intimate partner violence personal essay

The Issue of Intimate Partner Violence

Introduction.

Intimate partner violence (IPV) is a persistent issue that can occur in any setting regardless of its social, religious, or cultural characteristics. While this type of violence can affect any individual, women bear the burden of it the most frequently. Importantly, acts of violence can include physical, sexual, and emotional abuse as well as coercive behaviors (for example, being forced to perform sexual acts with others) (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2017).

IPV is a widespread problem; it affects millions of people in the United States. The following statistics show how severe the issue is:

• 10% of women and 2% of men report experiencing stalking by a previous intimate partner (CDC, 2017);
• 1 in 4 women and 1 in 7 men (adults) report being victims of physical abuse from their intimate partner;
• 7% of men and 16% of women (adults) report being victims of sexual abuse, including such acts as rape, unwanted sexual contact, and sexual coercion (CDC, 2017).

It is important to note that intimate partner violence can start early in a relationship and continue throughout the entire lifespan regardless of whether partners are together or not. According to the CDC (2017) findings, 8.5 million women and 4 million men report experiencing IPV before turning 18, which points to the complexity of the issue at hand.

Models of care targeted at managing the adverse influence of IPV include comprehensive, planned care, and systems-model approaches. While there are other models, these three are the most researched by social and healthcare scientists:

• According to Joyner and Mash (2012), a comprehensive model for intimate partner violence implies the use of a “cooperative inquiry group that consists of nurses, doctors, and researchers” (p. 399). It was revealed that the collaboration between different care providers ensured that victims of IPV received the appropriate level of care to address both physical and emotional complications.
• The planned care model has some characteristics of the comprehensive model of care and also includes the collaboration with communities. The model requires healthcare professionals from IPV facilities to implement effective practices for stratifying risks, educating themselves, measuring, monitoring, and providing feedback on the outcomes of implemented interventions.
• System-level models of care are targeted at achieving sustainability and implementing systematic changes in processes that have occurred over time (Hamberger, Rhodes, & Brown, 2015). Starting with establishing collaboration between decision-makers, leading to the evaluation of appropriate measures, and ending with the identification of future direction, system-level models of care offer healthcare personnel evidence for success.

Apart from identifying available models of care for victims, it is important also to discuss prevention strategies to stop IPV from occurring altogether. As proposed by CDC (2017), strategies that can stop IPV include the following:

• Teaching healthy and safe intimate relational skills: counseling and training for couples and socio-emotional learning programs;
• Creating protecting environments: improving safety at schools, modifying environments in neighborhoods;
• Engaging influential persons in the conversation about IPV: family-based programs, lectures from social advocates and representatives, bystander empowerment through meetings and protests;
• Strengthening economic support for vulnerable families: increasing the financial reinforcement for households, providing jobs to parents unable to provide enough for their children;
• Disrupting the development of abusive and violent behaviors in the entire community: early childhood home visits to identify potential inhibitors for violence, parental training, mental treatment of at-risk children.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). (2017). Preventing intimate partner violence. Web.

Hamberger, L. K., Rhodes, K., & Brown, J. (2015). Screening and intervention for intimate partner violence in healthcare settings: Creating sustainable system-level programs. Journal of Women’s Health , 24 (1), 86-91.

Joyner, K., & Mash, B. (2012). A comprehensive model for intimate partner violence in South African primary care: Action research. BMC Health Services Research , 12 , 399.

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Child Behavioral Health in Sub-Saharan Africa pp 157–180 Cite as

The Role of Social Norms: A Case Study of Intimate Partner Violence Among Adolescent Girls in Nigeria

• Ilana Seff 4 &
• Lindsay Stark 4  
• First Online: 23 November 2021

319 Accesses

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Intimate partner violence (IPV) poses a significant threat as young as adolescence, globally. Girls and women in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) often face even greater risk of IPV. The risk of IPV in this region often materializes during adolescence, before girls have even entered into a formal union or marriage. This study presents findings from a study that examines the relationships between community contextual influences, alignment with gendered expectations, and IPV. These findings underscore the importance of identifying and considering the social and gender norms in a given setting before implementing programs and policies aiming to empower women and girls. Policies and programs that promote behavior counter to the contextual norms run the risk of generating unintended consequences for the very individuals these policies aim to help. Such programs and policies should work to simultaneously address broader gender inequitable norms in order to ensure positive impacts for women and girls in all arenas.

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We would like to thank our colleagues who helped make this chapter possible: thanks to Gary Darmstadt, Ann Weber, Ben Cislaghi, and Valerie Meausoone for their invaluable inputs throughout this process; to Greta Massetti and Daniela Ligiero for sharing the data and their expertise; and to Victor Atuchukwu and Dennis Onotu for providing indispensable contextual insights. Lastly, a special thank you to the adolescents and young adults who generously shared their time and experiences for the Violence Against Children Survey.

