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Pulp, paper, and packaging in the next decade: Transformational change

From what you read in the press and hear on the street, you might be excused for believing the paper and forest-products industry is disappearing fast in the wake of digitization. The year 2015 saw worldwide demand for graphic paper decline for the first time ever, and the fall in demand for these products in North America and Europe over the past five years has been more pronounced than even the most pessimistic forecasts.

But the paper and forest-products industry as a whole is growing, albeit at a slower pace than before, as other products are filling the gap left by the shrinking graphic-paper 1 The graphic-paper segment includes newsprint, printing, and writing papers. market (Exhibit 1). Packaging is growing all over the world, along with tissue papers, and pulp for hygiene products. Although a relatively small market as yet, pulp for textile applications is growing. And a broad search for new applications and uses for wood and its components is taking place in numerous labs and development centers. The paper and forest-products industry is not disappearing—far from it. But it is changing, morphing, and developing. We would argue that the industry is going through the most substantial transformation it has seen in many decades.

In this article, we outline the changes we see happening across the industry and identify the challenges CEOs and their leadership teams will need to manage over the next decade.

Changing industry structure

The structure of the industry landscape is changing. The changes are not dramatic individually, but the accumulation of changes over the long term has now reached a point where they are making a difference.

Consolidation has been a major factor in many segments of the industry. The big have become bigger in their chosen areas of focus. At the aggregate level, the world’s largest paper and forest-products companies have not grown much, if at all, and several of them have reduced in size. What they have done is focus their efforts on fewer segments. As a result, concentration levels in specific segments have generally, if not universally, increased (Exhibit 2). In some segments such as North American containerboard and coated fine paper, ownership concentration as defined by traditional approaches to drawing segment boundaries may be reaching levels where it would be difficult for companies to find further acquisition opportunities that could be approved by competition authorities.

A grouping of companies has emerged that is not identical to, but partly overlaps with, the group of largest companies, and is drawn from various geographies and market segments. Companies in this group have positioned themselves for further growth through high margins and low debt (Exhibit 3). Our analysis suggests the financial resources available to some members of this group for strategic capital expenditure could be five to ten times greater than other top players in the industry. This potentially represents a powerful force for change in the industry, and over the next few years it will be interesting to see how these companies choose to spend their resources. Some of these companies with large war chests and sizable annual cash flows deployable for strategic capex might even face a challenge to find opportunities on a scale that matches these resources.

Where there are leaders, there are also laggards. We believe the pronounced differences in performance among companies across the industry continues to pique the interest of investors and private-equity players in an industry that is already undergoing substantial restructuring and M&A.

Changing market segments

Whether companies are well positioned for further growth or still needing to earn the right to grow, they can expect demand to grow for paper and board products over the next decade. The graphic-paper market will continue to face declining demand worldwide, and our research has yet to find credible arguments for a specific floor for future demand. But this decline should be balanced by the increase in demand for packaging—industrial as well as consumer—and tissue products. All in all, demand for fiber-based products is set to increase globally, with some segments growing faster than others (Exhibit 4).

That picture is not without its uncertainties. One hazy spot in the demand skies might be concerns over how fast demand will grow in China. Expectations of growth from only a few years ago have proved a bit too optimistic, not only in graphic papers but also in tissue papers and packaging. And recently, as a result of turmoil in the market for recycled fiber, Chinese users of corrugated packaging have reduced their consumption, through weight reductions and use of reusable plastic boxes. Given China’s weight in the global paper and board market, even relatively modest changes can have significant impact.

How these demand trends will translate into industry profitability will of course be heavily influenced by the industry’s supply actions. Supply movements are notoriously difficult to forecast more than a few years out, but we believe the following observations are relevant to this discussion.

• Graphic papers, particularly newsprint and coated papers but also uncoated papers, will continue to face a severe decline in demand and significant pressure to restructure production capacity. We are likely to see continuing machine conversions into packaging and specialty papers, as well as more innovative structural moves that include innovations in distribution and the supply chain. Such structural changes are already having an impact and the profitability of graphic-paper companies has reemerged from several years in the doldrums. The turbulence in graphic papers has meanwhile spilled over to packaging and tissue segments, with capacity increases in segments that don’t really need it.
• Consumer packaging and tissue will be driven largely by demographic shifts and consumer trends such as the demand for convenience and sustainability. It will grow roughly on par with GDP. We expect innovation to be a critical success factor, particularly in light of recent concerns over plastic packaging waste, which could harbor both opportunities and challenges for fiber-based consumer packaging. But we are uncertain how far packaging players can drive innovation by themselves. Clearly, they can take the lead on materials development, but they may need to follow the lead of—and cooperate with—retailers and consumer-goods companies in areas such as formats, use, and technology. At the same time, the inflow of capacity from the graphic-paper segment will need to be managed.
• Transport and industrial packaging will also see opportunities for innovation and a certain amount of value-creating disruption in the intersection between sustainability requirements, e-commerce, and technology integration. We estimate that e-commerce will drive roughly half of the demand growth in transport packaging over the next several years. As packaging adapts to this particular channel, it will have to find new solutions to a variety of issues, such as how to handle last-mile deliveries, the sustainability choice between fiber-based and lightweight plastic packaging, and the potential merging of transport (secondary) and consumer (primary) packaging, to name but a few.
• Fiber has gone through some turbulent times in the past two years, largely to the delight of pulp producers and to the chagrin of users. Hardwood and softwood prices alike have seen steady increases since 2017, due to some slow start-up of capacity (hardwood pulp), limited capacity additions, and a certain measure of industry psychology. In the past two years, prices globally went through what we would term a “fly-up regime,” whereby prices are significantly and unusually higher than the cost of the marginal producer. Such situations, seen from time to time in many other basic-materials industries, are rarely long lived. Indeed, since the beginning of 2019, prices have come down—in China drastically so.

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But even with a readjustment of the market, the midterm prospects are likely to be in favor of the producers, with little new capacity until 2021–22 and some softwood capacity that is likely to be converted to other products, such as pulp for textile applications. For softwood particularly, challenges in expanding the forest supply are constraining new supply. Also, the fact that much of the industry’s softwood-production assets are aging and need complete renewal or substantial upgrades could further contribute to scarcity, especially since the scale of the investments required is a potential roadblock to them being made.

The lingering question is whether such supply-side challenges can trigger an accelerated development of applications that are less dependent on wood-fiber pulp.

Challenges for the next decade

In such an environment, what are the key challenges senior executives will need to address? What are the key battles they will have to fight? The paper and forest-products industry is often labelled a “traditional” industry. Yet given the confluence of technological changes, demographic changes, and resource concerns that we anticipate over the next decade, we believe the industry will have to embrace change that is, in character, as well as pace, vastly different from what we have seen before—and anything but traditional. This will pose significant challenges for CEOs regarding how they manage their companies.

We argue that there are three broad themes that paper and forest-products CEOs will have to address through 2020 and beyond:

• Managing short-to-medium-term “grade turbulence”

Finding the next level of cost optimization

• Finding value-creating growth roles for forest products in a fundamentally changing business landscape

Managing short-to-medium-term ‘grade turbulence’

The past couple of years have seen increased instability in forest-products segments. The negative impact of digital communications on graphic paper has led many companies to steer away from the segment and into higher-growth areas, either through conversion of machines or through redirection of investment funds. This is leading to a higher level of uncertainty and overcapacity in, for example, packaging grades. The instability has also been exacerbated by the capacity additions that primarily Asian producers have made despite the slowing demand growth in that region.

A case in point is virgin-fiber cartonboard. Several producers in Europe have converted machines away from graphic paper and into this segment, creating further oversupply in Europe and leading producers to redouble their efforts to sell to export markets. This is happening just as increasing capacity in Asia, and particularly in China, looks set to displace imports that have traditionally come into the region, mainly from Europe and North America. Some of the new Asian capacity could even find its way into export markets.

This development is likely to persist for several years until markets again find more of an equilibrium, and it poses challenging questions for companies. What, if any, safe havens exist for my products? How do I protect home-market volumes? How do I protect my export volumes? What is the appropriate pricing strategy to use in the different regions?

For CEOs looking to move into a new market segment, it will be equally important to make the right assessment of which segments to enter as they shift their footing. Where will I be the most competitive? How will my entry change market dynamics, and will this matter to me?

On the raw-materials (fiber) side, we have already described the past couple of years’ turbulence in virgin pulp. If that might seem to trend toward stabilization, the situation in recycled fibers is still very uncertain. As China, and gradually other Asian countries, have increasingly restricted the import of recovered fiber (as well as plastics and other recovered materials), the dynamics have shifted. While prices of old corrugated containers (OCC) and other papers for recycling have plummeted in North America and Europe, prices of domestic Chinese OCC have increased drastically, challenging both the price and availability of recycled-based corrugated board. In response, companies have set up capacity to produce recycled-fiber pulp to export to China, while the country is jacking up its import of containerboard for corrugated packaging, as well as virgin fiber for strengthening purposes.

This of course affects how companies, in any country, think about their fiber-supply strategies as well as their product focus.

Even though we see new ways of creating value in the forest-products industry, low cost is, and will remain, a critical factor for high financial performance. One of the characteristics shared by companies with high margins and high returns is that they have access to low-cost raw materials, primarily fiber. This will continue to be a high-priority area, albeit with some twists compared with today.

Beyond the price increases of the past couple of years, fresh fiber is facing other, more long-term, cost issues. It is unclear whether plantation land in the southern hemisphere (primarily for short-fiber wood) will continue to be available at current low prices. And as companies go to more remote areas to acquire inexpensive land, such as in Brazil, their infrastructure and logistics costs increase. Will higher productivity and yield allow the global industry to add ever more low-cost capacity, or are we going to see a gradual increase in raw-material costs? For long-fiber products, the difficulties to expand long-fiber pulp capacity will make such assets very valuable over the next several years. But at what point will development of the material properties of short-fiber pulps make them rival more expensive long-fiber pulps in a number of major applications?

Operating costs for paper and board production are another area where companies need to get a tighter grip. Despite the fact that this area receives continual focus from management, our experience suggests there is still significant potential for cost reduction by using conventional approaches to work smarter and reduce waste in the production chain. This is particularly the case in areas that are less the focus of management attention, such as converting.

Many companies need to go beyond the conventional approaches to a next level of cost optimization—and many are ready to take this step. Most if not all paper and forest-products companies have completed large fixed-cost reduction programs. But there are often broader systemic issues that companies still need to address to be able to build sustainable operating models. In addition, in some segments many companies fail to reduce fixed costs as quickly as capacity disappears. By radically rethinking the operating model, companies can significantly shift their fixed-cost structure. By doing so, they can set a very different starting point in terms of flexibility and agility for when market volumes go through their normal cyclical swings.

The paper and forest-products industry has much to gain from embracing digital manufacturing : according to our estimates, this could reduce the total cost base of a producer by as much as 15 percent. New applications such as forestry monitoring using drones or remote mill automation present tremendous opportunities for increased efficiency and cost reductions. This is also the case in areas where big data can be applied, for instance, to solve variability and throughput-related issues in each step of the integrated production flows (Exhibit 5). The industry is well placed to join the digital revolution, as paper and pulp producers typically start from a strong position when it comes to collected or collectable data.

At the customer-facing end, the opportunity for innovation is huge and has the potential to transform existing industries and create new ones, especially in packaging segments. Digital developments will also help disrupt previous B2B2C value chains, paving the way for direct B2C relationships between paper-product makers and end consumers, for example, in tissue products.

The digital world is unfamiliar territory to most paper industry CEOs. To avoid too much doodling with small uncoordinated efforts, it is necessary to undertake a thought-through program, preferably guided by digitally experienced people either on the top-management team or board.

Finding value-creating growth roles for forest products

For any paper-company CEO who looks out ten years, the really different challenges will not be around cost containment. Global trends are moving the industry into a new landscape, where the challenges and opportunities for finding value-creating growth roles for forest products are changing radically. For example, the industry’s historic linear value chains are giving way to more collaborative structures with players in and outside the industry. We believe examples will include new producer and distributor collaborations; pulp players collaborating more innovatively with non-integrated players; paper and packaging companies collaborating more intensively with retailers, consumer-goods companies, and technological experts; and new products such as bio-refinery products requiring novel go-to-market partnerships. Here are some interesting examples of how these and other trends could play out.

Staying relevant (and increasing relevancy) in a fast-changing packaging world. The packaging market is multifaceted and continuously morphing. Digital developments influence it both by stimulating demand for packaging used in e-commerce and by enabling the integration into packaging of sensors and other technology. E-commerce has highlighted new packaging topics such as improved product safety, the “un-boxing” experience, counterfeiting measures, optimization for last-mile delivery , and a growing interest—at least from the large e-commerce-based retailers—in the possibility of merging primary and secondary packaging. At the same time, the packaging industry has to deal with increasing pressures around cost, resource conservancy, and sustainability. That last topic has gained huge momentum in the past couple of years as concerns over plastic waste have added to the concern over CO 2 emissions from fossil-based packaging materials. Consumer-goods companies, retailers, packagers, and policy makers alike are now exploring a wide range of possible solutions for what tomorrow’s packaging will look like.

The opportunity for forest-products companies to develop a differentiated and distinct customer value proposition in this landscape has never been greater. Packaging-materials CEOs will have to address a number of choices and trade-offs as they seek the appropriate strategic posture. Should you be a pure upstream player or a packaging-solutions provider? Should you focus on fiber-based packaging only or providing multi-substrate solutions? Should you be at the forefront of technology integration and application development in packaging or focus on materials development?

To stay relevant, many companies in packaging are trying to move closer to the brand owner or end user. Only a few companies are positioned to successfully make this move, however, and even they should be cautious. We are already seeing brand owners and leading customers challenging the benefits of packaging companies coming with consumer-facing ideas such as complete packaging concepts. Some of these players would prefer packaging companies to focus instead on core competencies such as materials development or interfaces with other substrates such as plastics.

How the paper and forest-products industry thrives in the digital age

Finding the right path in next-generation bio-products. Wood is a biomaterial with exciting properties, from the log on down to fibers, micro- and nanofibers, and sugar molecules. A healthy niche industry making bio-products has existed for many years alongside large-volume pulp, paper, and board products. We are in the midst of an explosion of research activity to develop new bio-products, ranging from applications for nanofibers to composite materials and lignin-based carbon fiber. New processes  are being designed to extract hemicellulose as feedstock for sugars and chemical production while still keeping the cellulose parts of the wood chip for pulp products.

We believe wood-based products will find new ways to enlarge their footprint in a more sustainable global economy. But the challenges are legion, particularly for finding cost-effective production methods that can withstand competition not only from oil-based materials but also from other biomaterials. Finding the right balance between developing the “new” and safeguarding the “old” will be a crucial undertaking for executives running companies with access to fresh fiber.

Finding growth in adjacent areas. Over the past decade or two we have seen the larger forest-products companies performing a focus adjustment. Most companies have moved from being fairly broad conglomerates present in various forest-products segments to focusing on a few core businesses. To find value-creating growth in the next two decades, we expect companies to start broadening their corporate portfolio again, but broadening it around the core businesses they have been working on, so as to create differentiated customer value propositions. Finding value-creating adjacencies to the core business will be a challenging exercise in creativity and business acumen for executive teams.

Finding new value-creating growth for forest products will also put the spotlight on a number of functional executive topics. We believe the following will be most important.

• Innovation: The forest-products industry has not been known for a fast-paced innovation agenda. By and large it hasn’t been necessary, as markets and demand characteristics have changed relatively slowly. In the future, however, innovation in products, processes, organizational setup, and business models will be imperative. For many companies, getting efficient innovation practices and organization up to speed will be an important challenge.

Talent management: The different skills required over the next ten to 15 years, dictated by developments such as new business models in an online world, increased need for innovation and commercialization of products, and digitalization’s impact on everything from manufacturing processes to the content of work will put particular onus on the talent pool  of forest-products companies. Installing an executive team that is able to understand new demands across customer businesses, digital, bio-products that cater to completely different value chains, and cross-industry collaboration will be a major task for CEOs and boards.

One particular war-for-talent battle that can become a key differentiator is the content of work. Our research on the future of work  highlights that already today, around 60 percent of all tasks, that is, not entire jobs or roles but their components, can be automated. And looking to the coming ten to 15 years, more than 30 percent of physical and manual skills risk becoming obsolete while technological skills will continue to grow very quickly. This will provide a critical and likely success-defining reskilling challenge for companies in the industry.

• Commercial excellence: Paper and forest-products companies will need to transform their commercial interface to stay relevant, particularly in packaging and downstream paper. They will need to put in place a more professionalized and skilled organization that focuses on value creation instead of focusing primarily on sales volumes.

We believe the paper and forest-products industry is moving into an interesting decade, one that will see nothing less than a transformation of large parts of the industry. There will be many barriers to overcome and metaphorical cliffs to fall off. But the companies that are able to navigate through successfully can look forward to an industry that has a new sense of purpose and an increasingly vital role to play.

This article was updated in August 2019; it was originally published in May 2017.

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Peter Berg  is a director of knowledge in McKinsey’s Stockholm office, where Oskar Lingqvist  is a senior partner. Together they lead McKinsey’s global Paper & Forest Products Practice.

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A new way to detect radiation involving cheap ceramics

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The radiation detectors used today for applications like inspecting cargo ships for smuggled nuclear materials are expensive and cannot operate in harsh environments, among other disadvantages. Now, in work funded largely by the U.S. Department of Homeland Security with early support from the U.S. Department of Energy, MIT engineers have demonstrated a fundamentally new way to detect radiation that could allow much cheaper detectors and a plethora of new applications.

They are working with Radiation Monitoring Devices , a company in Watertown, Massachusetts, to transfer the research as quickly as possible into detector products.

In a 2022 paper in Nature Materials , many of the same engineers reported for the first time how ultraviolet light can significantly improve the performance of fuel cells and other devices based on the movement of charged atoms, rather than those atoms’ constituent electrons.

In the current work, published recently in Advanced Materials , the team shows that the same concept can be extended to a new application: the detection of gamma rays emitted by the radioactive decay of nuclear materials.

“Our approach involves materials and mechanisms very different than those in presently used detectors, with potentially enormous benefits in terms of reduced cost, ability to operate under harsh conditions, and simplified processing,” says Harry L. Tuller, the R.P. Simmons Professor of Ceramics and Electronic Materials in MIT’s Department of Materials Science and Engineering (DMSE).

Tuller leads the work with key collaborators Jennifer L. M. Rupp, a former associate professor of materials science and engineering at MIT who is now a professor of electrochemical materials at Technical University Munich in Germany, and Ju Li, the Battelle Energy Alliance Professor in Nuclear Engineering and a professor of materials science and engineering. All are also affiliated with MIT’s Materials Research Laboratory

“After learning the Nature Materials work, I realized the same underlying principle should work for gamma-ray detection — in fact, may work even better than [UV] light because gamma rays are more penetrating — and proposed some experiments to Harry and Jennifer,” says Li.

Says Rupp, “Employing shorter-range gamma rays enable [us] to extend the opto-ionic to a radio-ionic effect by modulating ionic carriers and defects at material interfaces by photogenerated electronic ones.”

Other authors of the Advanced Materials paper are first author Thomas Defferriere, a DMSE postdoc, and Ahmed Sami Helal, a postdoc in MIT’s Department of Nuclear Science and Engineering.

Modifying barriers

Charge can be carried through a material in different ways. We are most familiar with the charge that is carried by the electrons that help make up an atom. Common applications include solar cells. But there are many devices — like fuel cells and lithium batteries — that depend on the motion of the charged atoms, or ions, themselves rather than just their electrons.

The materials behind applications based on the movement of ions, known as solid electrolytes, are ceramics. Ceramics, in turn, are composed of tiny crystallite grains that are compacted and fired at high temperatures to form a dense structure. The problem is that ions traveling through the material are often stymied at the boundaries between the grains.

In their 2022 paper, the MIT team showed that ultraviolet (UV) light shone on a solid electrolyte essentially causes electronic perturbations at the grain boundaries that ultimately lower the barrier that ions encounter at those boundaries. The result: “We were able to enhance the flow of the ions by a factor of three,” says Tuller, making for a much more efficient system.

Vast potential

At the time, the team was excited about the potential of applying what they’d found to different systems. In the 2022 work, the team used UV light, which is quickly absorbed very near the surface of a material. As a result, that specific technique is only effective in thin films of materials. (Fortunately, many applications of solid electrolytes involve thin films.)

Light can be thought of as particles — photons — with different wavelengths and energies. These range from very low-energy radio waves to the very high-energy gamma rays emitted by the radioactive decay of nuclear materials. Visible light — and UV light — are of intermediate energies, and fit between the two extremes.

The MIT technique reported in 2022 worked with UV light. Would it work with other wavelengths of light, potentially opening up new applications? Yes, the team found. In the current paper they show that gamma rays also modify the grain boundaries resulting in a faster flow of ions that, in turn, can be easily detected. And because the high-energy gamma rays penetrate much more deeply than UV light, “this extends the work to inexpensive bulk ceramics in addition to thin films,” says Tuller. It also allows a new application: an alternative approach to detecting nuclear materials.

Today’s state-of-the-art radiation detectors depend on a completely different mechanism than the one identified in the MIT work. They rely on signals derived from electrons and their counterparts, holes, rather than ions. But these electronic charge carriers must move comparatively great distances to the electrodes that “capture” them to create a signal. And along the way, they can be easily lost as they, for example, hit imperfections in a material. That’s why today’s detectors are made with extremely pure single crystals of material that allow an unimpeded path. They can be made with only certain materials and are difficult to process, making them expensive and hard to scale into large devices.

Using imperfections

In contrast, the new technique works because of the imperfections — grains — in the material. “The difference is that we rely on ionic currents being modulated at grain boundaries versus the state-of-the-art that relies on collecting electronic carriers from long distances,” Defferriere says.

Says Rupp, “It is remarkable that the bulk ‘grains’ of the ceramic materials tested revealed high stabilities of the chemistry and structure towards gamma rays, and solely the grain boundary regions reacted in charge redistribution of majority and minority carriers and defects.”

Comments Li, “This radiation-ionic effect is distinct from the conventional mechanisms for radiation detection where electrons or photons are collected. Here, the ionic current is being collected.”

Igor Lubomirsky, a professor in the Department of Materials and Interfaces at the Weizmann Institute of Science, Israel, who was not involved in the current work, says, “I found the approach followed by the MIT group in utilizing polycrystalline oxygen ion conductors very fruitful given the [materials’] promise for providing reliable operation under irradiation under the harsh conditions expected in nuclear reactors where such detectors often suffer from fatigue and aging. [They also] benefit from much-reduced fabrication costs.”

As a result, the MIT engineers are hopeful that their work could result in new, less expensive detectors. For example, they envision trucks loaded with cargo from container ships driving through a structure that has detectors on both sides as they leave a port. “Ideally, you’d have either an array of detectors or a very large detector, and that’s where [today’s detectors] really don’t scale very well,” Tuller says.

Another potential application involves accessing geothermal energy, or the extreme heat below our feet that is being explored as a carbon-free alternative to fossil fuels. Ceramic sensors at the ends of drill bits could detect pockets of heat — radiation — to drill toward. Ceramics can easily withstand extreme temperatures of more than 800 degrees Fahrenheit and the extreme pressures found deep below the Earth’s surface.

The team is excited about additional applications for their work. “This was a demonstration of principle with just one material,” says Tuller, “but there are thousands of other materials good at conducting ions.”

Concludes Defferriere: “It’s the start of a journey on the development of the technology, so there’s a lot to do and a lot to discover.”

This work is currently supported by the U.S. Department of Homeland Security, Countering Weapons of Mass Destruction Office. This support does not constitute an express or implied endorsement on the part of the government. It was also funded by the U.S. Defense Threat Reduction Agency.

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Innovation in the Mining Industry: Technological Trends and a Case Study of the Challenges of Disruptive Innovation

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• Volume 37 , pages 1385–1399, ( 2020 )

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Innovation plays a critical role in the mining industry as a tool to improve the efficiency of its processes, to reduce costs, but also to meet the increasing social and environmental concerns among communities and authorities. Technological progress has also been crucial to allow the exploitation of new deposits in more complex scenarios: lower ore grades, extreme weather conditions, deeper deposits, harder rock mass, and high-stress environments. This paper discusses the importance of innovation for the mining industry and describes the mechanisms by which it is carried out. It includes a review of the drivers and actors involved and current trends. The digital transformation process that the industry is going through is analyzed, along with other relevant trends that are likely to shape the mining of the future. Additionally, a case study is presented to illustrate the technical and economic implications of developing a disruptive innovation project.

