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Qualitative Research: Ethical Considerations

• First Online: 01 November 2019

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• Anna-Maija Pietilä 4 ,
• Sanna-Maria Nurmi 4 ,
• Arja Halkoaho 4 , 5 &
• Helvi Kyngäs 6  

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Ethical aspects include perspectives of subject protection and conducting research based on ethical standards. This chapter aims to highlight the ethical aspects of qualitative research, with particular emphasis on content analysis. The chapter begins by presenting four ethical principles—autonomy, non-maleficence, beneficence, and justice—that were first brought to attention by Beauchamp and Childress (Principles of biomedical ethics. Oxford University Press, New York, 2013). These principles form the basis for the protection of the subject in qualitative research. Next, Shamoon and Resnik’s (Responsible conduct of research. Oxford University Press, New York, 2015) principles for responsible research conduct are described. The ethical framework presented by Emanuel et al. (J Infect Dis 189:930–937, 2000; JAMA 283:2701–2711, 2004), which includes eight ethical requirements, is then introduced, and later used to explore the ethical aspects of content analysis based on an example of qualitative research. The chapter concludes by discussing several challenges that researchers may face when applying content analysis to qualitative research.

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Pietilä, AM., Nurmi, SM., Halkoaho, A., Kyngäs, H. (2020). Qualitative Research: Ethical Considerations. In: Kyngäs, H., Mikkonen, K., Kääriäinen, M. (eds) The Application of Content Analysis in Nursing Science Research. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-30199-6_6

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The Top 5 Ethical Considerations in Qualitative Research

Qualitative research is a valuable tool for understanding human behavior, experiences, and perspectives. It can be used in a variety of fields including sociology, psychology, education, and business. However, like all research, qualitative research requires careful ethical considerations to ensure that it is conducted in a manner that is respectful, fair, and responsible. This article outlines the top five qualitative research ethics to consider. 

Informed Consent 

Informed consent is one of the most important qualitative research ethics to consider in qualitative research. Informed consent means that participants are fully informed about the purpose and nature of the research, the procedures involved, any potential risks or benefits, and how their data will be used. Participants must have the right to refuse to participate or to withdraw from the study at any time. Market Researchers must also obtain written consent from participants and ensure that they understand their participation is voluntary.

In some cases, obtaining informed consent can be challenging. For example, in studies involving vulnerable populations, such as children, obtaining informed consent can be particularly difficult. They may need to consider obtaining written consent from guardians, such as parents or caregivers. Researchers must always be sensitive to the needs and limitations of their participants and find ways to obtain informed consent that are appropriate and respectful. 

Confidentiality and Privacy 

Confidentiality and privacy are essential qualitative research ethics to consider and are often protected by law. Participant’s personal information and responses must always be kept confidential and private. Researchers must take steps to protect the confidentiality of their participants by using pseudonyms or other identifiers such as ID numbers, and by storing data securely. They must also ensure that their research does not invade the privacy of participants by respecting their right to refuse to answer certain survey questions or to have certain information shared. 

In some cases, confidentiality and privacy can be particularly challenging. For example, in studies involving sensitive topics, researchers must take extra precautions to protect the confidentiality of their participants and maintain their trust. They may need to use more secure methods of quality data collection, such as encrypted online surveys or face-to-face interviews conducted in private locations. 

Respect for Participants 

Respect for participants is another important ethical consideration in qualitative research. Researchers must be sensitive to the needs, values, and beliefs of their participants, and always treat them with dignity and respect. This means that researchers must be aware of their own biases and assumptions to avoid imposing their own beliefs on their participants. They must also be sensitive to cultural and linguistic differences to find ways to communicate effectively with participants who may have different backgrounds or experiences. 

In addition, researchers must be mindful of the power dynamics involved in research. Participants may feel pressure to answer more positively or to provide the answers they think the researcher wants to hear. Researchers must be careful to ensure that their research is conducted in a manner that is fair and respectful. 

Lastly, researchers must be careful not to overburden their participants with lengthy or intrusive data collection methods. They must also be mindful of the potential for researcher bias in data collection and analysis and take steps to minimize its impact.

Data Collection and Analysis 

Data collection and analysis are essential components of qualitative research, but they also raise concerns in regard to qualitative research ethics. Researchers must ensure that their methods of data collection and analysis are appropriate and valid and that they do not manipulate or alter the data in any way to convey a different story. They must also be transparent about their methods and ensure their research is replicable. 

