research paper on black rice

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

• Publications
• Account settings

Preview improvements coming to the PMC website in October 2024. Learn More or Try it out now .

• Advanced Search
• Journal List
• J Food Sci Technol
• v.57(10); 2020 Oct

Development of lightly milled black rice with easy cooking and retaining health benefits

Porntip sirisoontaralak.

Division of Food Science and Nutrition, Faculty of Agricultural Product Innovation and Technology, Srinakharinwirot University, Nakhon Nayok, 26120 Thailand

Supreeya Keatikasemchai

Chanon mancharoen, nantarat na nakornpanom.

Consumers are reluctant to eat pigmented rice due to cooking difficulties and harder texture than white rice. In this study, paddy samples of black rice (Hom Nil cultivar) were milled for 0, 10, 30, 60 and 100 s and degree of milling (DOM) ~ 0, 6, 12, 22 and 30% were obtained. Head rice yield, physicochemical properties, cooking qualities, nutrients, resistant starch content, antioxidant properties, and sensorial qualities were studied. Milling at 10 s (DOM ~ 6%) did not remove all bran fractions. Head rice yield retained at 70.33%. Lightness (L*) and redness (a*) of black rice remained constant until DOM ~ 20% but yellowness (b*) gradually increased. Nutrients were embedded at different locations in grain kernels. All nutrients decreased with DOM but in different extents. Milling at 10 s generated loss of anthocyanin (70%), fat (44%), ash (33%) and phenolic compounds (31%). Comparably tiny losses were observed in protein (15%) and dietary fiber (25%). However, cooking qualities of black rice were substantially improved. Cooking time reduced from 22 to 15 min with increases in water uptake ratio and volume expansion ratio. Additionally cooked black rice had impressively softer texture. Panelist appreciated the change in odor, flavor, texture attributes and palatability of the rice.

Introduction

Rice ( Oryza sativa L.) is the main staple diet in many Asian countries. With growing health concerns and enlarging markets of healthy food products, some particular rice cultivars are increasingly produced and introduced to consumers in Thailand and worldwide. Among these rice cultivars, black rice is unpolished rice that contains a high content of natural anthocyanin compounds such as cyanidin 3-glucoside and peonidin 3-glucoside in the aleurone layer (Hu et al. 2003 ). It has other valuable antioxidants, including polyphenolics, flavonoids, vitamin E, phytic acid, and γ-oryzanol. Black rice has received wide interest from consumers and food industry owing to antioxidative, anti-inflammatory, antiatherosclerotic, anticancer and lower cholesterol properties (Hu et al. 2003 ). In addition, black rice is a good source of fiber, minerals, and several essential amino acids (Itani et al. 2002 ).

In order to consume rice, the hull is removed from rough rice to obtain brown rice. Brown rice (hulled rice) composes of the embryo (2–3% by weight), surface bran (6–7%), and endosperm (around 90%). Milling (whitening process) subsequently removes germs and bran layers from hulled rice by abrasive or friction forces and provides well-milled, reasonably well-milled, lightly milled, and undermilled rice depended on degree of milling (DOM). DOM is expressed by the weight percentage of bran removed or indicated by visual examination, chemical composition, and optical measurements. Milling induces grain breakage resulting in reduction of head rice yield (Reid et al. 1998 ; Yadav and Jindal 2008 ) and causes losses of food nutrients including fat (Chen and Siebenmorgen 1997 ), neutraceutical lipid (Ha et al. 2006 ), protein (Lamberts et al. 2007 ), dietary fiber (Lai et al. 2006 ), ash (Singh et al. 2000 ; Lamberts et al. 2007 ), phosphorus, magnesium, calcium, copper, manganese, molybdenum, chromium (Doesthale et al. 1979 ), iron (Prom-u-thai et al. 2007 ), zinc (Liang et al. 2008 ) and selenium (Liu et al. 2009 ). For antioxidant properties, phenolic, flavonoids, and anthocyanin content and antioxidant activity decreased after milling (Hu et al. 2003 ; Zhou et al. 2004 ; Walter et al. 2011 ) because more than 50% of polyphenols is in removed pericarp.

Milling devalues the nutritional and health benefits of hulled rice. However, it improves the cooking and sensory quality of rice. Thus, the majority of the consumers prefer well-milled rice, especially in countries where rice is the principal food. Researchers have reported a reduction of cooking time and increases in water absorption during cooking, volume expansion ratio, and length expansion ratio after milling (Mohapatra and Bal 2006 , 2007 ). As a result of change in cooking quality, improved cooked rice texture was observed which included decline in hardness, firmness and chewiness and increases in cohesiveness, adhesiveness and stickiness (Park et al. 2001 ; Mohapatra and Bal 2006 ). Moreover, alteration of sensory attributes in terms of texture and flavor intensity have been reported by Park et al. ( 2001 ). The panelists preferred cooked milled rice more than cooked brown rice (Piggott et al. 1991 ).

Usually, DOM increases with milling time. But, deviations of obtained DOM could be detected among rice cultivars due to differences in kernel characteristics, grain morphological characteristics including grain thickness, grain length, and length-to-width ratio that play an important role in gained DOM (Chen and Siebenmorgen 1997 ; Prom-u-thai et al. 2007 ). Most of the reported works, however, involved rice grains with light brown pericarp color. For this reason, little is known about the effects of milling on DOM and the qualities of black rice.

