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Your last-minute guide to the 2024 total solar eclipse

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Here’s what distorted faces can look like to people with prosopometamorphopsia

A patient with an unusual variation of the condition helped researchers visualize the demonic distortions he sees when looking at human faces.

Don’t use unsterilized tap water to rinse your sinuses. It may carry brain-eating amoebas

Long covid brain fog may be due to damaged blood vessels in the brain, from the archives.

How to Stop a Biological Clock

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Here’s why blueberries are blue

Here’s how scientists reached nuclear fusion ‘ignition’ for the first time.

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How brain implants are treating depression

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The black-capped chickadee, seen here, is well known for its strong episodic memory. Dmitriy Aronov hide caption

The "barcodes" powering these tiny songbirds' memories may also help human memory

April 5, 2024 • Tiny, black-capped chickadees have big memories. They stash food in hundreds to thousands of locations in the wild – and then come back to these stashes when other food sources are low. Now, researchers at Columbia University's Zuckerman Institute think neural activity that works like a barcode may be to thank for this impressive feat — and that it might be a clue for how memories work across species.

The "barcodes" powering these tiny songbirds' memories may also help human memory

"One second doesn't sound like much, but in today's interconnected world, getting the time wrong could lead to huge problems," geophysicist Duncan Agnew says. Here, an official clock is seen at a golf tournament in Cape Town, South Africa. Johan Rynners/Getty Images hide caption

Negative leap second: Climate change delays unusual step for time standard

March 30, 2024 • We're nearing a year when a negative leap second could be needed to shave time — an unprecedented step that would have unpredictable effects, a new study says.

A researcher holds up a sandy De Winton's golden mole. Nicky Souness/Endangered Wildlife Trust hide caption

Once lost to science, these "uncharismatic" animals are having their moment

March 29, 2024 • Historic numbers of animals across the globe have become endangered or pushed to extinction. But some of these species sit in limbo — not definitively extinct yet missing from the scientific record. Rediscovering a "lost" species is not easy. It can require trips to remote areas and canvassing a large area in search of only a handful of animals. But new technology and stronger partnerships with local communities have helped these hidden, "uncharismatic" creatures come to light.

Once lost to science, these "uncharismatic" animals are having their moment

The country's two biggest reservoirs are on the Colorado River. Water levels at Lake Powell have dropped steeply during the two-decade megadrought. Justin Sullivan/Getty Images hide caption

The Colorado River rarely reaches the sea. Here's why

March 28, 2024 • More than half of the Colorado River's water is used to grow crops, primarily livestock feed, a new study finds. The river and its users are facing tough decisions as the climate warms.

A post-reproductive toothed whale mother and her son. David Ellifrit/Center for Whale Research hide caption

Most animals don't go through menopause. So why do these whales?

March 22, 2024 • Across the animal kingdom, menopause is something of an evolutionary blip. We humans are one of the few animals to experience it. But Sam Ellis , a researcher in animal behavior, argues that this isn't so surprising. "The best way to propagate your genes is to get as many offspring as possible into the next generation," says Ellis. "The best way to do that is almost always to reproduce your whole life."

A cicada perches on a picnic table in front of Nolde Mansion in Cumru Township, PA in May 2021. New research shows that these insects urinate in a surprising way. Ben Hasty / MediaNews Group/Reading Eagle via Getty Images hide caption

Scientists studied how cicadas pee. Their insights could shed light on fluid dynamics

March 20, 2024 • Cicadas, and the way they urinate, offer a 'perfect' lab for understanding fluid dynamics at very small scales, researchers say

Workers at the U.S. Embassy in Havana leave the building in September 2017. New research out of the National Institutes of Health finds no unusual pattern of damage in the brains of Havana syndrome patients. Emily Michot/Miami Herald/Tribune News Service via Getty Images hide caption

Shots - Health News

In havana syndrome patients, nih scientists find no physical trace of harm.

March 18, 2024 • The mysterious ailments that became known as Havana syndrome left no physical evidence of injury or disease, according to two government studies.

This close-up of the Verona astrolabe shows Arabic and Hebrew markings. Federica Gigante hide caption

This medieval astrolabe has both Arabic and Hebrew markings. Here's what it means

March 16, 2024 • This discovery sheds new light on the rich history of scholarship and intellectual exchange between Muslims, Jews and Christians during a time of Muslim rule in medieval Spain.

Flares burn off methane and other hydrocarbons at an oil and gas facility in Lenorah, Texas in 2021. New research shows drillers emit about three times as much climate-warming methane as official estimates. David Goldman/AP hide caption

Oil and gas companies emit more climate-warming methane than EPA reports

March 13, 2024 • Oil and gas drillers are releasing more climate-warming methane than the government estimates, a new study shows.