Use of Findings 

The final ethical consideration in qualitative research is the use of findings. Researchers must use their findings in a responsible and respectful manner to ensure that they are not used to harm or stigmatize participants or groups. They must also be transparent about the limitations of their findings and avoid making sweeping generalizations that may not be supported by the findings.

In addition, researchers must consider the potential impact of their findings on policy and practice. They should use their findings to inform evidence-based decision-making and communicate their results in a clear and accessible manner to stakeholders, policymakers, and the public. By doing so, they can ensure that their research is contributing to positive change and improving the lives of those affected by the issues being studied. Ultimately, conducting ethical qualitative research requires a thoughtful and reflective approach that values the perspectives and experiences of participants, and produces findings that are meaningful and impactful.

Conducting ethical qualitative research requires a commitment to upholding the rights and dignity of participants, while also producing valuable and valid findings. The top five qualitative research ethics to consider include:

• Obtaining informed consent
• Protecting confidentiality and privacy
• Showing respect for participants
• Conducting appropriate data collection and analysis
• Using findings responsibly. 

By prioritizing these considerations, researchers can ensure that their research is conducted in a respectful, fair, and responsible manner and produces findings that can contribute to positive and more informed change in society.

About InnovateMR – InnovateMR is a full-service sampling and ResTech company that delivers faster, quality insights from business and consumer audiences utilizing cutting-edge technologies to support agile research. As industry pioneers, InnovateMR provides world-class end-to-end survey programming, targeted international sampling, qualitative and quantitative insights, and customized consultation services to support informed, data-driven strategies, and identify growth opportunities. Known for their celebrated status in customer service and results, InnovateMR combines boutique-level service with extensive global reach to achieve partner success.

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• Ethical Considerations in Research | Types & Examples

Ethical Considerations in Research | Types & Examples

Published on 7 May 2022 by Pritha Bhandari .

Ethical considerations in research are a set of principles that guide your research designs and practices. Scientists and researchers must always adhere to a certain code of conduct when collecting data from people.

The goals of human research often include understanding real-life phenomena, studying effective treatments, investigating behaviours, and improving lives in other ways. What you decide to research and how you conduct that research involve key ethical considerations.

These considerations work to:

• Protect the rights of research participants
• Enhance research validity
• Maintain scientific integrity

Table of contents

Why do research ethics matter, getting ethical approval for your study, types of ethical issues, voluntary participation, informed consent, confidentiality, potential for harm, results communication, examples of ethical failures, frequently asked questions about research ethics.

Research ethics matter for scientific integrity, human rights and dignity, and collaboration between science and society. These principles make sure that participation in studies is voluntary, informed, and safe for research subjects.

You’ll balance pursuing important research aims with using ethical research methods and procedures. It’s always necessary to prevent permanent or excessive harm to participants, whether inadvertent or not.

Defying research ethics will also lower the credibility of your research because it’s hard for others to trust your data if your methods are morally questionable.

Even if a research idea is valuable to society, it doesn’t justify violating the human rights or dignity of your study participants.

Prevent plagiarism, run a free check.

Before you start any study involving data collection with people, you’ll submit your research proposal to an institutional review board (IRB) .

An IRB is a committee that checks whether your research aims and research design are ethically acceptable and follow your institution’s code of conduct. They check that your research materials and procedures are up to code.

If successful, you’ll receive IRB approval, and you can begin collecting data according to the approved procedures. If you want to make any changes to your procedures or materials, you’ll need to submit a modification application to the IRB for approval.

If unsuccessful, you may be asked to re-submit with modifications or your research proposal may receive a rejection. To get IRB approval, it’s important to explicitly note how you’ll tackle each of the ethical issues that may arise in your study.

There are several ethical issues you should always pay attention to in your research design, and these issues can overlap with each other.

You’ll usually outline ways you’ll deal with each issue in your research proposal if you plan to collect data from participants.

Voluntary participation means that all research subjects are free to choose to participate without any pressure or coercion.

All participants are able to withdraw from, or leave, the study at any point without feeling an obligation to continue. Your participants don’t need to provide a reason for leaving the study.