Certainly, milling creates adverse effects but simultaneously amended rice qualities. However, these changes are dependent on the extent of milling. Thus, the objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of milling on qualities of black rice. The suitable degree of milling was assessed to produce easy-to-cook black rice that exhibit softer texture, desirable sensory quality, and reasonable nutritional and health benefits. It is anticipated that the results of this work will promote black rice consumption among the young generation.

Materials and methods

Dehusking and milling.

Paddy of fragrant black rice, Hom Nil cultivar, was purchased from a local rice mill in Nakorn Sawan province, Thailand. Freshly harvested paddy was cleaned by air classifier to remove the filth. It was dried at 30 °C using a circulated air incubator to a final moisture content of 12–14%. Paddy sample was stored dry and cool (~ 25 °C) less than 30 days before milling and analysis.

Paddy samples (250 g) were dehusked on a laboratory scale rubble roll husker (THU 35A, Satake, Japan). Whole and intact black rice kernels (150 g) were milled in triplicate for 0, 10, 30, 60, and 100 s in the laboratory scale abrasive rice polisher (SKD-DBKK, Satake, Japan) equipped with an automatic timer to obtain rice with different DOM (0–25%). The DOM (the weight percentage of kernel layers removed by milling) was calculated from the weight of rice before and after milling. The screen and rotor of the polisher were thoroughly brushed to remove rice bran and rice kernels. After the whitening process, broken kernels were removed using a test rice length grader set with a 6.2 mm groove grading screen and receiving trough set at an angle of 30° from vertical. (TRG05A, Satake, Japan). The head rice with different DOM was conveyed to quality analysis.

Determination of head rice yield, color and cooking quality

Head rice yield.

After rice kernels milled at different DOM were graded, head rice was separated and weighed. Head rice yield was expressed as a percentage of the weight of milled head rice kernels to the total weight of paddy.

Color of rice grain

Color of rice grain was measured in terms of L* value (lightness), a* value (redness), and b* (yellowness) using a CIE LAB Color Meter (ColorFlex E2, Hunter Lab, USA).

Cooking time

In order to assess the cooking time (C T ), five gram of rice sample was cooked in boiling water (rice: water = 1:20). Cooking time was recorded when nine from ten kernels were completely gelatinized.

Water uptake ratio, volume expansion ratio, length expansion ratio

Water uptake ratio (W UR ), volume expansion ratio (V ER ) and length expansion ratio (L ER ) were determined by cooking 1 g of rice in 15 mL boiling water until the predetermined cooking time (Mohapatra and Bal 2006 ). The water uptake ratio was determined by the weighing of initial raw rice and cooked rice using a digital balance. It was expressed as the ratio of water absorbed during cooking to uncooked rice weight. For volume expansion ratio, the volume of raw rice and cooked rice was measured using the toluene displacement method. The ratio of cooked rice volume to raw rice volume was reported. Similarly, lengths of rice kernels before and after cooking (20 kernels per replicate) were determined by a digital micrometer. The length expansion ratio was presented as the ratio of cooked rice length to raw rice length. In order to evaluate overall cooking quality, the cooking index (CI) was calculated by the formula as follows

Cooked rice hardness

For cooked rice hardness, 10 g of black rice kernels were placed in a beaker and added with 15 mL of water. The rice was cooked in an automatic rice cooker for 45 min with 800 mL of water was poured into the inner pot. The cooked rice sample was kept in the rice cooker for 10 min more. The samples were taken out and cooled at room temperature for 45 min. Then, the texture of cooked black rice was measured using back extrusion tests with a texture analyzer (TA 500, Lloyd Instruments, UK) equipped with a 50 kg-capacity compression load cell. The crosshead speed was 50 mm/min. The back extrusion test cell consisted of a stainless steel cylinder and a spherical-shaped stainless steel plunger. About 4 g cooked rice sample was placed in the cylinder. The plunger was allowed to move downward until it stopped 1 mm above the cell base. The hardness of cooked rice was determined from the maximum extrusion force in terms of Newton (N).

Determination of pasting property

Black rice samples were ground and screened through a 100-mesh sieve. Paste viscosity of black rice flours was determined with a Rapid Visco Analyser (RVA, Model 4D, Newport Scientific, Australia) using the AACC Approved Method 61-02 (AACC 2000 ). The pasting parameters were peak viscosity, breakdown (peak viscosity-minimum viscosity), final viscosity, consistency (final viscosity-minimum viscosity), and setback (final viscosity-peak viscosity).

Determination of nutrients

The protein content of black rice was determined by the combustion method, whereas fat content was measured after solvent extraction (AOAC 2000 ). Ash content was measured using the AACC Approved method 08-01 (AACC 2000 ). Dietary fiber was determined by the AOAC Method 985.29 (AOAC 2000 ).

Determination of phenolic content

Black rice samples were ground and screened through a 40-mesh sieve. Total phenolic content was extracted by modifying the method of Liyana-Pathirana and Shahidi ( 2006 ). Black rice flours (1 g) were extracted at room temperature with 8 mL of 80% ethanol containing 2 mL of NaOH (6 mol/L) in a shaker at 150 rpm for 24 h. Around 2 mL of HCl (5 mol/L) was added to adjust pH of extracts to 1–2 and the flasks were shaken for another 10 min. The extracts were subsequently centrifuged at 12,000 g for 10 min and the supernatants were pooled and stored at 4 °C.

