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This award-winning geography case study video resource reflects on the eruption of Eyjafjallajokull in 2010 and looks ahead to potential volcanic eruptions in Iceland.

In this video, we cover:

- The causes and impacts of the eruption, with visits to some of the localities directly affected - Volcano monitoring and preparedness - The impacts associated with the future eruption of Katla - Positive impacts of the volcanic eruption on tourism in Iceland

This teaching resource uses narrative, incisive interviews of local people, stunning archive footage of the eruption itself and supportive maps and diagrams to show that, through detailed scientific knowledge and monitoring, the people in Iceland not only understand the threats posed by volcanic eruptions but also see the rich benefits of living in the ‘Land of Fire and Ice’.

Visit Discover the World Education to download the free teaching resources, which accompany this video: http://bit.ly/2xzJ8r5

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Case Study – The 2010 eruption of Eyjafjnallajokull

Cambridge iGCSE Geography > The Natural Environment > Earthquakes and Volcanoes > Case Study – The 2010 eruption of Eyjafjnallajokull

Case Study – The 2010 eruption of Eyjafjallajökull

Background information.

Location: Eyjafjallajökull is located in southern Iceland.

Level of Development in Iceland: Iceland is a developed country with a strong economy. It has advanced infrastructure, healthcare, education, and a high standard of living.

Volcano Details: Eyjafjallajökull is a composite (stratovolcano) covered by an ice cap.  The name describes the volcano , with Eyja meaning island, fjalla meaning mountain, and jokull meaning glacier. You can find out how to pronounce Eyjafjallajokull on the BBC website .

Its eruption can cause significant ash plumes and glacial meltwater floods known as “jökulhlaups.”

What caused the eruption of Eyjafjallajökull?

Iceland is situated on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, a constructive plate boundary that divides the North American Plate from the Eurasian Plate. These two tectonic plates gradually drift apart because of the ridge push exerted along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. As they move away from each other, magma from beneath the Earth’s crust fills the magma chambers located below Eyjafjallajökull. The interconnection of several of these chambers has created a substantial reservoir of magma beneath the volcano. Eyjafjallajökull is positioned underneath a glacier, adding to its complex structure.

What were the primary effects of the eruption of Eyjafjallajökull?

• Ash Cloud: The eruption created a massive ash cloud that turned day to night. The ash drifted over Europe.
• Air Travel Disruption: Over 100,000 flights were cancelled, affecting around 10 million travellers.
• Local Flooding: Melting glaciers caused flooding in the nearby areas.
• Damage to Agriculture : Ash fall led to the loss of grazing areas and contaminated water supplies.
• Property and roads: Homes and roads were damaged.

What were the secondary effects of the eruption of Eyjafjallajökull?

• Economic Impact : The airline industry alone lost £130 million a day due to airspace closure, totalling an estimated $1.7 billion. The price of shares in major airlines dropped between 2.5-3.3% during the eruption. Other sectors, such as tourism and farming, were also significantly affected.
• Environmental Impact : Long-term effects on soil and water quality were observed. Local water supplies were contaminated with fluoride.
• Health Concerns: Respiratory issues were reported due to fine ash particles in the air.
• Impacts on Kenya: The impact was felt as far afield as Kenya, where farmers laid off 5000 workers after flowers and vegetables rotted at airports. Kenya’s flower council says the country lost $1.3m daily in lost shipments to Europe.

What were the immediate responses to the eruption of Eyjafjallajökull?

• Evacuation : Around 800 people were evacuated from the immediate vicinity.
• Airspace Closure: European airspace was closed for several days.
• Emergency Services: Immediate response from local authorities, firefighters, and rescue teams.

What were the long-term responses to the eruption of Eyjafjallajökull?

• Monitoring and Research: Improved monitoring systems and research into ash cloud movement.
• Economic Support: Financial assistance for affected farmers and businesses.
• Regulations: Improved regulations for air travel during volcanic ash events.
• Airspace: The European Union developed an integrated structure for air traffic management. As a result, nine Functional Airspace Blocks (FABs) will replace the existing 27 areas. This means following a volcanic eruption in the future, areas of air space may be closed, reducing the risk of closing all European air space.

What opportunities did the eruption of Eyjafjallajökull bring?

