to support their arguments.  
• Example: Us e goreact , a tool for creating and commenting on online presentations, and tell students to design a presentation that summarizes and raises questions about a reading. Tell students to comment on the strengths and weaknesses of the author’s argument. Students can post the links to their goreact presentations in a discussion forum or an assignment using the insert link feature in Canvas.
• Example:  Use goreact, a narrated Powerpoint, or a Google Doc and instruct students to tell a story that informs readers and listeners about how the course content they are learning is useful in their professional lives. In the story, tell students to offer specific examples of readings and class activities that they are finding most relevant to their professional work. Links to the goreact presentation and Google doc can be submitted via a discussion forum or an assignment in Canvas. The Powerpoint file can be submitted via a discussion or submitted in an assignment.

Pulling it All Together

Critical thinking is an invaluable skill that students need to be successful in their professional and personal lives. Instructors can be thoughtful and purposeful about creating learning objectives that promote lower and higher-level critical thinking skills, and about using technology to implement activities that support these learning objectives. Below are some additional resources about critical thinking.

Additional Resources

Carmichael, E., & Farrell, H. (2012). Evaluation of the Effectiveness of Online Resources in Developing Student Critical Thinking: Review of Literature and Case Study of a Critical Thinking Online Site.  Journal of University Teaching and Learning Practice ,  9 (1), 4.

Lai, E. R. (2011). Critical thinking: A literature review.  Pearson’s Research Reports ,  6 , 40-41.

Landers, H (n.d.). Using Peer Teaching In The Classroom. Retrieved electronically from https://tilt.colostate.edu/TipsAndGuides/Tip/180

Lynch, C. L., & Wolcott, S. K. (2001). Helping your students develop critical thinking skills (IDEA Paper# 37. In  Manhattan, KS: The IDEA Center.

Mandernach, B. J. (2006). Thinking critically about critical thinking: Integrating online tools to Promote Critical Thinking. Insight: A collection of faculty scholarship , 1 , 41-50.

Yang, Y. T. C., & Wu, W. C. I. (2012). Digital storytelling for enhancing student academic achievement, critical thinking, and learning motivation: A year-long experimental study. Computers & Education , 59 (2), 339-352.

Insight Assessment: Measuring Thinking Worldwide

http://www.insightassessment.com/

Michigan State University’s Office of Faculty  & Organizational Development, Critical Thinking: http://fod.msu.edu/oir/critical-thinking

The Critical Thinking Community

http://www.criticalthinking.org/pages/defining-critical-thinking/766

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9 responses to “ Using Technology To Develop Students’ Critical Thinking Skills ”

This is a great site for my students to learn how to develop critical thinking skills, especially in the STEM fields.

Great tools to help all learners at all levels… not everyone learns at the same rate.

Thanks for sharing the article. Is there any way to find tools which help in developing critical thinking skills to students?

Technology needs to be advance to develop the below factors:

Understand the links between ideas. Determine the importance and relevance of arguments and ideas. Recognize, build and appraise arguments.

Excellent share! Can I know few tools which help in developing critical thinking skills to students? Any help will be appreciated. Thanks!

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Brilliant post. Will be sharing this on our Twitter (@refthinking). I would love to chat to you about our tool, the Thinking Kit. It has been specifically designed to help students develop critical thinking skills whilst they also learn about the topics they ‘need’ to.

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How to Teach Critical Thinking in the Digital Age: Effective Strategies and Techniques

In today’s rapidly evolving digital landscape, the ability to think critically has become increasingly important for individuals of all ages. As technology advances and information becomes more readily available, it is essential for teachers to adapt their methods to effectively teach critical thinking skills in the digital age.

However, the task of teaching critical thinking can prove challenging. Research from Daniel Willingham , a professor of psychology at the University of Virginia, suggests that students may struggle to apply these skills across different subjects and contexts. Nonetheless, with the right strategies and resources, educators can successfully incorporate critical thinking into their digital learning experiences , empowering their students to navigate the complex world of information.

The Importance of Critical Thinking in the Digital Age

In the digital age, we are constantly surrounded by information from various sources, making it essential for individuals to develop critical thinking skills in order to effectively evaluate the credibility and relevance of the content they consume. Furthermore, critical thinking helps people think through problems and apply the right information when developing solutions.

One of the challenges that the digital age presents is the need to differentiate factual and fake information. With the rise of social media and digital platforms, it becomes increasingly easy for false or misleading information to spread quickly. As a result, being able to discern between reliable and unreliable sources becomes an essential skill (The Tech Edvocate) .

In addition, critical thinking skills are vital in the workforce, as employees are expected to be effective problem solvers, innovative thinkers, and strong communicators. Possessing strong critical thinking skills prepares individuals to thrive in a constantly changing environment, as they can adapt to new situations, understand different perspectives, and make educated decisions.

Teaching critical thinking from a young age is crucial. Educators can use various strategies and techniques to integrate critical thinking in their lessons, such as using open-ended questions, encouraging students to evaluate sources, and promoting group work where students can learn from each other (Forbes) .

Challenges Faced in Teaching Critical Thinking Online

Teaching critical thinking skills online can be a challenging task for educators due to numerous obstacles. This section discusses the challenges of teaching critical thinking, focusing on difficulties such as information overload and technology distractions.

Information Overload

In the digital age, online students have access to an overwhelming amount of information. This can lead to difficulty in focusing on critical thinking exercises and applying those skills to new subject areas, as students struggle to navigate the vast online landscape of resources and materials.

Information overload can impede the development of effective critical thinking skills, as students find it more difficult to discern credible resources and make informed judgments. Educators must guide students in selecting appropriate resources and actively engage them in critical reflection on the information they encounter.

Technology Distractions

Another challenge in teaching critical thinking online is the presence of technology distractions. Online learners have to manage their time and attention across multiple devices and platforms, which can detract from their engagement with the learning material.

These distractions impact students’ ability to concentrate on critical thinking tasks and apply learned strategies. Additionally, constant multitasking can reduce the effectiveness of online learning, as students must split their focus between different tasks without giving their full attention to any one subject.

To mitigate technology distractions, educators can incorporate strategies such as limiting the use of technology during specific times, promoting time management skills, and offering engaging multimedia content. They can also foster a structured and supportive online learning environment, which encourages students to practice critical thinking throughout their coursework.

Techniques for Teaching Critical Thinking

Asking open-ended questions.

One effective technique for teaching critical thinking is to ask open-ended questions. These questions require more thought and exploration than simple yes or no answers, prompting students to critically analyze the issue at hand. Incorporating open-ended questions into lessons can encourage a deeper level of engagement and understanding in various subjects.

Debate and Discussion

Another valuable method for teaching critical thinking skills is to promote debate and discussion in the classroom. Through debates and discussions, students learn to listen to diverse perspectives, analyze arguments, and develop their own informed opinions. Encouraging students to express their ideas and engage with their peers in a respectful and thoughtful manner can foster a culture of critical thinking in the classroom.

Case Studies and Real-World Applications

Using case studies and real-world applications can help students develop critical thinking skills by connecting the material with real-life scenarios. When students analyze case studies, they can practice solving complex problems and applying the theoretical concepts they have learned to make informed decisions. Additionally, incorporating real-world examples and applications in lessons can make the learning experience more engaging and relevant for students.

Teaching Argument Evaluation

Teaching students how to evaluate arguments is an essential aspect of fostering critical thinking skills. By teaching them to identify the strengths and weaknesses of different arguments, students can better understand the nuances of logic and reasoning. This skill is especially crucial in the digital age, where students are often exposed to various sources of information, both reliable and unreliable. By developing their argument evaluation skills, students will be better equipped to navigate and assess the credibility of information they encounter online and in everyday life.

Digital Tools for Enhancing Critical Thinking

Teaching critical thinking in the digital age can be facilitated by leveraging digital tools that promote active learning and deeper engagement. This section explores various digital tools that can enhance critical thinking skills in students, including interactive learning platforms and collaboration and communication tools.

Interactive Learning Platforms

Interactive learning platforms help students develop critical thinking skills by engaging them in challenging activities that require problem-solving, analysis, and evaluation. These platforms often incorporate game-based elements and multimedia content to stimulate interest and maintain motivation.

For example, digital storytelling can be used to promote reflection, analysis, and synthesis skills in students. By creating and sharing their stories, students can critically assess their beliefs, values, and experiences, while comparing and contrasting them with their peers’ perspectives.

Collaboration and Communication Tools

Collaborative tools, such as online discussion forums, video conferencing, and shared documents, facilitate opportunities for students to exchange ideas, brainstorm solutions, and develop arguments on various topics. These tools foster critical thinking by encouraging students to analyze and evaluate different perspectives.

For instance, implementing project-based learning activities encourages students to work together, research, analyze data, and propose solutions to real-world problems. Through this collaborative process, students refine their critical thinking skills while learning how to communicate effectively and resolve conflicts.

Another example is the use of video conferencing tools, such as Zoom or Google Meet, for online debates or panel discussions. These sessions enable students to take a deep dive into topics and engage in structured discussions that challenge their assumptions and hone their critical thinking abilities.

Overall, integrating digital tools in the teaching process can effectively promote critical thinking in students, preparing them to thrive in the digital age.

Assessing Students’ Critical Thinking Skills

Assessing students’ critical thinking skills in the digital age requires a combination of formative and summative assessment methods. This section will outline these methods and explain how they can effectively be applied in the classroom.

Formative Assessment Methods

Formative assessment methods focus on continuous feedback and monitoring of students’ progress during the learning process. These methods aim to identify areas where students may require additional support or instruction. Some formative assessment methods for critical thinking skills include:

• Think-Pair-Share: An activity in which students think about the topic or question, discuss their thoughts with a partner, and then share their ideas with the whole class. This encourages students to evaluate different perspectives and revise their thinking accordingly.
• Questioning Techniques: Employing open-ended and higher-order questioning strategies can stimulate students’ critical thinking skills, prompting them to analyze, synthesize, and evaluate information. Examples of these questions can be found here .
• Peer Review: Students provide feedback on each other’s work by identifying strengths, weaknesses, and areas for improvement. This encourages self-reflection and fosters a collaborative learning environment.

Summative Assessment Methods

Summative assessments measure students’ critical thinking skills at the end of a unit, course, or academic year. These assessments aim to determine students’ level of competence and measure their growth over time. Some summative assessment methods for critical thinking include:

• Performance-Based Assessments: These assessments require students to apply their critical thinking skills to complete a task or solve a problem. Examples include case studies, debates, and presentations.
• Essay Examinations: Essay exams provide an opportunity for students to demonstrate their critical thinking skills through written analysis, synthesis, and evaluation of information.
• Digital Assessments: Digital assessments can be used to assess critical thinking skills by incorporating multimedia elements, interactive features, and real-time feedback. Examples can be found at ExamSoft .

By integrating both formative and summative assessment methods, educators can provide a comprehensive and accurate understanding of students’ critical thinking abilities in the digital age.

Continuous Improvement and Adaptation

In the digital age, it is crucial for educators to promote continuous improvement and adaptation in the development of critical thinking skills. As technology and information evolve rapidly, teachers must actively engage students in reflecting on their learning process and adjusting their strategies accordingly.

A useful approach to foster continuous improvement is to encourage students to set goals, reflect on their progress and actively seek feedback. This process can be facilitated through digital tools such as online discussions, project-based learning, and gamification .

Furthermore, educators can:

• Implement mini research assignments that challenge students to investigate topics further and engage in self-guided exploration.
• Introduce debates or collaborative projects that require students to apply critical reasoning and consider multiple perspectives.
• Use active learning methods such as brainstorming sessions, trainings, and case studies to encourage students to analyze and evaluate information before drawing conclusions.

Taking advantage of digital resources, teachers can create an environment where students continuously refine their critical thinking abilities and adapt to the ever-changing digital landscape. By implementing these strategies, educators will better prepare students to effectively navigate and contribute to the digital age.