Total phenolic content was measured by the Folin-Ciocalteu colorimetric method. Extracts (2 mL) were mixed with 1 ml Folin-Ciocalteu reagent (0.5 N), and the reaction was neutralized with saturated sodium carbonate (75 g/L). They were incubated at 25 °C for 1 h before the blue color occurred was measured at 760 nm using a spectrophotometer (Spectronic 21, Milton Roy Company, USA) and ethanol as a blank. A calibration curve was prepared using a gallic acid solution. Total phenolic contents were expressed as mg of gallic acid equivalent per 100 g of rice (mg GAE/100 g).

Determination of anthocyanin content

Anthocyanin in the black rice flours was extracted by the method described by Zhu et al. ( 2010 ) with slight modification. Black rice flours (1 g) were extracted by mixing with 10 mL of 80% ethanol acidified with 0.5 mL of HCl (5 mol/L) and stirring on a shaker at 150 rpm for 24 h. The extracts were centrifuged at 12,000× g for 10 min, and the supernatants were decanted to amber bottles for anthocyanin determination.

The total anthocyanin content in black rice was measured by the pH differential method. The anthocyanin extracts (≤ 10 mL) was diluted with 0.025 mol/L potassium chloride buffer (pH 1.0) and 0.4 mol/L sodium acetate buffer (pH 4.5), and subsequently, the absorbance of diluted test portions were read at 520 and 700 nm. Anthocyanin content was expressed as cyanidin-3-glucoside equivalents, as follows:

where A = (A 520nm  − A 700nm )pH 1.0 − (A 520nm  − A 700nm )pH 4.5; MW (molecular weight) = 449.2 g/mol for cyanidin-3-glucoside (cyd-3-glu); DF = dilution factor; l = pathlength in cm; ε = 26 900 molar extinction coefficient, in L  ×  mol –1  × cm –1 , for cyd-3-glu; and 10 3  = factor for conversion from g to mg.

Determination of DPPH radical scavenging activity

Black rice flours (1 g) were extracted by mixing with 25 mL of 80% ethanol acidified with HCl (1% v/v) and stirring on shaker at 150 rpm for 24 h. The extracts were centrifuged at 4000× g for 15 min, and the supernatants were decanted to amber bottles for anthocyanin determination.

Each 1 mL of crude extract was added to 3 mL of 2,2-diphenyl-l picrylhydraxyl (DPPH) (0.05 mmol/L). The mixture was vigorously shaken and left to stand for 30 min at room temperature in the dark. The absorbance of the reaction solution was then measured at 515 nm using a spectrophotometer (Spectronic 21, Milton Roy Company, USA) and ethanol as a blank. A calibration curve was prepared using an ascorbic acid solution. DPPH radical scavenging activity was expressed as mg of ascorbic acid equivalent per 100 g of rice (mg AA/100 g).

Determination of resistant starch content

Resistant starch was analyzed according to Goni et al. ( 1997 ). Around 50 mg of rice flour sample (dry weight) was added with 5 mL distilled water, adjusted pH to 2.0 and incubated with 0.2 mL pepsin solution, which was prepared by dissolved pepsin enzyme with enzyme-to-protein ratio of 1:17 in 0.01 mol/L HCL, at 37 °C for one h. Then it was hydrolyzed at 37 °C for 16 h after adjusting pH to 7.0 and adding 100 μL of α-amylase. Samples were subsequently centrifuged, and the precipitate was added with 2 mL of 2 mol/L KOH. The solution was incubated with 0.1 mL of amyloglucosidase enzyme from Aspergillus niger at 50 °C for 30 min after pH was adjusted to 3.6–4.2. After centrifugation, glucose concentration in the supernatant was determined using the glucose oxidase–peroxidase kit. A factor of 0.9 was applied to convert glucose concentration into starch content.

Assessment of sensory properties

For sensory analysis, black rice samples were cooked in an electric rice cooker for 45 min using rice to water ratio of 1:1.5. Sensory evaluation was performed by 30 Thai students in the Division of Food Science and Nutrition, Srinakharinwirot University, Thailand. A hedonic scale (1 = extreme dislike, 9 = extreme like) was applied to determine panelist’s preference to cooked rice samples. Sensory attributes of cooked rice that were subjected to evaluation were appearance, color, odor, flavor, texture, and overall acceptability.

Data analysis

The milling treatments and all analyses were performed in triplicate. Data were subjected to analysis of variance followed by Tukey’s range test to compare means at p  < 0.05 using SPSS v. 12.0 software. Regression coefficients obtained for the relationship between DOM and black rice qualities were subjected to analysis of variance using SigmaPlot software v.11.0.

Results and discussion

Relationship of milling time and degree of milling.

Black rice was abrasively milled for 0–100 s and various DOM (0–30%) was obtained. Changes of DOM during milling are shown in Fig.  1 . DOM was not linearly increased with milling time. The alteration rate (slope) differed during the milling process. A power function relationship between milling time and DOM was indicated ( R 2  = 0.9951). A decreasing of the slope was observed when milling time was less than 20 s (DOM < 9%). A lower gradient was consistently observed when milling time was during 20–100 s (DOM > 9%).