Despite the challenges brought about by the eruption of Eyjafjallajökull, several benefits emerged from the event. One of the positive impacts was the environmental saving; the grounding of European flights during the eruption prevented the release of approximately 2.8 million tonnes of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, as the Environmental Transport Association noted.

Additionally, the disruption in air travel led to a boon for other modes of transportation. Eurostar, for instance, experienced a significant increase in passenger numbers. The company recorded nearly a third rise in travel, accommodating 50,000 extra passengers on trains during this period.

Furthermore, the volcanic ash from Eyjafjallajökull deposited dissolved iron into the North Atlantic Ocean. This led to a plankton bloom, enhancing biological productivity in the region.

In response to the eruption’s negative publicity, the Icelandic government initiated a campaign to bolster tourism. The “Inspired by Iceland” initiative was launched with the specific goal of showcasing the nation’s scenic beauty, the warmth of its people, and the reassurance that Iceland was ready to welcome visitors. Consequently, the campaign had a positive effect, as evidenced by a substantial increase in tourist numbers, as depicted in the graph below.

Foreign visitor arrivals to Iceland

How does Iceland prepare for volcanic eruptions, and what was its impact?

Iceland has an effective monitoring system for its active volcanoes, with seismic stations and other instruments. There is close cooperation between meteorological, geological, and civil protection authorities. Public education and emergency planning are also vital to Iceland’s preparation strategy.

Iceland’s preparedness and rapid response, such as evacuating the area close to the volcano, mitigated the local impact of the eruption. However, the unprecedented disruption to air travel highlighted the need for better international coordination and understanding of volcanic ash’s effects on aviation.

The eruption of Eyjafjallajökull in 2010 is a crucial example of how a volcanic event can have local and global impacts. The incident underscored the importance of preparedness, monitoring, and international cooperation in minimizing the effects of such natural disasters. It also highlighted the interconnectedness of our modern world and how a geological event in one country can have far-reaching consequences.

Location and Eruption Details

Eyjafjallajökull erupted in 2010 in southern Iceland; it’s a stratovolcano covered by an ice cap. The eruption was caused by the North American Plate drifting from the Eurasian Plate along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, creating a magma reservoir beneath the volcano.

Primary Effects

The eruption led to a massive ash cloud, air travel disruption with over 100,000 flights cancelled, local flooding from melting glaciers, and damage to agriculture , homes, and roads.

Secondary Effects

Economic loss reached an estimated $1.7 billion in the airline industry, long-term environmental impacts, health concerns from ash particles, and far-reaching effects on other countries like Kenya.

Immediate Responses

Approximately 800 people were evacuated; European airspace was closed for several days; emergency services responded quickly.

Long-Term Responses and Opportunities

Improved monitoring, regulations, and economic support were implemented; benefits included reduced CO2 emissions, increased passenger numbers in trains like Eurostar, enhanced biological productivity in the North Atlantic, and a successful Icelandic tourism campaign.

Preparedness and Impact

Iceland’s effective monitoring, public education, and emergency planning mitigated the local impact but emphasized the need for international coordination and understanding of volcanic ash’s effects on aviation. The eruption illustrated the interconnectedness of modern society and the far-reaching consequences of geological events.

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Why did the iceland volcano erupt a look into the litli-hrutur eruption 2023.

Thursday, 10th August 2023

Destination Specialist

On 10 th July 2023, a new volcanic eruption began in Iceland, following seismic unrest and ground deformation. But what caused Litli-Hrutur to erupt?

In this post, we’ll provide some context into the causes, impacts and mitigation so far.

Short on time? Here’s everything you need to know

• Iceland straddles two continental plates, the North American and Eurasian plates, and sits above a hotspot. Slab pull drives tectonic plate movement alongside ridge push and convection which makes it a hotspot for volcanic activity
• Litli Hrútur is part of the Fagradalsfjall volcanic complex in Reykjanes and this is the third eruption in this area since 2021
• The eruption is effusive, with thin basaltic lavas forming fire fountains and lava flows along a fissure within an unhabituated valley
• 7 days of increasing seismic activity preceded the eruption (a much shorter build-up than usual)
• Seismic activity decreased 2 days before the eruption, and deformation rates slowed as magma reached shallow depths, until a sudden heightening of activity immediately before magma broke the surface
• Key hazards so far are lava flows, toxic volcanic gases, and smoke from grass fires

Why did the Iceland volcano erupt?

Being located along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, a zone of seafloor spreading Iceland is no stranger to earthquakes and volcanism.