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Seff, I., Stark, L. (2022). The Role of Social Norms: A Case Study of Intimate Partner Violence Among Adolescent Girls in Nigeria. In: Ssewamala, F.M., Sensoy Bahar, O., McKay, M.M. (eds) Child Behavioral Health in Sub-Saharan Africa. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-83707-5_9

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Best Crime Essay Examples

Intimate partner violence.

1191 words | 4 page(s)

Intimate Partner Violence (IPV) is a serious crime that affects millions of people around the world.  IPV is characterized as any type of physical, sexual, or psychological damage by a current or past significant other, spouse, a parent, or sibling onto a victim. Although the violence often takes place in the context of a male-female relationship or LGBT partnership, being sexually intimate is not needed for the relationship to be considered IPV (Intimate partner violence, 2015).  However, other characteristics come into play in regard to IPV.  There are certain characteristics of the victim and offenders, as well as social and political factors that also influence IPV, in terms of legislation and typologies.

The majority of perpetrators of domestic violence fall into the one of two categories when inflicting violence on victims:  characterological violence and situational violence.  Characterological violence aligns with the Power and Control Wheel pattern. In this type of violence, excessive emotional and physical violence are inflicted on the victim to try and overpower, control, and manipulate an intimate partner. These violent offenders are also more inclines to display attitudes that are violent. In addition to this, mental health issues may also be apparent, these perpetrators also possessing some anti-social or borderline personality characteristics. Situational violence is a type of violence that consists of a low level of violence where partners shove, push, or grab each other. The psychological and emotional violence that occurs in this type is also not as controlling. (Daniel, Cleary Bradley, Thatcher, & Gottman, 2011).

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While it has been suggested that victim share similar traits, research has found that besides age and gender, certain victim traits are do not seem to be connected with a greater chance of being abused. Domestic violence occurs in every economic, racial, and gender, and educational category. However, it has been suggested that youth can increase one’s risk being abused, as well as a woman being pregnant (Daniel, Cleary Bradley, Thatcher, & Gottman, 2011).

Interestingly, even if a woman leaves her relationship, the chance of experiencing abuse again is high, evident in the passage of “Those victims who leave their abusers have been found to be as likely to be reabused as those who remain with them. Those victims who maintain civil restraining orders or criminal nocontact orders against their abusers are as likely to be reabused as those who drop the orders. Only one study comparing women with orders and those without, found that women with permanent as opposed to temporary orders were less likely to have new police-reported domestic violence.” (Klein, 2009, p. 29).

There are some difference between the offender-victim relationship. For instance, in comparison to heterosexual couples, in the case of reported IPV incidents, about 26% of same-sex couples experience dual arrests, the perpetrator often not as clearly detected by law enforcement. In term of female victims and male perpetrators, less than one percent experience a dual arrest, while in terms of a female inflicting violence on a male victim, about 3% of both parties are both arrested (Klein, 2009).

Some differences also exist in how IPV is played with women and male victims. Chart 1 highlights the differences between males and females, in terms of abuse factors (Catalano, 2013).

Chart 1: Different Types of Abuse by Percentage Between Genders

          ABUSE TYPE                                  FEMALES                            MALES

In order to understand how serious IPV is for males and females, it is important to look at how violence is committed by intimate versus non-intimate partners. Chart 2, titled “Intimate and Non-Intimate Partners and Violence for Men and Women” (Catalano, 2013).

Chart 2. Intimate and Non-Intimate Partners and Violence for Men and Women

       Act Committed                            Males                                              Females

In terms of gender statistics concerning IPV, when comparing data from 1994 to 2011, the number of male IPV victims comprised 1.1/1000 people in the former, which dropped to 0.4 in 2011. On the contrary, female victims comprised 5.9/1000 IPV victims in1994, which dropped  to 1.6/1000 in 2011 (Catalano, 2013). One reason for this drop may be the new pieces of national and state legislation that have bene passed in terms of IPV. For instance, within the past few years, New York State has passed a law that states that once a woman presses charges against a perpetrator of domestic violence, she has to go through with the process. In the past, women would often press charges against the perpetrator and often decide to drop the charges for fear of her life and /or reconciliation with her partner.  Examining national statistics, from 1993 to 2010, the incidence of IPV dropped by 67% (Factsheet: the Violence Against Women Act ).

Another important piece of legislation has been the establishment of the Violence Against Women Act (VAWA) in 1994. The Act makes rapists responsible for their crimes by strengthening federal penalties for repeat sex offenders and creating a federal “rape shield law.” This law prevent offenders from highlighting victims’ prior sexual history during court for rape trials. Under the VAWA, victims do not have to pay for their own rape exams. Order of protections have also been expanded, the victims’ protection order applying to every state, tribal, and territorial jurisdictions in the United States (Factsheet: the Violence Against Women Act ).