Effect of milling time on the degree of milling of black rice

Around 9% rice layer removal was indicated as the bran fraction. Lamberts et al. ( 2007 ) further designated 9–15%, 15–25% and > 25% removal as outer, middle and core endosperm fraction respectively. Hardness of rice bran was different from that of endosperm. Outer layer of rice bran was harder than inner layer, whereas the hardness of the three fraction of endosperm was similar. Thus, decreasing of the slope was noticed in the rice bran layer (DOM < 9%) and the shift of slope was subsequently perceived at the edge of bran and outer endosperm fraction (DOM > 9%). This agreed with the findings of Lamberts et al. ( 2007 ).

Additionally, fragrant black rice (Hom Nil cultivar) was easily milled. Milling at 100 s yielded high DOM (~ 30%), whereas it was around 25% for long-grain brown rice (Lamberts et al. 2007 ). Grain morphology affected DOM, particularly in grain length and length-to-width ratio (Prom-u-thai et al. 2007 ). At the same milling time, DOM of long-slender grain was higher than other shapes. The grain of Hom Nil rice was long (length of 7.2 mm) and slender (length-to-width ratio of 3.61). Thus comparatively high DOM was noticed. Singh et al. ( 2000 ) also reported that the percentage of bran removed at successive milling intervals differed significantly in different cultivars due to differences in shape and grain hardness. The loss of bran during milling increased with the length-to-width ratio as well.

Figure  2 a shows the quadratic equation for the relationship between head rice yield and DOM ( R 2  = 0.9732). The removal of bran layers increased with milling duration and consequently, head rice yield (HRY) reduced. At the beginning (milling at 10 s or DOM ~ 6%) HRY was 70.33% and reduced remarkably to 58.97% at 20 s (DOM ~ 9%). A gradually slow reduction of HRY was subsequently noticed with successive milling. It was 27.50% at the end of milling (DOM ~ 30%).

Effect of degree of milling on a head rice yield and b color of black rice

Non-linear relationship between HRY and DOM was confirmed with Yadav and Jindal ( 2008 ). They found that the reduction in HRY was a power function of the milling duration. Sun and Siebenmorgen ( 1993 ) informed dissimilar findings of a linear relationship between DOM and HRY, which implied that rice was milled to greater extents, the HRY decreased linearly. However, the cultivar and milling moisture content significantly influenced the rate at which HRY changes with DOM (Reid et al. 1998 ). The decrease in HRY with DOM was smaller at high moisture content at which the rice was milled. Bran layers were more easily removed when milling moisture content increased. Moreover, there was an indication of a relationship between kernel thickness of a cultivar and the HRY versus DOM slope. Kernel thickness distributions affected interkernel abrasion in friction milling. Lower HRY was obtained when a thickness less than 1.88 mm or more than 2.03 mm (Sun and Siebenmorgen, 1993 ). Black rice (HOM Nil) has a thickness of 1.77 mm; thus comparatively lower HRY was reported. These factors might contribute to the different relationships between HRY and DOM observed among the studies.

Grain color, cooking quality, texture and pasting property of black rice

Figure  2 b presents the quadratic equation for the relationship between Lightness (L*), redness (a*), yellowness (b*), and DOM. R 2 were 0.9807, 0.9439 and 0.9534 respectively. Lightness (L*) of black rice sharply increased (22.8–56.2) until DOM ~ 15% and the increase was subsequently gradual (62.1–69.4). Then L* remained almost constant at DOM ~ 25%. At 15% DOM, bran and outer endosperm were completely removed. Redness of black rice (a*) remained almost constant (4.9–4.3) until DOM ~ 20% before it was gradually decreased (3.5–0.9). Yellowness (b*) of black rice gradually increased (3.1–9.9) until DOM ~ 20% and then it remained almost constant (11.0–11.3).

The bran hull (outermost layer of black rice) contains high anthocyanin content, which contributes to the dark purple color of the black rice kernel. Changes of grain color during milling black rice indicated that the amount of pigment decreased from the bran surface to the middle endosperm fractions. Bran and outer endosperm fraction contained more pigments than the other portions. The distribution of pigments was consistent in the core endosperm in which the pigment extent was meager. Although Chen and Siebenmorgen ( 1997 ) reported the linear relationship of grain whiteness and DOM, Lamberts et al. ( 2007 ) and Yadav and Jindal ( 2008 ) confirmed a rapid increase of grain lightness at the beginning and a gradual increase in latter stages of milling. They claimed that the bran layer was quickly removed when compared to a mixture of bran and starchy endosperm layer. Distribution of pigments in brown rice kernels might be slightly different from those in black rice kernels. In brown rice, lightness remained unchanged in the middle and core endosperm fraction due to the removal of red and yellow pigments mostly located in bran layers. Distinct increase at the early stage of milling was due to significant loss of purple pigment in bran layers. However, the lightness of black rice still increased in middle endosperm fraction. This occurred concurrently with an increase of yellowness.

Cooking qualities of black rice milled for different milling times are shown in Table ​ Table1. 1 . The cooking time of black rice was around 22 min, and it was significantly shortened to 15 min ( p  < 0.05) at 10 s milling (DOM ~ 6%). The water uptake ratio (0.66) and volume expansion ratio (1.39) significantly increased ( p  < 0.05) when milling at 10 s as well. There was no significant difference between the length expansion ratio and milling time ( p ≥  0.05). Conclusively cooking index significantly increased ( p  < 0.05) with 30 s milling.