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Technological Innovation and Structural Change

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1 Introduction

Over the past decades, the mining industry has had to face a challenging scenario for its operation. Improving productivity to overcome natural factors such as decreasing ore grades, deeper deposits, and harder rock mass, combined with an increasing environmental and social awareness, has boost the industry to constantly work to enhance their processes along the whole value chain. In this, innovation plays a crucial role by providing suitable solutions to surpass these difficulties, ensuring the continuity and sustainability of the mining activity.

There has been a historical debate whether mining is indeed an innovative industry or not. It is often perceived as a conservative sector, where innovation takes only a secondary position in the concerns of companies. But at the same time, many argue that mining is more likely to be comparable with high-tech industries, considering that it utilizes vanguard technologies in its processes, such as automated or remote-controlled machinery, and advanced monitoring systems for the collection and analysis of large amounts of data [ 1 ].

Nowadays, many relevant actors of the industry claim that mining is going through the first stages of a deep changeover from the hand of digital transformation. It is said that this process could change how mining is done, passing from human-run operations to autonomous or semi-autonomous remote-controlled mines. Independent if fully automated operations are achieved in the near future or not, the digital transformation is already impacting the industry and will continue doing so.

This article aims to characterize the innovation environment in the mining industry, specifically:

Importance of innovation for the mining industry: relation between labor productivity and innovation

Dynamics of innovation in the industry: drivers and actors

Current trends and future of the mining industry

It will contribute to improve the understanding of the dynamics and mechanisms involved in the innovation processes, along with analyzing the current status and expected future of the mining industry, in terms of technological advance.

The scope of this paper covers the mining industry in general and its entire value chain (exploration, extraction, processing, and smelting and refining). However, by the nature of the topic, artisanal and small-scale mining have been mostly excluded from the analysis, considering the historical low degree of technological specialization in this sector. Also, for the illustration and exemplification of certain points made in this document, a special focus has been put in the large-scale copper mining sector and the main copper producer countries.

2 Innovation in the Mining Industry

Cambridge Dictionary defines innovation as a new idea, method, design, or product, as well as its development or use [ 2 ]. In general, innovation can be understood as a process of change, through which a new idea or solution is applied in a good, service, or productive procedure to create value and meet new requirements from customers and higher safety or environmental standards, among other goals.

In this section, the importance of innovation for the mining industry is discussed. Firstly, the relation between innovation and labor productivity is examined. Then, a general view regarding the innovation dynamics within the industry is provided, exploring the main drivers and actors involved.

2.1 Innovation and Labor Productivity

A first approach to understand the relevance of innovation within the industry can be made through the analysis of labor productivity. Technological advances usually have an impact on the output, allowing larger production rates while maintaining a similar workforce, or directly reducing the needed personnel by the automation of processes. Nevertheless, changes in labor productivity of a mine may be caused by a series of other reasons. Natural factors, such as decreasing ore grade and deepening of deposits, mean that a larger amount of material in more complex situations must be removed to obtain the same final metallic output, thus impacting negatively on labor productivity, while, in an aggregated view (e.g., when analyzing the mining industry of an specific country), the discovery and exploitation of new and better deposits can also positively impact the overall labor productivity [ 3 ]. On the other hand, in a high-price mineral commodities scenario, companies are willing to compromise their costs in order to increase production (because it is profitable) and, therefore, reduce their labor productivity [ 4 ].

Several authors have analyzed the behavior of labor productivity in specific mining industries in an attempt to isolate the effect of innovation. Tilton et al. [ 5 ] first introduced the importance of innovation and new technologies in the growth of labor productivity while studying the decline and recovery of the US copper industry during the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s. The authors attributed most of the labor productivity increase in this period to the incorporation of the solver extraction and electrowinning technology (SX-EW), along with the use of larger trucks, shovels and drills, in-pit mobile crushers and conveyor belt systems, computerized scheduling of trucks, and real-time process controls.

In a later study, more concrete evidence regarding the previously mentioned was provided [ 6 ]. Since the exploitation of new deposits can have an impact on the aggregated labor productivity, the authors built two scenarios to analyze this index between 1975 and 1995: one, considering only the mines operating at the beginning of the studied period, and therefore, excluding the effect of new mines, and two, the actual situation, including both old and new operations. In Fig. 1 , the adjusted curve represents what labor productivity would have been if no new mines would have entered in operation in this period of time. As shown, adjusted and actual labor productivity resulted to be not so far different; thus, approximately 75% of the productivity growth in the US copper industry over those years came from productivity improvements at individual mines (i.e., innovation and technological advances), despite the exploitation of new deposits.

Labor productivity in the US copper mining industry, actual and adjusted to exclude the effects of changing location of output , 1975-1995. Modified from [ 6 ]

Under a similar methodology, the labor productivity growth in the Chilean copper industry during the 1978–1997 period was analyzed (Fig. 2 ) [ 7 ]. Their findings, though not as dramatic as in the US copper industry, showed that innovation and the introduction of new technologies were responsible for approximately a third of the productivity growth in the total period. Specifically, during the years prior to 1990, this factor accounted for the total growth, while in the 1990s, the development of new world-class mines (e.g., Escondida) turned over the scenario. Nevertheless, these results were coherent with the findings of previous studies on the US copper industry, regarding the role of innovation in improving the competitiveness of the mining industry.

Labor productivity for the Chilean copper industry, actual and constrained (or adjusted) assuming no change in the location of mine output 1978–1997 (tons of copper contained in mine output per copper company employee). Modified after [ 7 ]

More recent research on the copper industry of Chile and Peru has presented additional supporting evidence that, though not the only factor, innovation, including the adoption of new technologies and managerial changes, remains as a key element for the improvement of labor productivity [ 3 ].

When looking at the following time period (late 1990s to early 2010s), the situation presents a dramatic change. From 2005 onward, the average labor productivity of Chilean mines suffered a sharp decline, as shown in Fig. 3 . The same situation can be observed in other main mining countries, like Australia, Canada, and the USA (Fig. 4 ). Labor productivity in these countries started falling in the first years of the 2000s. This decline can be attributed to a combination of natural and economic factors. On one side, while reserves are depleted, ore grades tend to decrease and the operation advances to deeper locations, increasing hauling distances, stripping ratio, and geotechnical difficulties, all of which have a negative impact on labor productivity. On the other side, in a period of high mineral commodity prices, like the one that the industry went through during the second half of the 2000s and the beginning of the following decade, mining companies will favor production growth despite productivity [ 4 ].

Average labor productivity of Chilean mines for the period 1978–2015, measured as tons of mine production per worker. Modified after [ 4 ]

Labor productivity of the mining sector of selected countries, for the period 1995–2013. Annual value presented as a percentage of labor productivity in 1995 (100%). Modified after [ 4 ]

As presented, labor productivity is affected by a series of factors, mainly by natural characteristics of mineral deposits, market conditions, and innovation. While in periods of labor productivity growth it has been possible to isolate the positive effect of innovation, during declining cycles, this task turns more complicated. However, the fall in these periods is attributed mainly to natural and economic factors. In the meantime, innovation remains crucial to maintain the competitiveness of the industry, to the extent possible, providing the methods and tools to overcome the natural challenges faced by modern mines and exploit new and more complex deposits. In other words, while declining labor productivity may be inevitable during certain periods of time, the development and adoption of new technologies, along with innovation at a managerial level, are essential to maintain mining’s competitiveness through the different cycles.

2.2 Drivers for Innovation and Actors

As discussed in the previous section, innovation constitutes an important factor affecting the productivity of mining operations. Examples of technologies developed to improve the efficiency of processes, reduce costs, and in consequence enhance productivity are easily found. Hydrometallurgical production method SX-EW has been identified as a major contributor for productivity growth in the US copper industry over the last decades of the twentieth century [ 6 ]. Likewise, continuous mining equipment in underground coal mining, along with draglines and bucket wheel excavators in surface coal mining, were key advances to reach new levels of productivity in coal production. In smelting processes, the development of flash, and, more recently, bottom blowing furnaces, has had a great impact in reducing energy consumption and OPEX.

Besides boosting productivity, through innovation, it has been possible to unlock the potential of deposits that were technically infeasible to exploit by traditional methods. For example, preconditioning of the rock mass through hydraulic fracturing, confined blasting, or a mix of both has allowed the exploitation of deeper ore bodies, in high-stress environments.

Addressing safety and environmental concerns has been also a major driver for innovation. Over the recent decades, focus has been put on removing workers from critical activities through the automation of processes and the use of autonomous and semi-autonomous (remote-controlled) equipment.

Meeting more rigorous environmental regulations and attending the concerns of local communities are minimal requirements for maintaining the social license to operate. Therefore, innovation has been also aimed at developing cleaner and more environmentally friendly solutions in the whole value chain of the business, and not only to improve the efficiency and reliability of its processes [ 8 ]. Examples of these are the new tailings disposal methods that have been implemented to reduce the impact of mining on the environment, such as the thickened and paste tailings disposal. These methods improve water efficiency in their processes, reduce the requirement of surface for their disposition, and minimize risks of collapse, among other advantages over traditional methods.

Regardless, extractive firms have historically shown low levels of expenditure in research and development (R&D), often perceived as the main innovation-related index [ 8 ]. During the decades of the 1990s and 2000s, R&D intensity of relevant mining and mineral companies, understood as the R&D expenditure as a percentage of total revenues, was on average only approximately 0.5% [ 9 ].

Figure 5 shows the average R&D intensity for some of the largest mining companies, as revenue level refers, during the 2011–2018 period. Though presenting variation during the period, on average, this index has remained around 0.4%. These levels of R&D intensity are considerably low compared with other industries. For example, in 2015, pharmaceuticals and information and communications technology (ICT) equipment, the most R&D-intensive industries, reached levels of 25.1% and 24.7%, respectively. Moreover, the average R&D intensity in 2015, across all industries in OECD countries, was 5%, more than ten times the level of the selected mining companies [ 10 ].’

R&D intensity of five of the largest mining companies, based on 2018 revenues (companies selected according to availability of information i.e. R&D expenditure informed in annual reports, individualized and separated from exploration expenses). R&D intensity calculated as a percentage of total annual revenues for the 2011–2018 period (in the case of Zijin Mining, R&D intensity was calculated as a percentage of total operating income, according to data reported by the company). Data retrieved from annual reporting of companies Anglo American (available in: https://www.angloamerican.com/investors/annual-reporting ), China Shenhua Energy Company (available in: http://www.csec.com/shenhuaChinaEn/1382683238772/dqbg.shtml ), Codelco (available in: https://www.codelco.com/prontus_codelco/site/edic/base/port/memorias.html ), Rio Tinto (available in: https://www.riotinto.com/investors/results-and-reports-2146.aspx ), and Zijin Mining (available in: http://www.zijinmining.com/investors/Annual-Reports.jsp ).

Measuring the level of innovativeness of an industry by only examining R&D intensity, however, can lead to misinterpretation. Some authors argue that R&D expenditure fails to consider other activities that could be related to innovation efforts, such as engineering development, plant experimentation, and exploration of new markets. Also, R&D expenditure in general does not include mineral exploration expenses [ 8 ]. While these arguments may be reasonable, it is necessary to analyze in more detail how and by whom innovation is done in mining.

Whereas in the past mining companies would have tended to develop technology solutions in-house, over the last decades of the twentieth century the tendency changed. Economies of scale from using larger loading and hauling equipment had an important impact in improving productivity and reducing costs. Yet, these solutions came from equipment manufacturers, not from mining companies [ 1 ]. This is how outsourcing became a tendency among large producer firms, resulting in higher degrees of vertical disintegration [ 11 ]. Companies would focus on their core business, while relying on suppliers for the development of technological solutions, therefore avoiding the risks associated with the large investments involved. At the same time, in many cases, suppliers of such are also subcontractors for mining companies, handling construction and mining activities in projects and operations. These include the development of methods, techniques, and technologies to accomplish these tasks and therefore liberating their clients, the mining companies, from the technological concerns.

Leading technology suppliers, such as Sandvik, Epiroc, and Caterpillar, among others, have not only focused in the development of new equipment according to the technological and sustainability trends (currently, on automation and electromobility), but they have also put effort in the development of the proper digital systems for the operation and coordination of these machinery within the operations (e.g., AutoMine® from Sandvik).

Though large global suppliers are important actors for the development of new technologies, the outsourcing tendency previously mentioned has also opened the opportunity for the emergence of local knowledge intensive mining suppliers. These firms hold specific local knowledge that allows them to provide customized solutions for mining companies in niches that cannot be covered by the standardized products offered by large global suppliers [ 12 ].

Also, this outsourcing trend has promoted the creation of collaboration initiatives between large mining companies, local suppliers, and governmental and academic institutions for the development of technological solutions. Instances like these can be found in Australia, Chile, and Brazil [ 11 ]. In Chile, for example, the World-Class Supplier Program, a public-private partnership between the mining companies BHP, Codelco, and Antofagasta Minerals; Fundación Chile and other governmental institutions; and more than 75 local suppliers has already developed over a hundred innovation initiatives since it was launched in 2009. Though the program has had a positive impact in the development of the knowledge-intensive mining supplier sector in Chile, certain challenges need to be faced to bring this sector to the next level of progress. Among these challenges, it is necessary to escalate the program, promoting high-impact and long-term innovation projects, despite the usual incremental technological solutions developed until now [ 13 ].

Unlike most mining companies, the supplier sector holds in high priority the innovation agenda. A survey conducted on 432 firms from the Mining Equipment, Technology and Services (METS) sector in Australia, in 2015, revealed that for 63% of these companies innovation was core to their business strategy, driven mainly by a customer-focused vision, the necessity of staying ahead of the competition and direct solutions requirements from their customers [ 14 ].

A similar view is shared by the mining supplier sector in Chile. One hundred five of these companies were surveyed in 2019, revealing a high level of innovation-aimed expenditure. On average, they reported innovation expenses for 14.3% of 2018 revenues, reaching levels of 28.7% and 22.3% in the medium- and small-scale suppliers, respectively. Likewise, their innovation projects were driven mainly by direct solutions requirements from their customers, the necessity of staying ahead of the competition and by having innovation as core to their business strategy [ 15 ].

Besides the dynamics involved in the development of technologies, either by mining companies themselves or their suppliers, the mining industry is also recognized for its capacity to adopt technologies from other industries. ICTs have facilitated the introduction of important improvements in exploration techniques, mining, and processing. Simulations, sensor systems, automation and remote-controlled operations are some examples [ 8 ].

Nowadays, ICTs offer a new level of technological advance from the hand of digital transformation. The extractive industry finds itself in the early stages of adopting these new technologies. The full potential of their applicability for mining processes is yet to be unlocked. The implications of the current trends of Industry 4.0 for the mining industry are discussed and analyzed in the following section.

3 Current Trends and Mining of the Future

Defining a future view for an industry is not a simple task. Nowadays, the world is changing faster than ever before. New technologies are developed every day, impacting the way people live. The phrase “we live in a different world than the one where our parents grew up” does not completely cover the reality of the past few decades. For example, in current days, most people would not conceive their lives without their smartphones, and even though the first ones were commercialized in 1992, the massification of these devices came only a little more than a decade ago (e.g., the first iPhone was developed in 2007).

Nevertheless, in the case of the mining industry, it is possible to identify certain trends that can be of help to outline this future scenario. First and most evident, it is the major technological shift occurring across all industries: the so-called Fourth Industrial Revolution, or simply Industry 4.0, as the transition to the digital era. Then, social and environmental concerns are already compelling mining to look for safer, more efficient, and sustainable ways of conducting the business. Reduction of energy and water consumption, lower emissions, and waste generation are all factors that will be in the core of the “mine of the future.”

3.1 Digital Transformation in Mining

Over recent history and since the beginning of industrialization, several changes in production paradigms have taken place, promoted by the surge and application of novel technologies. As shown in Fig. 6 , the world has already seen three paradigm shifts, better known as industrial revolutions. Currently, a new transformation is in progress from the hand of cyber-physical systems and a set of new technology developments, e.g., automation, internet of things, and analytics [ 16 , 17 ].

Industrial revolutions

The Fourth Industrial Revolution brings a new concept of industry, also called Industry 4.0. This concept is based on an advanced digitization of production processes and the combination of internet-oriented technologies, allowing the connection between smart sensors, machines, and IT systems across the value chain. The implementation of these cyber-physical systems should bring a series of benefits, such as productivity increase by the automation of production and decision-making processes, reduction of waste, improvement of equipment utilization, and maintenance costs reduction. However, Industry 4.0 is not only about the adoption of new technologies, but it will also demand organizational changes, specialized knowledge, and expertise [ 16 , 17 ].

To achieve the scenario set by Industry 4.0, companies from all sectors, though at different speeds, are implementing the necessary changes at a technological and organization level. These changes constitute the process of digital transformation.

3.1.1 What Is Digital Transformation?

Though the term digital transformation (DT) has been extensively used in recent years, mainly to describe the adaptation process of organizations to new digital technologies, there is not a unique definition for it. On the contrary, there are many. Acknowledging this situation, and after an exhaustive review of DT-related literature, [ 18 ] offers the following definition: ”a process that aims to improve an entity by triggering significant changes to its properties through combinations of information, computing, communication, and connectivity technologies.”

The reason for the existence of various acceptations for DT may lie in the differences among industries: each sector operates in particular ways; therefore, each digital technology will have a different impact, depending on the industrial sector adopting it.

The specific information, computing, communication, and connectivity technologies involved in DT also vary from one industry to another. In the case of mining, however, it is possible to identify a set of tools that will and are already affecting the processes not only at the mine site but across the operational and corporate units within a firm.

3.1.2 Key Technologies in the Digital Mine

DT is a transversal process of change across the complete value chain of the mining industry, from the exploration to the production of final products, their commercialization, and even the closure of operation sites. Experts, companies, and government agencies have been discussing how the “digital mine” should look like while advancing forward in the DT process. Figure 7 shows how modern digital technologies are and will keep affecting the different areas of the business.

DT technologies in the different stages of the mining value chain. Based on [ 19 , 20 ]

As shown, novel technologies are producing operational changes across the value chain, and their use is not necessarily exclusive for a specific activity. For example, intelligent operation centers are being implemented for both extraction and processing operations. Likewise, augmented and virtual reality, along with digital twinning, are tools that will enhance the design and construction of mining projects (“Establish” in Fig. 7 ), and the extraction and processing operations.

While the view of the “digital mine” may vary among firms and organizations, it is possible to define a set of core technologies that represent the pillars of the DT in the mining industry [ 19 , 20 , 21 , 22 , 23 , 24 , 25 , 26 , 27 ]. These key elements are described below.

Automation, Robotics, and Remote Operation

These technologies might hold the highest level of implementation among the tools offered by DT. The first and more clear benefit of the automation of processes, use of robots in critical activities, and remote operation centers (ROC) is the improving of safety, by reducing the number of operators required in hazardous sites [ 25 ].

ROCs can also significantly reduce OPEX and CAPEX of mining operations. Since less workforce is needed at the mine site, fewer or none supporting infrastructure is required, such as housing installations, hospitals, or schools. Also, other expenses are reduced, such as transportation of operators. The impact on costs is larger as the location of the mine is more remote, distant, and isolated [ 25 ].

The use of autonomous equipment, such as hauling trucks, LHDs, and drillers, is expanding rapidly. For example, global equipment manufacturer Caterpillar has already provided more than 239 autonomous trucks for large-scale mining operations in Australia, Brazil, Canada, and the USA [ 28 ].

Similarly, Komatsu holds a total fleet of 141 autonomous trucks distributed in Australia, Canada, Chile, Japan, and the USA. In Chile, these vehicles operate in Codelco’s mine Gabriela Mistral. Over the 10 years of operation of the mine, the use of autonomous trucks has allowed a significant collision risk reduction and high levels of productivity and tires performance [ 29 ].

By February 2020, a total of 459 autonomous haul trucks were accounted as active in mining operations around the world [ 30 ]. Though these equipment still represent less than 1% compared with the total of manual trucks currently operating, Footnote 1 they are characterized as high year-to-year growth: 32% in the 2019–2020 period and higher rates are expected for the next years, from the hand of significant investments made by major companies such as BHP, Fortescue Metals Group, Rio Tinto, and Hancock Prospecting in Australia and Suncor Energy and Canadian Natural resources in Canada.

In general terms, besides the benefits in safety, autonomous equipment enhance productivity and reduce operational costs, by increasing equipment’s utilization (due to the continuous operation), reducing variability in the production outcome, and improving tires and components performances [ 20 , 29 ].

Internet of Things (IoT), Smart Sensors/Real-Time Data Capture

IoT is understood as a network of physical objects, such as sensors, equipment, machinery, and other sources of data. The elements connected to this network can then interact, exchange information, and act in a coordinated way [ 31 ]. Thanks to advances in IoT technology, nowadays, it is possible to establish low-cost networks. Additionally, the development of smart sensors allows real-time capture of data from machines and equipment across the operation. This generation of data is the base to conduct an integrated planning and control, considering the different units within the operation, and support the decision-making process [ 20 ].

Analytics, Artificial Intelligence (AI)/Machine Learning (ML)

Due to the digitization of processes, advances in IoT, and real-time data capture, mining operations have enormous amounts of data available regarding production, processes, and performance of machines, among others. Through advanced analytics methods, it is possible to transform this information allowing its use for a better planning of activities and to support fast and effective decision-making processes for the operation. Predictive models can also be developed to enhance maintenance of equipment, therefore improving productivity [ 21 ].

AI/ML methods are also being applied for mineral prospecting [ 32 , 33 , 34 ]. It is expected that these methods will optimize the prospection and exploration activities, reducing costs and improving their accuracy.

Digital Twinning

The concept of digital twinning refers to the construction of a digital model of the physical operation. This is possible using the geological and engineering information of the site, but more importantly, thanks to the real-time data generated from the sensors connected across the operation. With the digital twin of the mine, it is possible to perform simulations and predict potential failures or downturns in equipment performance. Thus, the digital twin constitutes a useful tool to improve operational planning and reduce operational costs, by avoiding unexpected interruption in production processes and optimizing the maintenance of equipment [ 20 , 21 ].

3.1.3 Current Status of DT in the Mining Industry

In its study of 2017, the World Economic Forum and Accenture estimated a potential benefit for the mining industry, as a consequence of DT, of US$ 190 billion over the period 2016–2025, equivalent to approximately 9% of the industry’s profit [ 26 ]. Correspondingly, in the USA, the mining industry has been included among the group of sectors with potential to increase productivity from the further digitization of its assets, customer relations processes, and transformations in its workforce [ 35 ]. These expectations are aligned with the results of a survey conducted by Accenture in 2014 among executives from 151 mining companies around the world. In this, 85% of the surveyed executives reported that their companies were strongly supporting internal DT initiatives and 90% that the DT programs were already elevated into strategies and high-level decision-making [ 25 ].

However, the level of overall digitization of mining is still low, when compared with other industries. By 2014, though DT was mentioned in six out of ten of some of the largest (by market value) global mining companies’ annual reports, Footnote 2 qualitative benefits from DT were reported only by three of them and only one presented actual quantitative gains [ 25 ]. This confirms that, though DT has claimed a relevant position among mining companies’ concerns, on average, the industry is still in the early stages of this transformation, and most of the potential benefits are still to be unlocked.

Correspondingly, a survey conducted on 105 companies from the mining supplier sector in Chile in 2019 revealed that 59% of them perceived a medium level of interest from the mining companies to incorporate DT-related technologies and 32% a low level of interest. Only 9% of the surveyed firms perceived a high level of interest from mining companies to incorporate these technologies in their operations (Fig. 8 ). Regardless, most of these suppliers are already developing or will develop in the next 5 years products or services incorporating technologies 4.0, being remotization, automation, smart sensors, and analytics the most frequent ones [ 15 ]

Level of interest of mining companies in Chile in 2019, perceived by the mining supplier sector, regarding the incorporation of DT-related technologies in their operations. Based on [ 15 ]

In general terms, though DT is frequently mentioned as one of the main concerns among most large-scale mining companies, which over the years has generated great expectations regarding its benefits, the overall level of digitization of the industry remains low. Nevertheless, there are several cases of mining operations where a high level of digitization and automation of its processes has been achieved. LKAB’s iron ore mines, Kiruna and Malmberget, located in northern Sweden, are operated under a combination of remote-controlled and fully automated equipment for drilling, blasting, and hauling processes. Moreover, full automation and electrification are core elements in the future plans for deeper levels, for which development KLAB has been working in close collaboration with high-tech companies, such as ABB, Epiroc, and the Volvo group [ 36 ]. Similarly, the Syama underground gold mine in Mali, owned by Resolute, constitutes the first fully automated mine, incorporating an automated haulage system, automated rehandle level, and mine digitization [ 37 , 38 ].