This type of staghorn coral ( Acropora pulchra ) appeared to benefit from the presence of sea cucumbers ( Holothuria atra ), a new study finds. Terry Moore/Stocktrek Images / Science Source hide caption

This often-overlooked sea creature may be quietly protecting the planet's coral reefs

March 13, 2024 • The pickle-shaped bottom feeders may reduce the amount of microbes on the seafloor that could potentially sicken coral, scientists suggest

Millions of people are affected by long COVID, a disease that encompasses a range of symptoms — everything from brain fog to chronic fatigue — and that manifests differently across patients. The Washington Post/The Washington Post via Getty Images hide caption

What we know about long COVID — from brain fog to physical fatigue

March 13, 2024 • "Long COVID has affected every part of my life," said Virginia resident Rachel Beale said at a recent Senate hearing. "I wake up every day feeling tired, nauseous and dizzy. I immediately start planning when I can lay down again." Beale is far from alone. Many of her experiences have been echoed by others dealing with long COVID. It's a constellation of debilitating symptoms that range from brain fog and intense physical fatigue to depression and anxiety. But there's new, promising research that sheds light onto some symptoms. NPR health correspondent Will Stone talks with Short Wave host Regina G. Barber about the state of long COVID research — what we know, what we don't and when we can expect treatments or even cures for it. Have more COVID questions you want us to cover? Email us at [email protected] — we'd love to hear from you.

Maria E. Garay-Serratos holds a framed photograph of her mother, who died after suffering decades of domestic violence. Scientists are trying to understand how domestic violence damages the brain. Julio Serratos/Maria E. Garay-Serratos hide caption

Domestic violence may leave telltale damage in the brain. Scientists want to find it

March 8, 2024 • Traumatic brain injuries from intimate partner violence are common, and potentially more severe than those seen in sports.

Elephantnose Fish, Gnathonemus petersii, Congo ullstein bild hide caption

The "shocking" tactic electric fish use to collectively sense the world

March 8, 2024 • Neuroscientist Nathan Sawtell has spent a lot of time studying the electric elephantnose fish. These fish send and decipher weak electric signals, which Sawtell hopes will eventually help neuroscientists better understand how the brain filters sensory information about the outside world. As Sawtell has studied these electric critters, he's had a lingering question: why do they always seem to organize themselves in a particular orientation. At first, he couldn't figure out why, but a new study released this week in Nature may have an answer: the fish are creating an electrical network larger than any field a single fish can muster alone, and providing collective knowledge about potential dangers in the surrounding water.

The "shocking" tactic electric fish use to collectively sense the world

A digital illustration of a circle of hands extending from the edge of the image, each holding a sheet of paper. The papers overlap in the center and, like a puzzle, come together to reveal a drawing of a handgun. Oona Tempest/KFF Health News hide caption

Meet the public health researchers trying to rein in America's gun violence crisis

Kff health news.

March 6, 2024 • After the 1996 Dickey Amendment halted federal spending on gun violence research, a small group of academics pressed on, with little money or support. Now a new generation is taking up the charge.

This artist's concept shows the Voyager 1 spacecraft entering the space between stars. Interstellar space is dominated by plasma, ionized gas (illustrated here as brownish haze). NASA/JPL-Caltech hide caption

The Voyager 1 spacecraft has a big glitch. Now, NASA must figure out how to fix it

March 6, 2024 • The Voyager 1 space probe is the farthest human-made object in space. It launched in 1977 with a golden record on board that carried assorted sounds of our home planet: greetings in many different languages, dogs barking, and the sound of two people kissing, to name but a few examples. The idea with this record was that someday, Voyager 1 might be our emissary to alien life – an audible time capsule of Earth's beings. Since its launch, it also managed to complete missions to Jupiter and Saturn. In 2012, it crossed into interstellar space.

A case of bronchitis in 2014 left Sanna Stella, a therapist who lives in the Chicago area, with debilitating fatigue. Stacey Wescott/Tribune News Service via Getty Images hide caption

Clues to a better understanding of chronic fatigue syndrome emerge from a major study

February 23, 2024 • After seven years of research, the findings shed light on the long-neglected illness. Scientists say the results could lead to future trials for potential treatments.

A 3D model of a short section of the stone wall. The scale at the bottom of the image measures 50 cm. Photos by Philipp Hoy, University of Rostock; model created using Agisoft Metashape by J. Auer, LAKD M-V hide caption

Scientists scanning the seafloor discover a long-lost Stone Age 'megastructure'

February 22, 2024 • The more than half mile long wall, called the Blinkerwall, was likely used by Stone Age hunter-gatherers to herd reindeer toward a shooting blind.

The sun emits a mid-level solar flare releasing a burst of solar material. NASA hide caption

In light of the solar maximum, a look at the biggest solar storm in recorded history

February 21, 2024 • We are at the height of the Sun's activity in its eleven year cycle, known to astronomers as the solar maximum. This means that over the next several months there's going to be a lot of solar activity. It's got us thinking back to 1859. That's when astronomer Richard Carrington was studying the Sun when he witnessed the most intense geomagnetic storm recorded in history. The storm, triggered by a giant solar flare, sent brilliant auroral displays across the globe causing electrical sparking and fires in telegraph stations. This encore episode, Regina talks to solar physicist Dr. Samaiyah Farid about what's now known as the Carrington event and about what may happen the next time a massive solar storm hits Earth.

One woolly mammoth's journey at the end of the Ice Age

February 19, 2024 • Lately, paleoecologist Audrey Rowe has been a bit preoccupied with a girl named Elma. That's because Elma is ... a woolly mammoth. And 14,000 years ago, when Elma was alive, her habitat in interior Alaska was rapidly changing. The Ice Age was coming to a close and human hunters were starting early settlements. Which leads to an intriguing question: Who, or what , killed her? In the search for answers, Audrey traces Elma's life and journey through — get this — a single tusk. Today, she shares her insights on what the mammoth extinction from thousands of years ago can teach us about megafauna extinctions today with guest host Nate Rott .