In the digital age, teaching critical thinking skills requires the incorporation of effective instructional strategies and innovative technologies. Engaging learners in activities such as data collection, analysis , and group discussions promotes a dynamic learning environment where students can develop and sharpen their thinking abilities.

Teachers should consider multiple methods to facilitate the development of critical thinking. By integrating different teaching approaches , educators can create a rich and diverse educational experience for their students. This may include the use of various digital tools, such as collaborative platforms, serious games, and immersive technologies, which enhance the learning process and keep the students motivated and engaged.

Adaptability and continuous professional improvement are essential aspects for educators striving to foster critical thinking skills in a digital age. By staying up-to-date with current trends and research , as well as incorporating new instructional approaches and technologies, teachers will be better equipped for navigating and succeeding in the rapidly evolving educational landscape.

Ultimately, empowering learners with robust critical thinking skills will not only prepare them for academic success but also help them become responsible digital citizens who can make informed decisions in a highly interconnected world. By embracing the opportunities that digital technologies provide and adapting teaching practices accordingly, educators can truly make a lasting impact on their students’ lives.

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Does Technology Help Boost Students’ Critical Thinking Skills?

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Does using technology in school actually help improve students’ thinking skills? Or hurt them?

That’s the question the Reboot Foundation, a nonprofit, asked in a new report examining the impact of technology usage. The foundation analyzed international tests, like the Programme for International Student Assessment or PISA, which compares student outcomes in different nations, and the National Assessment of Educational Progress or NAEP, which is given only in the U.S. and considered the “Nation’s Report Card.”

The Reboot Foundation was started—and funded—by Helen Bouygues , whose background is in business, to explore the role of technology in developing critical thinking skills. It was inspired by Bouygues’ own concerns about her daughter’s education.

The report’s findings: When it comes to the PISA, there’s little evidence that technology use has a positive impact on student scores, and some evidence that it could actually drag it down. As for the NAEP? The results varied widely, depending on the grade level, test, and type of technology used. For instance, students who used computers to do research for reading projects tended to score higher on the reading portion of the NAEP. But there wasn’t a lot of positive impact from using a computer for spelling or grammar practice.

And 4th-graders who used tablets in all or almost all of their classes scored 14 points lower on the reading exam than those who reported never using tablets. That’s the equivalent of a year’s worth of learning, according to the report.

However, 4th-graders students who reported using laptops or desktop computers “in some classes” outscored students who said they “never” used these devices in class by 13 points. That’s also the equivalent of a year’s worth of learning. And 4th-grade students who said they used laptops or desktop computers in “more than half” or “all” classes scored 10 points higher than students who said they never used those devices in class.

Spending too much time on computers wasn’t helpful.

“There were ceiling effects of technology, and moderate use of technology appeared to have the best association with testing outcomes,” the report said. “This occurred across a number of grades, subjects, and reported computer activities.”

In fact, there’s a negative correlation between time spent on the computer during the school day and NAEP score on the 4th-grade reading NAEP.

That trend was somewhat present, although less clearly, on the 8th-grade reading NAEP.

“Overall usage of technology is probably not just not great, but actually can lower scores and testing for basic education [subjects like math, reading, science],” said Bouygues. “Even in the middle school, heavy use of technology does lower scores, but if you do have things that are specifically catered to a specific subject, that actually serves a purpose.”

For instance, she said her daughter, a chess enthusiast, has gotten help from digital sources in mastering the game. But asking kids to spend a chunk of every day typing on Microsoft Word, as some classrooms do in France, isn’t going to help teach higher-order thinking skills.

She cautioned though, that the report stops short of making a casual claim and saying that sitting in front of a laptop harms students’ ability to be critical thinkers. The researchers didn’t have the kind of evidence needed to be able to make that leap.

For more research on the impact of technology on student outcomes, take a look at these stories:

• Technology in Education: An Overview
• Computers + Collaboration = Student Learning, According to New Meta-Analysis
• Technology Has No Impact on Teaching and Learning (opinion)

Image: Getty

A version of this news article first appeared in the Digital Education blog.

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The trend of ICT in education for critical thinking skills: A systematic literature review

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Iik Nurhikmayati , Darhim Darhim; The trend of ICT in education for critical thinking skills: A systematic literature review. AIP Conf. Proc. 28 November 2023; 2909 (1): 040002. https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0182604

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ICT in education is gaining acceptance as a learning method that helps teachers and students achieve optimal learning objectives. ICT is believed to motivate and facilitate the learning process. Critical thinking skills, as one of the 21st-century skills, are known to be improved through ICT-based education. This article presents a systematic review of the literature published in the last five years and an indexed database of Springer and Eric. The results showed a total of 27 articles that met the criteria. Research findings on ICT trends in education for critical thinking skills are structured under three reports: (1) ICT trends in education include android, VR, AR, and coding; (2) the best strategy with ICT monitoring is distance learning, programming teaching, and STEM; and (3) other skills that are enhanced along with critical thinking skills are cognitive and affective skills, which are problem-solving, creativity and innovation, collaboration skills and communication skills. Based on this evidence, we make recommendations for future research to consider other types of ICT for enhancing critical thinking skills. In addition, using other learning strategies, such as problem-based learning and inquiry, can be considered to improve critical thinking skills.

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Teaching Critical Thinking in the Digital Age

As technology becomes increasingly integrated into our daily lives, it is important to recognize its impact on education. The digital age presents both opportunities and challenges for educators, particularly when it comes to teaching critical thinking. In this blog post, we will explore the art of teaching critical thinking in the digital age and discuss some strategies for incorporating technology into the classroom.

Table of Contents

Understanding critical thinking, the importance of critical thinking, challenges of teaching critical thinking in the digital age, is technology producing a decline in critical thinking and analysis, how critical thinking is important to media and digital literacy, 1. encourage questioning, 2. use educational technology, 3. incorporate gamification, 4. teach ai prompt engineering, 5. incorporate technology into lesson plans, 6. encouraging active engagement with digital media, 7. teaching the art of questioning, 8. encouraging independent research, 9. fostering collaborative learning, teaching in the era of chatgpt, 1. analyzing and interpreting data, 2. evaluating arguments and evidence, 3. solving problems and making decisions, 4. generating hypotheses and testing them, 5. identifying patterns and relationships, 6. making connections between different ideas or concepts, q: what is critical thinking in the digital age, q: what is the art of critical thinking, q: what is digital critical thinking, q: what are the thinking skills in the digital age.

Critical thinking is a cognitive skill that involves the ability to analyze, evaluate, and synthesize information to make reasoned and logical decisions. It is a multifaceted process that requires the individual to engage in independent and reflective thinking. Critical thinking involves asking questions, identifying assumptions, analyzing arguments, and drawing conclusions based on evidence.

It also involves the ability to identify biases and recognize the limitations of one’s knowledge and understanding. The development of critical thinking skills is crucial for individuals to navigate complex issues and make informed decisions in various aspects of life.

Furthermore, critical thinking is essential in the digital age where there is an abundance of information and misinformation, and individuals need to be able to analyze and evaluate digital content critically. The ability to think critically is a lifelong skill that is valuable in all aspects of life, including education, career, and personal relationships.

Critical thinking is a valuable skill that enables individuals to analyze information, make informed decisions, and solve complex problems. In today’s rapidly changing world, critical thinking is more important than ever. With the abundance of information available at our fingertips, it is essential that we teach students how to think critically so they can navigate this information landscape effectively. You may further check this article from futurelearn.com on the importance of critical thinking .

While technology can be a powerful tool for teaching critical thinking, it also presents some unique challenges. One of the biggest challenges is the overwhelming amount of information available online. With so much information, it can be difficult for students to determine what is credible and what is not. Additionally, technology can be a distraction, making it difficult for students to focus on the task at hand.

The use of technology has become ubiquitous in our daily lives, including in education. However, some have expressed concerns that technology is producing a decline in critical thinking and analysis skills. Critics argue that technology has made it easier for individuals to access information without having to engage in critical analysis, resulting in a generation of individuals who are more likely to accept information at face value without questioning its validity.

Additionally, the abundance of digital distractions, such as social media and video games, can lead to a lack of focus and decreased attention span, which may impede the development of critical thinking skills. However, others argue that technology can also be used as a tool to enhance critical thinking and analysis, as well as to provide access to a wealth of information that can be analyzed and evaluated.

Ultimately, the impact of technology on critical thinking and analysis is complex and multifaceted, and requires ongoing exploration and discussion.

Media and digital literacy are essential skills for navigating the digital landscape of the modern age. Critical thinking plays a crucial role in developing these skills, as it enables individuals to evaluate and analyze digital media content effectively. The ability to critically analyze media and digital content is particularly important in an era of fake news and misinformation, where it can be challenging to discern what is accurate and what is not.

Critical thinking allows individuals to identify biases and question the validity of information presented in digital media, enabling them to make informed decisions and form their opinions. It also enables individuals to understand the broader implications of digital media on society, including issues related to privacy, security, and ethical considerations.

Therefore, critical thinking is an essential component of media and digital literacy and is crucial for individuals to effectively engage with digital media in a responsible and informed manner. You may read more about this in this article titled, “ Enhancing critical thinking skills and media literacy in initial vocational education ”.

Strategies for Teaching Critical Thinking in the Digital Age

Despite the challenges, there are several strategies that educators can use to teach critical thinking in the digital age. Here are a few:

One of the most effective ways to teach critical thinking is to encourage students to ask questions. This can be done in a variety of ways, such as asking open-ended questions, posing hypothetical scenarios, and encouraging students to think deeply about the material they are studying. By asking questions, students are forced to think critically about the information they are learning and are better able to make connections between different concepts.

Educational technology can be a powerful tool for teaching critical thinking. For example, online discussion forums can be used to encourage students to engage with each other and share their ideas. Similarly, interactive simulations and virtual reality experiences can be used to help students understand complex concepts in a more engaging way. However, it is important to be aware of the potential downsides of technology, such as its impact on social relationships. (Learn more about this topic here: How Educational Technology Impacts Social Relationships ).

Gamification is the use of game-like elements in non-game contexts, such as education. By incorporating gamification into the classroom, educators can make learning more engaging and fun for students. For example, points, badges, and leaderboards can be used to motivate students to complete assignments and participate in class discussions. However, it is important to be aware of the challenges associated with gamification, such as the potential for students to become too focused on the rewards rather than the learning itself. (Learn more about gamification here: Gamification in Education: Benefits, Challenges, and Best Practices ).

As AI and machine learning become increasingly prevalent, it is important for students to understand how these technologies work and AI prompt engineering is the process of creating prompts that can be used to train machine learning models. By teaching students about AI prompt engineering , educators can help them understand how these technologies work and how they can be used in a variety of contexts. (Learn more about teaching AI prompt engineering here: Teaching AI Prompt Engineering to Students: Importance, Tips and Prospects ).

Technology can be a valuable tool for enhancing lesson plans and engaging students. For example, videos, podcasts, and other multimedia can be used to supplement traditional classroom materials. Similarly, online quizzes and assessments can be used to test students’ knowledge and provide immediate feedback. However, it is important to ensure that the technology is used in a meaningful way and does not distract from the learning objectives. (Learn more about incorporating technology into lesson plans here: How to Incorporate Technology into Lesson Plans )

Encouraging active engagement with digital media is essential for individuals to develop critical thinking skills and engage with digital content responsibly. Active engagement involves actively questioning, analyzing, and evaluating digital media content rather than passively consuming it.

It requires individuals to be proactive in seeking out diverse perspectives and sources of information to gain a comprehensive understanding of a topic. Teachers and educators can play a crucial role in encouraging active engagement by incorporating digital media literacy into their lesson plans and teaching students how to evaluate digital content critically.

Additionally, educators can encourage students to engage with digital media through interactive and collaborative activities such as online discussions, digital storytelling, and gamification. By actively engaging with digital media, individuals can develop the skills and knowledge necessary to make informed decisions and navigate the digital landscape effectively.

Teaching the art of questioning is an essential component of developing critical thinking skills. The ability to ask thoughtful and insightful questions is crucial for individuals to gain a deeper understanding of a topic, challenge assumptions, and make informed decisions. Effective questioning involves asking open-ended questions that prompt individuals to think critically and explore various perspectives.