It’s important to make it clear to participants that there are no negative consequences or repercussions to their refusal to participate. After all, they’re taking the time to help you in the research process, so you should respect their decisions without trying to change their minds.

Voluntary participation is an ethical principle protected by international law and many scientific codes of conduct.

Take special care to ensure there’s no pressure on participants when you’re working with vulnerable groups of people who may find it hard to stop the study even when they want to.

Informed consent refers to a situation in which all potential participants receive and understand all the information they need to decide whether they want to participate. This includes information about the study’s benefits, risks, funding, and institutional approval.

• What the study is about
• The risks and benefits of taking part
• How long the study will take
• Your supervisor’s contact information and the institution’s approval number

Usually, you’ll provide participants with a text for them to read and ask them if they have any questions. If they agree to participate, they can sign or initial the consent form. Note that this may not be sufficient for informed consent when you work with particularly vulnerable groups of people.

If you’re collecting data from people with low literacy, make sure to verbally explain the consent form to them before they agree to participate.

For participants with very limited English proficiency, you should always translate the study materials or work with an interpreter so they have all the information in their first language.

In research with children, you’ll often need informed permission for their participation from their parents or guardians. Although children cannot give informed consent, it’s best to also ask for their assent (agreement) to participate, depending on their age and maturity level.

Anonymity means that you don’t know who the participants are and you can’t link any individual participant to their data.

You can only guarantee anonymity by not collecting any personally identifying information – for example, names, phone numbers, email addresses, IP addresses, physical characteristics, photos, and videos.

In many cases, it may be impossible to truly anonymise data collection. For example, data collected in person or by phone cannot be considered fully anonymous because some personal identifiers (demographic information or phone numbers) are impossible to hide.

You’ll also need to collect some identifying information if you give your participants the option to withdraw their data at a later stage.

Data pseudonymisation is an alternative method where you replace identifying information about participants with pseudonymous, or fake, identifiers. The data can still be linked to participants, but it’s harder to do so because you separate personal information from the study data.

Confidentiality means that you know who the participants are, but you remove all identifying information from your report.

All participants have a right to privacy, so you should protect their personal data for as long as you store or use it. Even when you can’t collect data anonymously, you should secure confidentiality whenever you can.

Some research designs aren’t conducive to confidentiality, but it’s important to make all attempts and inform participants of the risks involved.

As a researcher, you have to consider all possible sources of harm to participants. Harm can come in many different forms.

• Psychological harm: Sensitive questions or tasks may trigger negative emotions such as shame or anxiety.
• Social harm: Participation can involve social risks, public embarrassment, or stigma.
• Physical harm: Pain or injury can result from the study procedures.
• Legal harm: Reporting sensitive data could lead to legal risks or a breach of privacy.

It’s best to consider every possible source of harm in your study, as well as concrete ways to mitigate them. Involve your supervisor to discuss steps for harm reduction.

Make sure to disclose all possible risks of harm to participants before the study to get informed consent. If there is a risk of harm, prepare to provide participants with resources, counselling, or medical services if needed.

Some of these questions may bring up negative emotions, so you inform participants about the sensitive nature of the survey and assure them that their responses will be confidential.

The way you communicate your research results can sometimes involve ethical issues. Good science communication is honest, reliable, and credible. It’s best to make your results as transparent as possible.

Take steps to actively avoid plagiarism and research misconduct wherever possible.

Plagiarism means submitting others’ works as your own. Although it can be unintentional, copying someone else’s work without proper credit amounts to stealing. It’s an ethical problem in research communication because you may benefit by harming other researchers.

Self-plagiarism is when you republish or re-submit parts of your own papers or reports without properly citing your original work.

This is problematic because you may benefit from presenting your ideas as new and original even though they’ve already been published elsewhere in the past. You may also be infringing on your previous publisher’s copyright, violating an ethical code, or wasting time and resources by doing so.

In extreme cases of self-plagiarism, entire datasets or papers are sometimes duplicated. These are major ethical violations because they can skew research findings if taken as original data.

You notice that two published studies have similar characteristics even though they are from different years. Their sample sizes, locations, treatments, and results are highly similar, and the studies share one author in common.

Research misconduct

Research misconduct means making up or falsifying data, manipulating data analyses, or misrepresenting results in research reports. It’s a form of academic fraud.

These actions are committed intentionally and can have serious consequences; research misconduct is not a simple mistake or a point of disagreement about data analyses.