Tai chi has many health benefits. It improves flexibility, reduces stress and can help lower blood pressure. Ruth Jenkinson/Getty Images/Science Photo Library hide caption

Tai chi reduces blood pressure better than aerobic exercise, study finds

February 14, 2024 • The slow-moving Chinese martial art tai chi is known to increase flexibility and balance. Now, research suggests it's more effective at reducing blood pressure than more vigorous forms of exercise.

Manny and Cayenne wrestle and kiss. LA Johnson/NPR hide caption

Manny loves Cayenne. Plus, 5 facts about queer animals for Valentine's Day

February 14, 2024 • In a Valentine's Day exclusive report, NPR has learned there is currently a gay anteater couple at Smithsonian's National Zoo and Conservation Biology Institute in Washington D.C.But this couple is just the tip of the proverbial iceberg when it comes to queerness in the animal world – it's been documented in hundreds of species. We spoke with wildlife ecologist Christine Wilkinson of the "Queer is Natural" TikTok series to uncover the wildest, queerest animals of the bunch.

Ninety-seven percent of migratory fish species are facing extinction. Whale sharks, the world's largest living fish, are among the endangered. Ullstein Bild/Ullstein Bild hide caption

Across the world, migrating animal populations are dwindling. Here's why

February 12, 2024 • In a landmark U.N. study, researchers found nearly half of the world's threatened migratory species have declining populations. More than a fifth of the assessed animals face extinction.

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Reevaluating an approach to functional brain imaging

An MRI method purported to detect neurons’ rapid impulses produces its own misleading signals instead, an MIT study finds.

April 4, 2024

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Propelling atomically layered magnets toward green computers

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Researchers 3D print key components for a point-of-care mass spectrometer

The low-cost hardware outperforms state-of-the-art versions and could someday enable an affordable, in-home device for health monitoring.

Unlocking new science with devices that control electric power

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MIT researchers discover “neutronic molecules”

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April 3, 2024

A new computational technique could make it easier to engineer useful proteins

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The majority of U.S. jobs are in occupations that have emerged since 1940, MIT research finds — telling us much about the ways jobs are created and lost.

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March 28, 2024

Atmospheric observations in China show rise in emissions of a potent greenhouse gas

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Second round of seed grants awarded to MIT scholars studying the impact and applications of generative AI

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Newspapers fact sheet, table of contents.

Newspapers are a critical part of the American news landscape, but they have been hit hard as more and more Americans consume news digitally. The industry’s financial fortunes and subscriber base have been in decline since the mid-2000s, and their website audience traffic has begun to decline as well. Explore the patterns and longitudinal data of U.S. newspapers below.

In 2022, estimated total U.S. daily newspaper circulation (print and digital combined) was 20.9 million for both weekday and Sunday, down 8% and 10% respectively from 2021.

Note: To determine totals for 2015 onward, researchers analyzed the year-over-year change in total weekday and Sunday circulation using AAM data and applied these percent changes to the previous year’s total. Only those daily U.S. newspapers that report to AAM are included. Affiliated publications are not included in the analysis. Weekday circulation only includes those publications reporting a Monday-Friday average. Comparisons are either between the three-month averages for the period ending Dec. 31 of the given year and the same period of the previous year (2015-2019), the six-month period ending Sept. 30 and the three-month period ending Sept. 30 of the previous year (2020), or the six-month period ending Sept. 30 of the given year and the same period of the previous year (2021-2022).

Source: Editor & Publisher (through 2014); estimate based on Pew Research Center analysis of Alliance for Audited Media data (2015-2022).

(Note that the Alliance for Audited Media (AAM), the source of this circulation data and the group that audits the circulation figures of many of the largest North American newspapers and other publications, changed their reporting period in 2020 from a three-month period to a six-month period. Additional details about how the circulation estimate is calculated can be found in the  methodological note  below.)

Within this total circulation figure, weekday print circulation decreased 13% and Sunday print circulation decreased 16% from the previous year.

Digital circulation is more difficult to gauge. Using only the AAM data, digital circulation in 2022 is projected to have remained relatively stable. But three of the highest-circulation daily papers in the U.S. – The New York Times, The Wall Street Journal and The Washington Post – have in recent years not fully reported their digital circulation to AAM. The Times and the Journal provide data on digital subscriptions in publicly available reports, but since this is not the same as circulation and may not be counted under the same rules used by AAM, these independently produced figures cannot easily be merged with the AAM data. If these independently produced figures were included with the AAM data in both 2021 and 2022, weekday digital circulation would have risen sharply, by 22%.

Note: Researchers analyzed the year-over-year change in total weekday circulation using AAM data and applied these percent changes to the previous year’s total. Only those daily U.S. newspapers that report to AAM are included. Affiliated publications are not included in the analysis. Weekday circulation only includes those publications reporting a Monday-Friday average. Comparisons are either between the three-month averages for the period ending Dec. 31 of the given year and the same period of the previous year (2016-2019), the six-month period ending Sept. 30 and the three-month period ending Sept. 30 of the previous year (2020), or the six-month period ending Sept. 30 of the given year and the same period of the previous year (2021-2022).