Leading up to the Litli Hrutur eruption, scientists predicted possible eruptions after hundreds of minor earthquakes were detected in recent weeks before. Location is key when it comes to why Iceland is a volcanic hotspot.

Sitting above the ‘Iceland plume,’ eruptions occur due to slab pull. Slab pull drives tectonic plate movement as the lithospheric plate ages, cools and grows denser, forcing it to sink into the mantle underneath (think putting a cold knife into warm butter!) As the plate sinks, it pulls the rest of itself behind it along the surface until it cools and eventually sinks. When this process continues over time, it causes eruptions.

At the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, the Eurasian and North American plates are forced apart due to ridge push along the sea floor as it spreads newly formed oceanic crust (which is hotter and less dense than the surrounding crust), this then moves away from the spreading ridge until it also cools and becomes denser, driving the plates apart under gravity.

This ridge push and diverging plate action allow magma to reach the surface of Iceland.  The hotspot Iceland plume further increases volcanic activity due to higher temperatures in the mantle below.

The 2021 Fagradalsfjall eruption in the same area, caused another part of the activity. The eruption caused a fissure to open close to Litli Hrútur volcano and produced firey fountains in true Icelandic style.

In a nutshell:

• Tectonic plates are not merely passengers riding along the mantle, they play an active part in plate movement through slab pull and ridge push
• Slab pull works in conjunction with convection, as plates cool and become more dense forcing them to sink into the mantle and drag the plate along behind them
• Iceland sits on the Iceland plume hotspot, an area of unusually hot mantle
• Litli Hrutur is part of the Fagradalsfjall volcano complex which sits along the southwest rift zone in Reykjanes. The spreading rift allows magma to the surface forming a fissure. The fissure is considered to be a branch of the larger Krýsuvík–Trölladyngja volcanic system
• The Fagradalsfjall area is interconnected, forming different eruptions along the fissure over time

What are the impacts of the volcanic eruption?

Explosive eruptions can impact the environment and local community and the level of this impact depends on a wide variety of factors. Let’s look at some of the primary and secondary effects of the Litli Hrutur eruption so far.

Primary effects  are the direct result of a volcanic eruption, for example, buildings collapsing due to the movement of the earth.

Secondary effects occur because of the primary effects, for example, homelessness caused by the loss of buildings.

Primary effects

Volcanoes typically produce an array of primary impacts, including lava flows, ash columns, earthquakes, gas emissions, and pyroclastic clouds, pyroclastic flows to name a few.

Fortunately, Reykjanes peninsula is a remote area, approximately 30km southwest of the capital Reykjavik, and poses no significant danger to homes or infrastructure.

The eruption is an effusive fissure eruption of basaltic lavas, meaning that activity is limited to small fire fountains and no explosions, ash production is minimal, and there is no eruption column.

The primary impacts of the Litli Hrútur eruption are:

• Fluid pahoehoe-style lava flows
• The eruption has produced smoke and toxic gas emissions, which can cause respiratory issues
• Lava flows, which were more rapid in comparison to the 2021 eruption, now average 13 cubic metres per second (comparable to the previous eruption’s peak). The total volume of lava is currently 3.4 million cubic metres, covering 0.4 square kilometres so far
• Lava is flowing south along the Litli Hrútur Valley
• Activity has concentrated into one crater, building a small cone, as the 900m long fissure begins to close

Secondary effects

It’s currently too early to say much about the secondary effects of the eruption but since there is minimal ash or steam production and no interaction with ice (unlike the infamous Eyjafjallajökull eruption) there will be no risk or interruption to air travel. Here are some of the secondary effects so far:

Encroaching lavas triggered wildfires over the surrounding grasses and moss fields, causing smoke and further risk to hikers with reduced visibility and poor air quality. Firefighters from Grindavik have been working to reduce the spread of the wildfires.

Toxic gas emissions

Volcanic gas emissions can cause serious risks to respiratory health, therefore authorities are advising people to avoid the area when concentrations are too high and to wear masks when trekking is permitted.

The lack of winds in the early days of the eruption meant that gases were not being dispersed, and there were evacuations of hikers who were in danger.

Tourist pressure on vulnerable ground

Due to the excitement of the eruption, tourists are keen to visit the volcano. The increasing pressure on the vulnerable ground (including pressure on roads and parking off-road) could increase erosion and cause environmental damage.