Likewise, some technologies present a greater level of adoption across the mining industry than others. For example, autonomous and semi-autonomous equipment, such as trucks, LHDs, drills, and trains, started to be tested more than a decade ago (in some cases, even before); some have been successfully operating for several years now and are rapidly spreading [ 28 , 29 , 39 ]. In the same way, many companies have implemented ROCs to control their operations remotely. In Chile, for example, Codelco has a ROC for its mine Ministro Hales and it is developing centers for three more of its divisions [ 40 ]. BHP has also implemented its Centre of Integrated Operations (CIO) in Santiago, Chile, from which it will coordinate all its operations in the region.

Smart sensors and monitoring systems are also already generating large amounts of data. However, the wide and successful application of advanced analytics to support and gradually automate the operational decision-making processes is still to come. Today, its use remains mainly in the construction of predictive models for maintenance purposes and the visualization of data to support human decision-making.

3.1.4 Challenges in the Implementation of DT

For the period 2019-2020, the “digital effectiveness” has been identified as the second most relevant risk for the mining industry [ 41 ]. It highlights the importance of advancing in digitization, as a necessity for companies to remain competitive. The main risk lies then on the fact that DT is often perceived as a task exclusive of the information technology (IT) area. Nonetheless, to achieve a truly effective and value-creative transformation, it must be carried out as a joint task across the organization, with a shared view of the business goals and a strong commitment from the top management. Otherwise, DT initiatives will remain as isolated IT projects, with no significant benefits considering the investments involved [ 22 , 23 , 41 ].

Ensuring the convergence of IT and OT (operational technology) is also key for a successful DT. These areas have traditionally worked by different paths: IT closely to corporate and support systems, while OT running core processes at the operation site. However, the automation of processes requires an integrated IT/OT management [ 20 ].

DT is a process of change that goes beyond technology. As mentioned in the first paragraph of this section, it requires coordination across the whole company. But it is also important to understand what this transformation will mean at an organizational level [ 22 ]. Structures will suffer changes by the automation of processes and introduction of new technologies and methods. For example, a recent study revealed that around 80% of the current labor competences in the mining sector in Chile will potentially change in the middle and long term as a consequence of the technological progress. Even more, at least 40% of them have a high probability of being replaced by automated processes [ 42 ]. This situation must be considered and evaluated. The new structures must be designed in advance and action must be taken to prepare the employees for these new arrangements. New knowledge and skills will be required, so the firms should also invest in the proper training programs to face DT.

Finally, in an increasing digital environment, a special focus must be put in cybersecurity. DT brings a wider connectivity among equipment and sensors but also between different business units. The company could then be exposed to greater risks of security breaches. For this reason, cybersecurity constitutes a fundamental element in DT [ 20 , 25 ]. In fact, [ 41 ] also classified this issue as the fourth most important risk for the mining industry in 2019–2020. To overcome this risk, a solid “cybersecurity culture” must be promoted in every level of the organization, incorporating new security-related practices in the daily responsibilities of the employees, along with the measurement of relevant KPIs and a periodical revision of the adopted strategies to evaluate their effectiveness and generate improvements, if necessary [ 41 ].

3.2 Mining beyond DT

In parallel with the technological wave brought by the digital transformation, a series of other trends have been gaining relevance in the mining industry over recent years. Driven by safety and environmental concerns, cost reduction, enhancement of efficiency, and productivity in the operation, or a mix of these motives, these trends are complementary to the technologies 4.0 and offer an idea of the future paths that mining might follow.

3.2.1 Electromobility

Electromobility, as the development and use of electric-powered vehicles, is a technological trend across industries. From personal-use cars and public transportation vehicles, to heavy machinery, electromobility offers an economical and more environmentally friendly alternative to the use of fossil fuels.

Mining is especially affected by this paradigm change. Most mobile equipment in mining operations has been historically powered by internal combustion engines (ICEs), using diesel fuel. While the impact of the negative aspects of these engines might be bearable in open pit operations, in underground mines, where ventilation can account for up to 25–40% of the total energy costs, the situation is different [ 43 ]. Diesel ICEs emit exhaust gases containing a series of pollutants, such as unburned hydrocarbons (HC), carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxides (NOx), and diesel particulate matter (DPM). Additionally, a large amount of heat is also produced. All these elements increase the demand for fresh air flow in order to ensure a proper working environment for operators and equipment, having a significant impact on costs [ 44 ].

Moreover, due to the increasing environmental and safety awareness in the industry, regulations regarding the admissible levels of pollutants have become stricter in the past decades and are likely to become even stricter in the future. At the same time, after exhausting shallow deposits, mining is moving to deeper locations, aggravating the temperature conditions [ 45 ].

Even though some methods to provide electric power have been used for a long time already (e.g., trolley assist), today there are more incentives to look for electric-powered alternatives to replace the mobile equipment that have been predominantly running with diesel ICEs, like LHDs and haul trucks. According to the method used to supply the motor with electric energy, this equipment can be classified into five categories [ 45 ]:

Trolley powered

Battery powered

Cable powered

Hybrid ICE/electric equipment

Hydrogen fuel cell powered

In Table 1 , a summary of the differences among diesel-powered equipment and the categories mentioned of electric-powered equipment, according to key operational, environmental, and economic parameters, is presented.

In general terms, the main advantages of electric-powered over diesel-powered equipment are higher energy efficiency, higher service life (and, therefore, lower fleet requirements along the life of the mine), lower maintenance requirements, reduced generation of pollutants, heat and noise, and overall lower operating costs. The lower ventilation requirements can also have an impact on the CAPEX of the mining project, by reducing the size of ventilation adits and fans. On the downside, electric-powered equipment usually presents higher CAPEX and, depending on the type, can present some other disadvantages (Table 1 ). Also, the specific conditions of the operation can affect the preference for one specific technology, e.g., open pit vs. underground, haulage distances, deepness and rock temperature, regulations of the country, and diesel and electricity prices. For these reasons, an integral techno-economic evaluation must be conducted in each case.

Nevertheless, a lot of effort is currently being put in R&D regarding electric-powered equipment, especially battery and hydrogen fuel cell-powered. These show the greater potential to replace diesel equipment, due to their high flexibility, besides the safety and environmental advantages already mentioned [ 43 ].

Main mining equipment manufacturers have already developed several models of battery-powered vehicles. The Epiroc’s “zero-emission fleet” for underground operations includes the Minetruck MT42 Battery (articulated low-profile truck), Boomer E2 Battery (drill rig), and the Scooptram ST14 Battery (LHD) [ 47 ]. In the meantime, Caterpillar continues to develop its R1700 XE battery-powered LHD [ 48 ] and Sandvik works on its LH514BE battery-assisted LHD (as a combination of battery and tethered cable) [ 49 ].

Though the transition to electric mining equipment has been relatively slow, it is difficult to think of a mining industry of the future still depending on fossil fuels. The shift to cleaner sources of energy is global: industries and governments across the world are implementing renewable energy sources strategies and policies, regulations are becoming stricter and social scrutiny harder. Electromobility has arrived to stay and the mining industry is not excluded from its influence.

3.2.2 Invisible Zero-Waste Mining

The concept of a mining with no impact on the surface is not new. Underground operations have been using their waste material to backfill open cavities left after ore extraction, mainly for stability reasons and as a mean to reduce haulage costs. At the same time, this practice reduces subsidence effect and, therefore, the impact on the surface above the underground mine. However, it is not possible to use all the waste extracted due to interference with the operation (e.g., during early development stages). Also, not every mining method allows backfilling application (e.g., caving operations). Therefore, it is certain that impact on the surface can be significantly reduced, but most of the time it is unavoidable.

In this regard, in situ leaching (ISL), also referred to as in situ recovery (ISR), constitutes an alternative that minimizes the effect on surface and generates practically zero waste. This method is understood as the in-place leaching of the ore, recovery of the enriched solutions, and their transportation to the surface for further processing.

ISL has been mainly applied in uranium mining (since it was first introduced in 1959 in the U.S.). There is also a record of successful cases of ISL applied in copper and gold deposits, though in relatively small scales. Besides typical characteristics of deposits (e.g., shape, dimensions, mineralization, grade distribution), the most critical factors restricting its applicability are permeability, hydrogeological conditions in site, and the possibility of achieving selective leachability of the ore body [ 50 ]. Containment of the leaching solutions within the zone of interest to prevent the contamination of groundwater might be the greatest environmental risk regarding ISL [ 51 ].

From an economic point of view, ISL presents obvious advantages over traditional mining methods. Energy consumption is reduced, thus lower OPEX needs to be met. ISL also requires lower CAPEX for infrastructure and mine developments. Additionally, this mining method admits a high production flexibility and can be developed as a modular project, if desired [ 50 ].

Future widespread application of ISL depends greatly on the technological advance regarding permeability enhancement and hydrogeological management. Findings in preconditioning techniques used in caving operations are likely to be adapted and applied in ISL mining for permeability improvement. Pilot tests of in situ bioleaching have shown that it is possible to enhance permeability within the orebody after the application of conditioning methods, such as hydraulic fracturing and water pressure blasting [ 52 ], whereas the use of barriers, such as the gel barriers widely used in the oil and gas industry to control the flow of sweep and production, are also potentially applicable for this mining method as a tool for proper leaching solutions containment [ 53 ]. For these reasons, R&D efforts should be mainly aimed at the adaptation and improvement of existing technologies.

Besides environmental benefits of this method, if the restrictions mentioned can be overcome, ISL opens the possibility to exploit very deep low-grade deposits, currently uneconomic or technically infeasible to mine.

3.2.3 Continuous Mining

Continuous extraction and material handling systems have been used for many years in the coal mining industry. In surface operations, this has been carried out combining the action of bucket wheels excavators for the extraction and conveyor belt systems for the transport of coal and waste. Meanwhile, underground methods such as longwall mining and room and pillar (by using continuous miner equipment) have also offered continuous flows of material. However, due to rock strength, most metallic ore deposits do not allow mechanical extraction methods, making necessary the use of drill and blasting, therefore, impeding continuous operation.

Traditional mining methods combining drill and blasting, excavators for loading and mobile equipment for hauling (or LHD for loading and hauling, in underground mining), have high levels of operational inefficiency and low equipment utilization: significant hauling cycles, in which at least half of the time the mobile equipment is empty, along with queues and waiting times at loading and dumping site, are some of the inefficiencies of these processes.

As discussed in the previous sections, increasing productivity and enhancing efficiency of operations are the main drivers for innovation. Then, the development of continuous extraction and material handling systems, outside the coal sector, are trends that will likely gain importance in the future.

Indeed, efforts in this matter have already been done in recent years. One example is the S11D iron mine of Vale in Brazil. This mine operates in four independent truckless systems. Each system consists of an excavator, a mobile sizer rig (MSR), and a mobile belt wagon (MBW) that connects to a belt conveyor (BC). Due to its continuous truckless design, the project has reported high operating productivity rates (about four times higher than Vale’s typical rates in the region) and lower operating costs (approximately three times lower than Vale’s traditional cost levels in the region) [ 54 ].

Initiatives in underground mining have also been developed. Such is the case of the Continuous Mining System (CMS) for caving operations, introduced by Codelco in Chile. This design considered the continuous and simultaneous extraction of broken ore from active drawpoints in a block or panel caving mine, by the combined action of feeders (located at the drawpoints), heavy weight conveyors, and primary crushers [ 55 ].

After almost 20 years of research and testing, the project was finally dismissed as a consequence of difficulties faced in the construction phase for its industrial validation [ 56 ]. Thus, the design did not get to be tested at an industrial level, and therefore, its real potential and applicability remained unclear. However, previous tests and studies suggested that great benefits in terms of productivity, costs, workforce requirements, and ramp-up duration can be achieved through the implementation of the CMS [ 57 ].

4 Case Study: a Continuous Mining System for Caving Operations

The Continuous Mining System (CMS) was an innovation project developed by Codelco, in Chile, that intended to create a continuous material handling system for block and panel caving operations. With the objective of illustrating the impacts and implications of implementing a disruptive innovation project, the CMS initiative is below described and analyzed.

4.1 Codelco

Codelco is a Chilean state-owned mining company, first copper and second molybdenum worldwide producer. It is divided into eight operating divisions located in the central and north of Chile. In total, Codelco possesses seven mining operations, four smelters and three refineries [ 58 ].

Divisions Andina, El Teniente, and Salvador include panel caving operations, thus the importance of projects such as CSM for the corporation. Moreover, Chuquicamata Underground Mine has been recently commissioned, a block caving operation that required over US$ 5.5 billion for its construction and will extend the life of Chuquicamata Division for at least 40 years. Footnote 3

4.2 General Description of the Project

The concept of continuous mining for caving operations was first introduced by Codelco and its Institute for Innovation in Mining and Metallurgy, IM2, in 1998. It was conceived as a tool to face the future challenges of underground mining, specifically the necessity of increasing extraction rates and improving safety [ 59 ].

This mining design was based on the following key elements [ 59 , 60 ]:

Application of preconditioning to ensure a proper fragmentation of the rock mass and an uneventful flow of broken ore through drawpoints

Continuous and simultaneous extraction from active drawpoints by dozer feeders, increasing extraction rate and utilization

Continuous transport of material by panzers

Early size reduction of ore by sizer crushers

Remote operation of the system, reducing the exposition of workers, and increasing productivity

The CMS comprised dozer feeders at the drawpoints, panzers to collect and transport the broken ore from the dozers to the sizer crushers, and finally the sizers themselves. Changing the operation of LHDs for a continuous material handling system also requires a reorganization of the layout of the extraction level. The basic differences between the El Teniente layout (typically used by Codelco in its caving operations) and the CMS layout are presented in Fig. 9 .

El Teniente layout (left) vs. CMS layout (right). Modified after [ 57 ]. Left layout dedicated to LHD access to drawpoints, whereas right layout with perpendicular arrangement dedicated to continuous material flow with panzers (flow direction indicated by arrows)

4.3 Process Validation of CMS

After years of research since the concept was first introduced in 1998, the process validation for the CMS design was carried out in three phases.

4.3.1 Phase I (2005): Dozer Feeder

The first phase took place in Codelco’s Salvador Mine, in 2005. It was focused on the validation at a pilot level of the concept of continuous extraction. For this, the extraction of ore from one drawpoint by a prototype of a dozer feeder was tested.

The test showed the capacity of the dozer feeder to extract the ore from the drawpoint at a reasonable rate (200 t/h on average), allowing a proper flow within the ore column [ 55 ]. With these positive results, the process validation moved forward to Phase II.

4.3.2 Phase II (2006–2008): Module CMS

The second phase in the process validation of CMS was also executed in Salvador Mine. This time, a prototype of a modular system of continuous extraction, haulage, and crushing was tested. The module considered one haulage drift with four drawpoints, each one of them with a dozer feeding the panzer, which transported the ore to a roller impact crusher [ 57 ]. The module was built between 2006 and 2007 and the test itself carried out between 2007 and 2008. During this period, approximately 200,000 t were extracted in total. The results achieved in Phase II were satisfactory, in terms of the performance of the different equipment and their interaction, though the roller impact crusher was dismissed for further tests due to its low availability and high components wear. In its place, a sizer crusher was incorporated afterwards [ 60 ].

4.3.3 Phase III (2012–2016): Industrial Validation of CMS

Due to the promising results in previous phases of validation, the company decided to move forward to Phase III, to validate at an industrial level the CMS method. This test aimed to evaluate the performance of the CMS method under real operating conditions, in Andina Division of Codelco. The design considered a sector of four haulage drifts (equipped with panzers) and eight drawpoints per drift (each one of them equipped with a dozer feeder), and a total test period of 38 months [ 57 ].

Phase III was defined as the validation test of CMS for its application in the Chuquicamata Underground Mine Project, which commissioning was planned for the first semester of 2019. In this sense, the main expected benefits from its applicability in the Chuquicamata Underground Mine originally were [ 57 ]:

Instant production rate: 3 t/m 2 -day

OPEX: 20% lower

Workforce requirements: 30% lower

Ramp-up period: 25% shorter

Improvements in safety and energy efficiency

Net present value for its application in Chuquicamata: US$ 1000 million

The construction of the test module started in 2012. However, due to significant deviations in the execution period and budget, the works were stopped in December 2015. After more than 2 years of being paralyzed, and in the light of new studies and re-evaluations performed by Codelco, the project was finally cancelled in 2018, totaling US$ 138.1 million of loss [ 56 ].

4.4 Analysis and Discussion

From Codelco’s experience in the process validation of the CMS innovation project, several key elements can be identified, and lessons can be learned:

4.4.1 Time required for Process Validation

Developing an innovation project for a technological breakthrough often requires long periods of time. Since the idea is conceived, conceptual studies must be carried out before initiating pilot and industrial validation tests. In the case of Codelco’s CMS, over 20 years passed since the concept was first introduced until the industrial validation project was finally cancelled. During this time, other technologies are developed, which can be incorporated in the innovation project being tested, changing its potential value and future impact of its application. Specifically, during the process validation of CMS, significant advances were made in preconditioning techniques and digital technologies (e.g., automation, robotics). The project team must evaluate the impacts of new technologies developed along the way and incorporate them in the project if they prove to add value.

4.4.2 CAPEX and Execution Period Estimation

Process validation can be expensive, especially the industrial validation phase. Special care must be taken in the economic evaluation that justified the project and in the execution time and budget estimation. CMS project was stopped and finally cancelled due to problems in its construction phase, not because of unsatisfactory results of the test itself: this did not even get to be executed (similarly, also the first Epiroc Mobile Miner—back then Atlas Copco—was initially not accepted for prototype testing by the foreseen mine site [ 61 ]).

4.4.3 Infrastructure Required and Coordination with the Operation

New designs for extraction and material handling methods must be proved under real conditions for their industrial validation. For this, first the company needs to have access to ongoing mining operations, of its own property or coordinate with another company, in other cases. Then, a proper coordination with the current operation must be conducted, to minimize interferences and ensure the availability of resources (e.g., energy, water).

It is important to highlight the relevance of the CMS project, regarding its potential to improve extraction rates and safety in caving operations. Material handling systems through batch operations, such as the use of trucks and LHDs, are highly inefficient, from a macro point of view. Equipment show low levels of utilization and the productivity of the overall operation remains restricted. The design proposed by the CMS initiative offered the possibility of achieving higher production levels with lower requirements of active area, reducing CAPEX and OPEX, and gaining future dividends of the project earlier in time. All these factors have a positive effect on the economic indicators of a mining project: net present value increases and payback period is reduced, for example.

Finally, continuous mining and automated operations are trends that will likely shape the mining of the future. Initiatives like the CMS design should not be immediately dismissed, especially considering that this particular project failed in the construction stage of its industrial validation phase, having no chance to prove its applicability (or inapplicability) in a real operation.

5 Conclusions

Innovation plays an important role in the mining industry as a tool to improve the efficiency of its processes, reduce costs, but also to meet the increasing social and environmental concerns among communities and authorities. Technological progress has also been crucial to allow the exploitation of new deposits in more complex scenarios: lower ore grades, extreme weather conditions, deeper deposits, harder rock mass, and high-stress environments.

That is, the importance of innovation for the mining industry, as a critical factor in the improvement of labor productivity through past decades, was analyzed. Though its relevance, mining companies usually show low levels of R&D intensity, similar to mature industries and far from high-tech sectors. The tendency to vertical disintegration has led firms to focus on their core business, relying mainly on equipment manufacturers and suppliers for the development of innovative solutions. Also, collaborative alliances between mining companies, suppliers, and research centers share a significant participation in the development of new technologies.

Nowadays, several technological trends can be identified as main factors that will shape the mining of the future. The first and most relevant one is the digital transformation (DT), as the process of adoption and incorporation of a set of tools, the so-called technologies 4.0, into the mining business. Automation, robotics, remotization of operations, internet of things, analytics, and digital twinning, among others, have the potential to enhance processes along the whole value chain of mining. However, though DT is frequently mentioned as one of the main concerns among most large-scale mining companies, the level of digitization of the industry remains low, indicating that most of the potential of DT for the sector is still to be unlocked. The main challenges that firms must face to achieve a successful digitization are the commitment and joint-task coordination between the different business units, implementing proper organizational structure changes, and promoting a new cultural mindset regarding cybersecurity strategies and their continuous improvement.

Other important trends are electromobility, invisible zero-waste mining, and continuous mining. These concepts answer the necessity of building a more sustainable and efficient industry, reducing the environmental footprint, and enhancing safety of mining operations. The replacement of fossil fuel-powered vehicles is a “must” in a world moving away from such energy sources to cleaner ones, and stricter safety and environmental regulations being implemented all around the world are a reflection of that. Every day more companies are evaluating the incorporation of electric-powered fleets into their operations, as existing technologies can already offer economic alternatives, while R&D keeps advancing in this matter.

Invisible mining strategies, such as in situ leaching methods, have minimal impact on the surface and surroundings, and generate practically no waste. Yet, for a widespread application of this mining method, progress must be made in rock mass permeability enhancement (e.g. preconditioning techniques) and hydrogeological management, to ensure an optimal leaching process, in the first case, and minimize risks associated with groundwater pollution, in the second one.

Finally, though the concept of continuous mining has been applied for many years in the coal mining industry, its application in other mineral sectors has the potential to increase productivity, reduce costs, and improve safety, along with technological tools brought by DT, such as automation, robotics, and remotization of operations.

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Companies in this analysis: Rio Tinto, BHP, Vale, Glencore, Anglo American, Codelco, Fortescue Metals Group, OCP Group, Freeport-McMoRan, and Nornickel

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Sánchez, F., Hartlieb, P. Innovation in the Mining Industry: Technological Trends and a Case Study of the Challenges of Disruptive Innovation. Mining, Metallurgy & Exploration 37 , 1385–1399 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s42461-020-00262-1

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Nanotechnology: A Revolution in Modern Industry

Shiza malik.

1 Bridging Health Foundation, Rawalpindi 46000, Pakistan

Khalid Muhammad

2 Department of Biology, College of Science, UAE University, Al Ain 15551, United Arab Emirates

Yasir Waheed

3 Office of Research, Innovation, and Commercialization (ORIC), Shaheed Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto Medical University (SZABMU), Islamabad 44000, Pakistan

4 Gilbert and Rose-Marie Chagoury School of Medicine, Lebanese American University, Byblos 1401, Lebanon

Associated Data

Not applicable.

Nanotechnology, contrary to its name, has massively revolutionized industries around the world. This paper predominantly deals with data regarding the applications of nanotechnology in the modernization of several industries. A comprehensive research strategy is adopted to incorporate the latest data driven from major science platforms. Resultantly, a broad-spectrum overview is presented which comprises the diverse applications of nanotechnology in modern industries. This study reveals that nanotechnology is not limited to research labs or small-scale manufacturing units of nanomedicine, but instead has taken a major share in different industries. Companies around the world are now trying to make their innovations more efficient in terms of structuring, working, and designing outlook and productivity by taking advantage of nanotechnology. From small-scale manufacturing and processing units such as those in agriculture, food, and medicine industries to larger-scale production units such as those operating in industries of automobiles, civil engineering, and environmental management, nanotechnology has manifested the modernization of almost every industrial domain on a global scale. With pronounced cooperation among researchers, industrialists, scientists, technologists, environmentalists, and educationists, the more sustainable development of nano-based industries can be predicted in the future.

1. Introduction

Nanotechnology has slowly yet deeply taken over different industries worldwide. This rapid pace of technological revolution can especially be seen in the developed world, where nano-scale markets have taken over rapidly in the past decade. Nanotechnology is not a new concept since it has now become a general-purpose technology. Four generations of nanomaterials have emerged on the surface and are used in interdisciplinary scientific fields; these are active and passive nanoassemblies, general nanosystems, and small-scale molecular nanosystems [ 1 ].

This rapid development of nanoscience is proof that, soon, nano-scale manufacturing will be incorporated into almost every domain of science and technology. This review article will cover the recent advanced applications of nanotechnology in different industries, mainly agriculture, food, cosmetics, medicine, healthcare, automotive, oil and gas industries, chemical, and mechanical industries [ 2 , 3 ]. Moreover, a brief glimpse of the drawbacks of nanotechnology will be highlighted for each industry to help the scientific community become aware of the ills and benefits of nanotechnology side by side. Nanotechnology is a process that combines the basic attributes of biological, physical, and chemical sciences. These processes occur at the minute scale of nanometers. Physically, the size is reduced; chemically, new bonds and chemical properties are governed; and biological actions are produced at the nano scale, such as drug bonding and delivery at particular sites [ 4 , 5 ].