Teachers and educators can teach the art of questioning by modeling effective questioning techniques, encouraging students to ask questions, and providing opportunities for students to practice asking questions.

Additionally, educators can teach students how to evaluate the quality of questions by examining factors such as relevance, complexity, and potential biases. By teaching the art of questioning, individuals can develop the skills necessary to engage in independent and reflective thinking, evaluate information critically, and make informed decisions.

Encouraging independent research is a crucial component of developing critical thinking skills in the digital age. Independent research involves seeking out information from diverse sources, evaluating the quality and relevance of information, and synthesizing information to form informed opinions and make informed decisions.

Teachers and educators can encourage independent research by providing students with opportunities to explore topics of interest, guiding students through the research process, and teaching students how to evaluate the credibility and reliability of sources. Additionally, educators can teach students how to use various digital tools and resources to conduct research effectively.

By encouraging independent research, individuals can develop the skills and knowledge necessary to navigate the digital landscape effectively, evaluate information critically, and make informed decisions.

Fostering collaborative learning is a crucial aspect of developing critical thinking skills in the digital age. Collaborative learning involves working together with peers to solve problems, share knowledge, and explore different perspectives.

Moreover, it encourages individuals to engage in active listening, communication, and teamwork, all of which are essential for developing critical thinking skills. Educators can foster collaborative learning by incorporating group projects, online discussions, and other interactive activities into their lesson plans.

These activities can help individuals develop their ability to work collaboratively and think critically while also promoting digital literacy and responsible use of technology. By fostering collaborative learning, educators can help individuals develop the skills necessary to navigate the digital landscape effectively, make informed decisions, and contribute to society.

As a language model trained by OpenAI, ChatGPT represents the cutting edge of artificial intelligence . While ChatGPT can be a valuable tool for education, it is important to remember that it is still a machine and cannot replace human teachers. Educators should use ChatGPT as a supplement to their teaching, rather than a replacement. (Learn more about teaching in the age of ChatGPT here: Teaching in the Age of ChatGPT ).

What Activities Can Teachers Incorporate to Develop Critical Thinking?

To analyze and interpret data, one must carefully scrutinize the data to uncover patterns, relationships, and trends. This can require critical thinking skills to determine what the data is telling us and how it can be used effectively. Additionally, students may need to look closely at the data to identify any correlations or discrepancies that can help them draw meaningful conclusions.

Evaluating arguments and evidence involves assessing the strength and reliability of the evidence and arguments presented in a text or other source. This can require critical thinking skills to determine whether the argument is logical and the evidence is valid. For example, students may need to assess the credibility of sources cited in an argument or evaluate the soundness of a particular claim.

Solving problems and making decisions requires students to identify problems, generate potential solutions, evaluate those solutions, and select the best option. This can require critical thinking skills to determine which solution is most effective or appropriate. For example, students might need to weigh the pros and cons of different solutions or consider how each solution would impact various stakeholders.

Generating hypotheses and testing them involves developing a hypothesis or prediction about a particular phenomenon and then testing it through experimentation or observation. This can require critical thinking skills to design experiments that will effectively test their hypotheses. However, students may need to consider different variables that could impact their results or develop alternative hypotheses if their initial predictions are not supported by their findings.

Identifying patterns and relationships requires students to recognize similarities and differences between different pieces of information or data. This can require critical thinking skills to identify patterns or relationships that are not immediately apparent. For example, students might need to compare data from different sources or identify common themes across different texts.

Making connections between different ideas or concepts involves linking various ideas or concepts together to create a more complete understanding of a particular topic. This can require critical thinking skills to identify connections between seemingly unrelated ideas. For example, students might need to consider how different historical events influenced each other or how various scientific concepts are related.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs):

A: Critical thinking in the digital age refers to the ability to analyze, evaluate, and synthesize information in a rapidly changing technological landscape. It involves using a combination of logic, reasoning, and creativity to solve problems and make informed decisions.

A: The art of critical thinking involves the ability to question assumptions, think independently, and evaluate evidence objectively. Furthermore, It involves using a range of cognitive skills, including analysis, synthesis, evaluation, and interpretation, to make sound judgments and decisions.

A: Digital critical thinking refers to the application of critical thinking skills in the context of digital technology. It involves evaluating information sources, analyzing data, and making informed decisions based on digital information. Additionally, in today’s world, accessing and sharing more information digitally makes digital critical thinking skills increasingly important.

A: The thinking skills in the digital age include a range of cognitive abilities, including analytical thinking, creative thinking, problem-solving, decision-making, and information literacy. Additionally, these skills are essential for success in the rapidly changing technological landscape of the digital age.

Teaching critical thinking in the digital age presents both opportunities and challenges. By encouraging questioning, incorporating educational technology and gamification, teaching AI prompt engineering, and incorporating technology into lesson plans, educators can help students develop the critical thinking skills they need to succeed in today’s rapidly changing world. However, remember that using technology in a meaningful way and never replacing human teachers is important. By finding the right balance between technology and human interaction, we can ensure that students receive the best possible education.

Khondker Mohammad Shah-Al-Mamun is an experienced writer, technology integration and automation specialist, and Microsoft Innovative Educator who leads the Blended Learning Center at Daffodil International University in Bangladesh. He was also a Google Certified Educator and a leader of Google Educators Group (GEG) Dhaka South.

Khondker Mohammad Shah – Al – Mamun

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Helping Students Hone Their Critical Thinking Skills

Used consistently, these strategies can help middle and high school teachers guide students to improve much-needed skills.

Critical thinking skills are important in every discipline, at and beyond school. From managing money to choosing which candidates to vote for in elections to making difficult career choices, students need to be prepared to take in, synthesize, and act on new information in a world that is constantly changing.

While critical thinking might seem like an abstract idea that is tough to directly instruct, there are many engaging ways to help students strengthen these skills through active learning.

Make Time for Metacognitive Reflection

Create space for students to both reflect on their ideas and discuss the power of doing so. Show students how they can push back on their own thinking to analyze and question their assumptions. Students might ask themselves, “Why is this the best answer? What information supports my answer? What might someone with a counterargument say?”

Through this reflection, students and teachers (who can model reflecting on their own thinking) gain deeper understandings of their ideas and do a better job articulating their beliefs. In a world that is go-go-go, it is important to help students understand that it is OK to take a breath and think about their ideas before putting them out into the world. And taking time for reflection helps us more thoughtfully consider others’ ideas, too.

Teach Reasoning Skills 

Reasoning skills are another key component of critical thinking, involving the abilities to think logically, evaluate evidence, identify assumptions, and analyze arguments. Students who learn how to use reasoning skills will be better equipped to make informed decisions, form and defend opinions, and solve problems. 

One way to teach reasoning is to use problem-solving activities that require students to apply their skills to practical contexts. For example, give students a real problem to solve, and ask them to use reasoning skills to develop a solution. They can then present their solution and defend their reasoning to the class and engage in discussion about whether and how their thinking changed when listening to peers’ perspectives. 

A great example I have seen involved students identifying an underutilized part of their school and creating a presentation about one way to redesign it. This project allowed students to feel a sense of connection to the problem and come up with creative solutions that could help others at school. For more examples, you might visit PBS’s Design Squad , a resource that brings to life real-world problem-solving.

Ask Open-Ended Questions 

Moving beyond the repetition of facts, critical thinking requires students to take positions and explain their beliefs through research, evidence, and explanations of credibility. 

When we pose open-ended questions, we create space for classroom discourse inclusive of diverse, perhaps opposing, ideas—grounds for rich exchanges that support deep thinking and analysis. 

For example, “How would you approach the problem?” and “Where might you look to find resources to address this issue?” are two open-ended questions that position students to think less about the “right” answer and more about the variety of solutions that might already exist. 

Journaling, whether digitally or physically in a notebook, is another great way to have students answer these open-ended prompts—giving them time to think and organize their thoughts before contributing to a conversation, which can ensure that more voices are heard. 

Once students process in their journal, small group or whole class conversations help bring their ideas to life. Discovering similarities between answers helps reveal to students that they are not alone, which can encourage future participation in constructive civil discourse.

Teach Information Literacy 

Education has moved far past the idea of “Be careful of what is on Wikipedia, because it might not be true.” With AI innovations making their way into classrooms, teachers know that informed readers must question everything. 

Understanding what is and is not a reliable source and knowing how to vet information are important skills for students to build and utilize when making informed decisions. You might start by introducing the idea of bias: Articles, ads, memes, videos, and every other form of media can push an agenda that students may not see on the surface. Discuss credibility, subjectivity, and objectivity, and look at examples and nonexamples of trusted information to prepare students to be well-informed members of a democracy.

One of my favorite lessons is about the Pacific Northwest tree octopus . This project asks students to explore what appears to be a very real website that provides information on this supposedly endangered animal. It is a wonderful, albeit over-the-top, example of how something might look official even when untrue, revealing that we need critical thinking to break down “facts” and determine the validity of the information we consume. 

A fun extension is to have students come up with their own website or newsletter about something going on in school that is untrue. Perhaps a change in dress code that requires everyone to wear their clothes inside out or a change to the lunch menu that will require students to eat brussels sprouts every day. 

Giving students the ability to create their own falsified information can help them better identify it in other contexts. Understanding that information can be “too good to be true” can help them identify future falsehoods. 

Provide Diverse Perspectives 

Consider how to keep the classroom from becoming an echo chamber. If students come from the same community, they may have similar perspectives. And those who have differing perspectives may not feel comfortable sharing them in the face of an opposing majority. 

To support varying viewpoints, bring diverse voices into the classroom as much as possible, especially when discussing current events. Use primary sources: videos from YouTube, essays and articles written by people who experienced current events firsthand, documentaries that dive deeply into topics that require some nuance, and any other resources that provide a varied look at topics. 

I like to use the Smithsonian “OurStory” page , which shares a wide variety of stories from people in the United States. The page on Japanese American internment camps is very powerful because of its first-person perspectives. 

Practice Makes Perfect 

To make the above strategies and thinking routines a consistent part of your classroom, spread them out—and build upon them—over the course of the school year. You might challenge students with information and/or examples that require them to use their critical thinking skills; work these skills explicitly into lessons, projects, rubrics, and self-assessments; or have students practice identifying misinformation or unsupported arguments.

Critical thinking is not learned in isolation. It needs to be explored in English language arts, social studies, science, physical education, math. Every discipline requires students to take a careful look at something and find the best solution. Often, these skills are taken for granted, viewed as a by-product of a good education, but true critical thinking doesn’t just happen. It requires consistency and commitment.

In a moment when information and misinformation abound, and students must parse reams of information, it is imperative that we support and model critical thinking in the classroom to support the development of well-informed citizens.