Source: Estimate based on Pew Research Center analysis of Alliance for Audited Media data and subscription data from SEC filings and audited reports.

The addition of these figures also changes the overall picture for combined print and digital circulation. Before 2020, including these subscription numbers with the AAM circulation data would not have changed the overall circulation picture, as total circulation would still decline. From 2020 onward, however, including the Times’ and the Journal’s digital subscribers reverses the trend. In 2022, total weekday circulation would rise by 12% – not fall by 8%, as is the case when looking strictly at the AAM data. For comparison, the chart above shows estimated total weekday circulation using just the AAM data and when the digital subscriber numbers from the Times and Journal are included over the past seven years. For more details on how this affects our estimates and conclusions, read  this post from 2020 on our Decoded blog.

Note: For each year, the average traffic for each website for October/November/December was calculated; the data point represents the overall average of those numbers. Analysis is of the top 49 newspapers by average Sunday circulation for Q3 2015-2019 and the six-month period ending Sept. 30 for 2020 onward, according to Alliance for Audited Media data, with the addition of The Wall Street Journal. For each newspaper, the Comscore entity matching its homepage URL was analyzed.

Source: Comscore Media Metrix® Multi-Platform, US, Unique Visitors, October-December 2014-2022.

Gauging digital audience for the entire newspaper industry is difficult since many daily newspapers do not receive enough traffic to their websites to be measured by Comscore, the data source relied on here. Thus, the figures offered above reflect the top 50 U.S. daily newspapers based on circulation. In the fourth quarter of 2022, there were an average 8.8 million monthly unique visitors (across all devices) for these top 50 newspapers. This is down 20% from 2021, which itself was a 20% decrease from 2020.

(The list of top 50 papers is based on Sunday circulation but includes The Wall Street Journal, which does not report Sunday circulation to AAM. It also includes The Washington Post and The New York Times, which make the top 50 even though they do not fully report their digital circulation to AAM. For more details and the full list of newspapers, read our  methodology .)

Note: For each year, the average minutes per visit for each website for October/November/December was calculated; the data point represents the overall average of those numbers. Analysis is of the top 49 newspapers by average Sunday circulation for Q3 2015-2019 and the six-month period ending Sept. 30 for 2020 onward, according to Alliance for Audited Media data, with the addition of The Wall Street Journal. For each newspaper, the Comscore entity matching its homepage URL was analyzed.

Source: Comscore Media Metrix® Multi-Platform, US, Average Minutes Per Visit, October-December 2014-2022.

Average minutes per visit for the top 50 U.S. daily newspapers, based on circulation, was just under 1 minute and 30 seconds in Q4 2022. This represents a 43% decline from when we first began tracking this in Q4 2014, when the average minutes per visit was just over 2 minutes and 30 seconds.

The total estimated advertising revenue for the newspaper industry in 2022 was $9.8 billion, based on the Center’s analysis of financial statements for publicly traded newspaper companies. This is down 5% from 2021, a slight drop. Total estimated circulation revenue was $11.6 billion, compared with $11.5 billion in 2020.

Source: News Media Alliance, formerly Newspaper Association of America (through 2012); Pew Research Center analysis of year-end SEC filings of publicly traded newspaper companies (2013-2022).

In the chart above, data through 2012 comes from the trade group formerly known as the Newspaper Association of America (NAA), now known as the News Media Alliance (NMA). Data from 2013 onward is based on the Center’s analysis of financial statements from publicly traded U.S. newspaper companies, which in 2022 numbered four and accounted for about 300 U.S. daily newspapers, from large national papers to midsize metro dailies and local papers.

From 2013 onward, the year-over-year percentage change in advertising and circulation revenue for these companies is calculated and then applied to the previous year’s revenue totals as reported by the NMA/NAA. In testing this method, changes from 2006 through 2012 generally matched those as reported by the NMA/NAA; for more details, read our  2016 report .

Source: Pew Research Center analysis of year-end SEC filings for publicly traded newspaper companies that break out digital advertising revenue for each year.

Digital advertising accounted for 48% of newspaper advertising revenue in 2022, based on this analysis of publicly traded newspaper companies. This follows a steady increase from 17% in 2011, the first year it was possible to perform this analysis.

Methodological note

In this fact sheet, circulation data through 2014 is from Editor & Publisher, which was published on the website of the News Media Alliance (NMA), known at the time as the Newspaper Association of America (NAA). The NMA no longer supplies this data, so the Center determined the year-over-year change in total circulation for those daily U.S. newspapers that report to the Alliance for Audited Media and meet certain criteria. This percentage change was then applied to the total circulation from the prior year – thus the use of the term “estimated total circulation.” This technique is also used to create the revenue estimates, using the financial statements of publicly traded newspaper companies as the data source.

Find out more

This fact sheet was compiled by Research Assistants  Sarah Naseer  and  Christopher St. Aubin .

Read the  methodology .

Pew Research Center is a subsidiary of The Pew Charitable Trusts, its primary funder. This is the latest report in Pew Research Center’s ongoing investigation of the state of news, information and journalism in the digital age, a research program funded by The Pew Charitable Trusts, with generous support from the John S. and James L. Knight Foundation.