Some tourists made dangerous decisions to go too close to the volcano (with some attempting to climb the erupting crater!) leading to the site closing.

The good news is that increasing tourism from international visitors will bring additional revenue to Iceland.

Mitigation & Management

Iceland’s authorities are well-experienced in monitoring volcanic hazards allowing scientists to complete computer modelling to inform their predictions and planning. Examples of their preparation include:

• Seismic monitoring (which increased during the 2021 eruption)
• Ground deformation
• GPS measurements
• Thermal cameras
• Gas monitoring

Although it was impossible to give an exact start date for the eruption, authorities had already warned it was looming, raising the alert code to orange then red, and issuing notices about rockfalls and toxic gas emissions.

Locals observed an ‘orange glow’ in the distance, so coastal helicopters flew over the site to confirm an eruption had begun.  Immediately automated text messages informed the public of an eruption.

Search and rescue ICE-SAR teams are present and have been working round the clock to ensure trails are as safe as possible or closed when necessary, however, conditions can change quickly depending upon winds and lava activity.

Weather forecasting is a critical part of the management, and the Met Office website and live streams share information on winds, precipitation and the impact on gas concentration in the area.

The biggest risk to public safety is hikers getting into trouble by entering the area when it’s closed off, using an unsafe path, or getting too close to lava flows, wildfires or gas vents.  As a result, management is focusing on spreading accurate information through the media, online and on-site.

Media outlets installed webcams for continuous live streams around the area: https://www.youtube.com/watch?app=desktop&v=yJfiMhqLgTY

How long will the Iceland eruption last?

Although it’s impossible to say how long the Litli Hrutur eruption will last, the geological history of Iceland is well documented and nearby eruptions can give us some clues. The eruption at Geldingadalir Fagradalsfjall in 2021 lasted six months and the 2022 eruption in the adjacent Meradalir Valley lasted just 18 days. Icelandic authorities and academics are well-versed in monitoring, modelling, and making predictions and it’s estimated that the eruption could last anywhere from “a few days to more than half a year.”

Many agree that this new activity must signify that the Reykjanes region has entered a new volcanic period, meaning intermittent eruptions could last 200-500 years!

Good to Know Facts

Where is the eruption located.

Litli Hrútur is part of Fagradalsfjall volcano complex, located in the Reykjanes Peninsula (aka the Sudarnes or Southern Peninsula) in southwest Iceland. Lili Hrutur is an active volcanic fissure and tuya system in a zone rifting over the Eurasian-North American divergent plate boundary.

How often does an eruption happen?

On average there is an eruption every five years in Iceland, but these vary in scale and impact.  Although the Reykjanes area experienced regular eruptions throughout the Holocene, the Fagradalsfjall 2021 eruption was the first in this dormant zone for 6342 years!

How big is the volcano?

Unusually for Iceland, which more commonly sees stratovolcanoes (composite) or cinder cones, the 2021 Fagradalsfjall eruption built a small shield volcano 385m high due to the length of the eruption of thin spreading lavas building layers over time.

The new Litli Hrútur eruption is currently forming a small cinder cone – but who knows what might happen depending on the eruption duration and magma composition!

What is the geology of Iceland?

Due to its volcanic history, Iceland’s geology is dominated by igneous rocks formed over millions of years of eruptions. Reykjanes, like most of Iceland, is most formed from basaltic lava.  This influences eruption style , with basaltic lava having lower silica content leading to more gentle effusive eruptions with thin runny pahoehoe-style flows.

Can people visit the volcano?

The 2021 and 2022 eruptions famously turned the area into a ‘Volcano Disneyland’ as the lavas contained within a valley made it suitable for spectators.  Trips to the ‘hraun’ (lava fields) were created for tourists or scientists studying volcanic behaviour.  This current eruption is being managed to reduce risk, but there are opportunities to hike to the volcano (a 20km round trip on foot) or take helicopter tours.  However, visitors must respect this new fragile landscape, and the dangers posed.

Authorities closed the zone due to high gas emissions and wildfire smoke, and some hikers had to be rescued, so it’s critical to follow advice first before travelling.

This eruption is another instalment in the evolving Fagradalsfjall volcanic story and one which draws attention across the world.  It is not likely to have particularly dramatic impacts, but as a case study to consider management and the involvement of tourism, this is an excellent area to consider and to visit!