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Research Article

Teaching critical thinking about health using digital technology in lower secondary schools in Rwanda: A qualitative context analysis

Roles Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Methodology, Project administration, Validation, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

Affiliations Institute of Health and Society, Faculty of Medicine, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway, School of Public Health, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Rwanda, Kigali, Rwanda

Roles Data curation, Formal analysis, Writing – review & editing

Affiliation School of Public Health, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Rwanda, Kigali, Rwanda

Roles Conceptualization, Methodology, Validation, Writing – review & editing

Affiliations Institute of Health and Society, Faculty of Medicine, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway, Tropical Institute of Community Health and Development, Kisumu, Kenya

Roles Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing – review & editing

Affiliations Institute of Health and Society, Faculty of Medicine, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway, Department of Medicine, Makerere University, College of Health Sciences, Kampala, Uganda

Affiliations Centre for Informed Health Choices, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo, Norway, Faculty of Health Sciences, Oslo Metropolitan University, Oslo, Norway

Affiliation Department of Medicine, Makerere University, College of Health Sciences, Kampala, Uganda

Affiliation Tropical Institute of Community Health and Development, Kisumu, Kenya

Roles Formal analysis, Methodology, Writing – review & editing

Affiliations Centre for Informed Health Choices, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo, Norway, Health Systems Research Unit, South African Medical Research Council, Cape Town, South Africa

Roles Conceptualization, Data curation, Methodology, Project administration, Supervision, Validation, Visualization, Writing – review & editing

Roles Conceptualization, Funding acquisition, Methodology, Project administration, Validation, Writing – review & editing

Affiliation Centre for Informed Health Choices, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo, Norway

Roles Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Methodology, Supervision, Validation, Writing – review & editing

* E-mail: [email protected]

• Michael Mugisha, 
• Anne Marie Uwitonze, 
• Faith Chesire, 
• Ronald Senyonga, 
• Matt Oxman, 
• Allen Nsangi, 
• Daniel Semakula, 
• Margaret Kaseje, 
• Simon Lewin, 

• Published: March 22, 2021
• https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0248773
• Reader Comments

Introduction

Adolescents encounter misleading claims about health interventions that can affect their health. Young people need to develop critical thinking skills to enable them to verify health claims and make informed choices. Schools could teach these important life skills, but educators need access to suitable learning resources that are aligned with their curriculum. The overall objective of this context analysis was to explore conditions for teaching critical thinking about health interventions using digital technology to lower secondary school students in Rwanda.

We undertook a qualitative descriptive study using four methods: document review, key informant interviews, focus group discussions, and observations. We reviewed 29 documents related to the national curriculum and ICT conditions in secondary schools. We conducted 8 interviews and 5 focus group discussions with students, teachers, and policy makers. We observed ICT conditions and use in five schools. We analysed the data using a framework analysis approach.

Two major themes found. The first was demand for teaching critical thinking about health. The current curriculum explicitly aims to develop critical thinking competences in students. Critical thinking and health topics are taught across subjects. But understanding and teaching of critical thinking varies among teachers, and critical thinking about health is not being taught. The second theme was the current and expected ICT conditions. Most public schools have computers, projectors, and internet connectivity. However, use of ICT in teaching is limited, due in part to low computer to student ratios.

Conclusions

There is a need for learning resources to develop critical thinking skills generally and critical thinking about health specifically. Such skills could be taught within the existing curriculum using available ICT technologies. Digital resources for teaching critical thinking about health should be designed so that they can be used flexibly across subjects and easily by teachers and students.

Citation: Mugisha M, Uwitonze AM, Chesire F, Senyonga R, Oxman M, Nsangi A, et al. (2021) Teaching critical thinking about health using digital technology in lower secondary schools in Rwanda: A qualitative context analysis. PLoS ONE 16(3): e0248773. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0248773

Editor: Gwo-Jen Hwang, National Taiwan University of Science and Technology, TAIWAN

Received: February 1, 2021; Accepted: March 4, 2021; Published: March 22, 2021

Copyright: © 2021 Mugisha et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Data Availability: The data underlying the results presented in the study are available from Norwegian Data Center at http://nsddata.nsd.uib.no/webview/index.jsp?node=0&submode=ddi&study=http%3A%2F%2F129.177.90.161%3A80%2Fobj%2FfStudy%2FNSD2930&language=no&mode=documentation .

Funding: This research was funded by the Research Council of Norway ( https://www.forskningsradet.no/en/ ). Project number 284683, grant no:69006 awarded to ADO. The funder had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.

Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

We are confronted all the time with claims about the world. Many of these claims are not directly testable by most of us. We must figure out how to evaluate other people’s arguments to come to our own conclusions, particularly about causal claims [ 1 ]. Adolescents, like adults, encounter a wide range of health-related claims in their daily lives, and many of those are claims about health interventions, i.e., statements or messages about purported benefits or harms of actions people can take to protect or improve health. When confronted with such claims, most people are not trying to be scientists. Rather, they are trying to figure out what to believe and what to do.

Such claims are obtained from peers, families, the community, social and mass media. Misleading claims can lead to bad decisions about health, if they are believed. For example, there are endless claims about what people can do to prevent or treat COVID-19 [ 2 ]. Acting on unreliable claims can lead to unnecessary suffering and wasted resources [ 3 – 7 ]. Conversely, failure to believe and act on reliable claims about health interventions also leads to unnecessary suffering and inefficient use of health services [ 8 – 10 ].

Making good decisions about health depends on critical thinking, people’s ability to obtain, process and understand health information needed to make informed decisions [ 11 – 14 ]. Additionally, people need to think critically about health information, for instance to assess the trustworthiness of claims about health interventions or to understand how to deal with conflicting claims [ 15 ]. Many countries have moved towards competence-based curricula and include critical thinking as a key competence [ 16 , 17 ], although not specifically critical thinking about health. A strong case can be made for investing in health education for adolescents based on developmental science [ 18 ]. However, few educational interventions to improve adolescents’ ability to think critically about health have been evaluated rigorously [ 19 ].

We are a team developing and evaluating resources to enable young people to think critically about health claims. The team includes researchers from East Africa, where the resources are being developed and evaluated, as well as from Chile and Norway. The team is part of the Informed Health Choices (IHC) network, which includes researchers from over 20 countries who are developing and testing learning resources for primary and secondary schools [ 20 ].

We first identified key concepts (principles) that people need to understand and apply when deciding what health claims to believe and what to do [ 21 ]. Together with teachers in Uganda, we prioritised concepts that were relevant for primary school children [ 22 ]. We have also prioritised concepts for secondary schools, together with national curriculum committee members and teachers in Rwanda, Uganda, and Kenya [ 23 ]. We developed and tested learning resources in Ugandan primary school children [ 24 , 25 ]. In a follow up study, we showed that children retained what they had learned for at least one year [ 26 ]. The team has translated primary school learning resources to Kinyarwanda and Kiswahili and piloted their use in Rwanda and Kenya. Key findings from the Rwandan pilot study indicated that IHC resources were useful and feasible to use in Rwandan primary schools [ 27 ]. The primary school resources have also been translated to other languages, including Chinese, Croatian, French, Greek, Italian, Norwegian, Persian, Portuguese, Spanish and pilot testing of translated resources is ongoing in several countries [ 28 ].

In a process evaluation, researchers found that lack of time in the curriculum and printing costs were major challenges to scaling up use of the IHC primary school resources [ 29 ]. One way of reducing the cost of the intervention would be to use digital resources. Digital learning resources are much cheaper to distribute than printed resources because they eliminate printing costs, and they do not need to be physically shipped. However, schools may not be equipped to use digital resources and teachers and students may prefer printed learning materials. Further, we conducted a context analysis in Norway to explore the demand for teaching critical thinking about health in primary schools [ 30 ]. We found that although teachers were interested, there was little time available for teaching new content outside the curriculum and little time for teachers to seek out and test new resources.

Building on what we learned in our work with primary school resources, and in collaboration with stakeholders in education, we are developing digital learning resources for secondary school students in East Africa that can be easily adapted for use in other countries. To inform the development of the resources and ensure that they are well suited for the Rwandan context, we conducted a context analysis to explore 1) the demand for learning resources, 2) the extent to which these fit with the curriculum and 3) ICT conditions in secondary schools. Researchers in Kenya and Uganda carried out similar context analyses [ 31 – 33 ]. While our focus is on understanding the context for developing suitable learning resources for critical thinking about health, our findings can also inform the design of other digital learning resources in low resource educational settings.

We used a qualitative descriptive study approach [ 34 ]. This entails describing a phenomenon without moving far from or into the data; it requires less interpretation than an “interpretive descriptive” approach. We chose this method because the nature of the data we sought was primarily factual. We employed four qualitative methods: document review, key informant interviews, focus group discussions, and observations.

Document review

The document review included analysis of the existing curriculum, of approved learning resources in lower secondary schools, and of current documentation on ICT for education (ICT for education policy, ICT implementation plans, and guidelines for use of ICT in education). We searched for relevant documents on the official websites of the Rwanda Education Board (REB) and Ministry of Education. We consulted REB to retrieve and obtain clarifications of documents that could not be found on the official website. In total, we reviewed 29 documents for curriculum, resources and ICT use in Rwanda.

We reviewed the national curriculum for lower secondary schools. We read syllabuses for each subject taught in lower secondary schools. For each subject, we reviewed its rationale, competences, objectives, topic areas and units taught. We explored what health topics are covered in the curriculum and in which subjects and course units these health topics are located. We reviewed how critical thinking is generally covered in the curriculum and specifically in relation to health topics. We mapped if there were any IHC concepts and competences reflected in the curriculum. We used the IHC Key Concepts as a framework for reviewing the curriculum, mapping where in the curriculum IHC concepts are relevant explicitly or implicitly. The IHC Key Concepts includes 49 principles grouped in three categories, each with three high level concepts, and corresponding competences (see Table 1 ). We did not review international or special needs curricula used in Rwandan lower secondary schools.

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https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0248773.t001

We reviewed e-books approved by REB. We started by reviewing all books used in lower secondary schools of Rwanda. For each electronic book used in lower secondary schools, we reviewed whether the content included health topics or critical thinking about health.

We reviewed existing documentation on ICT use in secondary education, including existing national policy for use of ICT in education, and strategic and implementation plans for ICT in secondary schools. We also reviewed existing e-learning platforms and digital learning resources available through the REB gateway. We explored the status of the rolling out of ICT infrastructure in Rwandan secondary schools, and the availability of resources (equipment, Internet access, e-learning content, etc) in schools where ICT has been rolled out.

Key informant interviews

We interviewed key informants such as curriculum development and ICT for education at REB, secondary school teachers, and school ICT support officers. We explored how the competence-based curriculum is implemented in Rwanda, focusing on critical thinking and health topics, and how competence-based learning is evaluated. We asked secondary school teachers and ICT support officers at schools to describe how they teach competence-based curriculum with a focus on critical thinking and health related topics. We also explored ICT use for teaching and learning, and challenges using digital learning resources.

Focus group discussions

We conducted focus group discussions with students to explore how they obtain health information, what they use as a basis for making health decisions, and claims they hear in everyday life. We explored whether critical thinking about health is something they would be interested to learn in school. We also explored how they search for information about health and other topics at school. Finally, we explored how they access and use ICT for learning in school.

Observation

We visited selected schools and observed what ICT infrastructure is available and how it is used for teaching and learning. We observed existing ICT labs, digital equipment, Internet access, and content. Where we were able to access ongoing classes, we observed how ICT was used in teaching and learning.

First, we sampled documents to review according to the objectives. We purposively selected curriculum documents, approved learning resources and ICT policy and implementation documents (n = 29). For the curriculum and learning resources we selected those used in lower secondary schools in Rwanda. Second, we used convenience sampling to select five schools to conduct observations, interviews with teachers, and focus group discussions with students. Due to time and budget constraints, we applied convenience sampling to select five schools. We took care to choose schools that varied as much as possible in terms of ownership (private/public), day/boarding, equipment, and location (urban/rural). In each school, the school administration identified at least 10 students from lower secondary school with whom we conducted a focus group discussion. Two of the five focus group discussions were conducted out of school premises due to the Covid-19 pandemic. In each school, we purposively selected two to three teachers of biology and English because the current curriculum informed us that health topics were mainly taught in those subjects. We also interviewed people in charge of ICT at each school. Lastly, we purposively selected 5–10 key informants from REB’s departments of curriculum development and ICT for education. In order to capture the opinions, views and experiences of a wide range of participants, we selected participants that were of direct relevance to our study objectives.

Data collection procedures

For the document review, we used the study objectives and IHC Key Concepts as frameworks for collecting data. We extracted statements pertinent to each study objective. We summarised all findings in a single table, including the name of the document, the extracted statement, and the page number where the statement was found. This exercise was done independently by two researchers who then compared the data they extracted and resolved any disagreement through discussion.

For key informant interviews, we used semi-structured interview guides to collect information from the study participants, one for teachers and one for policy makers. Guides included questions that covered critical thinking about health, resources for teaching critical thinking, and ICT infrastructure used in teaching and learning. Guides also explored existing challenges and opportunities for using ICT for teaching and learning. We piloted the two interview guides with a few participants first and slightly modified them as needed. We interviewed participants face to face in a private place of their choice. Participants were encouraged to express their views freely and take discussion in a new relevant direction. We conducted some interviews with two or three teachers or REB key informants at the same time.