Find more in-depth explorations of U.S. newspapers by following the links below:

• After increasing in 2020, layoffs at large U.S. newspapers and digital news sites declined in 2021 , Oct. 13, 2022
• News Platform Fact Sheet , Sept. 20, 2022
• Local Newspapers Fact Sheet , May 26, 2022
• U.S. newsroom employment has fallen 26% since 2008 , July 13, 2021
• A third of large U.S. newspapers experienced layoffs in 2020, more than in 2019 , May 21, 2021
• Coronavirus-Driven Downturn Hits Newspapers Hard as TV News Thrives , Oct. 29, 2020
• Nearly 2,800 newspaper companies received paycheck protection loans, and most were under $150K , Oct. 29, 2020
• Americans’ main sources for political news vary by party and age , April 1, 2020
• Black and white Democrats differ in their media diets, assessments of primaries , March 11, 2020
• Fast facts about the newspaper industry’s financial struggles as McClatchy files for bankruptcy , Feb. 14, 2020
• U.S. Media Polarization and the 2020 Election: A Nation Divided , Jan. 24, 2020
• For Local News, Americans Embrace Digital but Still Want Strong Community Connection , March 26, 2019
• What are the local news dynamics in your city? , March 26, 2019

About Pew Research Center Pew Research Center is a nonpartisan fact tank that informs the public about the issues, attitudes and trends shaping the world. It conducts public opinion polling, demographic research, media content analysis and other empirical social science research. Pew Research Center does not take policy positions. It is a subsidiary of The Pew Charitable Trusts .

Experts expanding the reach of engineering research

Between the roles of students learning in labs and the faculty who chart the course of that research, a group of specialists give the research enterprise incredible strength.

• Alex Parrish
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Addressing global challenges requires a strong team, and the work that occurs between the formation of an idea and the presentation of a solution demands skilled hands.

Many of the research faculty who direct labs at Virginia Tech have projects in motion with the potential of making a better world, but that research requires extensive trial and error. To best complete the work that happens between the beginning and the end of those projects, the engagement of skilled experts is essential. 

Those same skilled experts also bring mastery into the sphere of educating, standing beside students at a lab bench or lending their knowledge to the next generation of engineers and scientists. 

A little more than 5 percent of all employees at Virginia Tech are identified as a postdoctoral associate, research associate, research assistant professor, or postdoctoral associate. Some are attached to specific projects; others work broadly with faculty who are managing a large portfolio.  

In most cases, the work comes after acquiring a doctorate in the field, so expertise is firmly established. These are critical positions in the Department of Mechanical Engineering , which hosts more than 30 labs that push the boundaries of innovation through funded research from agencies both domestic and international. Two people working in that realm are Amanda Leong and Sibin Kunhi Purayil.

The nuclear option: Amanda Leong 

The nuclear engineering program within the mechanical engineering department has several labs in Blacksburg, and two of them house the work of Professor Jinsuo Zhang. To manage multiple projects and students at two sites, Zhang relies on Research Assistant Professor Amanda Leong. 

Leong came to Virginia Tech after finishing her bachelor’s degree in mechanical engineering at Ohio State, jumping straight into the doctoral program in the College of Engineering with Zhang. She had started with Zhang’s lab when both were in Ohio, where she first started working in nuclear engineering. 

She followed the research to Virginia, completing her Ph.D. and learning her way around Blacksburg labs. Her own research focus is on energy, particularly the area of material corrosion in advanced nuclear reactors and the use of molten salt as a fuel or coolant in energy plants.  

In her role as a research assistant professor, Leong mentors two senior design teams with projects in her area of expertise, one in the Department of Mechanical Engineering and one in the Department of Material Science and Engineering . In addition to those teams, she co-supervises the lab’s students’ and postdocs’ research and helps address questions as they arise. She also serves as main advisor to an undergraduate research team. 

“Dr. Leong does the work of the lab directly,” said Zhang. “Because of her work, we are able to get solutions more quickly when students have issues or problems or when they develop new ideas and new research directions." 

She also has continued her own investigations and an increase in the number of published papers that she has produced has followed. 

“When you’re a student, you usually just work on one project,” Leong said. “I oversee several.” 

With her background in the field, Leong also helps analyze the data coming from the team’s research, quickly filtering issues that could derail the learning process so that students can more easily interpret what they’re seeing. 

“Because I was exposed to research earlier, I pick up some things that newer people might not be able to see,” she said. “I really enjoy teaching students, seeing their light bulbs come on. I love solving problems together.” 

Leong is enjoying the work she has found in Zhang’s lab, and her hopeful long-term plan is to find her way to a tenure-track research and teaching position. 

Bringing solar energy home: Sibin Kunhi Purayil

Sometimes, a research scientist with specialized skills is needed for a specific project. This is how Sibin Kunhi Purayil came to work for Ranga Pitchumani , the George R. Goodson Professor of Mechanical Engineering, in the Advanced Materials and Technologies Laboratory . 

Purayil earned his Ph.D. in India and worked at the National Aerospace Laboratory before being recruited for Pitchumani’s solar energy research at Virginia Tech. Pitchumani is  editor-in-chief of the peer-reviewed journal Solar Energy  and was  chief scientist of the SunShot Initiative , a federal grant challenge aimed at making solar energy more widely instituted. 