Effect of milling on cooking qualities and pasting viscosity of black rice

All values are means ± standard deviation (n = 3)

Breakdown = peak viscosity-minimum viscosity, Consistency = final viscosity-minimum viscosity, Setback = final viscosty-peak viscosity

Different letters within the same column are significantly different at p  < 0.05

In addition to cooking quality, the texture of cooked black rice changed with different milling time (Table ​ (Table1). 1 ). Cooked black rice had a hardness of 34.75 N, but the substantially softer texture was noticed when milling only 10 s (22.37 N). Milling for a longer time (30–100 s) did not generate notable changes of texture ( p ≥  0.05).

Good cooking qualities of rice are high volume expansion ratio, length expansion ratio, water uptake ratio and minimum cooking time. Removing of bran layers after milling assisted more water diffusion into the kernels during cooking because total protein content and surface lipid reduced. Starchy endosperm without fibrous bran layer was easily cooked and had a short cooking time. Positive effects of the degree of milling on water uptake, volume expansion, and cooking index were exhibited in the study of Mohapatra and Bal ( 2006 ) and Mohapatra and Bal ( 2007 ) as well. A sharp increase in cooking index was also observed at 9–14% DOM. Cooking qualities did not change much when most of the bran layer was removed at high DOM. However, they found a linear increase in length expansion with DOM. Thickness and surface area of fragrant black rice might differ from three varieties of brown rice used in their study. Similarly, DOM had a negative effect on the hardness of cooked brown rice. Existence of bran layer induced rigidity to cooked rice kernels. Moreover, the effect of DOM on cooking qualities varied with ranges of DOM, cooking method (cooking using fixed water-to-rice ratios or cooking using excess water), and pretreatment (parboiled rice or non-parboiled rice) (Brilliris et al. 2012a , b ).

From Table ​ Table1, 1 , peak viscosity, final viscosity, and breakdown increased ( p  < 0.05) after milling. Significant difference ( p  < 0.05) was attained at 30 s of milling (DOM ~ 12%). But setback decreased ( p  < 0.05) significantly when milling at the same milling time. There was no significant difference found among consistency values ( p ≥  0.05).

Total starch increased linearly with DOM when bran, outer, and middle endosperm fractions were removed (Lamberts et al. 2007 ). More starch portions in the flour sample increased peak viscosity, final viscosity, and breakdown of high DOM rice. Additionally, starchy endosperm without fibrous bran layer readily absorbed water and swelled comfortably. This finding agreed with Park et al. ( 2001 ). However, milling and grinding induced starch damage (Lamberts et al. 2007 ). Degradation of starch molecules lowered the reassociation of amylose and amylopectin when cooling. Thus low setback viscosity, which indicated a low rate of starch retrogradation, was noticed in high DOM rice.

Nutrients of black rice

Prominent nutrients of black rice are shown in Fig.  3 a. The protein content of black rice decreased from 9.58 to 6.67 g/100 g during milling for 100 s. Milling for 10 s caused considerable reduction of protein ( p  < 0.05), and afterward, it was constantly diminished with consecutive milling. Black rice contained high ash content of 2.14 g/100 g. It significantly reduced ( p  < 0.05) to 1.43 g/100 g when milling for 10 s. Trivial changes was shown during milling 30–100 s. Ultimately the remained content was 0.37 g/100 g at the end of milling. Similarly fat content in black rice (4.63 g/100 g) decreased significantly ( p  < 0.05) to 2.61 g/100 g at 10 s because bran layers were removed. Fat content gradually decreased with successive milling. At 100 s milling, well-milled black rice was obtained with a fat content of 0.31 g/100 g.

Effect of milling on a nutrients and b resistant starch content and dietary fiber content of black rice. In a group, bars with different letters were significantly different at p  < 0.05 (n = 3)

Milling removes nutrients from rice kernels, but losses are varied. Protein, minerals, and fat were not consistently allocated in the black rice kernels. The effect of milling on protein content is less than fat content because a large amount of protein is in the endosperm. A similar finding on protein distribution was reported by Lamberts et al. ( 2007 ) that most of the protein in long-grain brown rice (~ 84.2%) existed in endosperm (DOM > 9%). For black rice, endosperm was attained when they were milled for longer than 10 s, and protein content in endosperm was around 82% of the entire protein in rice kernel. Protein in black rice still locates densely in the bran layer; thus substantial loss of protein (1.44 g/100 g) was displayed when almost bran fraction was removed (milling 10 s or DOM ~ 6%).

For brown rice, ash content distributed most in bran fraction (61%), and they uniformly scattered in the middle and core endosperm (Lamberts et al. 2007 ). Quadratic and exponential equations were presented for the relationship between ash content and milling duration (Singh et al. 2000 ). Similarly, most of the ash content in black rice located in the bran fraction, and the remainder was in the endosperm. But it steadily reduced with milling time. Hence the relationship between ash content and milling duration varied among rice cultivars with different grain compositions and kernel shapes. High ash loss was noticed in a cultivar with a low length–width ratio (Singh et al. 2000 ). Moreover, losses of specific minerals (iron, zinc, and selenium) during milling differed in their locations in grain kernels (Prom-u-thai et al. 2007 ; Liang et al. 2008 ; Liu et al. 2009 ).