The spreading lava field could continue to grow and exceed the original 2021 event, or dwindle… We just don’t know.

Where is the Iceland volcano eruption?

The current eruption in Iceland is located at Litli Hrútur, part of the Fagradalsfjall volcano complex, in the Reykjanes peninsula in southern Iceland.

It is unknown how long the eruption will last.  The 2021 original eruption lasted 6 months (181 days), and the 2022 eruption lasted just 3 weeks.

When was the last eruption in Iceland?

The second Fagradalsfjall eruption (at Meradalir fissure) was from 3-21 August 2022, following a break of 319 days from the original Geldingadalir Fagradalsfjall eruption of 19 th March – 18 th September 2021.  (The current eruption started 323 days after the second finished.)

Can I watch an Iceland eruption live stream? Yes, you can watch the Iceland eruption live stream here .

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• 15 January 2024

In pictures: lava flows into Icelandic town during volcanic eruption

• Alexandra Witze

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14 January: billowing smoke and flowing lava during a dramatic volcanic eruption near Grindavík in southwest Iceland. Credit: Icelandic Department of Civil Protection and Emergency Management/AFP via Getty

An Icelandic volcano that has been threatening the port of Grindavík for weeks sent lava into the town during a fresh eruption that began on 14 January. The lava flows incinerated at least three buildings and triggered a massive response by emergency officials, who have been building barriers known as berms to try to redirect the lava.

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Nature 625 , 642-643 (2024)

doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-024-00129-1

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Waiting for an eruption: what do we know about the Iceland volcano?

A UNSW Sydney scientist explains what is going on below the Earth’s surface as Iceland braces for a potential volcanic eruption. 

Media contact

Lilly Matson UNSW Science 0426 656 007 [email protected]

Icelanders are no strangers to volcanic eruptions, but right now the country waits in a state of limbo. 

“Iceland is a unique place in the world that's tearing itself apart,” says Professor Martin Van Kranendonk , a geologist from the UNSW School of Biological, Earth & Environmental Sciences.   

“It’s literally splitting apart as a result of powerful forces down beneath the surface of the Earth’s crust, that's driven by convecting material in the mantle. Iceland is sitting on the division between the North American and the European tectonic plates.” 

Small earthquake tremors were first recorded in Iceland’s Reykjanes peninsula in late October. Since then, the Icelandic Meteorological Office has been recording over 1000 small earthquakes – or ‘earthquake swarms’ – a day, with an initial warning that the Fagradalsfjall volcano was ‘significantly likely’ to erupt. 

The town of Grindavík, with a population of around 2800, was evacuated on 11 November, and residents have no idea of when they’ll be able to return home.  

While the rate of earthquakes has reduced over the last week, and the risk of an eruption appears to be decreasing, Grindavík and the rest of the world are watching and waiting.  

“We live on a dynamic planet,” says Prof. Van Kranendonk. “What that actually means is that the ground can shift and change, and when it does, we have to be ready to act.”  

What’s the current situation? 

Iceland is one of the most tectonically active places on earth, with 33 active volcano systems.  

The country is famous for its geothermal heat. Iconic landmarks, such as the Blue Lagoon, are created by boiling magma that sits just below the Earth’s surface.  

The small earthquake tremors experienced in Grindalvík are not like the large destructive earthquakes that we have seen in Italy, the west coast of the Americas or the Himalayas that occur very deep in the crust. Instead, the earthquakes seen in Iceland are within a few 100 meters of the surface.  

“But these earthquake swarms have created big tears and gaps across roads, houses and valleys – the island is actually tearing itself apart. These cracks will allow liquid magma to come up to the surface, and likely in a short time, that will erupt and start to make a pretty spectacular volcanic eruption,” Prof. Van Kranendonk says. 

How do you monitor potential volcanic activity? 

The fissures in the ground caused by tectonic movement are up to a metre deep in Grindalvík.  

But the signs of a possible eruption are not always so clear cut. In cases where the signs of an eruption are not visible, advanced monitoring techniques have been installed. 

"One of the places where that's been applied is in Yellowstone. Yellowstone is another place where there's a lot of geothermal heat and energy, driven by magma that is very close to the surface,” says Prof. Van Kranendonk. “What they do there is measure the tilt of the ground with sensors.”  