Nanotechnology provides a link between classical and quantum mechanics in a gray area called a mesoscopic system. This mesoscopic system is being used to manufacture nanoassemblies of nature such as agricultural products, nanomedicine, and nanotools for treatment and diagnostic purposes in the medical industry [ 6 ]. Diseases that were previously untreatable are now being curtailed via nano-based medications and diagnostic kits. This technology has greatly affected bulk industrial manufacturing and production as well. Instead of manufacturing materials by cutting down on massive amounts of material, nanotechnology uses the reverse engineering principle, which operates in nature. It allows the manufacturing of products at the nano scale, such as atoms, and then develops products to work at a deeper scale [ 7 ].

Worldwide, millions and billions of dollars and euros are being spent in nanotechnology to utilize the great potential of this new science, especially in the developed world in Europe, China, and America [ 8 ]. However, developing nations are still lagging behind as they are not even able to meet the industrial progression of the previous decade [ 9 ]. This lag is mainly because these countries are still fighting economically, and they need some time to walk down the road of nanotechnology. However, it is pertinent to say that both the developed and developing world’s scientific communities agree that nanotechnology will be the next step in technological generation [ 10 ]. This will make further industrial upgrading and investment in the field of nanotechnology indispensable in the coming years.

With advances in science and technology, the scientific community adopts technologies and products that are relatively cheap, safe, and cleaner than previous technologies. Moreover, they are concerned about the financial standing of technologies, as natural resources in the world are shrinking excessively [ 11 ]. Nanotechnology thus provides a gateway to this problem. This technology is clear, cleaner, and more affordable compared to previous mass bulking and heavy machinery. Moreover, nanotechnology holds the potential to be implemented in every aspect of life. This will mainly include nanomaterial sciences, nanoelectronics, and nanomedicine, being inculcated in all dimensions of chemistry and the physical and biological world [ 12 ]. Thus, it is not wrong to predict that nanotechnology will become a compulsory field of study for future generations [ 13 ]. This review inculcates the basic applications of nanotechnology in vital industries worldwide and their implications for future industrial progress [ 14 ].

2. Nanotechnology Applications

2.1. applications of nanotechnology in different industries.

After thorough and careful analyses, a wide range of industries—in which nanotechnology is producing remarkable applications—have been studied, reviewed, and selected to be made part of this review. It should be notified that multiple subcategories of industrial links may be discussed under one heading to elaborate upon the wide-scale applications of nanotechnology in different industries. A graphical abstract at the beginning of this article indicates the different industries in which nanotechnology is imparting remarkable implications, details of which are briefly discussed under different headings in the next session.

2.2. Nanotechnology and Computer Industry

Nanotechnology has taken its origins from microengineering concepts in physics and material sciences [ 15 ]. Nanoscaling is not a new concept in the computer industry, as technologists and technicians have been working for a long time to design such modified forms of computer-based technologies that require minimum space for the most efficient work. Resultantly, the usage of nanotubes instead of silicon chips is being increasingly experimented upon in computer devices. Feynman and Drexler’s work has greatly inspired computer scientists to design revolutionary nanocomputers from which wide-scale advantages could be attained [ 13 ]. A few years ago, it was an unimaginable to consider laptops, mobiles, and other handy gadgets as thin as we have today, and it is impossible for even the common man to think that with the passage of time, more advanced, sophisticated, and lighter computer devices will be commonly used. Nanotechnology holds the potential to make this possible [ 16 ].

Energy-efficient, sustainable, and urbanized technologies have been emerging since the beginning of the 21st century. The improvement via nanotechnology in information and communication technology (ICT) is noteworthy in terms of the improvements achieved in interconnected communities, economic competitiveness, environmental stability during demographic shifts, and global development [ 17 ]. The major implications of renewable technology incorporate the roles of ICT and nanotechnology as enablers of environmental sustainability. The traditional methods of product resizing, re-functioning, and enhanced computational capabilities, due to their expensiveness and complicated manufacturing traits, have slowly been replaced by nanotechnological renovations. Novel technologies such as smart sensors logic elements, nanochips, memory storage nanodevices, optoelectronics, quantum computing, and lab-on-a-chip technologies are important in this regard [ 18 ].

Both private and public spending are increasing in the field of nanocomputing. The growth of marketing and industrialization in the biotechnology and computer industries are running in parallel, and their expected growth rates for the coming years are far higher. Researchers and technologists believe that by linking the advanced field of nanotechnology and informatics and computational industries, various problems in human society such as basic need fulfillment can be easily accomplished in line with the establishment of sustainable goals by the end of this decade [ 19 ]. The fourth industrial revolution is based upon the supporting pillars derived from hyperphysical systems including artificial intelligence, machine learning, the internet of things, robots, drones, cloud computing, fast internet technologies (5G and 6G), 3D printing, and block chain technologies [ 20 ].

Most of these technologies have a set basis in computing, nanotechnology, biotechnology, material science renovations, and satellite technologies. Nanotechnology offers useful alterations in the physiochemical, mechanical, magnetic, electrical, and optical properties of computing materials which enable innovative and newer products [ 21 ]. Thus, nanotechnology is providing a pathway for another broad-spectrum revolution in the field of automotive, aerospace, renewable energy, information technology, bioinformatics, and environmental management, all of which have root origins from nanotechnological improvements in computers. Sensors involved in software and data algorithms employ nanomaterials to induce greater sensitivity and processabilities with minimal margin-to-machine errors [ 22 ]. Nanomaterials provide better characteristics and robustness to sensor technologies which mean they are chemically inert, corrosion-resistant, and have greater tolerance profiles toward temperature and alkalinity [ 22 ].

Moreover, the use of semiconductor nanomaterials in the field of quantum computing has increased overall processing speeds with better accuracy and transmissibility. These technologies offer the creation of different components and communication protocols at the nano level, which is often called the internet of nano things [ 23 ]. This area is still in a continuous development and improvement phase with the potential for telecommunication, industrial, and medical applications. This field has taken its origin from the internet of things, which is a hyperphysical world of sensors, software, and other related technologies which allow broad-scale communication via internet operating devices [ 17 ]. The applications of these technologies range from being on the simple home scale to being on the complex industrial scale. The internet of things is mainly capable of gathering and distributing large-scale data via internet-based equipment and modern gadgets. In short, the internet of nano things is applicable to software, hardware, and network connection which could be used for data manipulation, collection, and sharing across the globe [ 24 ].

Another application of nanotechnology in the computer and information industry comes in the form of artificial intelligence, machine learning, and big data platforms which have set the basis for the fourth industrial revolution. Vast amounts of raw data are collected through interconnected robotic devices, sensors, and machines which have properties of nanomaterials [ 18 ]. After wide-scale data gathering, the next step is the amalgamation of the internet of things and the internet of people to prepare a greater analysis, understanding, and utilization of the gathered information for human benefit [ 4 ]. Such data complications can be easily understood through the use of big data in the medical industry, in which epidemiological data provide benefits for disease management [ 2 ]. Yet another example is the applications in business, where sales and retail-related data help to elucidate the target markets, sales industry, and consumer behavioral inferences for greater market consumption patterns [ 19 ].

Similarly, an important dimension of nanotechnology and computer combination comes in the form of drone and robotics technology. These technologies have a rising number of applications in maintenance, inspections, transportation, deliverability, and data inspection [ 25 ]. Drones, robots, and the internet of things are being perfectly amalgamated with the industrial sector to achieve greater goals. Drones tend to be more mobile but rely more on human control as compared to robots, which are less mobile but have larger potential for self-operation [ 26 ]. However, now, more mobile drones with better autonomous profiles are being developed to help out in the domain of manufacturing industries. These devices intensify and increase the pace of automation and precision in industries along with providing the benefits of lower costs and fewer errors [ 24 ]. The integrated fields of robotics, the internet of things, and nanotechnology are often called the internet of robotics and nano things. This field of nanorobotics is increasing the flexibility and dexterity in manufacturing processes compared to traditional robotics [ 25 ].

Drones, on the contrary, help to manage tasks that are otherwise difficult or dangerous to be managed by humans, such as working from a far distance or in dangerous regions. Nanosensors help to equip drones with the qualities of improved detection and sensation more precisely than previous sensor technologies [ 21 , 27 ]. Moreover, the over-potential of working hours, battery, and maintenance have also been improved with the operationalization of nano-based sensors in drone technology. These drones are inclusively used for various purposes such as maintaining operations, employing safety profiling, security surveys, and mapping areas [ 18 ]. However, limitations such as high speed, legal and ethical limitations, safety concerns, and greater automobility are some of the drawbacks of aerial and robotic drone technologies [ 26 ].

Three-dimensional printing is yet another important application of the nanocomputer industry, in which an integrated modus operandi works to help in production management [ 28 ]. Nanotechnology-based 3D printing offers the benefits of an autonomous, integrated, intelligent exchange network of information which enables wide-scale production benefits. These technologies have enabled a lesser need for industrial infrastructure, minimized post-processing operations, reduced waste material generation, and reduced need for human presence for overall industrial management [ 28 , 29 ]. Moreover, the benefits of 3D printing and similar technologies have potentially increased flexibility in terms of customized items, minimal environmental impacts, and sustainable practices with lower resource and energy consumption. The use of nano-scale and processed resins, metallic raw material, and thermoplastics along with other raw materials allow for customized properties of 3D printing technology [ 29 ].

The application of nanotechnology in computers cannot be distinguished from other industrial applications, because everything in modern industries is controlled by a systemic network in association with a network of computers and similar technologies. Thus, the fields of electronics, manufacturing, processing, and packaging, among several others, are interlinked with nanocomputer science [ 11 , 15 ]. Silicon tubes have had immense applications that revolutionized the industrial revolution in the 20th century; now, the industrial revolution is in yet another revolutionary phase based on nanostructures [ 16 ]. Silicon tubes have been slowly replaced with nanotubes, which are allowing a great deal of improvement and efficiency in computing technology. Similarly, lab-on-a-chip technology and memory chips are being formulated at nano scales to lessen the storage space but increase the storage volume within a small, flexible, and easily workable chip in computers for their subsequent applications in multiple other industries.

Hundreds of nanotechnology computer-related products have been marketed in the last 20 years of the nanotechnological revolution [ 30 ]. Modern industries such as textiles, automotive, civil engineering, construction, solar technologies, environmental applications, medicine, transportation agriculture, and food processing, among others are largely reaping the benefits of nano-scale computer chips and other devices. In simple terms, everything out there in nanoindustrial applications has something to do with computer-based applications in the nanoindustry [ 31 , 32 , 33 ]. Thus, all the applications discussed in this review more or less originate from nanocomputers. These applications are enabling considerable improvement and positive reports within the industrial sector. Having said that, it is hoped that computer scientists will remain engaged and will keep on collaborating with scientists in other fields to further explore the opportunities associated with nanocomputer sciences.

2.3. Nanotechnology and Bioprocessing Industries

Scientific and engineering rigor is being carried out to the link fields of nanotechnology with contributions to the bioprocessing industry. Researchers are interested in how the basics of nanomaterials could be used for the high-quality manufacturing of food and other biomaterials [ 15 , 34 ]. Pathogenic identification, food monitoring, biosensor devices, and smart packaging materials, especially those that are reusable and biodegradable, and the nanoencapsulation of active food compounds are only a few nanotechnological applications which have been the prime focus of the research community in recent years. Eventually, societal acceptability and dealing with social, cultural, and ethical concerns will allow the successful delivery of nano-based bio-processed products into the common markets for public usage [ 20 , 35 ].

With the increasing population worldwide, food requirements are increasing in addition to the concerns regarding the production of safe, healthy, and recurring food options. Sensors and diagnostic devices will help improve the sensitivity in food quality monitoring [ 36 ]. Moreover, the fake industrial application of food products could be easily scanned out of a system with the application of nanotechnology which could control brand protection throughout bio-processing [ 6 ]. The power usage in food production might also be controlled after a total nanotechnological application in the food industry. The decrease in power consumption would ultimately be positive for the environment. This could directly bring in the interplay of environment, food, and nanotechnology and would help to reduce environmental concerns in future [ 37 ].

One of the important implications of nanotechnology in bioprocessing industries can be accustomed to fermentation processes; these technologies are under usage for greater industrial demand and improved biomolecule production at a very low cost, unlike traditional fermentation processes [ 35 ]. The successful implementation and integration of fermentation and nanotechnology have allowed the development of biocompatible, safe, and nontoxic substances and nanostructures with wide-scale application in the field of food, bioprocessing, and winemaking industries [ 38 ]. Another important application is in the food monitoring and food supply chain management, present in various subsectors such as production, storage, distribution, and toxicity management. Nanodevices and nanomaterials are incorporated into chemical and biological sensor technologies to improve overall analytical performance with regard to parameters such as response time, sensitivity, selectivity, accuracy, and reliability [ 39 ]. The conventional methods of food monitoring are slowly being replaced with modern nano-based materials such as nanowires, nanocomposites, nanotubes, nanorods, nanosheets, and other materials that function to immobilize and label components [ 40 ]. These methods are either electrochemically or optically managed. For food monitoring, several assays are proposed and implemented with their roots in nano-based technologies; they may include molecular and diagnostic assays, immunological assays, and electrochemical and optical assays such as surface-enhanced Raman scattering and colorimetry technologies [ 34 ]. Materials ranging from heavy materials to microorganisms, pesticides, allergens, and antibiotics are easily monitored during commercial processing and bioprocessing in industries.

Additionally, nanotechnology has presented marvelous transformations in bio-composting materials. With the rising demand for biodegradable composites worldwide to reduce the environmental impact and increase the efficiency of industrial output, there is an increasing need for sustainable technologies [ 41 ]. Nanocomposites are thus being formulated with valuable mechanical properties better than conventional polymers, thus establishing their applicability in industries. The improved properties include optical, mechanical, catalytic, electrochemical, and electrical ones [ 42 ]. These biodegradable polymers are not only used in bioprocessing industries to create food products with relevant benefits but are also being deployed in the biomedical field, therapeutic industries, biotechnology base tissue engineering field, packing, sensor industries, drug delivery technology, water remediation, food industries, and cosmetics industries as well [ 2 , 24 , 34 , 43 ]. These nanocomposites have outstanding characteristics of biocompatibility, lower toxicities, antimicrobial activity, thermal resistance, and overall improved biodegradation properties which make them worthy of applications in products [ 44 ]. However, it is still imperative to conduct wide-scale toxicity and safety profiling for these and other nanomaterials to ensure the safety requirements, customer satisfaction, and public benefit are met [ 44 ].

Moreover, the advancement of nanotechnology has also been conferred to the development of functional food items. The exposure and integration of nanotechnology and the food industry have resulted in larger quantities of sustainable, safer, and healthier food products for human consumption, which is a growing need for the rising population worldwide [ 45 ]. The overall positive impact of nanotechnology in food processing, manufacturing, packing, pathogenic detection, monitoring, and production profiles necessitates the wide-scale application of this technology in the food industry worldwide [ 4 , 41 ]. Recent research has shown how the delivery of bioactive compounds and essential ingredients is and can be improved by the application of nanomaterials (nanoencapsulation) in food products [ 46 ]. These technologies improve the protection performance and sensitivity of bioactive ingredients while preventing unnecessary interaction with other constituents of foods, thus establishing clear-cut improved bioactivity and solubility profiles of nanofoods, thereby improving human health benefits. However, it should be kept in mind that the safety regards of these food should be carefully regulated with safety profiling, as they directly interact with human bodies [ 47 ].

2.4. Nanotechnology and Agri-Industries

Agriculture is the backbone of the economies of various nations around the globe. It is a major contributing factor to the world economy in general and plays a critical role in population maintenance by providing nutritional needs to them. As global weather patterns are changing owing to the dramatic changes caused by global warming, it is accepted that agriculture will be greatly affected [ 48 ]. Under this scenario, it is always better to take proactive measures to make agricultural practices more secure and sustainable than before. Modern technology is thus being employed worldwide. Nanotechnology has also come to play an effective role in this interplay of sustainable technologies. It plays an important role during the production, processing, storing, packaging, and transport of agricultural industrial products [ 49 ].

Nanotechnology has introduced certain precision farming techniques to enhance plant nutrients’ absorbance, alongside better pathogenic detection against agricultural diseases. Fertilizers are being improved by the application of nanoclays and zeolites which play effective roles in soil nutrient broths and in the restoration soil fertility [ 49 ]. Modern concepts of smart seeds and seed banks are also programmed to germinate under favorable conditions for their survival; nanopolymeric mixtures are used for coating in these scenarios [ 50 ]. Herbicides, pesticides, fungicides, and insecticides are also being revolutionized through nanotechnology applications. It has also been considered to upgrade linked fields of poultry and animal husbandry via the application of nanotechnology in treatment and disinfection practices.

2.5. Nanotechnology and Food Industry

The applications of nanotechnology in the food industry are immense and include food manufacturing, packaging, safety measures, drug delivery to specific sites [ 51 ], smart diets, and other modern preservatives, as summarized in Figure 1 . Nanomaterials such as polymer/clay nanocomposites are used in packing materials due to their high barrier properties against environmental impacts [ 52 ]. Similarly, nanoparticle mixtures are used as antimicrobial agents to protect stored food products against rapid microbial decay, especially in canned products. Similarly, several nanosensor and nano-assembly-based assays are used for microbial detection processes in food storage and manufacturing industries [ 53 ].

Nanotechnology applications in food and interconnected industries.

Nanoassemblies hold the potential to detect small gasses and organic and inorganic residues alongside microscopic pathogenic entities [ 54 ]. It should, however, be kept in mind that most of these nanoparticles are not directly added to food species because of the risk of toxicity that may be attached to such metallic nanoparticles. Work is being carried out to predict the toxicity attached, so that in the future, these products’ market acceptability could be increased [ 55 ]. With this, it is pertinent to say that nanotechnology is rapidly taking steps into the food industry for packing, sensing, storage, and antimicrobial applications [ 56 ].

Nanotechnology is also revolutionizing the dairy industry worldwide [ 57 ]. An outline of potential applications of nanotechnology in the dairy industry may include: improved processing methods, improved food contact and mixing, better yields, the increased shelf life and safety of dairy-based products, improved packaging, and antimicrobial resistance [ 58 ]. Additionally, nanocarriers are increasingly applied to transfer biologically active substances, drugs, enhanced flavors, colors, odors, and other food characteristics to dairy products [ 59 ].

These compounds exhibit higher delivery, solubility, and absorption properties to their targeted system. However, the problem of public acceptability due to the fear of unknown or potential side effects associated with nano-based dairy and food products needs to be addressed for the wider-scale commercialization of these products [ 60 ].

2.5.1. Nanotechnology, Poultry and Meat Industry

The poultry industry is a big chunk of the food industry and contributes millions of dollars every year to food industries around the world. Various commercial food chains are running throughout the world, the bases of which start from healthy poultry industries. The incidence of widespread foodborne diseases that originate from poultry, milk, and meat farms is a great concern for the food industry. Nanobiotechnology is certainly playing a productive role in tackling food pathogens such as those which procreate from Salmonella and Campylobacter infections by allowing increased poultry consumption while maintaining the affordability and safety of manufactured chicken products [ 61 ]. Several nano-based tools and materials such as nano-enabled disinfectants, surface biocides, protective clothing, air and water filters, packaging materials, biosensors, and detective devices are being used to confirm the authenticity and traceability of poultry products [ 62 ]. Moreover, nano-based materials are used to reduce foodborne pathogens and spoilage organisms before the food becomes part of the supply chain [ 63 ].

2.5.2. Nanotechnology—Fruit and Vegetable Industry

As already described, nanotechnology has made its way far ahead in the food industry. The agricultural, medicinal, and fruit and vegetable industries cannot remain unaffected under this scenario. Scientists are trying to increase the shelf life of fresh organic products to fulfill the nutritional needs of a growing population. From horticulture to food processing, packaging, and pathogenic detection technology, nanotechnology plays a vital role in the safety and production of vegetables and fruits [ 64 ].

Conventional technologies are now being replaced with nanotechnology due to their benefits of cost-effectiveness, satisfactory results, and overall shelf life improvement compared to past practices. Although some risks may be attached, nanotechnology has not yet reported high-grade toxicity to organic fresh green products. These technologies serve the purpose of providing safe and sufficient food sources to customers while reducing postharvest wastage, which is a major concern in developing nations [ 55 ]. Nanopackaging provides the benefits of lower humidity, oxygen passage, and optimal water vapor transmission rates. Hence, in the longer run, the shelf life of such products is increased to the desired level using nanotechnology [ 65 ].

2.5.3. Nanotechnology and Winemaking Industry

The winemaking industry is a big commercial application of the food industry worldwide. The usage of nanotechnology is also expanding in this industry. Nanotechnology serves the purpose of sensing technology through employment as nanoelectronics, nanoelectrochemical, and biological, amperometric, or fluorimetric sensors. These nanomaterials help to analyze the wine components, including polyphenols, organic acids, biogenic amines, or sulfur dioxide, and ensure they are at appropriate levels during the production of wine and complete processing [ 66 ].

Efforts are being made to further improve sensing nanotechnology to increase the accuracy, selectivity, sensitivity, and rapid response rate for wine sampling, production, and treatment procedures [ 53 ]. Specific nanoassemblies that are used in winemaking industries include carbon nanorods, nanodots, nanotubes, and metallic nanoparticles such as gold, silver, zinc oxide, iron oxide, and other types of nanocomposites. Recent research studies have introduced the concept of electronic tongues, nanoliquid chromatography, mesoporous silica, and applications of magnetic nanoparticles in winemaking products [ 67 ]. An elaborative account of these nanomaterials is out of the scope of the present study; however, on a broader scale, it is not wrong to say that nanotechnology is successfully reaping in the field of enology.

2.6. Nanotechnology and Packaging Industries

The packaging industry is continuously under improvement since the issue of environmentalism has been raised around the globe. Several different concerns are linked to the packaging industry; primarily, packaging should provide food safety to deliver the best quality to the consumer end. In addition, packaging needs to be environmentally friendly to reduce the food-waste-related pollution concern and to make the industrial processes more sustainable. Trials are being carried out to reduce the burden by replacing non-biodegradable plastic packaging materials with eco-friendly organic biopolymer-based materials which are processed at the nano scale to incur the beneficial properties of nanotechnology [ 68 ].

The nanomanufacturing of packaging biomaterials has proven effective in food packaging industries, as nanomanufacturing not only contributes to increasing food safety and production but also tackles environmental issues [ 69 ]. Some examples of these packaging nanomaterials may include anticaking agents, nanoadditives, delivery systems for nutraceuticals, and many more. The nanocompositions of packing materials are formed by mixing nanofillers and biopolymers to enhance packaging’s functionality [ 70 ]. Nanomaterials with antimicrobial properties are preferred in these cases, and they are mixed with a polymer to prevent the contamination of the packaged material. It is important to mention here that this technology is not only limited to food packaging; instead, packaging nanotechnology is now also being introduced in certain other industries such as textile, leather, and cosmetic industries in which it is providing large benefits to those industries [ 64 ].

2.7. Nanotechnology and Construction Industry and Civil Engineering

Efficient construction is the new normal application for sustainable development. The incorporation of nanomaterials in the construction industry is increasing to further the sustainability concern [ 71 ]. Nanomaterials are added to act as binding agents in cement. These nanoparticles enhance the chemical and physical properties of strength, durability, and workability for the long-lasting potential of the construction industry. Materials such as silicon dioxide which were previously also in use are now manufactured at the nano scale [ 71 ]. These nanostructures along with polymeric additives increase the density and stability of construction suspension [ 72 ]. The aspect of sustainable development is being applied to the manufacture of modern technologies coupled with beneficial applications of nanotechnology. This concept has produced novel isolative and smart window technologies which have driven roots in nanoengineering, such as vacuum insulation panels (VIPs) and phase change materials (PCMs), which provide thermal insulation effects and thus save energy and improve indoor air quality in homes [ 73 ].

A few of the unique properties of nanomaterials in construction include light structure, strengthened structural composition, low maintenance requirements, resistant coatings, improved pipe and bridge joining materials, improved cementitious materials, extensive fire resistance, sound absorption, and insulation properties, as well as the enhanced reflectivity of glass surfaces [ 74 ]. As elaborated under the heading of civil engineering applications, concrete’s properties are the most commonly discussed and widely changing in the construction industry because of concrete’s minute structure, which can be easily converted to the nano scale [ 75 ]. More specifically, the combination of nano-SiO 2 in cement could improve its performance in terms of compressiveness, large volumes with increased compressiveness, improved pore size distribution, and texture strength [ 76 ].