Fat in black rice is largely located in the bran layer (> 44%), and it decreased distinctly when bran fraction was removed. This was consistent with findings in studies done by Chen and Siebenmorgen ( 1997 ) and Ha et al. ( 2006 ), who reported a reduction of total fat content, surface lipid content, and neutraceutical lipid of brown rice with DOM.

Resistant starch and dietary fiber of black rice

From Fig.  3 b, the resistant starch content of black rice (6.30 g/100 g) did not significantly change when milling for 10 s (11.79 g/100 g) ( p ≥  0.05), but it increased when milling for 100 s (16.66 g/100 g) ( p  <  0.05 ). However, dietary fiber of black rice (5.73 g/100 g) notably reduced ( p  < 0.05) to 4.27 and 0.79 g/100 g when milling for 10 s and 100 s, respectively.

Although an obvious trend was not exhibited, resistant starch slightly increased with DOM. This might be due to more starch fractions in high DOM rice. Dietary fiber mostly located in bran fraction, and it reduced with DOM. This agreed with Lai et al. ( 2006 ), who reported contraction of total dietary content in brown rice included pectic substance, hemicellulose, and cellulose with DOM. The total dietary fiber of brown rice was more than that of milled rice around 3–4%. However, milling of black rice for 10 s (DOM ~ 6%) did not remove much bran fraction, and dietary fiber still existed almost 75% of total dietary fiber.

Rice with the bran layer is not simply digested. Brown rice is classified as low and medium GI food, whereas milled rice was high GI food. Glucose released during digestion of brown rice was lower than those of milled rice (Leonora et al. 2006 ) because brown rice had more dietary fiber, fat, phytic acid, and polyphenols. Additionally, bran layers inhibited water and acid absorption and gastric juice diffusion during simulated gastric digestion; thus breakage, solubility, and digestibility of rice kernels was hindered (Kong et al. 2011 ).

Antioxidant properties of black rice

Black fragrant rice (Hom Nil cultivar) was claimed as a good source of antioxidants. It contained total phenolic and anthocyanin content of 186.20 mg GAE/100 g and 24.55 mg/100 g, respectively (Fig.  4 ). Phenolic content sharply reduced to 127.82 mg GAE/100 g when milling for 10 s ( p  < 0.05), and then it gradually decreased to 61.01 mg GAE/100 g at 100 s milling. A similar pattern was observed in changes in anthocyanin content during milling. Anthocyanin in raw black rice suddenly decreased to 7.46 mg/100 g at 10 s milling ( p  < 0.05) before petty alterations were noticed during 30–60 s. Lastly, milling for 100 s completely removed anthocyanin pigments from black rice kernel. Antioxidants were eliminated during milling. Therefore, DPPH scavenging activity of raw black rice (227 mg AAE/100 g) indubitably reduced to 175 mg AAE/100 g when milling only 10 s ( p  < 0.05). Additional milling (30–100 s) caused a slight decline of DPPH activity to 118 mg AAE/100 g.

Effect of milling on phenolic content (mg GAE/100 g), anthocyanin content (mg/100 g) and DPPH scavenging acivity (mg AAE/100 g) of black rice. In a group, bars with different letters were significantly different at p  < 0.05 (n = 3)

Black rice contains beneficial antioxidants comprised of polyphenolics, flavonoids, vitamin E, phytic acid, and γ-oryzanol. At 85% degree of milling, Kong and Lee ( 2010 ) found a large amount of free polyphenols and flavonoids in the bran fraction of black rice, and a small amount was in the endosperm. For Hom Nil black rice, a moderate amount of phenolic compounds (58.38 mg GAE/100 g or 31%) was eliminated after milling for 10 s (DOM ~ 6%). When all bran (calculated as the difference in contents of black rice and rice milled for 30 s or DOM ~ 12%) was entirely removed, phenolic compounds lost around 102.17 mg GAE/100 g or 55%. Other researchers (Zhou et al. 2004 ; Walter et al. 2011 ) reported a relatively higher amount of phenolic compounds in the light brown pericarp (70–90%) and black pericarp (92–97%). Variations were due to cultivar, particularly phenolic compounds contained in rice kernels, degree of milling, and extraction methods used to determine total phenolic content.

Almost 85% of anthocyanin, which was one of the flavonoids, was in bran layers of black rice (Hu et al. 2003 ). In this study, milling at 10 s (DOM ~ 6%) did not remove all bran layer, and consequently, 30% of total anthocyanin remained in rice kernels.

Antioxidant activity reduced with decreasing in antioxidants after milling. Milling of black grains affected antioxidant activity similar to the effect on polyphenols. It reduced around 88% when black rice was polished (Walter et al. 2011 ). In this study, only 35% decline of antioxidant activity was perceived when all bran (milling for 30 s or DOM ~ 12%) was confidently removed. Black rice milled at 10 s (DOM ~ 6%) still had 77% of the antioxidant activity of black rice.

Sensory quality of cooked black rice

Black rice samples with different degrees of milling were cooked, and sensory qualities evaluated by the panelists are presented in Table ​ Table2. 2 . Overall, acceptability and color scores of raw black rice were not significantly different ( p  ≥ 0.05) from those of black rice milled for 10–100 s. Appearance scores increased with milling time with obvious notice at 30 s (DOM ~ 12%) of milling ( p  < 0.05). However, panelists apparently preferred cooked rice milled for 10 s (DOM ~ 6%) when odor, flavor, and texture were inquired.