We also used an interview guide to conduct focus group discussions with students. We asked questions to explore how they learn to think critically, what claims about treatment effects they are familiar with, which sources of health information they use, and how they use ICT for learning purposes. We approached and conducted interviews at the workplace of study participants in a designated room that assured privacy of participants and recording of discussions. Interviews and focus group discussions were moderated by a male PhD fellow with Master of Public Health and experience qualitative research (first author). Each interview lasted at least an hour and the focus group discussion lasted between one hour and half. At least two researchers conducted each interview and focus group discussion. One person guided the discussion, and another took notes and recorded the discussion. Interviews and focus group discussions were recorded, transcribed verbatim and translated to English if the interview was conducted in Kinyarwanda. We collected observations using a checklist that covered ICT equipment, internet-connectivity, and e-learning content used in schools.

The amount of data we collected was guided by considerations of the variation in issues emerging from the data and the extent to which we were able to explain these variations. We considered our time and resource constraints and the need to avoid large volumes of data that cannot be easily managed or analysed as highlighted in the literature [ 35 , 36 ].

Data analysis

We compiled and analysed all data from the document review, key informant interviews, focus group discussions, and observations together, using a framework analysis approach for applied research [ 37 ]. This approach differs from thematic content analysis in that it is deductive in nature with pre-set objectives [ 38 ]. It also involves analysing, classifying and summarising data in a thematic framework [ 39 ]. We began by reading all notes, transcripts, and documents to familiarise ourselves with the data. Then we conducted an analysis based on a coding scheme of initial themes derived directly from the objectives of our study: 1) demand for learning resources to teach critical thinking about health, 2) links between critical thinking about health and the curriculum, and 3) current and expected ICT conditions for teaching and learning in secondary schools. We determined sub-themes from data within each initial theme. We indexed all the data using the initial themes and sub-themes and rearranged data within and across themes (charting) to compare summaries of data during analysis. Two researchers independently analysed the data and compared their findings. The two researchers discussed disagreements in codes and themes and agreed on the final themes.

We summarized the key findings and assessed our confidence in these using a version of the Confidence in the Evidence from Reviews of Qualitative research (GRADE-CERQual) approach [ 40 ]. GRADE-CERQual was modified for primary qualitative studies [ 29 , 41 ]. GRADE-CERQual is a systematic and transparent method for assessing the confidence in evidence from reviews of qualitative research through the lens of four components: methodological limitations, data adequacy, coherence and relevance [ 42 ]. Although CERQual has been designed for assessing findings emerging from qualitative evidence syntheses, the components of the approach are also suitable for assessing findings from a single study with multiple sources of qualitative data. We modified the components slightly as follows: 1) Methodological limitations: the extent to which there are concerns about the sampling and collection of the data that contributed evidence to an individual finding, 2) Coherence of the finding: an assessment of how clear and compelling the fit is between the data and the finding that brings together these data, 3) Adequacy of the data contributing to a finding: an overall determination of the degree of richness and quantity of data supporting a finding and 4) Relevance: the extent to which the body of evidence supporting a finding is applicable to the context (perspective or population, phenomenon of interest, setting) specified in the study question.

Two authors applied the modified GRADE-CERQual approach to each study finding and made a judgement about our overall confidence in the evidence supporting the finding. We judged confidence as being high, moderate, low, or very low. All findings started as high confidence and were graded down if there were important concerns regarding any of the components described above [ 43 ].

Ethical considerations

The study was performed in accordance with the protocol and regulatory requirements, guidelines, and principles for conducting studies involving human subjects in Rwanda. Ethical clearance was obtained from the Rwandan National Ethics Committee (RNEC) for the entire informed health choices project (approval number 916/RNEC/2019). Study participants signed a written informed consent before participating in the study. Students under the age of 18 signed assent forms and consent was obtained from their corresponding school administration at school.

We reviewed 29 documents related to the curriculum, syllabuses, textbooks, and ICT for education in Rwanda. We interviewed 27 key informants, including policymakers, and teachers. We conducted five focus group discussions with groups of nine to 11 students, and we made observations in five schools. Characteristics of the schools, students, teachers, and policymakers are summarised in Table 2 . We categorised our findings in themes and sub-themes as described below. CERQual assessments are in parentheses.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0248773.t002

Demand for resources to teach critical thinking about health

Demand in the curriculum..

The competence-based curriculum requires that students develop generic competences including critical thinking, research and problem solving in all subjects (high confidence). In 2016, Rwanda switched from a knowledge-based curriculum to a competence-based curriculum. The current curriculum emphasises developing learners’ knowledge, skills, and attitudes that together build competences needed in real life. It also places the learner at the centre of teaching and learning processes. The learner is considered a source of information and is expected to drive learning processes, while the teacher’s role is to guide.

“The former curriculum was objective-based , where the teacher was the source of everything , He/she was the one teaching students , providing all the information , and students could write all that the teacher said , But now in the current competence-based curriculum , the focus is more on learners , where students participate more in learning and teaching process than the teacher himself . ” Policymaker 03

The current curriculum aims for learners to develop generic competences that promote higher order thinking skills. These competences are expected to impart learners with understanding of subjects and skills needed in the job market, as well as to promote life-long learning. The curriculum describes generic competences that include critical thinking, research, and problem solving.

In developing critical thinking competence, learners are expected to demonstrate that they “ think reflectively , broadly and logically about challenges encountered in all situations , weigh up evidence and make appropriate decisions based on experience and relevant learning , think imaginatively and evaluate ideas in a meaningful way before arriving at a conclusion and explore and evaluate alternative explanations to those presented by others . ” Similarly, for research and problem-solving skills competence, learners should “be resourceful in finding answers to questions and solutions to problems , produce new knowledge based on research of existing information and concepts and sound judgment in developing viable solutions , explain phenomena based on findings from information gathered or provided . ” Rwanda Curriculum framework , page 11.

According to the curriculum, these generic competences and others must be reflected and developed in all subjects taught in lower secondary schools in Rwanda.

The current curriculum lays out the demand for development of new textbooks and teachers’ guides to facilitate a learner-centred approach (high confidence). REB’s department of curriculum and material production is developing learning resources for each subject to increase the availability of such resources in schools.

“The learner-centred approach required for the new curriculum demands a variety of teaching and learning textbooks and resources , Teachers’ guides for textbooks and the National Curriculum Syllabuses will provide subject teachers with advice and guidance on effective strategies for teaching their subjects and for optimising students’ progress in terms of subject knowledge , skills , attitudes and competences . ” Rwanda curriculum framework , page 24 .

Demand for critical thinking learning resources in subjects taught in lower secondary schools.

Health related topics taught in secondary school subjects provide opportunity for developing competences for critical thinking about health among learners (high confidence). We explored all subjects in the lower secondary curriculum to determine where health topics are covered. Among 14 subjects taught in lower secondary schools, three subjects (biology and health sciences, home science, and English) covered health topics in their syllabuses. Broad health themes are included, such as sexual and reproductive health, infectious and non-infectious diseases, food and nutrition. Table 3 provides an overview of which subjects and units in the curriculum cover health topics.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0248773.t003

In reviewing the content and activities for health-related topics, we found opportunities for teaching critical thinking about health. In addition, statistics and probability, which are taught in mathematics are linked to concepts for critical thinking about health research.

We did find some competences of biology, chemistry, mathematics subjects that aligned with competences in the IHC Key Concepts framework. These competences are rooted in generic competences described in the curriculum framework. They include “critical thinking, research and problem solving, creativity and innovation, communication, lifelong learning, cooperation, interpersonal relations, and life skills.” Specific broad competences in the syllabuses for subjects are based on these generic competences (see Table 4 ). The learner studying those subjects is expected to appreciate that science is evidence-based and should apply science in real life to make good choices and find solutions. Students use small-group discussions to conduct class activities and reflect on content delivered in class, a learning strategy that is aligned with critical thinking. At the end of lower secondary school, students should be able to apply science in advocating for personal, family and community health (high confidence).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0248773.t004

Students should be able to “ … apply basic mathematical concepts , principles and processes to solve problems; analyse and explain scientific phenomena relating to real life experience; use and experiment with a range of scientific and technological tools and equipment and draw appropriate conclusions; advocate for personal , family and community health , hygiene and nutrition … ” Rwanda curriculum framework , page 14 .

Teachers’ needs in relation to resources to teach critical thinking about health.

Understanding and developing critical thinking about health varies among teachers (moderate confidence). The teachers we interviewed noted that they understand critical thinking as a way of reflecting on class lectures through discussion among learners. Some teachers we interviewed also develop research and problem-solving skills by encouraging learners to search the Internet and books to get further information beyond what is taught in class. Other teachers understand critical thinking as a way of reflecting on topics learned in class and how these apply in real life.

“We give them health topics to search on the Internet or in books , They discuss in class and present [what they find] during debates . ” English teacher

“For example , we teach infectious and non-infectious diseases , We can ask them some diseases they see at home , we ask a nurse to explain these diseases , so they think beyond class and get understanding of what infectious diseases are .” Biology and health sciences teacher

We interviewed five staff from the REB curriculum department to explore the need to develop learning resources to teach critical thinking about health. They noted that, in their view, teachers have little experience in teaching critical thinking and other new competences. This, they stated, is because most teachers have been trained in the previous knowledge-based curriculum. They also noted that teachers have different understandings of what is meant by critical thinking, and their competences vary. The curriculum department staff suggested that teachers do not know how to develop their competences in this area, and that there are no learning resources to help them.

“Critical thinking is reflected in the curriculum but teaching it is still problematic because understanding of teachers for critical thinking varies and some don’t even understand it , Yes , you need to develop critical thinking , but how do you do it and what materials do you use ? Which books do you use ? You see it is a problem . ” Policymaker

Students’ needs in relation to learning about critical thinking for health.

We found that students are aware that critical thinking would help to make decisions about health for themselves and others (high confidence). Most students said that they search for health information on the Internet or ask their peers or family. Some said they could find out which treatments are better by trying them out and seeing what the effect was, or by asking friends or parents. Students shared their experiences of treatments they were familiar with for common conditions. Students commonly heard about treatments claims from peers, and that they generally accepted and believed them.

“You can ask elders , your parents , your elder brothers/sisters , neighbours , and you know what they used which healed them quickly or you do research on Google . ” 14-year-old student

They had a general belief regarding what people can eat or drink to improve their health and which treatments they can use to improve common health conditions. Their beliefs about treatments were influenced by peers, the community, media and their families.

“ … when you are sick of flu or cough , you take ginger and lemon , you boil them , then you mix with honey . ” 13-year-old student

When we asked them whether it is important to learn critical thinking about health, they responded that it is important because it would give them confidence in their treatment choices. They also mentioned that knowing critical thinking, they can help themselves or others to make better choices. When we asked them how they can apply critical thinking about health in their daily lives, they said they would use medicines with caution and not accept every suggestion.

“In order to avoid a person who can mislead you , because some can even give you wrong information on the treatment , Then when you take it without critical thinking , you have bad effect , which can even lead to death or you become disabled . ” 14-year-old student

Current and expected ICT conditions

Policy and guidelines for use of ict in teaching and learning..

There are policy and guidelines in place that promote ICT use in teaching and learning (high confidence). The Government of Rwanda recognises ICT as a key pillar for national transformation. In 2016, the government approved the ICT for education policy [ 44 ]. The policy aimed to mobilise use of ICT in teaching and learning processes by developing ICT literacy and providing devices, connectivity, and digital content. In the education sector, ICT is regarded as a key strategy to drive teaching and learning.

REB has produced guidelines for establishing “smart classrooms” in schools to facilitate teaching and learning. Smart classrooms are computer laboratories with laptops, an Internet connection, and learning materials that develop 21 st century skills. There was an ICT implementation plan to provide all schools with smart classrooms by 2019.