Pitchumani received funding in 2018 from the U.S. Department of Energy for a new project to develop high efficiency solar absorber coatings viable at high temperatures, and it was a perfect fit for Purayil’s skill set.  

The young scientist spent a lot of time during his 2019 postdoctoral work developing nanometer-thick flexible, transparent, and conductive coatings. These could be used for space, flexible electronics, and solar energy applications employing sophisticated thin film deposition techniques, and he was eager for new opportunities. 

Purayil sought a position that would allow him to continue making contributions to the greater environmental good: reduce the carbon dioxide emissions that can result from energy production.  

“My goal was to, in my way, reduce carbon emission and work toward global carbon neutrality,” Purayil said. “This project has a lot of possibilities, and if we can improve the solar absorber’s efficiency, it could make a significant contribution to that cause.” 

Pitchumani’s project – involving harvesting solar thermal energy at high temperatures with high efficiency - was a great match for Purayil’s goal. Purayil used a novel approach utilizing highly textured, high-temperature-stable solar absorber coatings designed to operate at temperatures exceeding 750 degrees celsius in an air atmosphere. The coatings they chose were made through cost-effective and industrially viable deposition techniques, meaning the technology will be more readily transferable from lab to practice.  

Purayil’s prior work with coatings and materials had equipped him with the experience Pitchumani needed. Together they have created the most efficient absorber of solar energy for high temperature solar thermal processes, be it power generation, providing industrial process heat, or producing solar fuels, all contributing to a decarbonized future — and to Purayil’s professional goals. Pitchumani and Purayil have filed for a patent on this innovation. 

Better results through expert teams 

One of the advantages of the research enterprise at Virginia Tech lies in its blend of experts with budding inventors. By employing specialists who both innovate and teach, a full body of knowledge is being passed on to the next generation of engineers. 

In the cases of Leong and Purayil, both have had the opportunity to take their proven acumen in academics to the next level, giving back to learning, and building their own body of work. Working beside professors with long histories in their fields provides insights for how that body of work fits into the bigger picture while finding solutions to the world’s most complex problems.

Chelsea Seeber

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Related Content

Small protein plays big role in chronic HIV infection

UC Riverside-led study on innate immune system may lead to new treatments for patients with neuroHIV

NeuroHIV refers to the effects of HIV infection on the brain or central nervous system and, to some extent, the spinal cord and peripheral nervous system. A collection of diseases, including neuropathy and dementia, neuroHIV can cause problems with memory and thinking and compromise our ability to live a normal life. 

Using a mouse model of neuroHIV, a research team led by biomedical scientists at the University of California, Riverside, studied the effects of interferon-β (IFNβ), a small protein involved in cell signaling and integral to the body’s natural defense mechanism against viral infections. The researchers found that higher or lower than normal levels of IFNβ affect the brain in a sex-dependent fashion: some changes only occur in females, others only in males.

Marcus Kaul , a professor of biomedical sciences in the School of Medicine who led the study , explained that when infection-induced IFNβ levels become high, the brains of females and males are protected. If IFNβ production in response to infection is absent or too low, HIV can compromise brain function right away in both females and males, he said. 

“However, IFNβ also controls other cell and brain functions,” Kaul said. “If IFNβ is absent, females display reduced nerve cell connections called dendrites in the cerebral cortex, while males show diminished ‘presynaptic terminals,’ another type of nerve cell connection, in the hippocampus.” 

Dendrites are highly branched structures that increase the receptive surface of neurons. 

“Paradoxically, in the hippocampus of females and males, the damage to presynaptic terminals by HIV is diminished when IFNβ is absent but the reduction of injury is more pronounced in males,” Kaul said.

According to the researchers, the work adds to scientists’ understanding of how innate immunity affects the brain during chronic HIV infection.

“Until now, it was not known that normal levels of IFNβ are required for normal memory function and that the absence of IFNβ changes the production of nerve cell components in a sex-dependent fashion,” Kaul said. 

The findings, published in the journal Brain, Behavior, and Immunity , are noteworthy because the mouse model of neuroHIV that Kaul and his team used shares key features of brain injury and compromised function, such as impaired memory, with people living with HIV infection, or PLWH. 

Almost all cells in the body can produce IFNβ. Kaul explained IFNβ regulates the production of inflammatory factors in neuroHIV and has two major effects: (a) it changes the state of a virally infected cell from ‘normal’ to ‘anti-viral,’ making the cells uncomfortable environments for the virus, even completely shutting down virus production, and (b) IFNβ is released from infected cells as well as specialized cells that, by sensing infected cells, can alert neighboring cells and the entire body of a viral infection. 

“This is how neighboring cells adapt to become more resistant to viral infection,” Kaul said. “Some of them will also release additional anti-viral factors and a mixture of other factors that can promote or limit inflammation, such as cytokines called CCL3, CCL4 and CCL5.”   

The research was performed in Kaul’s laboratory. The team generated a new variant of an established transgenic mouse model of neuroHIV by crossbreeding this model with mice that lack IFNβ. The team then analyzed memory function and brain tissue of the transgenic mice for injury that usually occurs in neuroHIV.