Research misconduct is a serious ethical issue because it can undermine scientific integrity and institutional credibility. It leads to a waste of funding and resources that could have been used for alternative research.

Later investigations revealed that they fabricated and manipulated their data to show a nonexistent link between vaccines and autism. Wakefield also neglected to disclose important conflicts of interest, and his medical license was taken away.

This fraudulent work sparked vaccine hesitancy among parents and caregivers. The rate of MMR vaccinations in children fell sharply, and measles outbreaks became more common due to a lack of herd immunity.

Research scandals with ethical failures are littered throughout history, but some took place not that long ago.

Some scientists in positions of power have historically mistreated or even abused research participants to investigate research problems at any cost. These participants were prisoners, under their care, or otherwise trusted them to treat them with dignity.

To demonstrate the importance of research ethics, we’ll briefly review two research studies that violated human rights in modern history.

These experiments were inhumane and resulted in trauma, permanent disabilities, or death in many cases.

After some Nazi doctors were put on trial for their crimes, the Nuremberg Code of research ethics for human experimentation was developed in 1947 to establish a new standard for human experimentation in medical research.

In reality, the actual goal was to study the effects of the disease when left untreated, and the researchers never informed participants about their diagnoses or the research aims.

Although participants experienced severe health problems, including blindness and other complications, the researchers only pretended to provide medical care.

When treatment became possible in 1943, 11 years after the study began, none of the participants were offered it, despite their health conditions and high risk of death.

Ethical failures like these resulted in severe harm to participants, wasted resources, and lower trust in science and scientists. This is why all research institutions have strict ethical guidelines for performing research.

Ethical considerations in research are a set of principles that guide your research designs and practices. These principles include voluntary participation, informed consent, anonymity, confidentiality, potential for harm, and results communication.

Scientists and researchers must always adhere to a certain code of conduct when collecting data from others .

These considerations protect the rights of research participants, enhance research validity , and maintain scientific integrity.

Research ethics matter for scientific integrity, human rights and dignity, and collaboration between science and society. These principles make sure that participation in studies is voluntary, informed, and safe.

Anonymity means you don’t know who the participants are, while confidentiality means you know who they are but remove identifying information from your research report. Both are important ethical considerations .

You can only guarantee anonymity by not collecting any personally identifying information – for example, names, phone numbers, email addresses, IP addresses, physical characteristics, photos, or videos.

You can keep data confidential by using aggregate information in your research report, so that you only refer to groups of participants rather than individuals.

These actions are committed intentionally and can have serious consequences; research misconduct is not a simple mistake or a point of disagreement but a serious ethical failure.

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A guide to ethical considerations in research

Last updated

12 March 2023

Reviewed by

Miroslav Damyanov

Whether you are conducting a survey, running focus groups , doing field research, or holding interviews, the chances are participants will be a part of the process.

Taking ethical considerations into account and following all obligations are essential when people are involved in your research. Upholding academic integrity is another crucial ethical concern in all research types. 

So, how can you protect your participants and ensure that your research is ethical? Let’s take a closer look at the ethical considerations in research and the best practices to follow.

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• The importance of ethical research

Research ethics are integral to all forms of research. They help protect participants’ rights, ensure that the research is valid and accurate, and help minimize any risk of harm during the process.

When people are involved in your research, it’s particularly important to consider whether your planned research method follows ethical practices.

You might ask questions such as:

Will our participants be protected?

Is there a risk of any harm?

Are we doing all we can to protect the personal data and information we collect?

Does our study include any bias?

How can we ensure that the results will be accurate and valid?

Will our research impact public safety?

Is there a more ethical way to complete the research?

Conducting research unethically and not protecting participants’ rights can have serious consequences. It can discredit the entire study. Human rights, dignity, and research integrity should all be front of mind when you are conducting research.

• How to conduct ethical research

Before kicking off any project, the entire team must be familiar with ethical best practices. These include the considerations below.

Voluntary participation

In an ethical study, all participants have chosen to be part of the research. They must have voluntarily opted in without any pressure or coercion to do so. They must be aware that they are part of a research study. Their information must not be used against their will. 

To ensure voluntary participation, make it clear at the outset that the person is opting into the process.

While participants may agree to be part of a study for a certain duration, they are allowed to change their minds. Participants must be free to leave or withdraw from the study at any time. They don’t need to give a reason.