Effect of milling on sensory qualities of black rice

All values are means ± standard deviation (n = 30)

The outer seed coat of raw rice caused unpleasant flavor and texture. Removing a small portion of the bran layer produced cooked rice without strong bran flavor and tough texture. Panelists preferred mostly on well-milled and lightly milled rice. Park et al. ( 2001 ) described the detail of changes of sensorial qualities with DOM. Panelists detected decreasing of color, grain integrity, puffed corn flavor, raw rice flavor, wet cardboard flavor, hay-like flavor and bitterness of cooked rice, whereas glossiness, plumpness, sweetness increased. For texture, agglomeration, adhesiveness, cohesiveness, inner moisture, tooth packing of cooked rice increased, but hardness and chewiness decreased.

Improving odor, flavor, and texture acceptance of cooked black rice when milling at 10 s (DOM ~ 6%) concurrently perceived with reducing of instrumental textural hardness and fat content.

Milling definitely diminishes healthful compounds in black rice; however, losses depend on their locations in grain kernels. Milling at 10 s (DOM ~ 6%) did not remove all bran fractions. Small losses of protein (15%) and dietary fiber (25%) were noticed, whereas evident losses of ash (33%), fat (44%), phenolic compounds (31%) and anthocyanin (70%) were observed. In contrast, milling at 10 s appreciably improved the cooking qualities of black rice by reducing cooking time (~ 7 min) and increasing water uptake ratio and volume expansion ratio. Additionally, cooked black rice had impressively softer texture. Panelists preferred odor, flavor, and texture of cooked lightly milled black rice to cooked unmilled black rice.

Acknowledgements

This work was granted from Srinakharinwirot University (Project No. 114/2557). The assistance from Professor Athapol Noomhorm and the Asian Institute of Technology, Thailand, is gratefully acknowledged.