“Development and acquisition of digital content , aligned with the curriculum and that [ … ] is fully integrated with the use of ICT , [ … ] eventual shift from print to digital content as infrastructure is deployed in schools [ … ] Digital content has advantages of reducing costs of printing , distribution , replacement due to wear and tear and enriching the learning experience . ” ICT in education policy , page 4 .

Devices and connectivity for teaching and learning.

The government of Rwanda has provided computers, connectivity and other ICT devices to more than 50% of schools for supporting teaching and learning (high confidence). According to the REB ICT for education department, over 50% of secondary schools in Rwanda have at least two smart classrooms and laptops for teachers in each department. Most schools have at least 100 computers for students and five computers for teachers in each department. The laptops are supplied by the government and have similar features, and the government pays for Internet access at the schools. Some schools have additional computers not supplied by the government. At the five schools we visited, there was also at least one data projector in the smart classrooms. Based on interviews with teachers, few students or teachers own a computer. Only one of the five schools we visited had some students who owned laptops.

Digital content for teaching and learning.

There is an e-learning platform for schools that hosts non-interactive digital content in pdf formats. Some work is going on regarding interactive digital content (high confidence). All books developed for the competence-based curriculum are freely available. Interactive digital content is under development in pilot projects, according to the REB.

“Well , we have not done so much on digital materials , what we have now is soft books in PDF , Digital content is different from soft content of the book because in digital content we should have animation , audio , Yeah , digital materials look like that , But we have that project , where we will make digital content for primary and secondary . ” Policymaker 3

“So far we have developed few interactive digital resources for each unit in a chapter , but we are now developing virtual labs . ” Policymaker 2

Use of ICT for teaching and learning.

Use of ICT for teaching and learning in Rwandan schools is limited due to limited ICT resources. Therefore, use of ICT in teaching is done in combination with traditional teaching (without ICT). Schools’ ICT facilities are available for teaching and learning on a rotating schedule, since there are not enough computers for all students to use at the same time (high confidence). In each school there is a timetable indicating when each class is scheduled to use a smart classroom. During breaks and weekends, smart classrooms at boarding schools are open for students to use. Students reported that their use of computers for teaching and learning outside of ICT classes occurs once or twice a week. Students use computers primarily for searching the Internet and for learning ICT skills. Teachers we interviewed reported that teaching and learning across subjects occurs mostly in classes without computers.

“It might not always be possible for all classes to access smart classrooms in a bigger school but the need for it is weighed and classes are allowed accordingly , For boarding schools , they can even extend the learning hours to weekend program where students can have access to computers depending on the school timetable . ” Policymaker 3

Confidence in the findings . Details of our assessment of confidence in the findings are summarised in the ( S1 File ). We judged that it is possible to have high confidence in all but one of the findings (which we rated as ‘moderate’).

The study aimed to explore the demand of teaching critical thinking about health conditions in Rwandan lower secondary schools using digital technology. We found that critical thinking is a key competence in Rwandan curriculum and health topics cut across different subjects. Furthermore students, teachers, and policy makers agreed there is a need for students to learn to think critically about health, and a need for learning resources to help teach critical thinking about health. We found that ICT devices and connectivity has already been supplied by the Rwanda Education Board to more than half of the schools in the country. However, use of ICT in daily teaching activities is limited by high computer to student ratios.

Internationally, there has been a shift towards competence-based curricula, and critical thinking is identified as a key competence in most curricula [ 16 ]. Critical thinking is a priority competence across subjects taught in lower secondary schools in Rwanda. However, critical thinking about health is not addressed explicitly and is not being taught. In the curricula, health is not a stand-alone subject, but health is included in three subjects: biology and health sciences, home science, and English. For English, health topics are used as a context for teaching English.

Teachers and curriculum developers did not express a direct ‘demand’ for these learning resources, likely because critical thinking about health is not explicitly described as a subject in the curriculum. However, both teachers and curriculum developers expressed a need for resources to help teachers teach critical thinking. We also uncovered opportunities in several subjects where teaching this content would fit with the existing curriculum.

Though critical thinking about health is not being taught, students recognise the importance of learning to think critically about health. They encounter many claims in their daily lives about the effects of health interventions and lack skills to critically appraise those claims. People have access to a massive amount of health information and need skills to know what is trustworthy [ 19 ].

We found that challenges to teaching critical thinking generally and critical thinking about health specifically include teachers’ lack of experience, training, and resources to help them. Similarly, a context analysis in Norway found that both critical thinking and health are emphasised in the curriculum, but teachers lack experience teaching critical thinking about health [ 45 ]. Other research has identified a lack of experience and training as a challenge to teaching critical thinking generally [ 46 ]. Our analysis suggests that to address these challenges, critical thinking learning resources should include support or training for teachers. In addition, because critical thinking and health are taught across subjects, resources are needed that can be used across subjects. If teaching critical thinking about health is distributed across subjects, teachers are likely to need a tool for coordinating this.

We also found challenges to using ICT for teaching and learning. Although more than half of the public schools in Rwanda now have smart classrooms, most schools have only two smart classrooms. This makes it hard to use them in daily teaching activities. Also, digital learning resources are limited to PDF textbooks provided by REB and available on their website. The use of digital learning resources, and particularly resources not provided by REB, is uncommon. Our results are similar to those of other studies which have found that barriers to using ICT for teaching and learning include poor infrastructure, lack of Internet connection, and sporadic electricity; teachers’ lack of competence, confidence, technological literacy, and pedagogical skills; and teachers’ perceptions and beliefs [ 47 , 48 ]. Our findings suggest that close collaboration with policymakers—in Rwanda, the REB—is important in addressing these challenges, to ensure that digital learning resources are suitable for and integrated into the national platform, which would facilitate scaling up and sustaining use.

UNESCO has highlighted four mistakes to avoid when people want to integrate ICT in teaching and learning: “ installing learning technology without reviewing students’ needs and content availability , imposing technological systems from the top down without involving faculty and students , using inappropriate content from other regions of the world without customizing it appropriately , and producing low quality content that has poor instructional design and is not adapted to the technology in use ” [ 49 ]. This context analysis will help us to avoid those mistakes. In addition, we will develop learning resources iteratively, with continual in-depth feedback from students, teachers, and the curriculum committee.

Strengths and limitations

A strength of this study is the use of multiple sources of data, including documents, interviews, focus group discussions, and observation. This provided a basis for triangulating the findings. In addition, data from our document review informed our collection of data from key informants’ interviews and focus group discussion. Another strength was the use of a modified version of CERQual to assess confidence in our findings.

A potential limitation is the possibility of social desirability bias among interview participants, particularly curriculum developers and teachers who teach critical thinking. They may have wanted to defend the extent to which critical thinking about health is covered in the curriculum and taught in Rwandan schools. We tried to mitigate this by emphasizing to all participants that we were not assessing the curriculum or teaching performance, but rather seeking to inform the development of our learning resources.

This qualitative context analysis identified a need for learning resources to teach critical thinking about health to students in Rwanda. Students saw critical thinking about health as important for making better choices and are therefore likely to be motivated to engage in this learning. They are confronted with many claims about the effects of health interventions and recognize their need to know how to assess the trustworthiness of those claims. Critical thinking is a priority competence in the Rwandan curriculum. However, teachers need support for teaching critical thinking skills generally, and critical thinking about health specifically. Experience from elsewhere suggests that digital learning resources can reduce costs compared to printed material, and interactive resources may have additional advantages. However, widespread use and sustainability of digital learning resources depends on support from the Rwanda Education Board. Resources also need to be designed in a way that makes them adaptable for use in schools with limited ICT resources, as well as suitable for use by teachers with limited ICT experience.

Supporting information

S1 file. cerqual assessment of key findings for context analysis..

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0248773.s001

Acknowledgments

We thank Rwanda Education Board which guided us to access documents and relevant participants to interview. We would like to acknowledge schools, teachers and students who agreed to participate in the study. We also acknowledge the University of Rwanda’s support for introduction letters to institutions we collected data from.

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• v.11(4); 2022 Apr

Simulation-Based Learning Supported by Technology to Enhance Critical Thinking in Nursing Students: Protocol for a Scoping Review

Hege vistven stenseth.

1 Lovisenberg Diaconal University College, Oslo, Norway

Simen Alexander Steindal

2 Faculty of Health Studies, VID Specialized University, Oslo, Norway

Marianne Trygg Solberg

Mia alexandra Ølnes, andrea mohallem.

3 Faculdade Israelita de Ciências da Saúde Albert Einstein, São Paulo, Brazil

Anne Lene Sørensen

Camilla strandell-laine.

4 Faculty of Health and Welfare, Novia University of Applied Sciences, Turku, Finland

Camilla Olaussen

Caroline farsjø aure, fernando riegel.

5 Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil

Ingunn Pedersen

6 Nord University, Namsos, Norway

Jaroslav Zlamal

Jussara gue martini.

7 Federal University of Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, Santa Catarina, Brazil

Paula Bresolin

Silje christin wang linnerud, andréa aparecida gonçalves nes, associated data.

Search strategy in Ovid MEDLINE.

Critical thinking is a crucial skill in the nursing profession, so teaching strategies and methodology must be carefully considered when training and preparing nursing students to think critically. Studies on simulation-based learning supported by technology are increasing in nursing education, but no scoping reviews have mapped the literature on simulation-based learning supported by technology to enhance critical thinking in nursing students.

The proposed scoping review aims to systematically map research on the use of simulation-based learning supported by technology to enhance critical thinking in nursing students.

The proposed scoping review will use the framework established by Arksey and O’Malley and will be reported according to the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) extension for scoping reviews. A systematic, comprehensive literature search was performed in the LILACS, ERIC, MEDLINE, EMBASE, PsycINFO, and Web of Science databases. Pairs of authors independently selected the articles by screening titles, abstracts, full-text papers, and extract data. The data will be analyzed and thematically categorized.

The development of a comprehensive and systematic search strategy was completed in June 2021. The database searches were performed in July 2021, and the screening of titles and abstracts was completed in September 2021. Charting the data began in February 2022. Analysis and synthesis will be performed sequentially, and the scoping review is expected to be complete by May 2023.

Conclusions

The results of this proposed scoping review may identify gaps in the literature and provide an overview of research on the topic of simulation-based learning supported by technology to enhance critical thinking in nursing students. The research may identify nursing students’ reported barriers and enablers for learning critical thinking skills through simulation-based learning supported by technology, and the results may help educators enhance their educational approach through knowledge of students’ firsthand experiences and further development of successful teaching strategies in nursing education.

International Registered Report Identifier (IRRID)

DERR1-10.2196/36725

Introduction

Educational approaches for active learning in nursing education.

Active teaching methods are recognized as educational approaches by which teachers support students in the development of critical thinking (CT) [ 1 , 2 ]. One strategy for developing CT is to allow nursing students to actively participate in the learning process with the support of technology. Simulation-based learning (SBL) is a teaching strategy that may enhance the integration of theoretical and practical knowledge and the ability to reflect and to give and receive feedback [ 3 , 4 ]. Scientific evidence reveals that active learning strategies are more effective for developing CT skills for students in higher education than passive learning under traditional methods, such as lectures [ 2 , 5 ]. With the advent of the COVID-19 pandemic and its resultant social distancing requirements, the interest in, demand for, and use of technological solutions have increased in nursing education [ 6 ].

Critical Thinking in Nursing Education

CT is a crucial skill and a fundamental component of nurses’ daily professional responsibilities. Nurses require CT skills to analyze, summarize, and evaluate information and initiate action. CT skills enable nurses to manage uncertainties in nursing practice and contribute to safe and effective care across diverse clinical settings [ 7 - 9 ]. Several definitions and terms for CT are used interchangeably in nursing studies, research, and nursing curricula [ 10 , 11 ]. The core components of CT are to be able to analyze, evaluate, and investigate [ 12 ]. Because there is no consensus on the definition of CT in nursing education research, research often looks to other disciplines like philosophy, psychology, and education for clear definitions [ 10 ]. A frequently cited definition in nursing studies is the one by a consensus statement of the American Philosophical Association, which defines CT as “a judgment which is purposeful and self-regulatory and results in a process of interpretation, analysis, evaluation, and inference, as well as explanation of the evidential, conceptual, methodological, criteriological, or contextual considerations upon which that judgment is based” [ 13 ]. According to Riegel and Crossetti [ 14 ], CT is driven by internal motivation, which is reflective in nature and involves self-monitoring and self-correction. This process develops a reflective judgment on what to do, believe, or make sense of in any context.