Informed consent

Before kicking off any research, it’s also important to gain consent from all participants. This ensures participants are clear that they are part of a research study and understand all of the information related to it.

Gaining informed consent usually involves a written consent form—physical or digital—that participants can sign.

Best practice informed consent generally includes the following:

An explanation of what the study is

The duration of the study

The expectations of participants

Any potential risks

An explanation that participants are free to withdraw at any time

Contact information for the research supervisor

When obtaining informed consent, you should ensure that all parties truly understand what they are signing and their obligations as a participant. There should never be any coercion to sign.

Anonymity is key to ensuring that participants cannot be identified through their data. Personal information includes things like participants’ names, addresses, emails, phone numbers, characteristics, and photos.

However, making information truly anonymous can be challenging, especially if personal information is a necessary part of the research.

To maintain a degree of anonymity, avoid gathering any information you don’t need. This will minimize the risk of participants being identified.

Another useful tool is data pseudonymization, which makes it harder to directly link information to a real person. Data pseudonymization means giving participants fake names or mock information to protect their identity. You could, for example, replace participants’ names with codes.

Confidentiality

Keeping data confidential is a critical aspect of all forms of research. You should communicate to all participants that their information will be protected and then take active steps to ensure that happens.

Data protection has become a serious topic in recent years and should be taken seriously. The more information you gather, the more important it is to heavily protect that data.

There are many ways to protect data, including the following:

Restricted access: Information should only be accessible to the researchers involved in the project to limit the risk of breaches.

Password protection : Information should not be accessible without access via a password that complies with secure password guidelines.

Encrypted data: In this day and age, password protection isn’t usually sufficient. Encrypting the data can help ensure its security.

Data retention: All organizations should uphold a data retention policy whereby data gathered should only be held for a certain period of time. This minimizes the risk of breaches further down the line.

In research where participants are grouped together (such as in focus groups), ask participants not to pass on what has been discussed. This helps maintain the group’s privacy.

Data falsification

Regardless of what your study is about or whether it involves humans, it’s always unethical to falsify data or information. That means editing or changing any data that has been gathered or gathering data in ways that skew the results.

Bias in research is highly problematic and can significantly impact research integrity. Data falsification or misrepresentation can have serious consequences.

Take the case of Korean researcher Hwang Woo-suk, for example. Woo-suk, once considered a scientific leader in stem-cell research, was found guilty of fabricating experiments in the field and making ethical violations. Once discovered, he was fired from his role and sentenced to two years in prison.

All conflicts of interest should be declared at the outset to avoid any bias or risk of fabrication in the research process. Data must be collected and recorded accurately, and analysis must be completed impartially.

If conflicts do arise during the study, researchers may need to step back to maintain the study’s integrity. Outsourcing research to neutral third parties is necessary in some cases.

Potential for harm

Another consideration is the potential for harm. When completing research, it’s important to ensure that your participants will be safe throughout the study’s duration. 

Harm during research could occur in many forms.

Physical harm may occur if your participants are asked to perform a physical activity, or if they are involved in a medical study.

Psychological harm can occur if questions or activities involve triggering or sensitive topics, or if participants are asked to complete potentially embarrassing tasks.

Harm can be caused through a data breach or privacy concern.

A study can cause harm if the participants don’t feel comfortable with the study expectations or their supervisors.

Maintaining the physical and mental well-being of all participants throughout studies is an essential aspect of ethical research.

• Gaining ethical approval

Gaining ethical approval may be necessary before conducting some types of research. 

The US Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) and the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) advise that approval is likely required for studies involving people.

To gain approval, it’s necessary to submit a proposal to an Institutional Review Board (IRB). The board will check the proposal and ensure that the research aligns with ethical practices. It will allow the project to proceed if it meets requirements.

Not gaining appropriate approval could invalidate your study, so it’s essential to pay attention to all local guidelines and laws.

• The dangers of unethical practices

Not maintaining ethical standards in research isn’t just questionable—it can be dangerous too. Many historical cases show just how widespread the ramifications can be.

The case of Korean researcher Hwang Woo-suk shows just how critical it is to obtain information ethically and accurately represent findings.

A case in 1998, which involved fraudulent data reporting, further proves this point.