Moreover, some studies are also being carried out to improve the cracking properties of concrete by the application of microencapsulated healing polymers, which reduce the cracking properties of cement [ 77 ]. Moreover, some other construction materials, such as steel, are undergoing research to change their structural composites through nano-scale manufacturing. This nanoscaling improves steel’s properties such as improved corrosion resistance, increased weldability, the ease of handling for designing building materials, and construction work [ 78 ]. Additionally, coating materials have been improved by being manufactured at the nano scale. This has led to different improved coating properties such as functional improvement; anticorrosive action; high-temperature, fire, scratch, and abrasion resistance; antibacterial and antifouling self-healing capabilities; and self-assembly, among other useful applications [ 79 ].

Nanotechnology improves the compressive flexural properties of cement and reduces its porosity, making it absorb less water compared to traditional cementation preparations. This is because of the high surface-to-volume ratio of nanosized particles. Such an approach helps in reducing the amount of cement in concrete, making it more cost-effective, more strengthening, and eco-friendly, known as ‘green concrete’. Besides concrete, the revolutionary characteristics of nanotechnology are now also being adopted in other construction materials such as steel, glass, paper, wood, and multiple other engineering materials to upgrade the construction industry [ 80 ].

Similarly, carbon nanotubes, nanorods, and nanofibers are rapidly replacing steel constructions. These nanostructures along with nanoclay formations increase the mechanical properties and thus have paved the way for a new branch of civil engineering in terms of nanoengineering [ 80 ]. Apart from cement formulations, nanoparticles are included in repair mortars and concrete with healing properties that help in crack recovery in buildings. Furthermore, nanostructures, titanium dioxide, zinc, and other metallic oxides are being employed for the production of photocatalytic products with antipathogenic, self-cleaning, and water- and germ-repellent built-in technologies [ 33 ]. Similarly, quantum dot technologies are progressively employed for solar energy generation (a concept discussed later). These photovoltaic cells contribute to saving the maximum amount of solar energy [ 81 ].

2.8. Nanotechnology and Textiles Industry

The textile industry achieved glory in the 21st century with enormous outgrowth through social media platforms. Large brands have taken over the market worldwide, and millions are earned every year through textile industries. With the passing of time, nanotechnology is being slowly incorporated into the textile fiber industry owing to its unique and valuable properties. Previously, fabrics manufactured via conventional methods often curtailed the temporary effects of durability and quality [ 82 ]. However, the age of nanotechnology has allowed these fabric industries to employ nanotechnology to provide high durability, flexibility, and quality to clothes which is not lost upon laundering and wearing. The high surface-to-volume ratio of nanomaterials keeps high surface energy and thus provides better affinity to their fabrics, leading to long-term durability [ 82 ]. Moreover, a thin layering and coating of nanoparticles on the fabric make them breathable and make them smooth to the touch. This layering is carried out by processes such as printing, washing, padding, rinsing, drying, and curing to attach nanoparticles on the fabric surface. These processes are carried out to impart the properties of water repellence, soil resistance, flame resistance, hydrophobicity, wrinkle resistance, antibacterial and antistatic properties, and increased dyeability to the clothes [ 83 ].

The unique properties of nanomaterials in textile industries have attracted large-scale businesses for the financial benefits attached to their application. For this reason, competitors are increasing in nanotextile industry speedily, which may make the conventional textile industry sidelined in the near future [ 84 ]. Some benefits associated with nanotextile engineering and industry may include: improved cleaning surfaces, soil, wrinkle, stain, and color damage resistance, higher wettability and strike-through characteristics, malodor- and soil-removal abilities, abrasion resistance, a modified version of surface friction, and color enhancement through nanomaterials [ 85 ].

These characteristics have hugely improved the functionality and performance characteristics of textile and fiber materials [ 86 ]. Based upon the numerous advantages, nanotextile technology is increasingly being used in various inter-related fields, including in medical clothes, geotextiles, shock-resistant textiles, and fire-resistant and water-resistant textiles [ 87 ]. These textiles and fibers help overcome severe environmental conditions in special industries where high temperatures, pressure, and other conditions are adjusted for manufacturing purposes. These textiles are now increasingly called smart clothes due to renewed nanotechnological application to traditional methods [ 88 ].

The increasing demand for durable, appealing, and functionally outstanding textile products with a couple of factors of sustainability has allowed science to incorporate nanotechnology in the textile sector. These nano-based materials offer textile properties such as stain-repellent, wrinkle-free textures and fibers’ electrical conductivity alongside guaranteeing comfort and flexibility in clothing [ 82 ]. The characteristics of nanomaterials are also exhibited in the form of connected garments creation that undergo sensations to respond to external stimuli through electrical, colorant, or physiological signals. Thus, a kind of interconnection develops between the fields of photonic, electrical, textile and nanotechnologies [ 89 ]. Their interconnected applications confer the properties of high-scale performance, lasting durability, and connectivity in textile fibers. However, the concerns of nanotoxicity, the chances of the release of nanomaterials during washing, and the overall environmental impact of nanotextiles are important challenges that need to be ascertained and dealt with successfully in the coming years to ensure wide-scale acceptance and the global broad-spectrum application of nanotextiles [ 90 ].

The global market for the textile industry is constantly on the rise; with so many new brands, the competition is rising in regard to pricing, material, product outlook, and market exposure. Under this scenario, nanotechnology has contributed in terms of value addition to textiles by contributing the properties of water repellence, self-cleaning, and protection from radiation and UV light, along with safety against flames and microorganisms [ 82 ]. A whole new market of smart clothes is slowly taking our international markets along with improvements in textile machinery and economic standing. These advances have effectively established the sustainable character of the textile industry and have created grounds to meet the customer’s demand [ 91 ]. Some important examples of smart clothing originating from the nanotextile industry can be seen in products such as bulletproof jackets, fabric coatings, and advanced nanofibers. Fabric coatings and pressure pads can exhibit characteristics of invisibility and entail a silver, nickel, or gold nanoparticle-based material with inherent antimicrobial properties [ 92 ]. Such materials are effectively being utilized and introduced into the medical industry for bandages, dressings, etc. [ 92 ].

Similarly, woven optical fibers are already making progress in the textile and IT industry. With the incorporation of nanomaterials, optical fibers are being utilized for a range of purposes such as light transmission, sensing technologies, deformation, improved formational characteristic detection, and long-range data transmission. These optical fibers with phase-changing material properties can also be utilized for thermostability maintenance in the fiber industry. Thus, these fibers have combined applications in the computer, IT, and textile sectors [ 93 ]. In addition, the nano cellulosic material that is naturally obtained from plants confers properties of stiffness, strength, durability, and large surface area to volume ratios, which is acquired through the large number of surface hydroxyl groups embedded in nanocellulose particles [ 94 ]. Moreover, the characteristics of high resistance, lower weight, cost-effectiveness, and electrical conductivity are some additional benefits which are also linked to these nanocellulosic fibers [ 93 ]. The aforementioned technologies will allow industrialists to manufacture fabrics based on nanomaterials through a variety of chemical, physical, and biological processes. The scope of improvement in the textile properties, cost, and production methods is making the nanotextile industry a strong field of interest for future industrial investments.

2.9. Nanotechnology and Transport and Automobile Industry

The automotive industry is always improving its production. Nanotechnology is one such tool that could impart the automotive industry with a totally new approach to manufacturing. Automobile shaping could be improved greatly without any changes to the raw materials used. The replacement of conventional fabrication procedures with advanced nanomanufacturing is required to achieve the required outcome. Nanotechnology intends to partly renovate the automobile industry by enhancing the technical performance and reducing production costs excessively. However, there is a gap in fully harnessing the potential of nanomaterials in the automotive industry. Industrialists who were previously strict about automotive industrial principles are ready to employ novelties attached to nanotechnology to create successful applications to automobiles in the future [ 95 ]. Nanotechnology could provide assistance in manufacturing methods with an impartment of extended life properties. Cars that have been manufactured with nanotechnology applications have shown lower failure rates and enhanced self-repairing properties. Although the initial investment in the nanoautomated industry is high, the outcomes are enormous.

The concept of sustainable transport could also be applied to the manufacturing of such nano-based technology which is CO 2 free and imparts safe driving and quiet, clean, and wider-screen cars, which, in the future, may be called nanocars. The major interplay of nanotechnology and the automotive industry comes in the manufacturing of car parts, engines, paints, coating materials, suspensions, breaks, lubrication, and exhaust systems [ 32 ]. These properties are largely imparted via carbon nanotubes and carbon black, which renders new functionalities to automobiles. These products were previously in use, but nanoscaling and nanocoating allow for enhanced environmental, thermal, and mechanical stability to be imparted to the new generation of automobiles. In simple terms, automobiles manufactured with principal nanonovelties could result in cars with less wearing risk, better gliding potential, thinner coating lubrication requirements, and long service bodies with weight reductions [ 31 ]. These properties will ultimately reduce costs and will impart more space for improved automobile manufacturing in the future. Similarly, the development of electric cars and cars built on super capacitor technology is increasingly based on nanotechnology. The implications of nanotechnology in the form of rubber fillers, body frames made of light alloys, nanoelectronic components, nanocoatings of the interior and exterior of cars, self-repairing materials against external pressure, nanotextiles for interiors, and nanosensors are some of the nanotechnological-based implications of the automotive industry [ 96 ]. Owing to these properties, nanotechnology ventures are rapidly progressing in the automobile industry. It is expected that, soon, the automobile industry will commercialize nanotechnological perspectives on their branding strategies.

2.10. Nanotechnology, Healthcare, and Medical Industry

The genesis of nanomedicine simply cannot be ignored when we talk about the large fields of biological sciences, biotechnology, and medicine. Nanotechnology is already making its way beyond the imagination in the broader vision of nanobiotechnology. The quality of human life is continuously improved by the successful applications of nanotechnology in medicine, and resultantly, the entire new field of nanomedicine has come to the surface, which has allowed scientists to create upgraded versions of diagnostics, treatment, screening, sequencing, disease prevention, and proactive actions for healthcare [ 97 ]. These practices may also involve drug manufacturing, designing, conjugation, and efficient delivery options with advances in nano-based genomics, tissue engineering, and gene therapy. With this, it could be predicted that soon, nanomedicine will be the foremost research interest for the coming generation of biologists to study the useful impacts and risks that might be associated with them [ 98 ]. As illustrated in Figure 2 , we summarized the applications of nanotechnology in different subfields of the medical industry.

Nanotechnology applications in medical industry. Nanotechnology has a broad range of applications in various diagnostics and treatments using nanorobotics and drug delivery systems.

In various medical procedures, scientists are exploring the potential benefits of nanotechnology. In the field of medical tools, various robotic characters have been applied which have their origins in nano-scale computers, such as diagnostic surfaces, sensor technologies, and sample purification kits [ 99 ]. Similarly, some modifications are being accepted in diagnostics with the development of devices that are capable of working, responding, and modifying within the human body with the sole purpose of early diagnosis and treatment. Regenerative medicine has led to nanomanufacturing applications in addition to cell therapy and tissue engineering [ 100 ]. Similarly, some latest technologies in the form of ‘lab-on-a-chip’, as elaborated upon earlier, are being introduced with large implications in different fields such as nanomedicine, diagnostics, dentistry, and cosmetics industries [ 101 ]. Some updated nanotechnology applications in genomics and proteomics fields have developed molecular insights into antimicrobial diseases. Moreover, medicine, programming, nanoengineering, and biotechnology are being merged to create applications such as surgical nanorobotics, nanobioelectrics, and drug delivery methods [ 102 ]. All of these together help scientists and clinicians to better understand the pathophysiology of diseases and to bring about better treatment solutions in the future.

Specifically, the field of nanocomputers and linked devices help to control activation responses and their rates in mechanical procedures [ 2 ]. Through these mechanical devices, specific actions of medical and dental procedures are executed accurately. Moreover, programmed nanomachines and nanorobots allow medical practitioners to carry out medical procedures precisely at even sub-cellular levels [ 4 ]. In diagnostics fields, the use of such nanodevices is expanding rapidly, which allows predictions to be made about disease etiology and helps to regulate treatment options [ 103 ]. The use of in vitro diagnosis allows increased efficiency in disease apprehension. Meanwhile, in in vivo diagnoses, such devices have been made which carry out the screening of diseased states and respond to any kind of toxicities or carcinogenic or pathological irregularities that the body faces [ 104 ].

Similarly, the field of regenerative medicine is employing nanomaterials in various medical procedures such as cell therapy, tissue engineering, and gene sequencing for the greater outlook of treatment and reparation of cells, tissues, and organs. Nanoassemblies have been recorded in research for applications in powerful tissue regeneration technologies with properties of cell adhesion, migration, and cellular differentiation [ 102 ]. Additionally, nanotechnology is being applied in antimicrobial (antibacterial and antiviral) fields. The microscopic abilities of these pathogens are determined through nano-scale technologies [ 100 ]. Greek medicinal practices have long been using metals to cure pathogenic diseases, but the field of nanotechnology has presented a new method to improve such traditional medical practices; for example, nanosized silver nanomaterials are being used to cure burn wounds owing to the easy penetration of nanomaterials at the cellular level [ 102 , 105 ].

In the field of bioinformatics and computational biology, genomic and proteomic technologies are elucidating molecular insights into disease management [ 106 ]. The scope of targeted and personalized therapies related to pathogenic and pathophysiological diseases have greatly provided spaces for nanotechnological innovative technologies [ 107 , 108 ]. They also incorporate the benefits of cost-effectiveness and time saving [ 109 ]. Similarly, nanosensors and nanomicrobivores are utilized for military purposes such as the detection of airborne chemical agents which could cause serious toxic outcomes otherwise [ 102 ]. Some nanosensors also serve a purpose similar to phagocytes to clear toxic pathogens from the bloodstream without causing septic shock conditions, especially due to the inhalation of prohibited drugs and banned substances [ 100 , 105 , 110 ]. These technologies are also used for dose specifications and to neutralize overdosing incidences [ 110 ] Nano-scale molecules work as anticancer and antiviral nucleoside analogs with or without other adjuvants [ 21 ].

Another application of nanotechnology in the medical industry is in bone regeneration technology. Scientists are working on bone graft technology for bone reformation and muscular re-structuring [ 111 , 112 ]. Principle investigations of biomineralization, collagen mimic coatings, collagen fibers, and artificial muscles and joints are being conducted to revolutionize the field of osteology and bone tissue engineering [ 113 , 114 ]. Similarly, drug delivery technologies are excessively considering nanoscaling options to improve drug delivery stability and pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic profiles at a large scale [ 110 ]. The use of nanorobots is an important step that allows drugs to travel across the circulatory system and deliver drug entities to specifically targeted sites [ 99 , 115 ]. Scientists are even working on nanorobots-based wireless intracellular and intra-nucleolar nano-scale surgeries for multiple malignancies, which otherwise remain incurable [ 102 ]. These nanorobotics can work at such a minute level that they can even cut a single neuronic dendrite without causing harm to complex neuronal networks [ 116 ].

Another important application of nanotechnology in the medical field is oncology. Nanotechnology is providing a good opportunity for researchers to develop such nanoagents, fluorescent materials, molecular diagnostics kits, and specific targeted drugs that may help to diagnose and cure carcinogenesis [ 104 ]. Scientists are trying various protocols of adjoining already-available drugs with nanoparticulate conjugation to enhance drug specificity and targeting in organs [ 104 , 107 , 117 ]. Nanomedicine acts as the carrier of hundreds of specific anticancerous molecules that could be projected at tumor sites; moreover, the tumor imaging and immunotherapy approaches linked with nanomedicine are also a potential field of interest when it comes to cancer treatment management [ 112 , 117 ]. A focus is also being drawn toward lessening the impact of chemotherapeutic drugs by increasing their tumor-targeting efficiency and improving their pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties [ 112 ]. Similarly, heat-induced ablation treatment against cancer cells alongside gene therapy protocols is also being coupled with nanorobotics [ 99 , 118 ]. Anticancerous drugs may utilize the Enhanced Permeation and Retention Effect (EPR effect) by applications of nano assemblies such as liposomes, albumin nanospheres, micelles, and gold nanoparticles, which confirms effective treatment strategies against cancer [ 119 ]. Such advances in nanomedicine will bring about a more calculated, outlined, and technically programmed field of nanomedicine through association and cooperation between physicians, clinicians, researchers, and technologies.

2.10.1. Nanoindustry and Dentistry

Nanodentistry is yet another subfield of nanomedicine that involves broad-scale applications of nanotechnology ranging from diagnosis, prevention, cure, prognosis, and treatment options for dental care [ 120 ]. Some important applications in oral nanotechnology include dentition denaturalization, hypersensitivity cure, orthodontic realignment problems, and modernized enameling options for the maintenance of oral health [ 2 , 121 ]. Similarly, mechanical dentifrobots work to sensitize nerve impulse traffic at the core of a tooth in real-time calculation and hence could regulate tooth tissue penetration and maintenance for normal functioning [ 122 ]. The functioning is coupled with programmed nanocomputers to execute an action from external stimuli via connection with localized internal nerve stimuli. Similarly, there are other broad-range applications of nanotechnology in tooth repair, hypersensitivity treatment, tooth repositioning, and denaturalization technologies [ 4 , 118 , 120 , 121 ]. Some of the applications of nanotechnology in the field of dentistry are elaborated upon in Figure 3 .

Nanotechnology applications in field of dentistry. Nanotechnology can be largely used in dentistry to repair and treat dental issues.

2.10.2. Nanotechnology and Cosmetics Industry

The cosmetics industry, as part of the greater healthcare industry, is continuously evolving. Nanotechnology-based renovations are progressively incorporated into cosmetics industries as well. Products are designed with novel formulations, therapeutic benefits, and aesthetic output [ 123 ]. The nanocosmetics industry employs the usage of lipid nanocarrier systems, polymeric or metallic nanoparticles, nanocapsules, nanosponges, nanoemulsions, nanogels, liposomes, aquasomes, niosomes, dendrimers, and fullerenes, etc., among other such nanoparticles [ 101 ]. These nanomaterials bring about specific characteristics such as drug delivery, enhanced absorption, improved esthetic value, and enhanced shelf life. The benefits of nanotechnology are greatly captured in the improvement of skin, hair, nail, lip, and dental care products, and those associated with hygienic concerns. Changes to the skin barrier have been largely curtailed owing to the function of the nano scale of materials. The nanosize of active ingredients allows them to easily permeate skin barriers and generate the required dermal effect [ 124 ].

More profoundly, nanomaterials’ application is encouraged in the production of sun-protective cosmetics products such as sunblock lotions and creams. The main ingredient used is the rational combination of cinnamates (derived from carnauba wax) and titanium dioxide nanosuspensions which provide sun-protective effects in cosmetics products [ 125 ]. Similarly, nanoparticle suspensions are being applied in nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs) for dermal and pharmaceutical applications [ 126 ]. They exhibit the properties of controlled drug-carrying and realizing properties, along with direct drug targeting, occlusion, and increased penetration and absorption to the skin surface. Moreover, these carrier nanoemulsions exhibit excellent tolerability to intense environmental and body conditions [ 127 ]. Moreover, these lipid nanocarriers have been researched and declared safe for potential cosmetic and pharmaceutical applications. However, more research is still required to assess the risk/benefit ratio of their excessive application [ 128 ].

2.11. Nanotechnology Industries and Environment

The environment, society, and technology are becoming excessively linked under a common slogan of sustainable development. Nanotechnology plays a key role in the 21st century to modify the technical and experimental outlook of various industries. Environmental applications cannot stand still against revolutionary applications of nanotechnology. Since the environment has much to do with the physical and chemical world around a living being, the nano scale of products greatly changes and affects environmental sustainability [ 129 ]. The subsequent introduction of nanomaterials in chemistry, physics, biotechnology, computer science, and space, food, and chemical industries, in general, directly impacts environmental sciences.

With regard to environmental applications, the remarkable research and applications of nanotechnology are increasing in the processing of raw materials, product manufacturing, contaminate treatment, soil and wastewater treatment, energy storage, and hazardous waste management [ 130 ]. In developed nations, it is now widely suggested that nanotechnology could play an effective role in tackling environmental issues. In fact, the application of nanotechnology could be implemented for water and cell cleaning technologies, drinking safety measures, and the detoxification of contaminants and pollutants from the environment such as heavy metals, organochlorine pesticides, and solvents, etc., which may involve reprocessing although nanofiltration. Moreover, the efficiency and durability of materials can be increased with mechanical stress and weathering phenomena. Similarly, the use of nanocage-based emulsions is being used for optical imaging techniques [ 131 ].

In short, the literature provides immense relevance to how nanotechnology is proving itself through groundbreaking innovative technologies in environmental sciences. The focus, for now, is kept on remediation technologies with prime attention on water treatment, since water scarcity is being faced worldwide and is becoming critical with time. There is a need for the scientific community to actively conduct research on comprehending the properties of nanomaterials for their high surface area, related chemical properties, high mobility, and unique mechanical and magnetic properties which could be used for to achieve a sustainable environment [ 132 ].

2.12. Nanotechnology—Oil and Gas Industry

The oil and gas industry makes up a big part of the fossil industry, which is slowly depleting with the rising consumption. Although nanotechnology has been successfully applied to the fields of construction, medicine, and computer science, its application in the oil and gas industry is still limited, especially in exploration and production technologies [ 133 ]. The major issue in this industry is to improve oil recovery and the further exploitation of alternative energy sources. This is because the cost of oil production and further purification is immense compared to crude oil prices. Nanotechnologists believe that they could overcome the technological barriers to developing such nanomaterials that would help in curtailing these problems.

Governments are putting millions of dollars into the exploration, drilling, production, refining, wastewater treatment, and transport of crude oil and gas. Nanotechnology can provide assistance in the precise measurement of reservoir conditions. Similarly, nanofluids have been proven to exhibit better performance in oil production industries. Nanocatalyses enhance the separation processing of oil, water, and gases, thus bringing an efficient impurity removal process to the oil and gas industry. Nanofabrication and nanomembrane technologies are excessively being utilized for the separation and purification of fossil materials [ 134 ]. Finally, functional and modified nanomaterials can produce smart, cost-effective, and durable equipment for the processing and manufacturing of oil and gas. In short, there is immense ground for the improvement of the fossil fuel industry if nanotechnology could be correctly directed in this industry [ 135 ].

2.13. Nanotechnology and Renewable Energy (Solar) Industry

Renewable energy sources are the solutions to many environmental problems in today’s world. This makes the renewable energy industry a major part of the environmental industry. Subsequently, nanotechnology needs to be considered in the energy affairs of the world. Nanotechnologies are increasingly applied in solar, hydrogen, biomass, geothermal, and tidal wave energy production. Although, scientists are convinced that much more needs to be discovered before enhancing the benefits of coupled nanotechnology and renewable energy [ 136 ].

Nanotechnology has procured its application way down the road of renewable energy sources. Solar collectors have been specifically given much importance since their usage is encouraged throughout the world, and with events of intense solar radiation, the production and dependence of solar energy will be helpful for fulfilling future energy needs. Research data are available regarding the theoretical, numerical, and experimental approaches adopted for upgrading solar collectors with the employment of nanotechnologies [ 137 ].

These applications include the nanoengineering of flat solar plates, direct absorption plates, parabolic troughs, and wavy plates and heat pipes. In most of these instruments and solar collection devices, the use of nanofluids is becoming common and plays a crucial role in increasing the working efficiency of these devices. A gap, however, exists concerning the usage of nanomaterials in the useful manufacturing design of solar panels and their associated possible efficiencies which could be brought to the solar panel industry. Moreover, work needs to be done regarding the cost-effectiveness and efficiency analyses of traditional and nanotechnology-based solar devices so that appropriate measures could be adopted for the future generation of nanosolar collectors [ 138 ].

2.14. Nanotechnology and Wood Industry

The wood industry is one of the main economic drivers in various countries where forest growth is immense and heavy industrial setups rely on manufacturing and selling wood-based products [ 139 ]. However, the rising environmental concerns against deforestation are a major cause for researchers to think about a method for the sustainable usage of wood products. Hence, nanotechnology has set its foot in the wood industry in various applications such as the production of biodegradable materials in the paper and pulp industry, timber and furniture industry, wood preservatives, wood composites, and applications in lignocellulosic-based materials [ 140 ]. Resultantly, new products are introduced into the market with enhanced performance (stronger yet lighter products), increased economic potential, and reduced environmental impact.