“HIV and some other viruses have developed mechanisms to reduce or even prevent the production of more than normal levels of IFNβ,” said Hina Singh , an assistant project scientist in Kaul’s lab and the first author of the research paper. “We know little about the role of IFNβ in the human brain beyond that it can reduce inflammation. This is a major reason why IFNβ is used to treat multiple sclerosis, an autoimmune disease that affects more than 2.8 million people worldwide . Currently, we have almost no information about how much IFNβ is present in the brains of PLWH and what it does there.”

Singh said the study underscores the importance of having normal levels of IFNβ during no viral infection and having sufficiently high levels of IFNβ in case of neuroHIV or other viral infections. 

“The body’s many anti-viral responses observed in HIV infection are not specific to HIV but also occur with other viral infections,” she said. “But in contrast to most other viral infections, the body cannot get rid of HIV, which diminishes the effectiveness of the natural IFNβ response.”

Next, the team plans to work on confirming the findings of the neuroHIV model in PLWH. 

“For this, we will need to investigate tissues of PLWH who consented to donate them for research after death,” Kaul said. “Ultimately, we hope to develop IFNβ into a therapy for patients with neuroHIV.”

The study was funded by grants to Kaul from the National Institutes of Health. Kaul and Singh were joined in the research by scientists at UCR and The Scripps Research Institute in La Jolla, California.

The title of the research paper is “Interferon-β deficiency alters brain response to chronic HIV-1 envelope protein exposure in a transgenic model of NeuroHIV.” The paper is scheduled to appear in print in May 2024.

Second related study

Another study from the Kaul lab is scheduled to appear in print in the May 2024 issue of Brain, Behavior, and Immunity. 

“This study adds another important aspect to our understanding of how innate immunity and an inflammatory mechanism affects the brain during chronic HIV infection,” Kaul said.

The study shows that intact HIV and its viral envelope protein gp120 each cause macrophages, a type of white blood cell, to release cysteinyl leukotrienes, or CysLTs, which are pro-inflammatory mediators. The study shows for the first time that the CysLTs are critical components of macrophage neurotoxicity induced by HIV-1 , the most common of the two major types of HIV. 

“The potential translational value of our work is the demonstration that an asthma drug approved by the Food and Drug Administration, that inhibits a major receptor for CysLTs also prevents HIV-induced neurotoxicity,” Kaul said.

The research paper is titled “A critical role for Macrophage-derived Cysteinyl-Leukotrienes in HIV-1 induced neuronal injury.” Nina Yuan, a former associate specialist researcher in the Kaul lab, is the paper’s lead author. This study was supported by funds from the National Institute of Health.

Header photo shows Hina Singh (left) and Marcus Kaul. (UCR/Kaul lab)

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Hillary Clinton Returns to Wellesley, but the Homecoming Is More Complicated

Pro-Palestinian demonstrations surrounded an appearance at a new research center named after the former secretary of state and presidential nominee at her alma mater.

By Jenna Russell

Reporting from Wellesley, Mass.

Hillary Clinton returned on Saturday to her alma mater, Wellesley College, to celebrate the opening of a new research and study center that bears her name, more than half a century after she graduated and set off on the path that would make her its most famous alumna.

She was met, as ever, by Wellesley faculty, students and alumnae who see her as a rock star, a kind of campus demi-deity who forever elevated the status of this small liberal arts college west of Boston.

But as Mrs. Clinton moderated a panel on “democracy at a crossroads” at the new center’s inaugural summit, a group of student protesters outside chanted and raised signs objecting to her presence, an angry display of the more critical way many in the latest generation of Wellesley women view her legacy.

Near the end of the panel, a student attendee inside the event stood and started shouting, accusing Mrs. Clinton of indifference to violence against Palestinians.

“We’re having a discussion,” Mrs. Clinton told the woman, who was escorted out of the hall by college staff members. “I’m perfectly happy to meet you after this event and talk with you.”

Protesters who gathered on campus Friday and Saturday to show their disregard for Mrs. Clinton, a former first lady, U.S. senator, secretary of state and Democratic Party nominee for president, declined to speak to reporters or identify the group or groups behind the demonstrations. “Do not talk to the cops, do not talk to the press,” a protest leader with a bullhorn reminded them Saturday morning.

As she has moved through her polarizing, high-achieving career, Mrs. Clinton, 76, has frequently found herself on the receiving end of protests. At Columbia University, where she began teaching a class called “Inside the Situation Room” last fall , protesters gathered outside her first lectures to register their objections to some of her past actions as secretary of state.

But Wellesley has long been a safe space for her to return to her roots and find reliable support. She spoke at the college’s commencement in May 2017, six months after she lost the presidency to Donald J. Trump, delivering a speech that railed against his “assault on truth and reason” without mentioning his name — and one in which she also reassured her heartbroken alma mater that she was “doing OK,” even though “things didn’t exactly go the way I planned.”

The overall reception on Saturday was decidedly more mixed. Signs hoisted at the protests appeared to respond to Mrs. Clinton’s statements in recent months opposing a cease-fire agreement in the Israel-Hamas war. “Hillary for Women Unless They’re Palestinian,” read one. “Hillary, Hillary, you’re a liar; we demand a cease-fire,” protesters chanted as summit attendees filed into the Diana Chapman Walsh Alumnae Hall. Most of those demonstrating wore medical masks to partially obscure their faces; several were draped in the black-and-white kaffiyehs that have become symbolic of the pro-Palestinian movement.