The study, now debunked, was completed by Andrew Wakefield. It suggested there may be a link between the measles, mumps, and rubella (MMR) vaccine and autism in children. It was later found that the data was manipulated to show a causal link when there wasn’t one. Wakefield’s medical license was removed as a result, but the fraudulent study was still widely cited and continues to cause vaccine hesitancy among many parents.

Large organizational bodies have also been a part of unethical research. The alcohol industry, for example, was found to be highly influential in a major public health study in an attempt to prove that moderate alcohol consumption had health benefits. Five major alcohol companies pledged approximately $66 million to fund the study.

However, the World Health Organization (WHO) is clear that research shows there is no safe level of alcohol consumption. After pressure from many organizations, the study was eventually pulled due to biasing by the alcohol industry. Despite this, the idea that moderate alcohol consumption is better than abstaining may still appear in public discourse.

In more extreme cases, unethical research has led to medical studies being completed on people without their knowledge and against their will. The atrocities committed in Nazi Germany during World War II are an example.

Unethical practices in research are not just problematic or in conflict with academic integrity; they can seriously harm public health and safety.

• The ethical way to research

Considering ethical concerns and adopting best practices throughout studies is essential when conducting research.

When people are involved in studies, it’s important to consider their rights. They must not be coerced into participating, and they should be protected throughout the process.

Accurate reporting, unbiased results, and a genuine interest in answering questions rather than confirming assumptions are all essential aspects of ethical research.

Ethical research ultimately means producing true and valuable results for the benefit of everyone impacted by your study.

What are ethical considerations in research?

Ethical research involves a series of guidelines and considerations to ensure that the information gathered is valid and reliable. These guidelines ensure that:

People are not harmed during research

Participants have data protection and anonymity

Academic integrity is upheld

Not maintaining ethics in research can have serious consequences for those involved in the studies, the broader public, and policymakers.

What are the most common ethical considerations?

To maintain integrity and validity in research, all biases must be removed, data should be reported accurately, and studies must be clearly represented.

Some of the most common ethical guidelines when it comes to humans in research include avoiding harm, data protection, anonymity, informed consent, and confidentiality.

What are the ethical issues in secondary research?

Using secondary data is generally considered an ethical practice. That’s because the use of secondary data minimizes the impact on participants, reduces the need for additional funding, and maximizes the value of the data collection.

However, secondary research still has risks. For example, the risk of data breaches increases as more parties gain access to the information.

To minimize the risk, researchers should consider anonymity or data pseudonymization before the data is passed on. Furthermore, using the data should not cause any harm or distress to participants.

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Statistics for the Public Good

Ethical considerations associated with Qualitative Research methods

Introduction.

This high-level guidance has been developed by the UK Statistics Authority’s Centre for Applied Data Ethics (CADE), and the UK Government Data Quality Hub (DQHub), based at the Office for National Statistics (ONS). The guidance can be used as a practical resource to help researchers identify different ethical issues when conducting qualitative research.  

This guidance is not exhaustive but aims to support researchers navigating the ethical issues surrounding qualitative research projects (particularly in relation to primary data collection). It brings together existing literature on qualitative research methods and their ethical concerns. Links to further resources are provided if you would like to read about aspects in more detail.  

The guidance has been created for researchers using qualitative methods within the ONS . However, the ethical considerations discussed, and the mitigations for these, can be more widely applied to all types of qualitative research.  

The guidance is divided into several parts.    

• An introduction to qualitative research and why ethics matters in this space.   
• An overview of some of the ethical considerations associated with qualitative research methods, and some potential mitigations for these issues. This includes an overview of some of the qualitative methods used within the ONS.  
• An ethics checklist which summarises the main points covered in this guidance.    
• A list of helpful links to further resources.   

Ethical challenges in qualitative research: examples from practice

Affiliation.

• 1 School of Nursing and Midwifery Studies, National University of Ireland, Galway.
• PMID: 21138082
• DOI: 10.7748/nr2010.10.18.1.15.c8044

This article examines the many ethical challenges that are specific to qualitative research. These challenges concern the issues of informed consent procedures, the researcher-participant relationship, risk-benefit ratio, confidentiality and the dual role of the nurse-researcher. Each challenge will be examined and practical examples of how it was dealt with, using examples from a multiple case study, will be described.