This degree of movement is not something you can see: for example, the land could rise by 10 centimetres on one side and drop by five centimetres on the other side, over a distance of 50 kilometres, explains Prof. Van Kranendonk. “And if the authorities measured a change like that, then they would have to start to think about the safety of visitors.” 

While in Grinalvík there are distinct signs of a possible eruption, the details about the exact time and scale of a volcanic eruption are far hazier. 

“The tricky part in these situations is being able to predict exactly where and when,” says Prof. Van Kranendonk. “Because of the very discrete linear fissures in the crust, they have a good idea of the avenue the eruption could happen, but as it's a fluid interacting with a hard crust, you don't know exactly where the major breaks are going to be.”  

Although the risk of an eruption has decreased, the evacuation zone is still deemed dangerous by civil defence officials, as an eruption could happen with only minutes’ notice. 

“Taking the precaution to evacuate is the right thing to do because when emergencies happen, roads get jammed and people can’t get out,” says Prof. Van Kranendonk. 

“I think in this case, it's a relatively straightforward risk assessment. In other places, when the warning signs aren’t there, volcanic eruptions can have catastrophic consequences.” 

What is the potential impact? 

When these huge fissures occur in the ground and the eruption starts, they can last up to several months and deliver a large volume of lava that can flow over an extensive area of ground.  

“There is the possibility that there will be a very long-lived event, and depending on the shape of the landscape – where the hills and the valleys are – large areas can get covered,” says Prof. Van Kranendonk. “The famous Blue Pools that have been such a tourist draw are in low lying areas, and if the lava starts to flow that way, they may be lost forever.” 

But the magnitude of such a volcanic eruption could have a global impact. 

The 2010 eruption of Eyjafjallajökul, in southern Iceland, projected a huge amount of ash into the atmosphere and caused a significant disruption to international travel, with over 10 million travellers stranded.  

"If it's a really big eruption it's going to pump a lot of gases into the atmosphere, and then that can actually have an impact on our global climate,” says Prof. Van Kranendonk. “We've known from previous big volcanic eruptions that there can be a long-lasting cooling effect.”  

If a gaseous eruption does happen, the impact on those living locally can also be very serious. "The high concentration of gases released by a volcano can be lethal on its own. And so that can sometimes warrant a larger evacuation, but that would be monitored very closely, on an hour by hour, minute by minute basis.” 

Can anything be done to reduce the damage of a volcanic eruption? 

Last week, Icelandic authorities said that they were considering pumping water onto any lava to cool and divert it.  

“Volcanic eruptions are pretty big forces of nature. And they require major engineering programs to affect them in any way,” says Prof. Van Kranendonk.  

“You can divert flows to some degree. And depending on how steep the topography is, you may be able to direct where the lava goes. But if it's a big volcanic system, reducing the damage caused is always a challenge.” 

Read more: Maluku earthquake: why do some ocean earthquakes cause tsunamis while others don't? 

Iceland is known for its geotourism and every year visitors go to see magnificent natural sights, including the remnants of past volcanic events. And while there may be a temporary disruption to travel in tourism in the wake of Fagradalsfjall, Prof. Van Kranendonk says that tourists will always come back. 

“Tourists will want to understand the threat people are living in every day – it's amazing to see and it's something that ties us to our planet. 

“To actually go and see that the planet is a living, breathing, changing thing and that we are here due to its good graces, is always a powerful draw.” 

The situation with Fagradalsfjall is changing daily. Despite the uncertainty, the state of the volcano is being thoroughly monitored as the country continues to brace for a possible eruption. 

Resources you can trust

The Eyjafjallajokull volcanic eruption

This resource helps students create a case study factsheet on the Eyjafjallajökull volcano in Iceland. There are four information sheets about the causes of the eruption, the eruption itself, the effects and the responses to the eruption. Students use this information to complete a case study fact file.  

The case study sheet could be completed as a carousel activity with students gathering facts from the information sheets placed around the room, or simply a pack of informaiton sheets could be distributed to pairs of students to use to complete their case study sheet.

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Iceland volcano latest: Lava inside town - after 'worst-case scenario' hits; official warns of 'daunting time' for Iceland

An area of southwestern Iceland has had its second volcanic eruption in less than a month, with lava sent spewing towards nearby Grindavik. The president has said the country faces a "daunting period" as it battles "tremendous forces of nature" in the town.