After the Hamas attack on Israel on Oct. 7, Mrs. Clinton spoke out against a proposed cease-fire, arguing that it could empower Hamas and fuel more violence, a position in conflict with the liberal wing of her party. She has stressed, in recent TV appearances , that a cease-fire was already in place last October, until Hamas violated it, and has said that those calling for another cease-fire do not understand Hamas or the history of the region.

Those statements alienated many current students at Wellesley, whose views have shifted to the left since the college rallied behind Mrs. Clinton’s run for president eight years ago, said Lawrence Rosenwald, a retired English professor who taught there from 1980 to 2022.

Mr. Rosenwald recalled participating in a campus protest against Mrs. Clinton 20 years ago, when she was a senator from New York and had voted to authorize the invasion of Iraq. Even in that moment of division, he said, the institution’s deep pride in her was felt.

“It was a strange sort of protest, with a lot of affection mixed in with the opposition,” he said. “Both were genuine.”

On campus Saturday, several students not attending the Clinton summit, or the protest of it, expressed appreciation for the protesters’ vocal critique.

“Just because she’s a well-known alum, it doesn’t mean we need to hold her up as perfect,” said Maura Whalen, 18, a first-year student from New Jersey.

At Wellesley, as at other campuses around the country, painful tensions emerged in the wake of the Israel-Hamas war. When some Wellesley faculty members asked the college’s president, Paula A. Johnson, to state publicly last year that criticism of Israel was not antisemitism, she refused, citing the risk that “anti-Israel and anti-Zionist speech” could create a hostile environment for Jewish students.

Some Jewish students had already complained about a campus email, sent by student resident assistants at one dorm, that said there should be “no space, no consideration and no support for Zionism” at Wellesley. The U.S. Department of Education’s Office for Civil Rights opened an investigation of antisemitism at Wellesley in November, one of dozens of similar inquiries launched by the government since the war began .

Yet for all the unrest, some faculty members have been troubled that they have not seen more student protests. A professor who in February helped start a Wellesley chapter of Faculty for Justice in Palestine told the student newspaper, The Wellesley News , one reason for creating the group was to help make students feel safer speaking out.

On Saturday, the empowerment strategy seemed to be working, as dozens of students braved the raw April morning, in scattered showers and temperatures in the 30s, to gather outside the summit. Anticipating that some protesters might attend the event, college staff members handed out yellow fliers to those taking seats, warning them that “heckling, shouting and other disruptive behavior is not allowed,” and that they could be charged with honor code violations.

Ironically, their target, Mrs. Clinton, had been revered by many of her own Wellesley classmates for boldly speaking out against an establishment politician of her own era, U.S. Senator Edward W. Brooke, after he delivered the commencement address at their graduation in 1969.

The first senior to deliver a graduation speech in Wellesley’s history, the young Hillary Rodham, a political science major, was so troubled by the senator’s emphasis on modest goals and his concern about protest as “counterproductive disruption” that she began her own address with a blunt critique of his — shocking some listeners but receiving a standing ovation from her class.

“We’re not in the positions yet of leadership and power, but we do have that indispensable element of criticizing and constructive protest,” she said.

At Wellesley, which enrolls about 2,500 students, the new Hillary Rodham Clinton Center for Citizenship, Leadership and Democracy will advance her earliest ideals, with its focus on preparing “the next generation of civic leaders and change-making citizens.” It will host faculty research across disciplines, a “civic action lab” for students and an annual spring summit to grapple with critical global issues.

Panelists at the inaugural summit included Leymah Gbowee, a Liberian peace activist and 2011 Nobel Peace Prize laureate; Chelsea Miller, co-founder of Freedom March NYC; and Marie Yovanovitch, former U.S. ambassador to Ukraine. More than 400 people attended in person; 200 more logged into a livestream.

Mrs. Clinton, seated in a plush white armchair on a stage bathed in lavender light, voiced concern at the summit about recent regression in women’s rights around the world after a period of steady progress. “It felt like an upward trajectory,” she said, “and then these forces began to rise up and push back.”

Kayla Brand, 22, a Wellesley senior, said she was excited to hear from Mrs. Clinton, and grateful for her long advocacy for the rights of women, children and the L.G.B.T.Q. community. She said she was saddened by the protests, and her sense that the energy spent yelling at Mrs. Clinton could be channeled into more productive work.

“I appreciate her legacy, and I think she’s helped a lot of people on this campus,” said Ms. Brand, a computer science major from California. “And I also hope for peace in the region, for both Israelis and Palestinians.”

Patricia Berman and Tracy Gleason, the faculty co-directors of the new Clinton Center, said it was difficult to see student protesters struggling with global pain and violence. But they also saw the protests as one thread of the hard conversation they hope to foster.

“Our goal is for students to use their voices, but also to open their hearts and minds to other perspectives,” Ms. Gleason said.

Mr. Rosenwald, the longtime professor, said he believes that students’ pride in Mrs. Clinton endures, even if it is more complicated than in a simpler past.

“Wellesley students are activists,” he said. “They also understand how hard it is for women to get to where she is.”

Sarah Mervosh , Vimal Patel and Maya Shwayder contributed reporting.

Jenna Russell is the lead reporter covering New England for The Times. She is based near Boston. More about Jenna Russell

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