• Clinical Protocols
• Confidentiality / ethics
• Ethics, Research
• Informed Consent / ethics
• Nurse's Role
• Nursing Methodology Research / ethics*
• Patient Advocacy / ethics
• Principle-Based Ethics
• Qualitative Research*
• Research Personnel / ethics
• Researcher-Subject Relations / ethics
• Risk Assessment / ethics

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Qualitative Methods in Monitoring and Evaluation: Ethical Considerations in Qualitative Research

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Evaluators use the emic perspective, and qualitative data collection techniques, to understand the how and why around a project. This can give us insight into the planning, implementation, outputs, and sometimes even impact of a project. However, the use of qualitative data collection techniques presents a unique set of ethical considerations that evaluators must take into account throughout the entire research process. Two ethical issues in qualitative research include confidentiality, and the role of the researcher as a data collection instrument.

When we use qualitative data collection techniques, we usually spend a lot of time with research populations. We engage people at the community level. We oftentimes learn intimate details about people’s lives when we do so. This presents unique ethical considerations in qualitative research. On one level, as evaluators we need to build rapport to have people trust us enough to give us what can be personal details or controversial information related to a project. We need cross cultural communication skills to build rapport, but we must also earn the trust of, and above all, respect, the project population.

A project population needs to be comfortable giving us personal details or discussing controversial information, and, very importantly, we need to respect confidentiality around this. We need to make sure that we provide a project population with confidentiality at all stages of our research. This goes past getting informed consent from research participants. We might need to disguise identities of those giving controversial information, or in some instances find diplomatic ways to release research findings.

The researcher conducting an evaluation does hold a certain amount of power over the population, like it or not. Evaluators oftentimes come from an organization funding or implementing a project. How does this impact the relationship we have with stakeholders? Project partners might want to answer a question a certain way, or show us a certain need or part of the project, in order to ensure continued funding. A solid evaluation design can help to mitigate some of these potential problems. We should remember though that our reports can impact the direction of a project, and the lives of project participants, and this is surely not lost on implementers or community members. It should not be lost on us as researchers, either.

As qualitative researchers , we are the research instruments, and as such, we should also consider the effect of the researcher on the actual data collected. The observations that we make and the questions that we ask will depend on our own thought processes and biases. Our own internal biases impact what we see, and the conclusions that we draw. If we are aware of and interested in gender or environmental concerns, we might be more likely to seek out information and pinpoint potential problematic areas around these issues. Our previous experiences oftentimes guide our thought patterns, impacting our research in the process.

Attributes such as a researcher’s sex, gender, language, age, race, and marital status might also impact the data to which we have access. How we carry ourselves as researchers, including how we dress and our approachability, could additionally impact the data to which we have access. If we know the local culture well enough, we should be able to come to an understanding of how we will be viewed in the local culture, and how this will impact our work. We need to be aware of these ethical concerns in qualitative research and make considerations based on our project and the data we need to collect.

Qualitative researchers are reflective; we are aware of cultural attributes that might affect the data we collect and the data to which we have access. As qualitative researchers, we embrace that the data we collect is filtered through ourselves, and we find ways to mitigate our own biases and interpretations in trying to understand the emic. We keep journals to compare to our data, so that we can ascertain if our mindset on a particular day impacted the data we collected. We develop solid research designs that include data collected on multiple occasions using multiple qualitative methods. Sometimes, for instance in a project with gender implications, we might craft a design that includes space for multiple researchers.

Building trust and confidentiality with the population, knowing the local culture so that we understand its micropolitics, and detecting our own biases as we engage in the research process, are all important steps in collecting valid and reliable data using qualitative data collection techniques.

About the Author Dr. Beverly Peters has more than twenty years of experience teaching, conducting qualitative research, and managing community development, microcredit, infrastructure, and democratization projects in several countries in Africa. As a consultant, Dr. Peters worked on EU and USAID funded infrastructure, education, and microcredit projects in South Africa and Mozambique. She also conceptualized and developed the proposal for Darfur Peace and Development Organization’s women’s crisis center, a center that provides physical and economic assistance to women survivors of violence in the IDP camps in Darfur. Dr. Peters has a Ph.D. from the University of Pittsburgh. Learn more about Dr. Peters .

To learn more about American University’s online MS in Measurement & Evaluation or Graduate Certificate in Project Monitoring & Evaluation, request more information or call us toll free at 855-725-7614.

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