Special law enforcement and prosecution units and domestic violence dockets have also helped prosecute and arrest offenders. VAWA funds have been used to train over 500,000 law enforcement officers, prosecutors, judges, and other personnel annually in issues of IPV. The VAWA has also helped that victims gain access to the domestic violence services, the National Domestic Violence Hotline established and has taken about 22,000 calls each month. Getting people more involved in the community and doing in-services and special education has also helped women who have been subjected to IPV (Factsheet: the Violence Against Women Act ).

As you can see, there are IPV is a serious crime for many people, perpetrators having certain typologies and traits that make them more prone to subjecting victims to violence. Victims tend to not have as many similar traits, besides gender and age.  There are also some gender differences in relation to IPV in terms of physical violence factors. Fortunately, legislation such as the VAWA has been implemented that focuses on prevention of IPV, making offenders more accountable, and increasing community education regarding IPV. This has helped to get the rates of IPV to drop, the number of people exposed to IPV reduced in over the last 20 years.

• Catalano, S. (2013). Special report: intimate partner violence: attributes of victimization. Washington DC: U.S. Department of Justice.
• Daniel, J., Cleary Bradley, R. P., Thatcher, R., & Gottman, J. M. (2011). Typologies of intimate partner violence: Evaluation of a screening instrument for differentiation. Journal of Family Violence, 1-13.
• Factsheet: the Violence Against Women Act . (n.d.). Retrieved from vawa.factsheet.pdf
• Intimate partner violence. (2015, January 14). Retrieved from Center for Disease Control an Prevention website: http://www.cdc.gov/ViolencePrevention/intimatepartnerviolence/index.html
• Klein, A. R. (2009). Practical implications of current domestic violence research: for law enforcement, prosecutors, judges. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice.

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Essay about Intimate Partner violence

Research over the past 30 years has demonstrated that excessive alcohol use meets all of the epidemiological criteria for causality. While neither a necessary nor a sufficient cause, excessive alcohol use does contribute to the occurrence of partner violence and that contribution is approximately equal to other contributing causes such as gender roles, anger, and marital functioning. Current theories of how excessive drinking results in partner violence provide a potentially valuable framework concerning who should be targeted for interventions for alcohol‐related partner violence and what those interventions should address.

I. Introduction

Based on my research I found out that intimate partner violence is a serious, preventable public health problem affecting more than 35 million Americans Extent, nature, and consequences of intimate partner violence; findings from the National Violence Against Women Survey by (Tjaden and Thoennes, 2000). The term “intimate partner violence” describes physical, sexual, or psychological harm by a current, former partner or spouse. This type of violence can occur among same-sex couples and does not require sexual intimacy. IPV can vary in frequency and severity. It happens on a continuum, ranging from one hit that may or may not impact the victim to chronic, severe battering. Victims of domestic violence , who are overwhelming women are at high risk for mental problems (Intimate partner violence, Intervention in primary health settings by Carlson and McNutt, 1998).

There are four main types of intimate partner violence (Intimate partner violence surveillance; uniform definitions and recommended data elements by (Saltzman et al. 2002). Physical abuse is the deliberate use of physical force with the potential for causing death, disability, injury, or harm. or the use of a weapon, and use of restraints or one’s body, size, or strength against another person.” Emotional, Physical, Sexual, and Psychological Emotional violence may involve trauma to the victim caused by acts, threats of actions, or other coercive tactics. Compared to white women, Latinas tend to be younger, to have lower socioeconomic backgrounds and lower educational levels, factors that are known to increase intimate partner violence. (Sociodemographic predictors and cultural barriers to help-seeking behavior by Latina and Angle American battered by Latina and Anglo American battered women by West, Kantor and Jasinski, 1998).

Sexual violence According to the organization RAINN, intimate partner sexual Violence says a perpetrator can have any relationship to a victim, and that includes the role of an intimate partner. RAINN organization is the largest anti-sexual violence organization; they offer 24/7 free, confidential hotline. They are helping survivors and educating the public; they provide consulting and training. Survivors began sharing their experiences of the sexual violence in a Unified statement -#MeToo. “It’s been essential and valuable for me to recognize when I feel supported or not and to be willing to walk away. I don’t have to accept someone else’s version of my story. (Ethan, survivor). I have spoken mostly about women, but men can be the victim of IPV.