One method of nano-based application in the wood industry is the derivation of nanomaterials directly from the forest, which is now called nanocellulose material, known broadly for its sustainable characteristics [ 141 ]. This factor has pushed the wood industry to convert cellulosic material to nanocellulose with increased strength, low weight, and increased electromagnetic response along with a larger surface area [ 142 ]. These characteristics are then further used as reinforcing agents in different subcategories of wood-based industries, including substrate, stabilizer, electronics, batteries, sensor technologies, food, medicine, and cosmetics industries [ 143 ]. Moreover, functional characteristics such as the durability, UV absorption, fire resistance, and decreased water absorption of wood-based biodegradable products are also being improved with the application of nanomaterials such as nanozinc oxide or nanotitanium oxide [ 144 ]. Similarly, wood biodegradable properties are reduced through the application of nanoencapsulated preservatives to improve the impregnation of wood with the increasing penetration of applied chemicals and a reduced leaching effect.

Cellulosic nanomaterials exhibit nanofibrillar structures which can be made multifunctional for application in construction, furniture, food, pharmaceuticals, and other wood-based industries [ 145 ]. Research is emerging in which promising results are predicted in different industries in which nanofibers, nanofillers, nanoemulsions, nanocomposites, and nano-scaled chemical materials are used to increase the potential advantages of manufactured wood products [ 146 ]. The outstanding properties of nanocellulusice materials have largely curtailed the environmental concerns in the wood industry in the form of their potential renewable characteristics, self-assembling properties, and well-defined architecture. However, there are a few challenges related to such industries, such as cost/benefit analyses, a lack of compatibility and acceptability from the public owing to a lack of proper commercialization, and a persistent knowledge gap in some places [ 145 ]. Therefore, more effort is required to increase the applications and acceptability of nano-based wood products in the market worldwide.

2.15. Nanotechnology and Chemical Industries

Nanotechnology can be easily applied to various chemical compositions such as polymeric substances; this application can bring about structural and functional changes in those chemical materials and can address various industrial applications including medicine, physics, electronics, chemical, and material industries, among others [ 76 , 132 , 138 ]. One such industrial application is in electricity production, in which different nanomaterials driven from silver, golden, and organic sources could be utilized to make the overall production process cheaper and effective [ 147 ]. Another effective application is in the coatings and textile industry, which has already been discussed briefly. In these industries, enzymatic catalysis in combination with nanotechnology accelerates reaction times, saving money and bringing about high-quality final products. Similarly, the water cleaning industry can utilize the benefits of nanomaterials in the form of silver and magnetic nanoparticles to create strong forces of attraction that easily separate heavy material from untreated water [ 148 ]. Similarly, there is a wide range of chemicals that can be potentially upgraded, although the nano scale for application in biomedical industries is discussed under the heading of nanotechnology and medicine.

Another major application of nanotechnology in the chemical industry includes the surfactant industry, which is used for cleaning paper, inks, agrochemicals, drugs, pharmaceuticals, and some food products [ 149 ]. The traditional surfactant application was of great environmental and health concern, but with the newer and improved manufacturing and nanoscaling of surfactants, environmentally friendly applications have been made possible. These newer types may include biosurfactants obtained via the process of fermentation and bio-based surfactants produced through organic manufacturing. More research is required to establish the risks and side effects of these nanochemical agents [ 3 ].

3. Closing Remarks

Nanotechnology, within a short period, has taken over all disciplinary fields of science, whether it is physics, biology, or chemistry. Now, it is predicted to enormously impact manufacturing technology owing to the evidential and proven benefits of micro scaling. Every field of industry, such as computing, information technology, engineering, medicine, agriculture, and food, among others, is now originating an entire new field in association with nanotechnology. These industries are widely known as nanocomputer, nanoengineering, nanoinformatics, nanobiotechnology, nanomedicine, nanoagriculture, and nanofood industries. The most brilliant discoveries are being made in nanomedicine, while the most cost-effective and vibrant technologies are being introduced in materials and mechanical sciences.

The very purpose of nanotechnology, in layman’s terms, is to ease out the manufacturing process and improve the quality of end products and processes. In this regard, it is easy and predictable that it is not difficult for nanotechnology to slowly take out most of the manufacturing process for industrial improvement. With every coming year, more high-tech and more effective-looking nanotechnologies are being introduced. This is smoothing out the basis of a whole new era of nanomindustries. However, the constructive need is to expand the research basis of nanoapplications to entail the rigorous possible pros of this technology and simultaneously figure out a method to deal with the cons of the said technology.

The miniaturization of computer devices has continued for many years and is now being processed at the nanometer scale. However, a gap remains to explore further options for the nanoscaling of computers and complex electronic devices, including computer processors. Moreover, there is an immense need to enable the controlled production and usage of such nanotechnologies in the real world, because if not, they could threaten the world of technology. Scientists should keep on working on producing nanoelectronic devices with more power and energy efficiency. This is important in order to extract the maximum benefits from the hands of nanotechnology and computer sciences [ 5 ].

Under the influence of nanotechnology, food bioprocessing is showing improvement, as proven by several scientific types of research and industrial applications in food chain and agricultural fields. Moreover, the aspect of sustainability is being introduced to convert the environment, food chains, processing industries, and production methods to save some resources for future generations. The usage of precision farming technologies based upon nanoengineering, modern nano-scale fertilizers, and pesticides are of great importance in this regard. Moreover, a combined nanotechnological aspect is also being successfully applied to the food industry, affecting every dimension of packing, sensing, storage, manufacturing, and antimicrobial applications. It is pertinent to say that although the applications of nanotechnology in the food, agriculture, winemaking, poultry, and associated packaging industries are immense, the need is to accurately conduct the risk assessment and potential toxicity of nanomaterials to avoid any damage to the commercial food chains and animal husbandry practices [ 63 ].

The exposure of the nano-based building industry is immense for civil and mechanical engineers; now, we need to use these technologies to actually bring about changes in those countries in which the population is immense, construction material is depleting, and environmental sustainability problems are hovering upon the state. By carefully assessing the sustainability potential of these nanomaterials, their environmental, hazardous, and health risks could be controlled, and they could likely be removed from the construction and automobile industry all over the world with sincere scientific and technical rigor [ 150 ]. It is expected that soon, the construction and automobile industry will commercialize the nanotechnological perspectives alongside sustainability features in their branding strategies. These nano-scale materials could allow the lifecycle management of automotive and construction industries with the provision of sustainable, safe, comfortable, cost-effective, and more eco-friendly automobiles [ 32 ]. The need is to explore the unacknowledged and untapped potential of nanotechnology applications in these industry industries.

Similarly, nanotechnology-based applications in consumer products such as textile and esthetics industries are immense and impressive. Professional development involves the application of nanotechnology-based UV-protective coatings in clothes which are of utmost need with climatic changes [ 73 ]. The application of nanotechnology overcomes the limitations of conventional production methods and makes the process more suitable and green-technology-based. These properties have allowed the textile companies to effectively apply nanotechnology for the manufacture of better products [ 90 ]. With greater consumer acceptability and market demand, millions are spent in the cosmetic industry to enable the further usage of nanotechnology. Researchers are hopeful that nanotechnology would be used to further upgrade the cosmetics industry in the near future [ 123 ].

Furthermore, the breakthrough applications of nanomedicine are not hidden from the scientific community. If nanomedicine is accepted worldwide in the coming years, then the hope is that the domain of diagnosis and treatment will become more customized, personalized, and genetically targeted for individual patients. Treatment options will ultimately become excessive in number and more successful in accomplishment. However, these assumptions will stay a dream if the research remains limited to scientific understanding.

The real outcome will be the application of this research into the experimental domain and clinical practices to make them more productive and beneficial for the medical industry. For this cause, a combined effort of technical ability, professional skills, research, experimentation, and the cooperation of clinicians, physicians, researchers, and technology is imperative. However, despite all functional beneficial characteristics, work needs to be done and more exploration is required to learn more about nanotechnology and its potential in different industries, especially nanomedicine, and to take into account and curtail the risks and harms attached to the said domain of science.

Additionally, climatic conditions, as mentioned before, along with fossil fuel depletion, have pushed scientists to realize a low-energy-consuming and more productive technological renovation in the form of nanoengineered materials [ 48 ]. Now, they are employing nanomaterials to save energy and harvest the maximum remaining natural resources. There is immense ground for the improvement of the fossil fuel industry if nanotechnology could be correctly directed in this industry [ 135 ]. The beneficial applications within the solar industry, gas and oil industry, and conversion fields require comparative cost-effectiveness and efficiency analyses of traditional and nano-based technologies so that appropriate measures could be adopted for the future generation of nano-based products in said industries [ 138 ].

As every new technology is used in industries, linked social, ethical, environmental, and human safety issues arise to halt the pace of progress. These issues need to be addressed and analyzed along with improving nanotechnology so that this technology easily incorporates into different industries without creating social, moral, and ethical concerns. Wide-scale collaboration is needed among technologists, engineers, biologists, and industrials for a prospective future associated with the wide-scale application of nanotechnology in diversified fields.

4. Conclusions

Highly cost-effective and vibrant nanotechnologies are being introduced in materials and mechanical sciences. A comprehensive overview of such technologies has been covered in this study. This review will help researchers and professionals from different fields to delve deeper into the applications of nanotechnology in their particular areas of interest. Indeed, the applications of nanotechnology are immense, yet the risks attached to unlimited applications remain unclear and unpronounced. Thus, more work needs to be linked and carefully ascertained so that further solutions can be determined in the realm of nanotoxicology. Moreover, it is recommended that researchers, technicians, and industrialists should cooperate at the field and educational level to explore options and usefully exploit nanotechnology in field experiments. Additionally, more developments should be made and carefully assessed at the nano scale for a future world, so that we are aware of this massive technology. The magnificent applications of nanotechnology in the industrial world makes one think that soon, the offerings of nanotechnology will be incorporated into every possible industry. However, there is a need to take precautionary measures to be aware of and educate ourselves about the environmental and pollution concerns alongside health-related harms to living things that may arise due to the deviant use of nanotechnology. This is important because the aspect of sustainability is being increasingly considered throughout the world. So, by coupling the aspect of sustainability with nanotechnology, a prosperous future of nanotechnology can be guaranteed.

Funding Statement

K.M.’s work is supported by United Arab Emirates University-UPAR-Grant#G3458, SURE plus Grant#3908 and SDG research programme grant#4065.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, Y.W. methodology, S.M. validation, S.M., K.M. and Y.W. formal analysis, S.M., K.M. and Y.W. investigation, S.M., K.M. and Y.W. resources, K.M. and Y.W. data curation, S.M., K.M. and Y.W. writing—original draft preparation, S.M. writing—review and editing, S.M., K.M. and Y.W. supervision, Y.W. project administration, K.M. and Y.W. funding acquisition, Y.W. and K.M. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Informed consent statement, data availability statement, conflicts of interest.

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Review article, corporate social responsibility (csr) in the service industry: a systematic review.

• 1 Guilin Tourism University, Guilin, China
• 2 Taylor’s University, Subang Jaya, Selangor DarulEhsan, Malaysia
• 3 Shanghai University, Shanghai, China

The objective of the current study is to perform a systematic review to the published articles upon the advancement of corporate social responsibility (CSR) in the service sector. This article analyzes the bibliometric information of the CSR-related articles linked to the service sector. The existing literature on CSR in the service industry were derived from the online WOS indexing dataset. Through completing a systematic review on existing academic articles, the current paper identifies the nations, universities/institutions, prolific researchers, high-profile journal that contributed to the advancement of CSR theory and practical applications. Moreover, the analytical graphs and bibliometric coupling shown the keyword co-occurrence to depict the academic relationship on the CSR advancement in the service industry. The systematic review adds to an in-depth knowledge of the progression behind CSR in the corporate environment and extends the CSR nexus researches.

Introduction

Corporate social responsibility, (CSR) has emerged as a vibrant subject of theoretical progression and academic scholarship, and its rigorous humanity-based basis has thus garnered the attention of both academics and professionals ( Abbas et al., 2018 ; Moyeen et al., 2019 ; Chen & Lin, 2020 ). CSR scholars have tried to find the outcomes of CSR participation in terms of increasing service quality in the service industries over the previous few decades ( Casado-DÃaz et al., 2014 ; Andrew & Baker, 2020 ; Antonetti et al., 2021 ). In recent decades, the inquiry on corporate social responsibility (CSR) has grown exponentially. The existing studies aimed to address particular concerns relating to CSR, such as the financial performance ( Atmeh et al., 2020 ; Okafor et al., 2021 ), the banking system ( Ahmad et al., 2022 ), environmental issues, enterprise development, and its positive/negative consequences ( Fukuda & Ouchida, 2020 ).

Due to the many characteristics of the service industry, CSR practices differ tremendously ( Batool et al., 2016 ). Even though the examination of the production, fiscal employment, the economy and the strategies of CSR receives significant interest ( Sadik-Zada et al., 2021 ), the analysis of the impact on the service sector obtains somewhat less. There is no universal agreement among businesses over the definition of sustainable development through the application of CSR concept ( Freeman & Hasnaoui, 2011 ). As a result, there are still a significant number of research gaps in the investigation about the connection between CSR and the service industry ( Moyeen et al., 2019 ; Wut et al., 2022 ). Therefore, it is essential to perform a panoramic investigation on the relationship between corporate social responsibility and its effect on the qualitative improvement of the service business ( Perrini et al., 2006 ; Husted & Allen, 2007 ; Rodrigues & Mendes, 2018 ; Gallardo-Vázquez et al., 2019 ). Throughout this paper, we want to provide contributions to the intellectual framework of CSR, one of the most important types of methods that would help facilitate environmental sustainability and managerial advancement, via a systematic review of the existing intellectual literature indexed in Web of Science (WOS) over the past decades.

This research explores the existing literature about impact CSR on the service industry and intends to be deepening researching the mechanism of how CSR researches progressed over the past 3 decades. The research objectives are as follows: 1) To make a systematic review to the relevant research on CSR to remark on the dearth of prior researches in related topics and give appropriate theoretical basis to the advancement of the service sector. 2) To identify the current progress of the CSR concept in the service industry from the perspectives of economic obligations, legal responsibilities, ethical responsibilities, and philanthropic responsibilities. 3) To identify and visualize the publishing years, prolific regions/nations, dedicated journals, supporting universities/institutions, the authors, as well as the CSR keywords in the service sector and the co-occurrence analysis. And 4) To examine the nuances of CSR concept in the future research agenda while presenting the overall systematic review during the implementation process of the current study. Through examining the WOS database, this systematic review intends to contribute to a consideration of the important effects of the service industry, the central influence of principle of corporate social responsibility.

In accordance with this line of thought, the structure of this study is set as follows: First, the next phase of the current research focuses on the research methodology elaboration. Next, to examine the impact that corporate social responsibility has on contemporary academic research via a systematic literature review to the relevant published articles. The current study identifies the countries, universities/institutions, prolific researchers, and high-profile journals that have contributed to the development of CSR theory and practical applications by completing a systematic review on existing academic articles. Furthermore, a thematic review was carried out in order to determine the keyword co-occurrence and keywords frequency for identifying the advancement of CSR theory and practical applications. The conclusion section includes a summary, a further elaboration on theoretical and practical contributions, as well as its exiting limitations.

Research methodology: a systematic review approach

In accordance with the Meta-Analysis methodology described by Liberati et al., in 2009 ( Liberati et al., 2009 ), a complete evaluation of the literature is then performed. The authors carried out a comprehensive investigation for research articles conducted by scholars from around the world as well as blind-peer-reviewed papers in social sciences, business, decision sciences, economic management and accounting, as well as psychology disciplines ( Oduro et al., 2021 ; Arici & Uysal, 2022 ). Adopting a database created from Web of Science for a concise systematic review effort ( Baig et al., 2019 ), this study evaluated the dependability research articles with empirical data collected. In line with Liberati et al. (2009) and Adeyinka-Ojo et al., 2021 and Galeazzi et al., 2008 , the current study discusses and expounds upon PRISMA statement checklists ( Moher et al., 2011 ; Page et al., 2021 ), which are extensively utilized to conduct systematic review methodology in the field of social sciences and decision sciences.

To document the analytical procedure and inclusion criteria for the major databases, trustworthy research methods were developed prior to actual resources search. The authors conducted their research using WOS data since it provides the most accurate depiction of relevant articles. The academic world considers that WOS covers the most significant international publications. Thus, the authors are obligated to analyze this dataset using the WOS dataset. WOS was employed to discover publications approved for production in five disciplines that were included in the WOS indexing journals with titles/abstracts/keywords including the keywords selected for the current research. The published papers in different five disciplines are then exemplified in Table 1 for emphasizing the topic domains of major publications. The spectrum of publishing date is without restriction, since the current study was done in early 2023. The extracted and downloaded articles only extended to English-written papers.

TABLE 1 . The published years of papers related to CSR and service industry (Summarized by the authors).

A MS spreadsheets file was created to record the issued research paper data of the associated periodicals. The authors then completed the assessment of the papers that were chosen beforehand, which is also called screening in the PRISMA checklist ( Moher et al., 2011 ; Nawijn et al., 2019 ). The remaining publications complete texts were revisited and downloaded in accordance with the paper selection criteria ( Zabavnik & Verbič, 2021 ). The selected papers were then incorporated in accordance with a transparent, reproducible, and a prior presumption-free methods ( Popay et al., 2006 ; Pickering & Byrne, 2014 ; Alsamil et al., 2020 ). The bibliographic data in such chosen publications and the PRISMA checklist were input into Microsoft Excel spreadsheets for further data-analysis procedure (see Figure 1 below). Finally, 687 selected papers were subjected to a data collection procedure in order to improve the collected components and subsequent categorization. Then, these selected papers were examined attentively to extract and categorize in accordance with the current study.

FIGURE 1 . Research procedure summary and description (by authors).

Only for purposes of the current research, the authors input the following keywords into the WOS system to explore the title/abstracts/keywords of the published papers, yielding 1,665 results. In the meantime, the search criteria for the WOS database are shown as follows:

corporate social responsibility (Topic) and service (All Fields) and Article (Document Types) and Business or Management or Economics or Sociology or Hospitality Leisure Sport Tourism (Web of Science Categories) and English (Languages) and 6.3 Management or 6.10 Economics or 6.223 Hospitality, Leisure, Sport & Tourism or 6.115 Sustainability Science (Citation Topics Meso)

The titles of the choose articles reflect their production status. Even though database search resulted in the retrieval of 1,665 records, 85 papers were disqualified to be reviewed in the current research because they are conference proceedings, review articles, other than peer-viewed articles. Those retrieved papers were reviewed further within the scope of the five fields, namely, Business or Management or Economics or Sociology or Hospitality Leisure Sport Tourism (Web of Science Categories). In the meantime, some of these irrelevant studies were omitted from further examination in the present research, and 944 papers remained, excluding 636 published papers. Furthermore, there were 13 papers excluded since they were not English-medium peer-viewed papers. Following this, the authors selected another four criteria under the Citation Topics Meso section, namely, 6.3 Management or 6.10 Economics or 6.223 Hospitality, Leisure, Sport & Tourism or 6.115 Sustainability Science, which led to a number of 803 papers remaining. Some of these entries were removed because they did not meet the eligibility standards and the entire text could not be extracted. As a result, the search result indicates that 687 articles have been published with the topic of the current study in the WOS system, which are closely connected to the five research areas that are the subject of the present study. Then, the current systematic review included empirical full-texted papers in total. The research procedure following the PRISMA checklist for assessing precedential research is then shown in Figure 1 above. The following analysis are further done through the facilitations of VOSviewer (a software application for establishing and displaying bibliometric connectivity structures) and Zotero (an open-sourced application for managing bibliographic information and pertaining to the research resources).

Research findings

The published years of csr and service industry-related articles.

Since the turn of the 20th century, expectations of businesses in the service sector have expanded, and the notion of corporate social responsibility (see Table 1 below), frequently abbreviated as CSR, has evolved throughout time to address these growing demands ( Esen, 2013 ; Moyeen et al., 2019 ). Society’s organizational structure has had a role in the evolution of the notion of corporate social responsibility ( Dahlsrud, 2008 ). Previous study has compiled a compendium of the CSR literature in regard to the growth of the service sector in accordance with the concept of corporate social responsibility (e.g., Coles et al., 2014 ; Aragon-Correa et al., 2015 ; Farrington et al., 2017 ). The study of CSR ethics in the discipline of decision science may be used for a variety of purposes, including increasing commercial profitability, improving political performance, or improving stakeholder responsibility ( Esen, 2013 ; Shin et al., 2021 ). There has been a significant amount of focus placed on corporate social responsibility (CSR) as a mechanism for enhancing the legitimacy of firms and the financial returns they generate ( Carroll & Shabana, 2010 ; Wang & Sarkis, 2017 ; Xu et al., 2019 ). According to the findings of the precedential study, CSR has the potential to not only enhance the image and reputation of a service business but also to raise the motivation of its workforce. In addition, a greater awareness of the environment encourages businesses to accept responsibility for the consequences of their operations and to make a contribution toward environmentally responsible growth ( Sadik-Zada, 2021 ). Therefore, corporate social responsibility is of utmost importance for the service businesses.

According to the findings of the previous studies, CSR has the potential to not only enhance the image and reputation of a service business ( Sheldon & Park, 2011 ; González-Torres et al., 2021 ), but also to raise the motivation of its workforce ( Aminudin, 2013 ; Zhang et al., 2021 ). The very first piece of inquiry examined the amount of papers on corporate social responsibility and the effect that it has on the service industry. Over the last several decades, there has emerged a significant focus in gaining a deeper comprehension of the occurrences of papers presented in Table 1 . Despite the fact the very first piece of CSR issues was not publicly released until 2002, from 2015 there have been more than 50 pieces of content released per year. In the year 2020, there were over 104 articles published on the subject of the impact of CSR on the service sector. This conclusion demonstrates that the issue is novel and justifies the increasing emphasis that management/decision science scholars have been paying to it. In addition, the rise in ecological consciousness necessitates that businesses accept responsibility for the consequences of the activities and make contributions to the advancement of sustainable practices ( Luo et al., 2020 ). In a similar vein, the enterprises’ long-term commitment to charitable giving necessitates the deployment of CSR ( Shin et al., 2021 ).

CSR academic researches in the top prolific and productive regions/nations

Multiple nations make substantial contributions to the topic of CSR researches in the service industry. The following dimension is based upon these top prolific nations among the years 2001 and 2023. The findings of these highest volume of publication in these twelve nations releasing CSR research are shown in Table 2 below. The position is determined by the quantity of periodicals.

TABLE 2 . The most prolific nations with academic attention to the CSR issues in the service industry.

The United States is the one of the most prolific nations, with 192 papers, demonstrating that United States scholars devote the widespread media coverage to CSR research among all academia. China is in second place with 128 articles, followed by the United Kingdom with 89 articles. In the meanwhile, Spain, Australia, South Korea, France, Germany, Canada, Netherlands, India and Italy are gaining a substantial place in CSR studies in the service sector and are leading the world ranking list, among others.

A bibliometric coupling is being developed in order to improve our understanding of connectivity across the nations that publish CSR topics. The process of bibliographic coupling takes place when two different papers extensively cite another publication. Regarding nations, it takes place when a manuscript from two different nations, each located in a different country, refers another paper within their respective articles. This demonstrates how the authors from different regions utilize linked material in their published papers. The results of the bibliometric connection are shown in Figure 2 . Every sphere is a representation of a nation, and therefore the diameter reflects the amount contributed by that country. The bigger the size of the circle, greater significant of their academic contributions. According to Table 2 , which can be seen above, the United States of America ranks as the country that published highest number of articles in the whole globe. In addition, the United States of America has the greatest bibliometric linkages to other nations, followed by China, the United Kingdom, South Korea, Australia and Spain.

FIGURE 2 . Bibliometrics of different nations (Compiled by the authors).

The statistics of the most productive journals centering in the issue of CSR in the service industry

A further essential component of the quantitative evaluation is identifying the most prolific efforts among the journals that publishing CSR issues in the service sector. The top 12 academic publications are presented hereunder, as seen in Table 3 below. Statistics indicate that Journal of Business Ethics is the most productive journal, having produced 105 publications during the course of its existence. The Social Responsibility Journal and Journal of Business Research are ranking the second and the third place. Furthermore, International Journal of Hospitality Management, International Journal of Bank Marketing, Service Industry Journal, Journal of Services Marketing, Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services, Business Strategy and the Environment, International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, Sustainability Accounting Manamgenet6 and Policy Journal and Service Business are some of the journals that have published over ten articles on CSR issues in the service industry.

TABLE 3 . Statistics of the most prolific journals (Summarized by the authors).