Several distinct terms are currently used in studies exploring the outcome of CT in SBL, such as clinical problem-solving , clinical decision-making , clinical reasoning, and handling clinical deterioration [ 4 , 11 , 15 ].

In this proposed scoping review, the terms clinical decision-making , analytical thinking , creative thinking , problem-solving , reflective thinking , diagnostic reasoning, and clinical judgment are all potential synonyms of CT. Teaching CT is the responsibility of nurse educators [ 16 ], and teaching strategies and methodology must be carefully considered to meet the purpose of preparing pre- and postgraduate nursing students to think critically and manage the uncertainty of the nursing profession [ 10 , 12 , 17 ].

Simulation-Based Learning

Reflection and CT skills may be developed through learning activities with high-quality teaching strategies, such as SBL [ 7 , 10 ]. SBL facilitates learning in a safe environment with the opportunity to gain experience and practice without the risk of doing harm to the patient [ 3 ]. Bland et al [ 18 ] define SBL as “a dynamic process involving the creation of a hypothetical opportunity that incorporates an authentic representation of reality, facilitates active student engagement, and integrates the complexities of practical and theoretical learning with opportunity for repetition, feedback, evaluation, and reflection.” SBL is commonly founded on social constructivism and learning theory, which view knowledge as being constructed in a social context [ 19 ]. Within this framework, the traditional teacher-student relationship, in which knowledge is transferred from teacher to student, shifts to a learner-centered, teacher-guided approach [ 9 , 20 ]. SBL can potentially replicate clinical practice, in which the learner must employ clinical reasoning with cognitive, psychomotor, and affective skills [ 15 ]. According to the International Nursing Association for Clinical Simulation and Learning (INACSL) Standards Committee [ 21 ] self-monitoring, conscious reflection, and insightfulness occur in SBL through debriefing, feedback, and guided reflection. This process may help learners understand their own actual practice; identify knowledge gaps; increase competence; and support the transfer of knowledge, skills, and attitudes. Learners’ insights may be developed through conscious reflection that connects actions, thoughts, and beliefs.

In traditional SBL, high-tech modalities, including advanced simulators (eg, life-size patient manikins), replicate real patients and settings in health care [ 22 ]. In simulation research, the term fidelity traditionally describes the degree to which the advanced simulator looks, acts, and feels like a human being, with an emphasis on technological features and advances that enhance the physical resemblance [ 23 ].

Other simulation research focuses on different aspects of realism with a physical, semantic, and phenomenal dimension, but what constitutes realism depends on what makes sense for the individual in a given context or situation [ 24 , 25 ].

To enhance learning, scholars recommend focusing on learner engagement and correspondence between the simulation technology and the surroundings (the applied context) [ 23 ].

Simulation-Based Learning Supported by Technology

Technological solutions to support SBL in nursing education are continually expanding [ 4 ], ranging from advanced physical simulators with human features and responses to computer and online games, simulation games, and virtual reality (VR). Simulation gaming for nursing education has emerged in many forms and reportedly offers potential as a teaching strategy for stimulating CT [ 26 , 27 ]. Producers offer specific software that enables virtual computer simulations, and there are online solutions including computer games, virtual simulations, and VR intended for nursing education. Immersive VR uses special headsets that immerse the student in a virtual world [ 28 - 30 ] and has the advantage of replicating the clinical environment and patient-nurse interactions in situations designed to promote specific learning outcomes [ 26 ]. Cant and Cooper [ 29 ] conclude that internet simulation measures up to other simulation approaches and will likely be a large part of the nursing curriculum in the near future.

SBL supported by technology can ensure equitable learning opportunities by providing the same content and learning environment to all students. The potential for individual training and multiple iterations through technology makes SBL resource-efficient due to its low staff costs [ 27 , 31 , 32 ]. Due to technological advances, SBL no longer requires a physical meeting space. In virtual meetings, students and teachers can discuss and reflect on dilemmas and situations experienced in simulated or clinical practice. According to the principles of metacognition, this can encourage CT. Technology-supported learning methods can stimulate dialogue between students and teachers, adjusting students’ learning focus and ensuring an accurate assessment of learning outcomes [ 33 ]. Importantly, in the context of current and future pandemics, technology provides an environment for teaching vital CT skills that is contactless and thus at low risk of spreading infectious disease [ 32 ].

Background for the Scoping Review

A literature review by Adib-Hajbaghery and Sharifi [ 34 ] found uncertainties about the effect of SBL on the CT of nursing students and nurses. Their findings are supported by a recent systematic review that examined extant evidence of simulation’s effectiveness in promoting clinical reasoning skills in nursing education [ 15 ]. The authors of this systematic review conclude that insufficient evidence exists to form conclusions. They found a lack of substantial evidence for the cause-effect relationship of simulation training and CT due to the great heterogeneity of the studies, including diverse methods, scenarios, and measurement instruments [ 15 , 34 ]. The heterogeneity of studies makes it challenging to compare results and reach a consensus regarding SBL’s effect on CT. Systematic reviews have also noted a lack of comparative studies that could report a quantitative, overall effect of SBL [ 30 , 34 ]. A systematic review of randomized controlled trials (RCTs) found that SBL may improve the acquisition of CT knowledge as well as students’ reported satisfaction with teaching, but the authors note a lack of unambiguous evidence of SBL’s effectiveness [ 35 ].

Reviews have also examined the use of technology in nursing education and SBL with diverse outcomes. A scoping review by Duff et al [ 28 ] examined the use of online virtual simulation to enhance clinical reasoning in the education of health care professionals and found online virtual simulation to be comparable or superior to traditional simulation. However, only 3 of the 12 included studies related to nursing education.

A systematic mapping review by Plotzky et al [ 32 ] examined the use of VR in nursing education, but the review was limited to the use of VR technology from didactic and technical perspectives and did not report on the outcome of CT. According to a recent systematic review, VR provides educational outcomes similar or superior to traditional SBL practices, but the evidence is limited [ 36 ]. Another literature review concluded that most evidence indicates that virtual simulation can effectively improve skills, learning, and CT in nursing education [ 4 ], but CT was the least explored outcome, and the search used only two databases, PubMed and CINAHL. Moreover, only articles in English were included, which is an important limitation of the results.

The identified reviews did not thoroughly examine the range and use of technology in SBL to enhance nursing students’ CT skills. Furthermore, the identified reviews mainly included research presented in the English language, except two reviews that included studies in Farsi and German. A broad, comprehensive literature review, such as a scoping review that includes papers in several languages (English, Portuguese, Spanish, and the Scandinavian languages) and employs diverse research methods will enable us to examine the nature and range of the currently available research and to identify potential gaps in the research literature [ 37 ]. To our knowledge, no scoping review has examined the range of technology used in SBL and how it is used to enhance nursing students’ CT skills.

Consequently, this scoping review aims to systematically map research on the use of SBL supported by technology to enhance CT in nursing students. The results may identify potential gaps in research and inform further research on this topic.

Identifying the Research Questions

The scoping review will answer the following research questions:

• What is the range of technology used in SBL to enhance CT skills in nursing education?
• How is technology used in SBL to enhance CT skills in nursing education?
• What do nursing students report as perceived barriers and enablers to enhance CT skills in SBL supported by technology?

Overview Of Method for Conducting the Scoping Review

The proposed scoping review will follow Arksey and O´Malley´s [ 37 ] framework, which includes the following steps: (1) identifying the research questions; (2) identifying relevant studies; (3) selecting studies; (4) charting the data; and (5) collating, summarizing, and reporting the results. The PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) extension for scoping reviews will guide the reporting of the proposed review [ 38 ]. The reporting of this protocol is guided by the PRISMA Protocol (PRISMA-P) [ 39 ].

Identifying Relevant Studies

The Sample, Phenomenon of Interest, Design, Evaluation, and Research (SPIDER) framework determined the inclusion and exclusion criteria as outlined in Table 1 [ 40 ].

Eligibility criteria according to the Sample, Phenomenon of Interest, Design, Evaluation, and Research (SPIDER) framework.

a SBL: simulation-based learning.

b CT: critical thinking.

c N/A: not applicable.

Selecting Studies

A systematic search was conducted in the LILACS, ERIC, CINAHL, MEDLINE, EMBASE, PsycINFO, and Web of Science databases on June 28, 2021. Each database was searched from its inception. The database search will be updated approximately 3 months prior to publication.

The search strategy in Ovid MEDLINE, using Medical Subject Headings and text words, was designed by the first research librarian (author MAØ) in collaboration with the rest of the research team and embraced three elements: (1) SBL, (2) technology, and (3) nursing students and nursing education. A second research librarian (KLM) reviewed the search strategy using the Peer Review of Electronic Search Strategies (PRESS) checklist [ 41 ]. The search strategy in Ovid MEDLINE is provided in Multimedia Appendix 1 . We also performed manual searches in the reference lists of the included papers. We did not perform forward tracking (citation searches). We will conduct the entire search a second time around 3 months prior to submission; most of these studies will probably be identified without using forward tracking.

MAØ exported the identified citations into EndNote to remove duplicates using the method described in Bramer et al [ 42 ], and the citations were then exported to the web application Rayyan for storage, organization, and blinding of the study selection process. A pilot test of 10% of the citations to screen titles and abstracts was performed independently by authors HVS and AAGN, who concluded that the eligibility criteria did not require modification. Pairs of authors (HVS-CFA, SCWL-SAS, MTS-JZ, AGCM-FR, PB-JGM, ALS-CSL, CO-HVS, and IP-AAGN) independently screened paper titles and abstracts to assess whether they met the inclusion criteria. When there was any doubt regarding inclusion, a third author independently assessed the full-text paper, and the decision was based on a negotiated consensus. Further, the same pairs of authors will independently assess whether the full-text papers meet the inclusion criteria. When there is any doubt regarding inclusion, a third author will independently assess the full-text paper, and the decision will be based on a negotiated consensus. The reasons for excluding full-text papers will be recorded, and the study selection process will be recorded using the PRISMA 2020 flow diagram.

Charting the Data

A standardized data collection form will be developed in Microsoft Word for data extraction from the included papers, including authors, year, country, aim, sample, design, technology, simulation procedures, scenario design, and results related to the research question. The data collection form will be piloted by HVS and AAGN on up to five of the included papers. Their experiences will be discussed with the entire research team, and the data collection form may be revised.

Pairs of authors will extract the data, with one author extracting the data and the other checking its accuracy. Disagreement among pairs of authors will be resolved by an assessment by a third author, and agreement will be based on negotiated consensus.

Collating, Summarizing, and Reporting the Results

HVS, SAS, MTS, and AAGN will analyze the results from the included papers and will use an inductive approach to organize the results thematically, a method previously used in scoping reviews [ 43 , 44 ]. The results extracted from the included papers will be read several times to identify patterns of similarities and differences related to the research questions, and these patterns will be organized in thematic groupings. The preliminary thematic groupings will be discussed with the rest of the research team, and a frequency table showing which papers appear in which thematic groupings will be created. Any new findings from the replicated search will be analyzed to see if they fit according to the thematic groups or if new thematic groupings arise.

Ethics Approval

No ethical board approval is necessary to conduct this scoping review.

The development of a comprehensive, systematic search strategy was completed in June 2021. The database searches were performed in July 2021, and the screening of titles and abstracts was completed in September 2021. Assessment of full-text papers, charting of the data, and summarizing the results began in February 2022. We anticipate that the scoping review will be completed by May 2023.