Psychological and verbal abuse is any abusive behavior that uses emotions to intimidate the victim, such as threatening the victim or stalking the victim. Stalking is a pattern of repeated and unwanted attention, harassment contact, or any other course of conduct directed at a specific person that would cause a reasonable person to feel fear. Someone can also use technology to stalk an individual; this is known as cyberstalking. In the field of practice, intimate partner violence among Latino households has increased over the years. Krishnan et al. (1997) in Documenting domestic violence among ethnically diverse populations results from a preliminary study, noted that approximately 61% of Anglo Americans reported experiencing partner violence in the past compared with 36.5% of Latina women in the U.S. There is a need to address the specific requirements of the Latina situation.

Intimate partner violence (IPV) and community violence are prevalent globally, and each is associated with severe consequences. However, little is known about their potential links or the possible benefits of coordinated prevention strategies. Using aggregated data on community violence from the San Paulo State Security Department merged with who multi-country study on women’s health and domestic violence data, random intercept models were created to assess the effect of crime on women’s probably of experiencing IPV.

III. Conclusion

The claims about the IPV emerged after the feminism wave as women have learned about their rights. They were more aggressive in demanding equal treatment with their male counterparts. The claims of the claims-makers resonate with broader cultural worries at the time. The claims makers succeed in capturing the attention of audiences and in persuading them to accept their claims, while the majority of conditions that could be called social problems remain marginalized and unexamined. This is owing to the changing attitudes in society and the effect of globalization that results in the emergence of contemporary values that are against domestic violence. IPV is her to stay, and more efforts need to be made by the claim makers to control its levels globally. There have been positive changes made by society to eradicate IPV, and the future is not easy for the claim-maker if at all the fight against it is to be won.

Domestic violence has severe psychological and physical consequences for a victim that is why it must be prevented. Moreover, intimate partner violence has become a world pandemic, and urgent measures should be taken to stop it. First, it is necessary to conduct educational work with victims and possible victims regarding domestic violence. Prevention of domestic abuse is possible through the promotion of healthy relationships. Women, especially teenagers must be taught that normal relations presuppose trust, respect, kindness, and care. Most women neglect first signs of violence such as threats, verbal abuse, and control that is why it is crucial to teach women to recognize those sings before committing to close relationships. (Campbell et al., 2007)

There must be stricter laws in Domestic abuse, and the abuser needs to receive treatment, a lot of times the abuser has learned his behavior and needs to be counseled. Psychological counseling or group therapy prove to be affecting in dealing with perpetrator’s problems (Domestic Violence Perpetrator Treatment, 2010). On a personal note, I feel that if the victim weren’t blamed or must prove a sexual act has happened, more people would come forward. A person who has gone through years of abuse loses trust of themselves and of other people. Hopefully with more awareness through media on Intimate Partner Violence people will feel more comfortable coming forward and getting the help that they need to remove themselves from the abuse.

Kiss, L., Schraiber, L. B., Hossain, M., Watts, C., & Zimmerman, C. (2015). The link between community-based violence and intimate partner violence: The effect of crime and male aggression on intimate partner violence against women. Prevention Science, 16(6), 881-889 Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4498283/ Leonard, K. E., & Quigley, B. M. (2016). Thirty years of research show alcohol to be a cause of intimate partner violence: Future research needs to identify who to treat and how to treat them. Drug and Alcohol Review, 36(1), 7-9. Retrieved from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/dar.12434 Yalch, M. M., Levendosky, A. A., Bernard, N. K., & Anne Bogat, G. (2017). Main and moderating effects of temperament traits on the association between intimate partner violence and hazardous alcohol use in a sample of young adult women. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 32(20), 1-18. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/280582256_Main_and_Moderating_Influence_of_Temperament_Traits_on_the_Association_Between_Intimate_Partner_Violence_and_Trauma_Symptoms Krishanan, S. P., Hilber, .C., VanLeeuwen. D., & Kolia, R. (1997). Documenting domestic violence among ethnically diverse populations. Results from a preliminary study. Family and Community Health, 20, 32-48, (n.d.) Retrieved from https://www.rainn.org/articles/stalking. Sexual violence against partners. Statistics.  

Intimate Partner Violence: Diagnosis and Management Essay

Discuss the questions that would be important to include when interviewing a patient with this issue.

Headaches disorders are usually diagnosed based on the interviews or questionnaires about the history of the patient. The questions should focus on different types of primary and secondary headache types (Karakurt, Whiting, Esch, Bolen, & Calabrese, 2016). The list would include the following:

• When did the headaches start?
• How many headache attacks per day does the patient have and how long do they last?
• Was there any change in the character of the headache? If yes, what kind?
• Are there any factors that trigger headaches, such as alcohol, menstruation, stress, fatigue, missing meals, caffeine, or change in the weather?
• How would Ms. Davis assess her typical headache on the line from 1 to 10, where 1 is minimal pain, and 10 is unbearable pain?
• Is there any pattern to the headaches? Do they happen at a particular time of the day or on certain days of the week or month?
• Are there any warning signs of a coming headache?
• Are there any additional symptoms such as nasal congestion, diarrhea, nausea, vomiting, visual changes, photophobia, phonophobia, extreme thirst, speech disturbance, vertigo, or loss of balance?
• Does Ms. Davis have insomnia?
• Does the patient consider herself under stress?
• Does she have a regular sleeping and eating pattern?
• Has the patient experienced any trauma?
• What kind of medicine is she taking or used to take in the previous two months, including herbs, birth-control peals, and antidepressants?
• Is she pregnant?
• Does the patient have any family history of migraines?
• Does she have any history of snoring, lung disease, anemia, hypertension, motion sickness, or cigarette smoking?