CSR researches among the top publications made by different universities/institutions

One further essential component of the quantitative study is to identify the journals that produces the most scientific understanding about CSR in the service industry. According to the findings shown in Table 4 , the Pennsylvania Commonwealth System of Higher Education (PCSHE) emerged as the most frequently cited institution, with 19 mentions, followed closely by Pennsylvania State University with 18 mentions. The State University System of Florida and Pennsylvania State University University Park also garnered significant attention with 17 and 15 mentions, respectively. Universidad de Cantabria, Universitat Ramon Llull, and the University System of Ohio exhibited notable presence with counts ranging from 12 to 14. Additionally, institutions such as Escuela Superior de Administracion y Direccion de Empresas (ESADE), Universitat de Valencia, Bucharest University of Economic Studies, California State University System, and Inha University/Nanyang Technological University were mentioned with frequencies ranging from 8 to 10. These findings provide insights into the scholarly discourse and research landscape, showcasing the institutions that have attracted substantial academic attention within the scope of the systematic review.

TABLE 4 . The most productive universities/institutions (Summarized by the authors).

The authors that produced the highest number of articles about CSR in the service sector in the WOS index system

Refer to Table 5 to review the statistics regarding on these authors who published the most regularly on CSR literature pertaining to the service industry. It has been discovered that Pérez, A. has produced or co-authored an aggregate of eleven papers. Mattila, A.S. has authored nine papers, while Ignacio, R has written ten articles. In addition, Yuen, K. F., Su, L. J., Hur, W. M., Wong, Y. D., Peloza, J., Ana, Z. G., Garcia-Benau, M. A., Lee, S., Thai, V. V. each have published more than four publications to their names.

TABLE 5 . The authors that produced the highest number of articles about CSR in the service sector (Summarized by the authors).

CSR academic researches keywords in the service sector and the co-occurrence analysis

The following part provides a more in-depth examination to the material in categories of research themes, which is a beneficial method for summarizing the characteristics of publications from the field of the CSR researches in the service industry, particularly in the tourism and hospitality sector. It is considered that the text elements of publications serve as the foundation for those key phrases analyzed in the current paper. In this investigation, keywords analytics are used to identify subject-related patterns throughout the chronology generated by the VOSviewer, a reference management application.

Consumers’ choices to buy are heavily influenced by a variety of factors. Product quality ( Kang & Hustvedt, 2014 ), the market price ( Tsai et al., 2012 ), and cooperate responsibility ( Merz et al., 2018 ; Ahn et al., 2019 ) may be differentiated from one another when seen from the perspective of the enterprise’s internal variables. When seen from the outside, they represent the reputation of the company ( Hardeck & Hertl, 2014 ) and the image of the corporation ( Srivastava & Wagh, 2020 ). In a highly competitive market environment where the number and quality of goods continue to increase, business operators are paying more attention to external issues. Thematic analysis is a research technique that scholars now use, and it may be used to find previously unknown topics and areas in the existing literature. It should come as no surprise that it is challenging to speculate on the kinds of subjects that will be of increasing interest in the years to come. The co-occurrences of the thematic keywords, on the other hand, encourages us to believe that the ongoing development pattern will not change in the near future.

Using the WOS database and VOSviewer, the co-occurrence density map of CSR investigations published between 2001 and 2022 is shown below. Throughout the graph, terms with stronger scientific keyword linkages are depicted as linking nearer together, whereas the keywords of weaker correlations are further apart. In addition, the occurrence of a term in the central circle of the co-occurrence map showed the significance of that node in the keyword’s shared platform. In addition, the most frequent terms used in CSR papers are displayed in the following diagram. As seen, the size of the circle indicates further applications of the idea or keyword. As indicated in the graph, the most often used terms were CSR (shown with responsibility), impact, connection, customer, influence, sustainability, community environment, and management (see Figure 3 below). A more interesting judgement to such findings is to centralize the concept of “sustainability”, in which Pazienza et al. (2022) defined as corporate sustainability.

FIGURE 3 . Overlay visualization for keywords co-occurrence from extracted title/abstract/keywords from the WOS database (Compiled by the authors).

To further elaborate the detailed keywords frequency, the authors then collected the filter by keyword panel data in the following table. Frequencies that are included in a percentage up to a specified measurement range are added together to get the cumulative frequency ( Winkler, 2021 ). The statistics are shown in the form of a table above (See Table 6 ), within which the occurrences are broken up into several sections based on the categorical variables. In the process of keyword selection, there are 2,854 keywords shown in the VOSviewer software. The authors selected the minimum number of occurrences of a keyword is 15 times of frequency. Then, the authors set number of keywords to be selected as 25, of which the total strength of the co-occurrence links with other keywords can be calculated. Finally, the verified selected keywords shown as follows. Afterwards, the authors merged the duplicated phrases or keywords. For instance, the keywords “stakeholder (23)”, “stakeholder theory (19)” and the “stakeholders (16)” are merged together as occurrence = 58, because they identified the same meaning. Furthermore, if corporate social responsibility, CSR, corporate social responsibility (CSR) are shown, the latter two phrases are merged into the first phrase.

TABLE 6 . Keywords co-occurrence shown to verify its frequency and linkage strength (Compiled by the authors).

Discussions

How has studies on CSR in the service industry grown during the past 3 decades? To address such issue, the prominent publications were summarized with unique time periods-based groups in the following Table 7 . Using MS Excel software, top of the finest articles is then selected and presented in the statistics below. The assessment of the publications revealed an increasing importance to the conceptualization, perspectives and methods over the CSR strategy in the service sector between 2001 and 2023. CSR has made significant progress throughout business communities, cooperate orientations and governance ( Gull et al., 2022 ). Ecologic assertiveness and advancements ( Araujo da Costa et al., 2020 ), providing environmentally-friendly services and responsible commodities ( Latapí Agudelo et al., 2020 ), emissions ( Fukuda & Ouchida, 2020 ), service with virtues of humanity ( Rhou & Singal, 2020 ), and customer-friendly operational processes ( Cha et al., 2016 ), have been highly referenced during the aforementioned time period. Consequently, some of the finest studies written during this time period addressed the determinants, consequences and benefits of CSR in the service industry in a metaphorical sense ( Boubakri et al., 2021 ).

TABLE 7 . The most cited papers (Summarized by the authors).

The service industry, including tourism and hospitality enterprises, is subject to the identical repercussions that CSR has on the subject of customer choice. Through the current systematic review in service businesses such as travel agencies and hotels, it has been shown that the fundamental variables that influence customers’ behavior, which include consumer loyalty (as shown above in the keyword occurrence), purchase intent, intrinsic motivation, and confidence in tourism companies ( Bagga & Bhatt, 2013 ; Meitiana et al., 2019 ; Rodríguez et al., 2022 ). In addition, customer identification of the firm will facilitate the development of a strong consumer-business connection and encourage consumers to make purchases ( Bhattacharya & Sen, 2004 ). As a consequence of this, it is essential to improve the reputation and image of a service business by formulating relevant CSR initiatives ( Esen, 2013 ; Kim et al., 2020 ).

Therefore, corporate social responsibility is of utmost importance for service businesses in the current social circumstances. Even if there are a great number of other studies that investigate CSR and the service sector these papers are characterized by having an inadequate scope, and as a result, they are unable to give a thorough knowledge of CSR and the role of CSR stakeholders ( Camilleri, 2015 ; Estol et al., 2018 ). Bravo et al. ( Bravo et al., 2012 ) describe CSR as the whole of a company’s responsible customer-focused actions. CSR encompasses the services and attitudes a business delivers to its consumers in their thoughts, its connection with its customers, its code of ethics, and the fulfillment of its pledges to its customers ( Carroll & Shabana, 2010 ).

Brand loyalty was one of the criteria that determined an consumer’s purchase intention, which demonstrated that customers’ faith in a company’s overall image could be affected by the business’s dedication to CSR ( Bhattacharya & Sen, 2004 ). A company’s corporate social responsibility (CSR) is, in point of fact, beneficial to the enhancement of the company’s brand value, and the company’s brand may affect the behavior and attitudes of consumers. At the current time, the notion of trust in a brand has become more prevalent in the hospitality sector ( Khanlari et al., 2016 ; 2016 ; Thao, 2018 ; Wang, 2022 ; Xu et al., 2022 ). Trust in a destination’s brand has been demonstrated in a number of studies to be an important factor in increasing visitor loyalty and fostering long-term, solid connections with travelers ( Aliffianto & Candraningrat, 2018 ). Trust in a brand, which is the core of the value that a brand delivers to its customers, may have an effect on the attitudes of those customers.

More than ever before, companies engage in CSR initiatives to make a positive contribution to society or support their strategic goals ( Skarmeas & Leonidou, 2013 ). Furthermore, they further illustrate the technique by using the empirical dataset in study on consumer skepticism about corporate social responsibility (CSR) ( Skarmeas et al., 2014 ). Although consumer skepticism about corporate social responsibility (CSR) is on the increase, research on the psychological dynamics of skepticism is limited, especially when CSR communication acts as a company’s crisis response plan. Thus, the current study proposes that Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) practices may influence consumers’ pro-social behavior. Mantovani et al. (2017) propose that this influence depends on the firm’s motivation for CSR, and is moderated by the consumer-brand social distance. Lee examine the impact of Twitter followers and consumer skepticism on issue support behavior advocated in Twitter-based corporate social responsibility (CSR) communication ( Lee et al., 2018 ). The purpose of Arli’s study is to investigate the impact of corporate hypocrisy and customer skepticism on the perception of company reputation ( Arli et al., 2019 ). Newman attempts to explain how to lessen consumer CSR skepticism by evaluating the gender and gender-related aspects of a corporate spokesman ( Newman et al., 2019 ). Using two between-subjects design studies, Ham and Kim (2020) examine the effect of consumer CSR skepticism in consumer responses to CSR messaging during various kinds of crises.

The research of Shankar et al. examines the effect of corporate social responsibility (CSR) domain on brand relationship quality (BRQ) among millennials ( Shankar & Yadav, 2021 ). Thus, the research of Dalal describes the causes and effects of CSR skepticism ( Dalal, 2020 ). Lasarov et al. (2021) add to the CSR literature by presenting an overlooked but significant variable that helps explain why consumers sometimes respond favorably and sometimes adversely to CSR communication. So much of this literature helps me to comprehend the academic community’s present research development, enabling me to seek a better degree of research outcomes in the coming years.

This article is intended to outline the most important issues in the field of CSR in the service industry through a systematic review approach in light of the material offered in the WOS debate platforms from as early as 2001 to the most updated year of 2023. According to the research findings, the managerial enlightenment offered to the service businesses by this study has been proposed and categorized. Concluding comments and recommendations are further proposed. The following sections identify the theoretical significance, practical contributions and the existing limitations of the current investigation.

Theoretical significance

Service businesses should make use of their corporate social responsibility programs to encourage the growth of sustainable development as an essential component of service industry development. This research contributes to the expansion of the research viewpoint of corporate social responsibility from the point of view of both CSR and researchers. In addition to the above, the study develops a more methodical theoretical model within the framework of branding, and it makes use of brand trust as an intermediate variable in order to broaden the theoretical research on CSR approach.

Practical significance

The service industry is often regarded as having several detrimental effects on the natural environment ( de Grosbois, 2012 ; 2016 ). A crisis of confidence posited by the COVID-19 pandemic in the travel sector has resulted from the unfavorable hot search of travel businesses. As the notion of sustainable tourism grows and customers become more environmentally conscious, it has become a challenge for travel businesses to attract these client groups and satisfy their environmental demands ( Moyeen et al., 2019 ). By analyzing the CSR initiatives, the operators and management of the service company may reappreciate the significance of CSR, allowing them to proactively engage in CSR. In addition, the utilization of CSR concept to gain consumer support offers the service firms with a fresh marketing viewpoint for achieving economic rewards.

Future research agenda

The existing research gaps are then fulfilled through the current systematic review, which may be interpreted as an encouragement for further study. After comparing it to past findings, we are able to determine a future research agenda, which is also another way to identify the limitations. This must be investigated into a broader scope of disciplines, for instance, in decision sciences and other areas. Corporate Social Responsibility has proved both its high worth and rapidly expanding importance in the global service industry. Firstly, provided that CSR is primarily is an environmental, business and enterprise subject, there exists an obvious necessity to investigate the difficulties in the strategy-oriented perspective and a practical implication. Second, comprehensive study via the perspectives of a comprehensive manner, challenges will help regulators and decision-makers combine varied policy agendas and establish well-defined policy objectives. Third, it is important to recognize that a striking difficult to address the challenges of CSR and regular strategic choice through a cost-benefit input by the enterprises. Last but not list, ESG (Environmental, Social, and Governance) and (Corporate) Sustainability are new proposals or acronyms that span the CSR domain that have emerged in recent years, mostly from a management viewpoint. The study of this article indicates the ESG or Corporate Sustainability as one of the most often occurring terms we may be able to explore this convergence in the course of further studies Thus, as the worldwide monetary and policy environment continues to evolve, it is anticipated that new difficulties may emerge to the service sector. In addition, to the best of our knowledge, no comprehensive study of relevant literature is currently accessible. It is undoubtedly worthwhile to investigate and compare the results of the current bibliometric investigation.

Author contributions

JJZ: conceptualization, framework of the manuscript, and first draft preparation. LS: conceptualization, supervision and review and editing. ZYL, XPS and XCZ: conceptualization and review and editing. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.

This article is part of academic achievements of first-class universities and disciplines in tourism management discipline (project) in Guangxi, China. The corresponding author has also been participating in research projects supported by Guilin Tourism University-China ASEAN Research Centre. This paper is part of the academic achievements of the Translation and Language Testing Centre of Guilin Tourism University, China.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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Keywords: systematic review, corporate social responsibility, service industry, keywords co-occurrence, meta analysis

Citation: Zhu JJ, Liu Z, Shen X, Shan L and Zhang X (2023) Corporate social responsibility (CSR) in the service industry: a systematic review. Front. Environ. Sci. 11:1150681. doi: 10.3389/fenvs.2023.1150681

Received: 24 January 2023; Accepted: 09 May 2023; Published: 25 May 2023.

Reviewed by:

Copyright © 2023 Zhu, Liu, Shen, Shan and Zhang. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Ling Shan, [email protected]

This article is part of the Research Topic

Environmental Risk and Corporate Behaviour

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Submissions can be double-blind, but do not have to be. We leave it up to the authors to judge whether they want to include their names, affiliation, and the company in which the work was performed.

Submitted papers must not have been published elsewhere and must not be under review or submitted for review elsewhere during the duration of consideration. Specifically, authors are required to adhere to the ACM Policy and Procedures on Plagiarism and the ACM Policy on Prior Publication and Simultaneous Submissions .

To prevent double submissions, the chairs may compare the submissions with related conferences that have overlapping review periods. The double submission restriction applies only to refereed journals and conferences, not to unrefereed pre-publication archive servers (e.g., arXiv.org). ACM plagiarism policies and procedures will be followed for cases of double submission. Submissions that do not comply with the foregoing instructions will be desk rejected without being reviewed.

AUTHORS TAKE NOTE: The official publication date is the date the proceedings are made available in the ACM Digital Library. This date may be up to two weeks prior to the first day of the conference. The official publication date affects the deadline for any patent filings related to published work.

In order for a paper to appear in the proceedings, at least one of the authors must register for the conference.

Important Dates

• Submission deadline - February 8, 2024
• Author notification - April 18, 2024
• Camera ready - May 14, 2024

Jan Bosch Co-chair

Chalmers university of technology.

Roshanak Zilouchian Moghaddam Co-chair

United states.

Shivali Agarwal

Shaukat Ali

Simula research laboratory and oslo metropolitan university.

Anastasiia Birillo

Jetbrains research.

Timofey Bryksin

Zhenpeng Chen

Nanyang technological university.

Lazaro Clapp

Uber technologies inc.

Zadia Codabux

University of saskatchewan, canada.

Santanu Dash

University of surrey, united kingdom.

Christoph Elsner

Smita Ghaisas

Tcs research.

Tianxiao Gu

Tiktok inc..

Niranjan Hasabnis

Thong Hoang

Singapore management university, singapore.

Helena Holmström Olsson

Malmö university.

Liguo Huang

Southern methodist university.

Lingxiao Jiang

Singapore management university.

Xianhao Jin

Https://jxianhao.github.io/.

Rezwana Karim

Samsung research america.

Moonzoo Kim

Kaist / vpluslab inc., south korea.

Serkan Kirbas

Bloomberg lp.

Vinay Kulkarni

Tata consultancy services research, ibm india research labs.

Microsoft Corporation

Microsoft Research

Hector Menendez

King’s college london.

Laura Moreno

Cqse america.

Torvald Mårtensson

Maleknaz Nayebi

York university, hieu nguyen, applied researcher.

Rahul Pandita

Github, inc..

Marie Platenius-Mohr

Abb corporate research, diptikalyan saha, ibm research india.

Kristian Sandahl

Linköping university.

Martin Schäf

Amazon web services.

Weiyi Shang

University of waterloo, aishwarya sivaraman.

Gustavo Soares

Andrea Stocco

Technical university of munich & fortiss, daniel ståhl, ericsson ab.

Michele Tufano

Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam

Netherlands.

Hanzhang Wang

Walmart global tech.

Yanlin Wang

Sun yat-sen university.

Hironori Washizaki

Waseda university.

Huawei Technologies

Xusheng Xiao

Arizona state university.

Hongyu Zhang

Chongqing university.

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Call for Papers: 2024 IEEE Region 10 Symposium (TENSYMP 2024)

Conference Date: 27 – 29 September, 2024

About TENSYMP 2024  

“technological advancements to help society overcome various socio-economic and health challenges”.

The conference aims to provide an active platform for research scientists, engineers, and practitioners throughout the world to present their latest research findings, ideas, and applications in the fields of interest which fall under the scope of IEEE. Prospective authors are invited to submit original research papers (not being considered for publication elsewhere) in standard IEEE conference template describing new theoretical and/or experimental research results in the following tracks (but are not limited to:)

Track-1 Computer and Information Technology

Chair: Prof. M N Hoda – BVICAM, New Delhi

Artificial & Augmented intelligence and their applications, Biometrics & RFID, Computational Intelligence, Deep Learning, Big Data Analysis, IOT, 5G Networks and Cloud Computing, Data and Business analytics, Computational Social Science & Social Networks

Track-2 Data Science, Cloud and Big Data Analytics

Chair: Prof. Bijender Kumar – NSUT, New Delhi

Computing Technologies Algorithms Programming Languages Computing Architectures and Systems Computer Graphics, Vision and Animation Software and Database System Multimedia Engineering Networks, IoT and Cyber Security Cluster, Cloud, & Grid Computing Computational Intelligence, Data Mining, Neural Networks and Deep Learning, Meta heuristic algorithms, Machine Learning, Business Intelligence, Human Computer Interface, Crowd Sourcing & Social Intelligence, Data Science & Engineering, Big Data Analytics, High Performance Computing, Computational Biology & Bioinformatics Data Centric, Programming Data, Modeling & Semantic web, Text, Web Mining, & Visualization Domain Specific Data Management, Knowledge Engineering Parallel Computing, Pervasive Computing.

Track-3 Electronics, VLSI Technology & Embedded System

Chair: Prof. Manoj Saxena – Delhi University, New Delhi

Electron Devices & Solid-State Circuits, Circuits and Systems, Consumer Electronics, Micro and Nanoelectronics, Photonics, RF Circuits, Systems and Antennas, Propagation and Computational EM RF/Millimetre-wave Circuits and Systems THz, mm Wave and RF Systems for Communications Materials and Structures Microwave Metrology RF and Microwaves in Medicine and Biology Devices, Circuits, Materials and Processing Electronic devices, materials and fabrication process, Device modelling & characterization, Advanced CMOS devices and process, Beyond CMOS device technology, Emerging memory technologies, Analog and mixed signal ICs, MEMS and semiconductor sensors

Track-4 Power, Energy and Power Electronics

Chair: Prof. Bhim Singh, Indian Institute of Technology, New Delhi Prof. B. K. Panigrahi, Indian Institute of Technology, New Delhi

Conventional, Renewable and Green Energy, Energy Storage Devices, Electric Vehicles and their Charging infrastructure, onboard, offboard chargers, Industrial Electronics and application, Smart Grid and Micro Grid, Intelligent Transportation Systems, Modelling & Simulation of Machines, Power Systems, High Voltage and Power Electronics, Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation

Track-5 Communications and Signal Processing

Chair: Prof. Ranjan K. Mallik, Indian Institute of Technology, New Delhi

Communication, Signal, Image and Video Processing, RF, Microwave, Millimetre wave: Theory and Techniques, Electromagnetics, Antennas and wave Propagation, Ultrasonic, Ferroelectrics, and Frequency Control, Wireless technologies, Broadcasting, Intelligent Transportation System.

Track-6 Intelligent Control and Instrumentation

Chair: Prof Lilie Dewan, NIT Kurukshetra

Intelligent Control Systems – Robust, Fuzzy, Neural Network-based, Applications in inter-disciplinary areas; Instrumentation and Measurements, Sensors and Circuits – Optical, Biological, Robotics and Automation etc.

Track-7 Biomedical Engineering and Healthcare Technologies

Chair(s): Dr. V. R. Singh, IEEE Delhi Section

Biomedical Engineering and Healthcare Technologies Biomedical Signal Processing and Instrumentation, Wearable Sensors for Health care monitoring Biomedical Imaging Micro/Nano-bioengineering and Cellular /Tissue Engineering & Biomaterials Computational Systems, Modeling and Simulation.

Track-8 Special Tracks: WIE, Industry, HTC, Education

Chair(s): Prof. Preeti Bajaj, IEEE Region 10 for WIE Mr. Sanjay Kar Chowdhury, Industry Relations Committee Chair, Region 10 for Industry Prof. Rajendrasinh Jadeja, Marwadi University, Gujarat for HTC Prof. Rajashree Jain, Symbiosis Pune for Education

Product Safety & Reliability Engineering, Social and Humanitarian Implications of Technology, Theoretical Computer Science, Emerging technologies and their applications in education, publications, tourism, healthcare, agriculture etc

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The White House 1600 Pennsylvania Ave NW Washington, DC 20500

United   States-Japan Joint Leaders’   Statement

Global Partners for the Future

Over the course of the last three years, the U.S.-Japan Alliance has reached unprecedented heights. We arrived at this historic moment because our nations, individually and together, took courageous steps to strengthen our collective capacity in ways that would have seemed impossible just a few years ago. Today, we, President Joseph R. Biden, Jr. and Prime Minister KISHIDA Fumio, celebrate this new era of U.S.-Japan strategic cooperation during the Prime Minister’s Official Visit and State Dinner in Washington, D.C.—and pledge that the United States and Japan will continue our tireless work, together and with other partners, to realize a free and open Indo-Pacific and world.

In this new era of U.S.-Japan cooperation, we recognize that global events affect the security and stability of the Indo-Pacific, and that developments in our shared region reverberate around the world. We are therefore working together, across all domains and at all levels, to build a global partnership that is fit for purpose to address the complex, interconnected challenges of today and tomorrow for the benefit of our two countries and the world. As our Alliance cooperation reaches new heights, we are expanding our engagement to reflect the global nature of our partnership.

At the core of our cooperation is a shared commitment to work with like-minded partners and multilateral institutions to address common challenges and to ensure a world that is free, open, connected, resilient, and secure. These joint efforts are based on our shared fundamental respect for international law, including the protection and promotion of human rights and dignity, the sovereignty and territorial integrity of all states, and the prohibition on acquisition of territory by force. Our purpose as partners is to uphold and bolster the free and open international order based on the rule of law that has allowed so many nations to develop and prosper, and to ensure our Alliance is equipped to tackle the challenges of the 21 st century.

To advance our global partnership, today we announce several new strategic initiatives to strengthen our defense and security cooperation; reach new frontiers in space; drive technology innovation; bolster economic security; accelerate climate action; partner on global diplomacy and development; and fortify the ties between our peoples. Through our global partnership, we are also synchronizing our strategies, and our two nations have never been more united as we work together to address the most pressing challenges and opportunities of the future.

Strengthening our Defense and Security Cooperation

The core of our global partnership is our bilateral defense and security cooperation under the Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security, which is stronger than ever. We affirm that our Alliance remains the cornerstone of peace, security, and prosperity in the Indo-Pacific. President Biden reiterated the unwavering commitment of the United States to the defense of Japan under Article V of the Treaty, using its full range of capabilities, including nuclear capabilities. Prime Minister Kishida reaffirmed Japan’s unwavering commitment to fundamentally reinforce its own defense capabilities and roles, and to enhance its close coordination with the United States under the Treaty.President Biden also reaffirmed that Article V applies to the Senkaku Islands. We reiterated our strong opposition to any attempts by the People’s Republic of China (PRC) to unilaterally change the status quo by force or coercion in the East China Sea, including through actions that seek to undermine Japan’s longstanding and peaceful administration of the Senkaku Islands. We welcome the progress in optimizing Alliance force posture in areas including the Southwestern Islands to strengthen U.S.-Japan deterrence and response capabilities, and we confirm the importance of further advancing this initiative.