Monday 15 January 2024 17:27, UK

• Second eruption in southwestern Iceland in less than a month
• Situation is 'worst-case scenario'
• 'Daunting time' for Iceland, president says 
• Watch : Buildings consumed by lava
• Analysis : Community that people had built over generations is at risk

Thank you for following our live coverage today.

Here is a recap of the big events:

• Iceland's president says it is a "daunting period" for the country as it battles "tremendous forces of nature";
• Drone footage captured the sheer scale of the disaster , as houses were set on fire and jets of lava sprayed into the air;
• The search for a man who fell into a crack after last month's volcanic eruption has been called off ;
• And more than 200 sheep are thought to be locked in shelters in Grindavik, according to a vet.

To read more about the eruption and aftermath go here: 

This map from the National Land Survey of Iceland (Landmaelingar Islands) shows the lava flow to the north of Grindavik.

Lava has flowed from a crack close to Grindavik, setting three houses on fire.

There is also a larger fissure north of the town.

These pictures show lava flowing from the Fagradalsfjall volcano near Grindavik.

Aerial photos show the lava flow front that entered the town, destroying three houses.

GPS measurements are still showing geological movements and indicating magma continues to flow in a corridor beneath the town of Grindavik, a volcanologist has said.

Molten lava reached the outskirts of the town around noon yesterday, setting three houses on fire.

The town had already been evacuated and there was no immediate danger to people.

Volcanologist Rikke Pedersen said the crack in the earth's surface that opened close to Grindavik yesterday was no longer active and lava production from the larger fissure north of the town was decreasing.

"Activity has dropped significantly overnight," she said.

Up to 240 sheep are locked in shelters in Grindavik, the chief veterinarian at the Icelandic Food and Veterinary Authority has said.

The authority has been in contact with the Civil Protection Committee to ask for owners to be granted permission to bring their animals to safety.

"We have pointed out the need for this and have done what we can to push this through. It seems to us that this is between 220 and 240 sheep," Mr Pordarson told the Iceland monitor. "We are waiting for this to be addressed."

Mr Pordarson said he was concerned about lack of water for the animals after water to the town was cut off by the eruption.

He said he did not know the number of other animal species that might remain in the town, and said he has received reports some cats did not return when their owners left the town.

"We’re concerned about all these animals and that they get a good shelter," Mr Pordarson said.

Iceland's government is assessing the housing situation for the evacuated residents of Grindavik, according to broadcaster RUV.

Justice minister Gudrun Hafsteinsdottir was cited as saying it would not be possible to return to the town until it is "considered completely safe".

"The situation changed completely yesterday and people are not going to Grindavik for the next few months," she said, adding that the government would need to "look at the housing issue in a new light and over a longer period of time". 

Ms Hafsteinsdottir said everything was being done to find more apartments for residents, according to RUV.

The search for a workman who fell into a crack in the ground that opened up after last month's volcanic eruption has been called off.

"Unfortunately the man was not found," local police told Sky News.

A spokesperson said conditions were too dangerous.

Ludvik Petursson, 50, went missing on 10 January.

He was working to fill crevasses formed by earthquakes and volcanic activity in the town of Grindavik, near where the latest eruption has taken place.

Hundreds of people were involved in the search, which had to be stopped overnight last Thursday due to a rockfall.

Local police said Mr Petursson was a father of four and said he had two grandchildren.

Pictures taken by the Icelandic Coast Guard show the scale of the eruption and its proximity to nearby Grindavik.

The images, taken from the air, show lava shooting out of a fissure in the ground and creeping towards the town.

By  Thomas Moore , science correspondent in Iceland

Stand on the hill overlooking the eruption site and you see how perilously close it is to Grindavik.

A search and rescue team had taken us into the exclusion zone, past the Blue Lagoon spa, towards the evacuated town.

From our vantage point we could see fire fountains spouting molten rock and lava sweeping towards people's homes.

The eruption has subsided overnight.

It's nothing like the curtain of fire videoed by the coastguard helicopter on Sunday.

We saw three fire fountains. One was spouting lava a good 5m into the air; the other two were smaller.

The lava doesn't seem to be moving now, but it is glowing red hot in places. Steam and smoke rise into the chilly winter air.

But the lava has already caused considerable damage, severing the pipes that took hot water from the nearby power station into the town.

It means homes have no heat. And at this time of year that makes them uninhabitable.

Engineers are assessing how the pipes might be rerouted, but that will take a while.