Describe the clinical findings that may be present in a patient with this issue

Ms. Davis appears to have the apparent signs of intimate partner violence (IPV). First, the patient reports incidents of her being the victim of her boyfriend’s abuse. Second, she has bruises with different age that are noted during her physical exam. Third, the woman shows signs of fear and unsafety as she fails to maintain eye contact while being examined and interviewed. Therefore, her headache appears to be provoked by stress and depression from the IPV.

IPV is usually associated with headaches, pains in the back, sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), digestive problems, and depression. As the woman can be a victim of verbal abuse, humiliation, social isolation, and threats of violence or financial deprivation, she may experience low self-esteem, loneliness, hopelessness, and physical pain (Jack, Ford-Gilboe, Davidov, & MacMillan, 2016). Moreover, the woman may have gynecologic problems or issues with her central nervous system. Women diagnosed with IPV can also be pregnant with an unwanted baby or suffer from the consequences of miscarriage or abortion (Jack et al., 2016). Hence, Ms. Davis can be expected to have some or all of the symptoms mentioned above.

Are there any diagnostic studies that should be ordered on this patient? Why?

There are no specific tests for IPV; however, some diagnostic studies should be ordered to test for accompanying symptoms. First, as Ms. Davis is of childbearing age, a pregnancy test should be made. Pregnancy can be a decisive factor for diagnosis and treatment; therefore, before prescribing any medicine, every doctor and nurse practitioner should run the examination. Second, tests of blood, urine, and genital secretion should be taken to rule out sexually transmitted diseases including HIV. Third, in some cases, a genital examination may be beneficial, as IPV victims often have gynecologic problems (Jack et al., 2016). Finally, if further aggravation of headaches follows without an apparent reason, a CAT scan should be made to rule out brain injury or cancer. In short, all the studies should be aimed at associated problems rather than at IPV.

List the primary diagnosis and three differential diagnoses for this patient. Explain your reasoning for each

The primary diagnosis for Ms. Davis’s case is the intimate partner violence. According to the history taken from the patient, the woman is currently unemployed and financially dependent on her boyfriend, who is occasionally physically, morally, and sexually abusive towards the patient. Moreover, Ms. Davis shows signs of fear to address the behavior of her boyfriend, as she did not take any pamphlets and refused to get help from social workers. Additionally, as the headaches are recurrent with no obvious pattern, it is clear that outside factors can be the reason for them. Therefore, the most likely diagnosis for MS. Davis is the IPV; however, other possibilities should be stated to avoid being biased.

The other diagnosis for the patient may be a tension headache. According to Turner et al. (2015), a tension headache is the most common type the primary symptom of which is dull head pain. Such pains are periodic and happen one-two times a month and often associated with emotional stress. Ms. Davis was admitted to the emergency department with a dull headache unaccompanied by nausea, vomiting, visual disturbance, or other neurologic abnormalities. As she was a victim of IPV, she can be perceived to have emotional stress. Therefore, the patient shows all the signs of the tension-type headache; however, the data set is narrow and additional examinations should be made to rule out other possibilities for the diagnosis.

Among less possible variants, migraine should be considered as a viable diagnosis. Migraines are more frequent in women than in men and are characterized by recurrent headaches in one side of the head (Turner et al., 2015). At the same time, the illness is usually accompanied by aura, nausea, vomiting, and photophobia. Therefore, although Ms. Davis has some signs that point at migraine headaches, she does not seem to have other essential symptoms for the diagnosis.

Even though Ms. Davis does not have a history of trauma, a concussion can be the fourth and the least possible variant of her condition. Concussions are usually accompanied by nausea and vomiting, the signs of which are not found in the patient’s case record. However, Ms. Davis reports the cases of her boyfriend physically abusing her, and her head may have been hit and her brain damaged during one of the fights with her boyfriend. Therefore, a concussion can become the explanation for the patient’s headaches, although a CAT scan is needed to confirm the diagnosis.

Discuss your management plan for this patient, including pharmacologic therapies, tests, patient education, referrals, and follow-ups

My management plan would be centered on counseling and education about IPV. According to Karakurt et al. (2016), a couples therapy can be effective in this case for reducing violence in the relationship. At the same time, I would not insist on the treatment, as patients should be allowed to dictate the plan based on their view of what is safest for them. I would refer the patient to visit a gynecologist and a psychiatrist.