The United States welcomes the steps Japan is taking to fundamentally enhance its defense capabilities, including its plans to increase the budget for its defense capabilities and complementary initiatives to two percent of GDP in Japanese Fiscal Year (JFY) 2027 in accordance with Japan’s National Security Strategy, its decision to possess counterstrike capabilities, and its plans to stand up the Japan Self-Defense Forces (JSDF) Joint Operations Command to enhance command and control of the JSDF. Together, these initiatives elevate our defense ties to unprecedented levels and launch a new era of U.S.-Japan security cooperation, strengthening our Alliance and contributing to stability in the Indo-Pacific.

Today, we announce several new strategic initiatives to further advance our Alliance. Recognizing the speed at which regional security challenges evolve and to ensure our bilateral Alliance structures meet these critical changes, we announce our intention to bilaterally upgrade our respective command and control frameworks to enable seamless integration of operations and capabilities and allow for greater interoperability and planning between U.S. and Japanese forces in peacetime and during contingencies. More effective U.S.-Japan Alliance command and control will strengthen deterrence and promote a free and open Indo-Pacific in the face of pressing regional security challenges. We call on our respective defense and foreign ministries to develop this new relationship through the Security Consultative Committee (our security “2+2”). In support of this vision, we also reaffirm our goal to deepen Intelligence, Surveillance, and Reconnaissance cooperation and Alliance information sharing capabilities, including through the Bilateral Information Analysis Cell.

We will also continue to implement efforts to strengthen our Alliance force posture, build high-end base capabilities, and increase preparedness that are necessary to deter and defend against threats. We resolve to deepen bilateral cooperation toward the effective development and employment of Japan’s suite of counterstrike capabilities, including the provision of U.S. materiel and technological support to enhance Japan’s indigenous stand-off programs. The United States expressed its commitment to start the training pipeline and ship modifications for Japan to acquire operational capability of the Tomahawk Land Attack Missile (TLAM) system. We also reaffirmed our pursuit of a Glide Phase Interceptor (GPI) cooperative development program to counter high-end, regional hypersonic threats.

As our countries strengthen our bilateral ties, we will continue to build our relationships with like-minded partners in the region. Today, we announce our vision to cooperate on a networked air defense architecture among the United States, Japan, and Australia to counter growing air and missile threats. Recognizing Japan’s strengths and the close bilateral defense partnerships with the AUKUS countries, AUKUS partners – Australia, the United Kingdom, and the United States – are considering cooperation with Japan on AUKUS Pillar II advanced capability projects. Continuing the momentum from the Camp David Summit, we welcome progress on establishing an annual multidomain exercise between the United States, Japan, and the Republic of Korea (ROK). Recognizing the commitments made in the Atlantic Declaration and the Hiroshima Accord, and as the Indo-Pacific and Euro-Atlantic regions become ever more interlinked, we welcome the announcement of regular U.S.-Japan-UK trilateral exercises, beginning in 2025, as we enhance our shared and enduring security. Building on the announcement at the Australia Official Visit in October to pursue trilateral cooperation with Japan on unmanned aerial systems, we are exploring cooperative opportunities in the rapidly emerging field of collaborative combat aircraft and autonomy.

The United States welcomes Japan’s revision of the Three Principles on the Transfer of Defense Equipment and Technology and its Implementation Guidelines, which bolsters cooperation through joint development and production to enhance our deterrence capabilities in the region. To leverage our respective industrial bases to meet the demand for critical capabilities and maintain readiness over the long term, we will convene a Forum on Defense Industrial Cooperation, Acquisition and Sustainment (DICAS) co-led by the U.S. Department of Defense and Japan’s Ministry of Defense to identify priority areas for partnering U.S. and Japanese industry, including co-development and co-production of missiles and co-sustainment of forward-deployed U.S. Navy ships and U.S. Air Force aircraft, including fourth generation fighters, at Japanese commercial facilities, in coordination with relevant ministries. This forum, in conjunction with our existing Defense Science and Technology Cooperation Group, will better integrate and align our defense industrial policy, acquisition, and science and technology ecosystems. The DICAS will provide updates on progress to the foreign and defense ministers in the security “2+2.” We also commit to establishing a working group to explore opportunities for future fighter pilot training and readiness, including AI and advanced simulators, and co-development and co-production of cutting-edge technologies such as common jet trainers to maintain combat-ready next-generation fighter airpower.

We reaffirm the critical importance of continuing to enhance U.S. extended deterrence, bolstered by Japan’s defense capabilities, and will further strengthen bilateral cooperation. In this regard, we call on our respective foreign and defense ministers to hold in-depth discussions on extended deterrence on the occasion of the next security “2+2” meeting.

We continue to deepen our cooperation on information and cyber security to ensure that our Alliance stays ahead of growing cyber threats and builds resilience in the information and communication technology domain. We also plan on enhancing our cooperation on the protection of critical infrastructure.

Recognizing the importance of rapidly responding to frequent and severe climate change-related and other natural disasters, we plan to explore cooperation on the establishment of a humanitarian assistance and disaster relief hub in Japan.

In order to maintain deterrence and mitigate impact on local communities, we are firmly committed to the steady implementation of the realignment of U.S. forces in Japan in accordance with Okinawa Consolidation Plan, including the construction of the Futenma Replacement Facility at Henoko as the only solution that avoids the continued use of Marine Corps Air Station Futenma.

Reaching New Frontiers in Space

Our global partnership extends to space, where the United States and Japan are leading the way to explore our solar system and return to the Moon. Today, we welcome the signing of a Lunar Surface Exploration Implementing Arrangement, in which Japan plans to provide and sustain operation of a pressurized lunar rover while the United States plans to allocate two astronaut flight opportunities to the lunar surface for Japan on future Artemis missions. The leaders announced a shared goal for a Japanese national to be the first non-American astronaut to land on the Moon on a future Artemis mission, assuming important benchmarks are achieved. The United States and Japan plan to deepen cooperation on astronaut training to facilitate this goal while managing the risks of these challenging and inspiring lunar surface missions. We also announce bilateral collaboration on a Low Earth Orbit detection and tracking constellation for missiles such as hypersonic glide vehicles, including potential collaboration with U.S. industry.

Leading on Innovation , Economic Security, and Climate Action

The United States and Japan aim to maximally align our economic, technology, and related strategies to advance innovation, strengthen our industrial bases, promote resilient and reliable supply chains, and build the strategic emerging industries of the future while pursuing deep emissions reductions this decade. Building on our efforts in the U.S.-Japan Competitiveness and Resilience (CoRe) Partnership, including through the U.S.-Japan Economic Policy Consultative Committee (our economic “2+2”), we intend to sharpen our innovative edge and strengthen our economic security, including by promoting and protecting critical and emerging technologies.

The United States and Japan welcome our robust economic and commercial ties through mutual investment, including Microsoft’s $2.9 billion investment in Japan on AI and cloud infrastructure, workforce training, and a research lab; and Toyota’s recent additional $8 billion battery production investment for a cumulative $13.9 billion investment in North Carolina. Japan is the top foreign investor in the United States with nearly $800 billion in foreign direct investment, and Japanese companies employ nearly 1 million Americans across all 50 states. Similarly, as a top foreign investor in Japan for many years, the United States is supporting Japan’s economic growth, and as two of the world’s largest financial sectors, we commit to strengthening our partnership to bolster cross-border investment and support financial stability. As robust and creative economies, we also plan to accelerate investment in our respective start-up environments to foster innovation through the “Japan Innovation Campus” in Silicon Valley and the “Global Startup Campus” to be established in Tokyo, and in companies that take actions toward sustainable value creation (SX). We welcome our new Japan-U.S. personnel exchange programs on startups and venture capital firms under the Global Innovation through Science and Technology (GIST) initiative.

We are committed to strengthening our shared role as global leaders in the development and protection of next-generation critical and emerging technologies such as AI, quantum technology, semiconductors, and biotechnology through research exchange and private investment and capital finance, including with other like-minded partners. We welcome our collaboration on AI for Science between Riken and Argonne National Laboratory (ANL) founded on the revised project arrangement.

We applaud the establishment of $110 million in new AI research partnerships – between the University of Washington and University of Tsukuba and between Carnegie Mellon University and Keio University – through funding from NVIDIA, Arm, Amazon, Microsoft, and a consortium of Japanese companies. We are committed to further advancing the Hiroshima AI Process and strengthening collaboration between the national AI Safety Institutes.

Building on our long history of semiconductor cooperation, we intend to establish a joint technology agenda for cooperation on issues such as research and development, design, and workforce development. We also welcome the robust cooperation between and with our private sectors, especially in next-generation semiconductors and advanced packaging. We also plan to work together along with like-minded countries to strengthen global semiconductor supply chains, particularly for mature node (“legacy”) semiconductors through information-sharing, coordination of policies, and addressing vulnerabilities stemming from non-market policies and practices. We also celebrate the signing of a Memorandum of Cooperation between Japan’s National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST) and the U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) as a first step in bilateral cooperation on quantum computing.

Building on the Indo-Pacific Economic Framework for Prosperity (IPEF) and our respective leadership of the G7 and Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) last year, we continue to advance resilience, sustainability, inclusiveness, economic growth, fairness, and competitiveness for our economies . We applaud the recent entry into force of the IPEF Supply Chain Agreement. We will continue to seek cooperation on critical minerals projects, including those along the Partnership for Global Infrastructure and Investment Lobito Corridor, and through the Minerals Security Partnership (MSP) as well as the Partnership for Resilient and Inclusive Supply-chain Enhancement (RISE). We are cooperating to deter and address economic coercion, through our bilateral cooperation as well as through our work with like-minded partners including the G7 Coordination Platform on Economic Coercion. We are working to uphold a free, fair and rules-based economic order; address non-market policies and practices; build trusted, resilient, and sustainable supply chains; and promote open markets and fair competition under the U.S.-Japan economic “2+2” and the U.S.-Japan Commercial and Industrial Partnership. We will advance our commitment to operationalize data free flow with trust, including with respect to data security. We will also discuss the promotion of resilient and responsible seafood supply chains.

The United States and Japan recognize that the climate crisis is the existential challenge of our time and intend to be leaders in the global response. Towards our shared goal of accelerating the clean energy transition, we are launching a new high-level dialogue on how we implement our respective domestic measures and maximize their synergies and impacts, including the U.S. Inflation Reduction Act and Japan’s Green Transformation (GX) Promotion Strategy aimed at accelerating energy transition progress this decade, promoting complementary and innovative clean energy supply chains and improving industrial competitiveness. Today we announce Japan joins as the first international collaborator of the U.S. Floating Offshore Wind Shot. We intend to work together towards global ambition in line with the Wind Shot, taking into consideration national circumstances, through the Clean Energy and Energy Security Initiative (CEESI) to pursue innovative breakthroughs that drive down technology costs, accelerate decarbonization, and deliver benefits for coastal communities. The United States welcomes Japan’s newly-launched industry platform, the Floating Offshore Wind Technology Research Association (FLOWRA), aiming to reduce costs and achieve mass production of floating offshore wind through collaboration with academia.

We are further leading the way in developing and deploying next generation clean energy technology, including fusion energy development through the announcement of a U.S.-Japan Strategic Partnership to Accelerate Fusion Energy Demonstration and Commercialization.

The United States remains unwavering in its commitment to support the energy security of Japan and other allies, including its ability to predictably supply LNG while accelerating the global transition to zero-emissions energy and working with other fossil energy importers and producers to minimize methane emissions across the fossil energy value chain to the fullest extent practicable.

We intend to advance widespread adoption of innovative new clean energy technologies, and seek to increase the globally available supply of sustainable aviation fuel or feedstock, including those that are ethanol-based, that show promise in reducing emissions.

We are also working to align global health security and innovation, including in such areas as pandemic prevention, preparedness, and response and promoting more resilient, equitable, and sustainable health systems. Today, we announce that the U.S. Food and Drug Administration and the Japan’s Pharmaceuticals and Medical Devices Agency (PMDA) intend to collaborate and exchange information on oncology drug products to help cancer patients receive earlier access to medications and to discuss future drug development and ways to prevent drug shortages. We welcome PMDA’s future representative office in Washington, D.C., to facilitate this cooperation.

Partnering on Global Diplomacy and Development

The challenges we face transcend geography. The United States and Japan are steadfast in our commitment to upholding international law, including the UN Charter, and call for all Member States to uphold the Charter’s purposes and principles, including refraining from the threat or use of force against the territorial integrity or political independence of any State. We remain committed to reforming the UN Security Council (UNSC), including through expansion in permanent and non-permanent categories of its membership. President Biden reiterated support for Japan’s permanent membership on a reformed UNSC.

We reaffirm our commitment made in Hiroshima last year and are determined to further promote our cooperation in the G7 and work together with partners beyond the G7.

We emphasize the importance of all parties promoting open channels of communication and practical measures to reduce the risk of misunderstanding and miscalculation and to prevent conflict in the Indo-Pacific. In particular, we underscore the importance of candid communication with the PRC, including at the leader level, and express the intent to work with the PRC where possible on areas of common interest.

We emphasize the importance of all States being able to exercise rights and freedoms in a manner consistent with international law as reflected in the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), including freedom of navigation and overflight. We strongly oppose any unilateral attempts to change the status quo by force or coercion, including destabilizing actions in the South China Sea, such as unsafe encounters at sea and in the air as well as the militarization of disputed features and the dangerous use of coast guard vessels and maritime militia. The PRC’s recent dangerous and escalatory behavior supporting its unlawful maritime claims in the South China Sea as well as efforts to disrupt other countries’ offshore resource exploitation are inconsistent with international law as reflected in UNCLOS. We also emphasize that the 2016 South China Sea Arbitral Award is final and legally binding on the parties to that proceeding. We resolve to work with partners, particularly in ASEAN, to support regional maritime security and uphold international law.

We emphasize that our basic positions on Taiwan remain unchanged and reiterate the importance of maintaining peace and stability across the Taiwan Strait as an indispensable element of global security and prosperity. We encourage the peaceful resolution of cross-Strait issues.

We continue working together with partner countries to make concrete progress in strengthening the international financial architecture and fostering investment under the Partnership for Global Infrastructure and Investment. We are committed to delivering better, bigger, more effective multilateral development banks including through our planned contributions that would enable more than $30 billion in new World Bank lending and securing ambitious International Development Association and Asian Development Fund replenishments. We also emphasize the importance of private sector investment in the Indo-Pacific. We welcome the announcement of Google’s $1 billion investment in digital connectivity for North Pacific Connect, which expands the Pacific Connect Initiative, with NEC, to improve digital communications infrastructure between the United States, Japan and Pacific Island Nations. Building on the U.S.-Australia joint funding commitment for subsea cables last October, the United States and Japan plan to collaborate with like-minded partners to build trusted and more resilient networks and intend to contribute funds to provide subsea cables in the Pacific region, including $16 million towards cable systems for the Federated States of Micronesia and Tuvalu.

We reaffirm our steadfast commitment to the Quad and its shared vision of a free and open Indo-Pacific that is stable, prosperous, and inclusive which continues to deliver results for the region. We reiterate the Quad’s unwavering support and respect for regional institutions, including ASEAN, the Pacific Islands Forum (PIF), and the Indian Ocean Rim Association. We also reaffirm our support for ASEAN centrality and unity as well as the ASEAN Outlook on the Indo-Pacific. Southeast Asian countries are critical partners in the Indo-Pacific and the U.S.-Japan-Philippines trilateral aims to enhance trilateral defense and security cooperation while promoting economic security and resilience. Japan and the United States reaffirmed our intention to work to support the region’s priorities as articulated through the 2050 Strategy for the Blue Pacific Continent, including through the PIF as the Pacific’s preeminent institution as well as through the Partners in the Blue Pacific (PBP).

As we pursue our shared vision of a free and open Indo-Pacific, we continue to build strong ties between key, like-minded partners in the region. Building on the historic success of the Camp David Trilateral Summit, the United States, Japan and the Republic of Korea continue to collaborate on promoting regional security, strengthening deterrence, coordinating development and humanitarian assistance, countering North Korea’s illicit cyber activities, and deepening our cooperation including on economic, clean energy, and technological issues. The United States and Japan also remain committed to advancing trilateral cooperation with Australia to ensure a peaceful and stable region.

We reaffirm our commitment to the complete denuclearization of North Korea in accordance with relevant UNSC resolutions. We strongly condemn North Korea’s continued development of its ballistic missile program—including through launches of intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBM) and space launch vehicles using ballistic missile technologies—which poses a grave threat to peace and security on the Korean Peninsula and beyond. We call on North Korea to respond to continued, genuine offers to return to diplomacy without preconditions. We call on all UN Member States to fully implement all relevant UNSC resolutions, especially in light of Russia’s recent veto. We urge North Korea to cease illicit activities that generate revenue for its unlawful ballistic missile and weapons of mass destruction programs, including malicious cyber activities. President Biden also reaffirms U.S. commitment to the immediate resolution of the abductions issue, and the two sides commit to continuing joint efforts to promote respect for human rights in North Korea.

We continue to stand together in firm opposition to Russia’s brutal war of aggression against Ukraine, its strikes against Ukraine’s infrastructure and the terror of Russian occupation. We are committed to continuing to impose severe sanctions on Russia and provide unwavering support for Ukraine. Together, we reiterate our call on Russia to immediately, completely, and unconditionally withdraw its forces from within the internationally recognized borders of Ukraine. Any threat or use of nuclear weapons in the context of its war of aggression against Ukraine by Russia is unacceptable. We also express serious concerns about growing North Korea-Russia military cooperation, which is supporting Russia’s war of aggression against Ukraine and threatens to undermine peace and stability in Northeast Asia as well as the global non-proliferation regime.

As the linkages between the Euro-Atlantic and the Indo-Pacific regions have become stronger than ever, our two countries look forward to continuing to work together to enhance Japan-North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and NATO-Indo-Pacific Four partnerships.

We once again unequivocally condemn the terror attacks by Hamas and others on October 7 of last year, and reaffirm Israel’s right to defend itself and its people consistent with international law. At the same time, we express our deep concern over the critical humanitarian situation in the Gaza Strip. We affirm the imperative of securing the release of all hostages held by Hamas, and emphasize that the deal to release hostages would bring an immediate and prolonged ceasefire in Gaza. We affirm the imperative of realizing an immediate and sustained ceasefire in Gaza over a period of at least six weeks as part of a deal that would release hostages held by Hamas and allow for delivery of essential additional humanitarian assistance to Palestinians in need. We underscore the urgent need to significantly increase deliveries of life-saving humanitarian assistance throughout Gaza and the crucial need to prevent regional escalation. We reiterate the importance of complying with international law, including international humanitarian law, as applicable, including with regard to the protection of civilians. We remain committed to an independent Palestinian state with Israel’s security guaranteed as part of a two-state solution that enables both Israelis and Palestinians to live in a just, lasting, and secure peace.

We reaffirm the importance of supporting inclusive growth and sustainable development in Latin America and the Caribbean. We continue to enhance policy coordination in the region, in particular on Haiti and Venezuela. We also recognize that promoting the stability and security for Haiti is one of the most pressing challenges in the Western Hemisphere, and we continue to support Haiti in restoring democratic order.

We also support African aspirations for peace, stability, and prosperity based on the rule of law. We continue to work together to support the democratic process and economic growth through our respective efforts, including our cooperation with African countries, Regional Economic Communities, the African Union, and multilateral organizations.

The United States and Japan are resolved to achieve a world without nuclear weapons through realistic and pragmatic approaches. It is critical that the overall decline in global nuclear arsenals achieved since the end of the Cold War continues and not be reversed, and the PRC’s accelerating build-up of its nuclear arsenal without transparency nor meaningful dialogue poses a concern to global and regional stability. We reaffirm the importance of upholding the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT) as the cornerstone of the global nuclear disarmament and non-proliferation regime and for the pursuit of peaceful uses of nuclear energy. In promoting this universal goal of achieving a world without nuclear weapons, Japan’s “Hiroshima Action Plan” and the “G7 Leaders’ Hiroshima Vision on Nuclear Disarmament” are welcome contributions. The two leaders also welcomed the U.S. announcement to join the Japan-led “Fissile Material Cut-off Treaty Friends” initiative. We reaffirm the indispensable role of the peaceful uses of nuclear technology, committing to fostering innovation and supporting the International Atomic Energy Agency’s efforts in upholding the highest standards of safety, security, and safeguards. President Biden commended Japan’s safe, responsible, and science-based discharge of Advanced Liquid Processing System treated water at Tokyo Electric Power Company’s Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Station into the sea. Our two countries plan to launch the Fukushima Daiichi Decommissioning Partnership focusing on research cooperation for fuel debris retrieval.

To effectively address the myriad challenges outlined above, our global partnership is launching a Deputy Secretary of State/Vice Minister for Foreign Affairs-level dialogue involving our respective aid agencies to align our diplomatic and development efforts globally.

Fortifying People-to-People Ties

People-to-people exchanges are the most effective way to develop the future stewards of the U.S.-Japan relationship. In this regard, we recognize the achievements of exchange programs between our two countries, including the Japan Exchange and Teaching (JET) Programme, KAKEHASHI Project, the Japan Foundation’s programs, and the U.S.-Japan Council’s TOMODACHI Initiative, and commit ourselves to providing more opportunities to meet today’s needs, including through enhanced subnational exchanges on critical issues such as climate and energy. We also recognize the important role civil society has played in strengthening the U.S.-Japan relationship over the past 170 years, including the 38 Japan-America Societies across the United States, the Asia Society, and the 29 America-Japan Societies across Japan.

Building on the Memorandum of Cooperation in Education signed between us on the sidelines of the G7 Leaders’ Summit in Hiroshima, today we announce our commitment to increase student mobility through the new $12 million “Mineta Ambassadors Program (MAP)” education exchange endowment administered by the U.S.-Japan Council for U.S. and Japanese high school and university students who will “map” the future of the relationship with support from Apple, the BlackRock Foundation, Toshizo Watanabe Foundation, and other founding donors. In this regard, we also welcome Japan’s new initiative to expand scholarship for Japanese students through the Japan Student Servicers Organization.

We recognize the significant contributions made by the binational Japan-U.S. Educational Commission (Fulbright Japan) over the past 72 years. We welcome recent changes to upgrade the program by reopening scholarships to Science, Technology, Engineering, and Math (STEM) fields for the first time in 50 years, with the first STEM students on track to participate in academic year 2025-26, as well as removing the tuition cap for Japanese Fulbright participants to attract the highest quality students and researchers.

Celebrating the 30th anniversary of the establishment of the Mansfield Fellowship Program, we honor the legacy of Ambassador Mansfield’s contributions through the University of Montana Mansfield Center and Mansfield Foundation. The two leaders also welcome the creation of the Government of Japan endowed Mansfield Professor of Japanese and Indo-Pacific Affairs at the University of Montana.

Upon the 100 th anniversary of the birth of the late Senator Daniel K. Inouye, who made incredible contributions to our bilateral relationship, we praise the efforts of Japanese American leaders to build a bridge between the two countries and to address common community issues, including through support to the U.S.-Japan Council’s newly launched TOMODACHI Kibou for Maui project. We also share the recognition on the importance of exchanges between our legislatures. We acknowledge the importance of language study, particularly in person, to develop long-term ties and announce a new Memorandum of Cooperation to increase opportunities for the number of exchange visitors from Japan to share their specialized knowledge of Japanese language and culture in the United States, as well as welcome efforts to expand the Japanese Language Education Assistant Program (J-LEAP).

The two leaders also affirm that women in leadership remain their focus and reaffirm our pledge to achieving gender equality and the empowerment of women and girls in all their diversity. We welcome close cooperation on Women, Peace, and Security and Women’s Economic Empowerment initiatives and efforts to promote women and girls’ full, equal, and meaningful participation and leadership in public life.

Finally, we emphasize the need to build a diverse pipeline of future U.S.-Japan experts who understand and support the Alliance. Our peoples form the core of our Alliance, and we reaffirm our commitment to forge ever-closer bonds for generations to come.

Through our shared and steadfast commitment, we have taken bold and courageous steps to bring the U.S.-Japan Alliance to unprecedented heights. In so doing, we have equipped our partnership to protect and advance peace, security, prosperity, and the rule of law across the Indo-Pacific and the globe so that everyone benefits. Today, we celebrate the enduring friendship among our peoples—and among ourselves—and pledge to continue our relentless efforts to ensure that our global partnership drives future peace and prosperity for generations to come.

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