The defensive wall that workers have been building over the last fortnight has prevented more considerable damage to the town.

It's about 3m high, built from rock and earth. And it has diverted much of the lava flow.

It's the first time it has ever been tried and it worked.

The wall hasn't been finished though, and where it was slightly lower it was overtopped by lava.

The second fissure, which opened up much closer to town, inside the defensive wall, took everyone by surprise.

There was nothing to stop the lava, but fortunately only three houses appear to have been consumed by the molten rock or burned by the intense heat.

Civil defence teams are now taking stock of the situation.

If the eruption is petering out already then repairs can start.

But whether the people of Grindavik want to return to their homes when lava is looming on their doorstep is another matter. 

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Adventurer breaks record with daring highline walk across world’s highest volcano

A daring adventurer set a record by walking a highline across the top of the world’s highest volcano – at an altitude of more than 22,000 ft.

Matías Grez’s scary feat earned him the record for highest elevation highline (male), with harness (ISA-verified) .

His highline was established at an altitude of 6,880 m (22,572 ft) on top of Nevado Ojos del Salado on the Chile-Argentina border in the Andes mountain range on 21 December 2022.

The 33-m-long (110-ft) line was 20 m (66 ft) above the ground. 

Nevado Ojos del Salado is the highest of the Volcanic Seven Summits, making it the world's highest volcano . 

The slackline walk was part of a five-month-long project for Matías and his team of Chilean athletes.

Matías, 31, who works as an adventure tourist guide, broke this record during a journey that saw him walk highlines across numerous volcanoes, filming it all for a documentary called The Eyes of the Earth, the Call of the Andes .

Matías, from Chile, and his team - Diego Troncoso and Bernardita Lira – began preparing for their journey in August 2022, moving together to San Pedro de Atacama, in the north of Chile. 

“Our training consisted of doing bicycle routes, which ranged from 2,500 metres above sea level to 4,000 metres above sea level. In addition, we installed three highlines in ravines located at 3,500 metres above sea level. 

“We were training in that place for a month. In parallel, we went trekking at altitude to acclimatize. Then we went to the active Lascar volcano.”

After three ascents, the team installed a 110-metre-long highline in the crater of Lascar, 5,500 m above sea level.

On 22 October, that became the first highline Matías conquered during his epic journey.

Next was Licancabur volcano and a 95-m line 5,916 m above the sea, which Matías walked across on a highline on 16 November.

After that, it was on to the Ojos del Salado area, where the team spent an entire month.

Matías told us: “We had to make two ascents to carry the equipment and prepare the anchors. In between, there were storms and we had to wait for a windless window to accomplish the mission. 

“On the third ascent, we slept in the crater of the volcano at 6,700 metres above sea level, being the highest camp recorded in Chile. The next day, on 21 December, we mounted the 33-metre-long webbing at 6,800 m above sea level, joining the Argentine summit with the Chilean summit, thus achieving the highest highline in the world.”

Matías and his team use high mountain equipment in their endeavours and must be prepared to take on extreme cold and snow.

As they’re all extremely qualified and experienced, the highline itself wasn’t too dangerous, Matías said.

But one factor that did cause problems was the weather.

Matías explained: “The weather could have been risky, since it is a place with a lot of wind and thunderstorms, however, we waited a couple of weeks in the base camp until a windless day occurred to do the assembly. 

“Also, if we add the elevation factor, it becomes more risky because any high altitude illness in a person can affect the entire team, which is why it was very important to take the appropriate time to acclimatize.”

But all the hard work was worth it for that record-breaking moment.

The very moment of walking the highline was very special. - Matías

“I felt a lot of happiness and gratitude to all the people who supported us to get there. I also felt a deep connection with the mountain, observing the entire crater of the volcano and the view from up there. 

“It was a satisfaction where all the work and effort that had been put in throughout this project came to its climax.”

This record is monitored by the International Slackline Association (ISA).

During his journey, Matías was also helped by Moisés Castro, René García, Rodrigo Flores and Claudio Echegaray.

He said: “It was very positive to have achieved this entire project since we have been working on different highline projects for years and this time we managed to complete this entire journey that meant something much deeper for us. 

“Years ago, together with my partner, we had the intention of climbing part of the volcanoes to honour the mountain, which years later we were able to achieve through this project and unite the different passions such as the love for the mountain range, the passion for balance and working the creative side of filming a documentary.”

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