I would recommend continuing courses of acetaminophen and ibuprofen, as the medications have proven to be helpful for the patient’s condition. Additionally, I would suggest avoidance of headache triggers and educate the patient about relaxation technics, such as meditation, acupuncture, and massage. In conclusion, IPV is a prevalent problem that has adverse effects on the well-being of adults and children that witness it. It should be treated with due attention and delicacy, as it can be a severe threat to a patient’s health and life.

Jack, S., Ford-Gilboe, M., Davidov, D., & MacMillan, H. (2016). Identification and assessment of intimate partner violence in nurse home visitation. Journal of Clinical Nursing, 26 (15-16), 2215-2228. Web.

Karakurt, G., Whiting, K., van Esch, C., Bolen, S., & Calabrese, J. (2016). Couples therapy for intimate partner violence: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy , 42 (4), 567-583. Web.

Turner, D., Smitherman, T., Black, A., Penzien, D., Porter, J., Lofland, K., & Houle, T. (2015). Are migraine and tension-type headache diagnostic types or points on a severity continuum? An exploration of the latent taxometric structure of headache. PAIN, 156 (7), 1200-1207. Web.

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EssayEmpire

Intimate partner violence essay.

Intimate partner violence (IPV), or abuse, generally refers to violence involving spouses, ex-spouses, and boyfriends or girlfriends and exes. Other phrases sometimes used include wife battering, wife abuse, intimate terrorism, and spousal violence. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention define IPV as the intentional use of physical force with the potential for causing death, disability, injury, or harm. Physical violence includes, but is not limited to, scratching; pushing; shoving; throwing; grabbing; biting; choking; shaking; slapping; punching; burning; use of a weapon; and use of restraints or one’s body, size, or strength against another person.

Estimates of Intimate Partner Violence

Because IPV is usually more private and hidden compared with other violence, its magnitude remains in dispute. The stigma often attached to intimate partner violence, fear of retaliation from the perpetrators, and numerous other safety concerns make estimating incidence rates difficult.

Fatal Violence : The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) Supplementary Homicide Reports reveal that homicides between ex-spouses and boyfriends and girlfriends remained relatively stable from 1976 through 2005. During this same time, homicides between married couples significantly declined through 2001 but have remained relatively stable since then. Although the overall number of women and men murdered by their intimate partners decreased during the past few decades, this decrease was more significant for males killed by their intimate partners than for female victims. Overall, women are much more likely to be killed by their intimate partners than are men.

Nonfatal Violence : Relying on such reports as the FBI Uniform Crime Reports or the National Incident Based Reporting System (NIBRS) to estimate nonfatal incidence of IPV is problematic because a high percentage of victims never report these crimes to police. Typically, IPV researchers and policymakers rely on nationally representative surveys to monitor its magnitude. The National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS), conducted by the Bureau of Justice Statistics, is the only ongoing survey that monitors IPV on an annual basis. To measure IPV incidents, the NCVS cues respondents to think of victimizations perpetrated by “a neighbor or friend, someone at work or school, or a family member,” rather than specifically asking respondents about incidents perpetrated by intimate partners such as spouses, boyfriends, or girlfriends.

NCVS data indicate that, on average, females are assaulted by intimate partners at a rate of 6.4 per 1,000 every year compared with a rate of 1.1 for their male counterparts. This translates into more than 1 million females age 12 and older violently attacked by their intimate partners annually.

The National Violence Against Women and Men Survey (NVAWMS) asked respondents in 1995 about assaults they experienced as children and as adults, using specific screening questions about incidents of pushing, grabbing or shoving, pulling hair, slapping, hitting, and so forth. In addition to being asked about strangers or known offenders, respondents also were asked about victimizations perpetrated by all possible types of intimate or ex-intimate partners. The NVAWMS obtained higher annual rates of IPV than the NCVS: a rate of 13 per 1,000 women age 18 and over and a rate of 9 per 1,000 adult men. Significantly, this survey also examined how many women and men experienced violent attacks in their adult lives, with over 1 in 5 (22 percent) of women and 7.4 percent of men reporting an assault by an intimate partner. Similar to homicide victimization, then, both the NCVS and the NVAWMS indicate that females are more likely than males to experience nonfatal IPV.

Several factors contributed to the higher incidence rates obtained by the NVAWMS compared with the NCVS, including behaviorally specific questions, specific relationship cues regarding intimate partners, and the noncrime context of the survey. Thus, the ways in which people are asked about their victimization experiences significantly impact the number of people reporting this violence. Regardless of estimates used, however, intimate partner violence is a significant problem. For all too many women, their partner poses a greater risk for serious harm and death than does the stranger on the street.