The results of the proposed scoping review will identify and provide an overview of the research on using SBL supported by technology to enhance CT in nursing students. This scoping review may also identify the variety of technological solutions available for nursing education and describe how they are used to enhance the development of nursing students’ CT skills. Scoping searches have found reviews on the topic of simulation and CT in nursing education [ 15 , 30 , 34 , 35 ], but those reviews do not specifically report on the use of technology to support SBL to enhance CT. Reviews on SBL technologies have also been identified, which often investigate one type of technology or compare the use of technology to traditional SBL [ 27 , 29 , 31 ].

The outcome of CT is present, but not as the primary outcome for nursing students [ 28 ]. The identified reviews do not sufficiently report on the range of technology used and how technology is used in SBL to enhance CT skills in nursing students. Furthermore, the reviews do not adequately reference the outcome of enhancement of CT in nursing students. Strengths and limitations will be thoroughly examined and reported in the proposed scoping review. Limitations may be related to the inclusion criteria, by only including research studies and thus excluding grey literature. Mapping research in multiple languages may add strength to this proposed scoping review, as the exclusion of studies published in other language than English was reported as a limitation in previous scoping reviews [ 45 ].

Identifying the status of and gaps in the research in this field may contribute to future research and further the development of successful teaching strategies in nursing education. The findings may inform educators’ decisions when choosing technology to support the application of SBL, and identifying nursing students’ barriers or enablers to learning CT skills through technology-supported SBL may help educators devise their educational approaches. The results of this scoping review may also interest technology developers and guide the further development of technology-based solutions for SBL aimed at enhancing nursing students’ CT in nursing education. The results of this proposed scoping review will be disseminated through publication in relevant peer-reviewed journals in educational or nursing-specific contexts.

Acknowledgments

We acknowledge Kari Larsen Mariussen for peer reviewing the search strategy.

This research was funded by the research group Educational Research Focusing on Competence Development and Quality in Nursing Education at Lovisenberg Diaconal University College, Oslo, Norway. The authors did not receive any grants from any commercial, public, or nonprofit funding agency.

Abbreviations

Multimedia appendix 1.

Authors' Contributions: HVS, SAS, MTS, and AAGN contributed to developing the protocol. HVS drafted the manuscript’s Introduction, Background, Results, and Discussion sections, and SAS drafted the Methods. All the aforementioned authors contributed to reading and editing the manuscript, and the extended group of authors was invited to read and review the draft. All authors read and approved the final version of the manuscript.

Conflicts of Interest: None declared.

Developing Critical Thinking through education technology

Critical thinking is not a school subject , but if taught properly, it will help students in their future endeavours whether they intend to continue to higher education or to enter the workforce immediately after K-12. It is not a single skill, either, but rather a set of different skills working together to allow students to process information, make evaluations, solve problems, and come up with innovative ideas rather than relying without question on what they have been told. In short, critical thinking will prove useful to students not just at school, but in life in general . Just like it has transformed the teaching of traditional subjects, EdTech can leave a mark on the development of critical thinking too : let’s see how.

A different approach

Teaching critical thinking goes much deeper than adding some technological flavour to the classroom: EdTech is a powerful tool , but developing critical thinking in the 21 st century is a matter of blending technology with tried and true pedagogical methods . Making students think critically starts with asking the right questions , both to them and to yourself. Open-ended questions , for example, foster critical thinking more than multiple choice quizzes because they encourage them to think for themselves and come up with original solutions rather than choose among a pool of pre-determined answers: with open-ended questions, you are putting students in a situation where the concepts of right and wrong are debatable and they are expected to defend their arguments with solid proof , which is an essential part of critical thinking. But before you ask questions to your students, you should first and foremost question yourself as a teacher: are you actively involving them in your lessons or expecting them to listen passively and regurgitate information ? If your teaching style is closer to the latter, you are not encouraging critical thinking. Critical thinking does not mean your students should challenge your authority : it means they should be supported in forming their own opinion on debated issues and in understanding how and why things work rather than accepting it as fact. Approaching critical thinking from this angle makes it applicable to all subjects : while it is true that some topics are more suited to debate while others involve a lot of rote memorization of unquestionable facts , any class can be made into a training ground for critical thinking if you encourage students to understand why two times two makes four instead of limiting yourself to giving them multiplication tables to learn by heart.

Taking it to the next level

Once you have made it clear that the key to developing critical thinking lies in your teaching method , you can start using technology to supplement said method and make it more effective and more familiar to students who are already steeped in the digital world. The only limit is your own creativity . Polling students , for instance, can be an excellent tool to assess their knowledge and to spark interesting class discussions : if all or most people in the group choose one answer and no one or only a very small minority chooses the other, it is a sign that they all have the same understanding of the solution; if the class is split evenly , it means you are facing a divisive issue and having both groups defend their side of the argument can be a useful teaching occasion . Discussion forums are also a safe platform where critical thinking can be developed through carefully moderated debate that can continue after the lesson is over and encourages students to write out their opinion in a thoughtful, articulate way that oral discussion sometimes does not allow, citing their sources and learning to construct an argument in a logical, convincing manner. Group presentations , too, are an exercise in critical thinking: all members of the group have to agree on what side of the argument to present and how to explain it , and once they have employed all their critical thinking skills in planning their presentation, they can use the multimedia capabilities of technology to enhance it . In conclusion, teaching critical thinking does not rely exclusively on EdTech , but it is undeniable that a wise application of technology in class can give it a considerable boost .

REVIEW article

Revolutionizing education: exploring the potential of ai-enabled brain-based learning for enhanced cognitive development provisionally accepted.

• 1 Illinois State University, United States

The final, formatted version of the article will be published soon.

This research paper is a systemic review of the literature on integration of AI technology and Brain-Based Learning Theories in education, aiming to address a significant research gap in exploring the potential of AI-Enabled Brain-Based Learning and highlight their potential impact on cognitive development. While both AI technology and Brain-Based Learning Theories have been extensively studied and applied independently in the field of education, there is a lack of comprehensive research exploring their combined potential. This study delves into the theoretical foundations and guiding principles of brain-based learning, investigating its application in personalizing and enhancing learning experiences. It evaluates the current state of AI technology in education and examines how AI-powered brain-based learning techniques can improve student engagement, knowledge retention, and critical thinking skills. Ethical considerations and challenges associated with integrating AI into brain-based learning methodologies are acknowledged, and practical guidelines are provided for educators and decision-makers to effectively leverage AI in implementation. The research also examines the long-term effects of AI-enabled brain-based learning on educational systems, workforce readiness, and lifelong learning opportunities. Drawing on case studies and best practices from successful academic institutions, valuable insights are presented regarding the synergistic relationship between brain-based learning and AI. The paper proposes strategies for scaling and implementing AI-based brain-based learning approaches across diverse educational settings, with the aim of driving future innovations and advancements in education. Ultimately, this research sheds light on the transformative potential of AI-enabled brain-based learning, opening new avenues for educational improvement and advancement.

Keywords: AI-enabled learning, brain-based learning, cognitive development, personalized learning, Educational Technology, student engagement

Received: 03 Aug 2023; Accepted: 05 Apr 2024.

Copyright: © 2024 Seaba. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) or licensor are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

* Correspondence: Mr. Victor E. Seaba, Illinois State University, Normal, United States

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Teaching Technology Through Interest Projects , developed over six years by a classroom teacher, is a fun, highly effective method for teaching Internet research skills and presentation technology to students. The book provides easy-to-follow, step-by-step guidance for the teacher/parent and student, and includes online access to instructional materials for classroom demonstration. Students love the activities because they get to create a dynamic presentation on a topic that interests them. Interest Projects work great in all types of classrooms: regular, gifted, or homeschool. The lessons and activities can be taught by grade level or in multi-age classrooms. Concepts and Skills      - PC and Mac file storage system      - Microsoft® Word      - Mac Pages      - Open Office Writer      - Microsoft® PowerPoint      - Mac Keynote      - Open Office Impress      - Windows® Live Movie Maker      - iMovie      - Photo Story 3 for Windows®      - Scratch

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Do college majors matter not as much as you think.

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Students in a lecture hall.

It might be the most common question college students get: “What’s your major?”

While it may be a great conversation starter on campus, the question isn’t that effective in predicting someone’s job choice—certainly not a full career trajectory. The better we understand that, the better equipped we’ll be to help students with the bigger questions they face at the starting line of adulthood.

David Gwyn knows this. One year after graduating from college with an English degree, he convinced JPMorgan Chase, the country’s largest investment bank , to hire him as a financial analyst.

“I knew there was value in getting an English degree, being able to take complex ideas and make them clearer,” said Gwyn, who has a bachelor’s degree from Muhlenberg College in Allentown, Pa. “I think the hardest part is convincing other people of that.”

He had to prove his value—selling the communications skills that underlie his college major.

“With a finance degree, you might have an understanding of the system, but they’ll teach you that anyway,” Gwyn said. “It’s the difference between having a specific skill set and having a general understanding that you can apply to the job.”

Gwyn wrote about his journey from English major to financial analyst a couple of years ago, describing how he prepared for the critical job interviews with Chase and what he learned—including tips for other job-seekers schooled in the humanities.

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“I’ve found that if you position yourself correctly, an English major is actually one of the most malleable areas of study,” he wrote on the Medium website. “And if you understand that and can articulate it, you’re one step closer to success in pretty much any field.”

Stories like this should encourage students who are wondering how to apply their college learning. Increasingly, in a world where technology fills the roles once occupied by people, we’ll see the importance of agile problem-solving, communications, and critical thinking. That’s the work that only humans can do, as I explored in my most recent book , “Human Work in the Age of Smart Machines.”

For example, in some professional fields—medicine, engineering, law, and accounting—it’s easy to see the path to a job. But not always: A study by the Federal Reserve Bank of New York found that fewer than one in three college graduates work in their field of study. Other sources put the figure higher, but still only 46 percent.

And some of the country’s best-known business leaders can attest to the enduring value of humanities degrees, including Starbucks founder Howard Schultz, former YouTube CEO Susan Wojcicki, and Andrea Jung, former CEO of Avon Products. All pursued liberal arts degrees.

Gwyn, meanwhile, has changed course again. After two years in banking, he left to earn a master’s degree in English literature from Rutgers University and turned to education. He now teaches middle school in a Philadelphia suburb and has a podcast devoted to authors of suspense fiction.

David Gwyn in his classroom.

One of his former colleagues, Spencer Liddic, was with JPMorgan Chase for six years. Liddic was a finance major in college, but he agrees with Gwyn on the underlying skills needed for success.

“I learned nearly my entire role while training with JPMorgan—not while I was in college,” Liddic said. “If you have an aptitude for learning, you can learn nearly any entry-level job with on-the-job training, with little to no background on the subject.”

Liddic was an operations analyst at the time and today owns a real estate investment company in of Scranton, Pa. He agreed that being able to relate to others—sometimes harder than it sounds—is key to success in many fields.

“This is a large part of an entry-level finance job, where you are communicating daily with not only your colleagues but with clients of the company,” he said. “Being able to effectively and efficiently communicate is as important a skill as you can have."

Timing and even luck can influence a job search, but a recent study commissioned by the Modern Language Association, a professional association for scholars of language and literature, found that English majors are holding their own.

“Contrary to popular belief, career outcomes for English majors are similar to those of all graduates,” the study said. “Data from the National Humanities Alliance shows that in 2018, the unemployment rate was 2.17% for all college graduates and 2.3% for English majors. The median career peak annual earnings for all college graduates in 2018 was $78,000; for English majors, it was $76,000.”

A report from the American Association of Colleges and Universities found that while humanities and social science BA grads lag others in salaries for the first few years after graduating, on average, they catch and often exceed them later on.

There are no guarantees in life, including higher education, and no report will take the place of smart job-hunting practices, including the ones Gwyn wrote about. So, what does an investment analyst turned middle school English teacher tell his students?

“I tell them I'm teaching skills that are transferable to whatever job you get,” Gwyn said. “I don't just teach the curriculum; I teach the skills.”

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