Bibliography:

• Bachman, Ronet. 2000. “A Comparison of Annual Incidence Rates and Contextual Characteristics of Intimate-Partner Violence against Women from the National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS) and the National Violence Against Women Survey (NVAWS).” Violence against Women 6(8):839-67.
• Catalano, Shannan. Intimate Partner Violence in the United States. Bureau of Justice Statistics. Retrieved March 29, 2017 ( https://www.bjs.gov/content/pub/pdf/ipvus.pdf ).
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2006. “Understanding Intimate Partner Violence.” Retrieved March 29, 2017 ( https://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/pdf/ipv-factsheet.pdf ).
• Tjaden, Patricia and Nancy Thoennes. 1998. Prevalence, Incidence, and Consequences of Violence against Women: Findings from the National Violence Against Women Survey. NCJ 172837. Washington, DC: National Institute of Justice and Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.

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Introduction

Intimate partner violence (IPV) involves a traumatic set of circumstances between couples that typically includes one or more acts of violence against a partner. Women are typically the victims of IPV and experience a number of devastating consequences, including but not limited to chronic disease, HIV/AIDS, injuries, and reproductive concerns, among others (Ellsberg & Emmelin, 2014). Furthermore, IPV contributes to a variety of mental health and psychological consequences, including depression and anxiety (Ellsberg & Emmelin, 2014). As a result, it is necessary to recognize the severity of this problem and how it impacts female victims throughout the world at high levels; for example, between 15 and 71 percent of women across ten different countries who have been married have experienced IPV in their lives (Ellsberg & Emmelin, 2014). These findings suggest that this problem poses a significant threat to the lives of many women and requires further analysis regarding its causes, as well as the potential solutions that are available to address the problem more effectively and to prevent additional cases throughout the world.

Intimate partner violence is represented by a number of risk factors that may include socioeconomic status, exposure to violence, and education, other issues must also be considered that go beyond these considerations (Ellsberg & Emmelin, 2014). IPV affects both males and females, and in one survey, over 4.2 million women and 3.2 men were victims of rapes, stalking, and sexual assaults on an annual basis (Capaldi, Knoble, Shortt, & Kim, 2012). This reflects a need to further evaluate relationships in order to better determine some of the risk factors associated with IPV from this perspective (Capaldi et.al, 2012). There are different forms of physical violence that often coincide with sexual abuse within these relationships, thereby contributing to traumatic circumstances for these victims (Capaldi et.al, 2012). In addition, many partners are abused in a psychological manner, which contributes to the traumatic experience and the further degradation of victims (Capaldi et.al, 2012). It is known that “regardless of any differences in frequency and/or severity of engagement in IPV by girls/women and boys/men, overall there are more similarities than differences in risk factors” (Capaldi et.al, 2012). This requires an examination of some of the factors related to IPV and that contribute to these acts and their level of risk for victims.

Intimate partner violence also contributes to the necessity to recognize when these acts might have occurred and to perform screenings for women who may be victims. In accordance with the recommendations set forth by the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF), “clinicians screen women of childbearing age for intimate partner violence (IPV), such as domestic violence, and provide or refer women who screen positive to intervention services” (Moyer, 2013). This reflects a need to further evaluate women who face a possible risk of intimate partner violence or who have been victims of these events so that they are able to receive the proper treatment and evaluation in a timely manner (Moyer, 2013). It is necessary to provide these screenings to women and to optimize the resources that are available to victims of IPV in order to prevent future cases and to manage these traumatic experiences in an effective manner (Moyer, 2013).

Within the younger population, it is known that “for adolescents and young adults, the effects of physical and sexual assault are associated with poor self-esteem, alcohol and drug abuse, eating disorders, obesity, risky sexual behaviors, teen pregnancy, depression, anxiety, suicidality, and other conditions” (Moyer, 2013). These findings suggest that there must be a greater focus on younger victims of IPV so that they are able to obtain the proper treatment and support, along with a means of preventing additional acts from taking place (Moyer, 2013). The younger population, which is particularly vulnerable to different circumstances, may face a higher risk of IPV under specific circumstances; therefore, this requires an examination of the different areas where these risks may be evident (Moyer, 2013). IPV in the adolescent population must be explored in greater detail and provide further evidence of the different elements that impact these individuals and their risk, as well as the types of trauma that they may experience.

The screening process for women who have experienced intimate partner violence represents a means of addressing their needs in a timely manner; however, this also reflects a need to develop a greater focus on these events, particularly the cost of screening versus its overall benefits (Taft et.al, 2013). There must be a greater focus on the development of screening tools that will also contribute to a higher level of follow through and greater support for these victims (Taft et.al, 2013). It is important for healthcare providers to optimize their resources for screening potential victims of IPV and to be proactive as they work with these patients in order to make a difference in their lives (Taft et.al, 2013). Some recommendations have been made to promote screenings for all women on a universal basis; however, prior evidence indicates that this is not necessary the best use of resources and should not be considered as the gold standard for all women (Taft et.al, 2013). These factors represent a need to evaluate when to screen women for potential IPV and when it might not be a cost effective measure (Taft et.al, 2013).

Women who face a risk of intimate partner violence or who are victims of these events must be provided with the tools and resources that are required to ensure that their needs are met and are provided with the support that is necessary to improve their quality of life, in spite of this trauma (Moyer, 2013). In general, IPV is “considered to be a significant and largely unaddressed public health problem” (Moyer, 2013). This reflects a need to further evaluate the conditions under which IPV is identified and to determine who is at risk and what is required to reduce these risks as best as possible (Moyer, 2013). Since risk factors may include age, economic circumstances, marital problems, and substance abuse, these issues must be taken into consideration in the event that IPV trauma is identified or suspected (Moyer, 2013). Under these circumstances, there must be a greater focus on the development of a program to improve outcomes for these victims and to recognize the importance of ongoing treatment and support to improve their quality of life (Moyer, 2013).

Intimate partner violence is a global issue on many levels and requires an examination of the different tools and resources that are available to address this problem as a human rights concern with significant implications for public health (Devries et.al, 2013). This represents a means of expanding knowledge and resources in order to effectively promote an understanding of IPV and what is required to promote prevention among different population groups (Devries et.al, 2013). This issue is quite complex in nature; therefore, it is often difficult to manage the potential outcomes without an understanding of the reasons why IPV occurs to begin with and what steps might be taken to overcome these risks at a higher level (Devries et.al, 2013). In general, there is a greater emphasis on the prevention of violence against women, as these behaviors subject women to unnecessary and traumatic risk and harm from the physical, emotional, and psychological points of view (Devries et.al, 2013). These factors are critical because they impact women in many different ways and must be preventable in order to preserve basic human rights for women as best as possible (Devries et.al, 2013).

The overall nature of policymaking to prevent intimate partner violence in women requires an effective understanding of the dynamics surrounding these behaviors and what is required to improve the quality of life for these women and to prevent further complications for women throughout the world (Devries et.al, 2013). Most importantly, women must be protected by policies and regulations that will preserve their rights and enable them to conduct their lives without fear of experiencing these acts (Devries et.al, 2013). Most importantly, women must receive adequate education and resources in order to ensure that they are protected from intimate partner violence as best as possible and are able to develop strategies that will facilitate protection from these events and what is required to facilitate their wellbeing (Devries et.al, 2013). Women who possess greater economic circumstances may face a lower risk of IPV under some conditions, although this is not always the case and requires a continuous examination of the risk factors related to the condition and its overall risk among women across different population groups (Devries et.al, 2013).

Intimate partner violence involves a traumatic set of circumstances that occur with males and females and require an understanding of their causes and the risk factors that are associated with these events. It is important to identify some of these challenges and to determine which strategies are most appropriate to screen and identify victims of IPV. This is an ongoing process that requires stronger legal consequences for the perpetrators of IPV, and this represents a means of recognizing the behaviors that contribute to these events. The risk factors of IPV must be considered in greater detail in an effort to better understand why these behaviors occur and to determine methods of prevention that will have a lasting impact on potential victims. Legal consequences must be applied to those accused of these acts and ongoing physical, emotional, and psychological support must be provided to victims in order to enable them to experience a full recovery from these events.

Capaldi, D.M., Knoble, N.B., Shortt, J.W., & Kim, H.K. (2012). A systematic review of risk factors for intimate partner violence. Partner Abuse, 3(2), 231-280.

Devries, K.M., Mak, JYT, Garcia-Moreno, C., Petzold, M., Child, J.C., Falder, G., Lim, S., Bacchus, L.J., Engell, R.E., Rosenfeld, L., Pallitto, C., Vos, T., Abrahams, N., & Watts, C.H. (2013). The global prevalence of intimate partner violence against women. Science,          340, 1527-1528.

Ellsberg, M., & Emmelin, M. (2014). Intimate partner violence and mental health. Global Health Action, retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4165041/

Moyer, V.A. (2013). Screening for intimate partner violence and abuse of elderly and vulnerable adults: U.S. preventive services task force recommendation statement. Annals of Internal Medicine, 158(6), 478-486.

Taft, A., O’Doherty, L., Hegarty, K., Ramsay, J., Davidson, L., & Feder, G. (2013). Screening women for intimate partner violence in healthcare settings. Cochrane Library, retrieved from http://www.cochrane.org/CD007007/BEHAV_screening-women-for-intimate-partner-violence-in-healthcare-settings

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