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

• AACC . Approved methods 08-01. 10. St. Paul: The American Association of Cereal Chemists; 2000. [ Google Scholar ]
• AOAC . Official methods of analysis, the. 14. Rockville: AOAC International; 2000. [ Google Scholar ]
• Brilliris MA, Siebenmorgen TJ, Meullenet JF, Mauromoustakos A. Rice degree of milling effects on hydration, texture, sensory and energy characteristics. Part 1. Cooking using excess water. J Food Eng. 2012; 113 :559–568. doi: 10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2012.07.005. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Brilliris MA, Siebenmorgen TJ, Wang YJ. Rice degree of milling effects on hydration, texture, sensory and energy characteristics. Part 2. Cooking using fixed water-to-rice ratios. J Food Eng. 2012; 113 :589–597. doi: 10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2012.07.006. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Chen H, Siebenmorgen TJ. Effect of rice kernel thickness on degree of milling and associated optical measurements. Cereal Chem. 1997; 74 :821–825. doi: 10.1094/CCHEM.1997.74.6.821. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Doesthale YG, Devara S, Rao S, Belavady B. Effect of milling on mineral and trace element composition of raw and parboiled rice. J Sci Food Agric. 1979; 30 :40–46. doi: 10.1002/jsfa.2740300108. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Goni L, Garia-Alonso A, Saura-Calixto F. A starch hydrolysis procedure to estimate glycemic index. Nutr Res. 1997; 17 :427–437. doi: 10.1016/S0271-5317(97)00010-9. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Ha TY, Ko SN, Lee SM, Kim HR, Chung SH, Kim SR, Yoon HH, Kim IH. Changes in neutraceutical lipid contents of rice at different degree of milling. Eur J Lipid Sci Technol. 2006; 108 :175–181. doi: 10.1002/ejlt.200500250. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Hu C, Zawistow J, Ling W, Kitts DD. Black rice ( Oryza sativa L. indica) pigmented fraction suppresses both reactive oxygen species and nitric oxide in chemical and biological model systems. J Agric Food Chem. 2003; 51 :5271–5277. doi: 10.1021/jf034466n. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Itani T, Tamaki M, Arai E, Horino T. Distribution of amylase, nitrogen, and minerals in rice kernels with various characters. J Agric Food Chem. 2002; 50 :5326–5332. doi: 10.1021/jf020073x. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Kong S, Lee J. Antioxidants in milling fractions of black rice cultivars. Food Chem. 2010; 120 :278–281. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2009.09.089. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Kong F, Oztop MH, Singh RP, McCarthy MJ. Physical changes in white and brown rice during simulated gastric digestion. J Food Sci. 2011; 76 :E450–E457. doi: 10.1111/j.1750-3841.2011.02271.x. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Lai VMF, Lu S, He WH, Chen HH. Non-starch polysaccharide compositions of rice grains with respect to rice variety and degree of milling. Food Chem. 2006; 101 :1205–1210. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2006.03.024. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Lamberts L, Bie ED, Vandeputte GE, Veraverbeke WS, Derycke V, De Man W, Delcour JA. Effect of milling on colour and nutritional properties of rice. Food Chem. 2007; 100 :1496–1503. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2005.11.042. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Leonora N, Panlasigui LN, Thompson LU. Blood glucose lowering effects of brown rice in normal and diabetic subjects. Int J Food Sci Nutr. 2006; 57 :151–158. doi: 10.1080/09637480500410879. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Liang J, Li Z, Tsuji K, Nakano K, Nout MJR, Hamer RJ. Milling characteristics and distribution of phytic acid and zinc in long, medium- and short-grain rice. J Cereal Sci. 2008; 48 :83–91. doi: 10.1016/j.jcs.2007.08.003. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Liu K, Cao X, Bai Q, Wen H, Gu Z. Relationships between physical properties of brown rice and degree of milling and loss of selenium. J Food Eng. 2009; 94 :69–74. doi: 10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2009.03.001. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Liyana-Pathira CM, Shahidi F. Importance of insoluble-bound phenolics to antioxidant properties of wheat. J Agric Food Chem. 2006; 54 :1256–1264. doi: 10.1021/jf052556h. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Mohapatra D, Bal S. Cooking quality and instrumental textural attributes of cooked rice for different milling fractions. J Food Eng. 2006; 73 :253–259. doi: 10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2005.01.028. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Mohapatra D, Bal S. Effect of degree of milling on specific energy consumption, optical measurements and cooking quality of rice. J Food Eng. 2007; 80 :119–125. doi: 10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2006.04.055. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Park JK, Kim SS, Kim KO. Effect of milling ratio on sensory properties of cooked rice and on physicochemical properties of milled and cooked rice. Cereal Chem. 2001; 78 :151–156. doi: 10.1094/CCHEM.2001.78.2.151. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Piggott JR, Morrison WR, Clyne J. Changes in lipids and in sensory attributes on storage of rice milled to different degrees. Int J Food Sci Technol. 1991; 26 :615–628. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2621.1991.tb02007.x. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Prom-u-thai C, Sanchai C, Rerkasem B, Jamjod S, Fukai S, Godwin ID, Huang L. Effect of grain morphology on degree of milling and iron loss in rice. Cereal Chem. 2007; 84 :384–388. doi: 10.1094/CCHEM-84-4-0384. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Reid JD, Siebenmorgen TJ, Mauromoustakos A. Factors affecting the slope of head rice yield vs. degree of milling. Cereal Chem. 1998; 75 :738–741. doi: 10.1094/CCHEM.1998.75.5.738. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Singh N, Singh H, Kaur K, Bakshi MS. Relationship between the degree of milling, ash distribution pattern and conductivity in brown rice. Food Chem. 2000; 69 :147–151. doi: 10.1016/S0308-8146(99)00237-X. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Sun H, Siebenmorgen TJ. Milling characteristics of various rough rice kernel thickness fractions. Cereal Chem. 1993; 70 :727–733. [ Google Scholar ]
• Walter M, Marchesan E, Massoni PFS, Silva LP, Sartorim GMS, Ferreira RB. Antioxidant properties of rice grains with light brown, red and black pericarp colors and the effect of processing. Food Res Int. 2011; 50 :698–703. doi: 10.1016/j.foodres.2011.09.002. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Yadav BK, Jindal VK. Changes in head rice yield and whiteness during milling of rough rice ( Oryza sativa L.) J Food Eng. 2008; 86 :113–121. doi: 10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2007.09.025. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Zhou Z, Robards K, Helliwell S, Blanchard C. The distribution of phenolic acids in rice. Food Chem. 2004; 87 :401–406. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2003.12.015. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Zhu F, Cai YZ, Bao J, Corke H. Effect of γ-irradiation on phenolic compounds in rice grain. Food Chem. 2010; 120 :74–77. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2009.09.072. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]

Recent advances on bioactivities of black rice

Affiliation.

• 1 aCollege of Biotechnology, Universidade Federal do Pará & Centre for Valorization of Amazonian Bioactive Compounds, Belém-PA, Brazil bCenter of Investigation in Clinical Nutrition, Université catholique de Louvain, Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium cLife Sciences Institute, Université catholique de Louvain, Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium dPharmacognosy research group, Louvain Drug Research Institute, Université catholique de Louvain, Brussels, Belgium.
• PMID: 28858891
• DOI: 10.1097/MCO.0000000000000417

Purpose of review: Black rice has been consumed for centuries in Asian countries such as China, Korea or Japan. Nowadays, extracts and derivatives are considered as beneficial functional foods because of their high content in several bioactive molecules such as anthocyanins, other phenolics and terpenoids. The purpose of this review is to summarize and discuss recent developments on black rice bioactivities.

Recent findings: Some sterols and triterpenoids with potential anticancer properties already tested in vitro and in vivo have been isolated and identified from bran extracts of black rice. Protection against osteoporosis has been suggested for the first time for black rice extracts. Because of its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties, black rice also protects liver and kidney from injuries. One clinical study reported the interest of black rice in case of alcohol withdrawal.

Summary: Several advances have been recently achieved on the understanding of the potential biological effects of black rice and its derivatives. They further confirm that black rice should be considered as a promising source of health-promoting functional foods targeting a large set of noninfectious diseases. However, more clinical studies are needed to support the findings highlighted in this review.

Publication types

• Anthocyanins / analysis
• Anti-Inflammatory Agents / analysis
• Anti-Inflammatory Agents / pharmacology
• Antineoplastic Agents / analysis
• Antineoplastic Agents / pharmacology
• Antioxidants / analysis
• Antioxidants / pharmacology
• Diabetes Mellitus / prevention & control
• Functional Food*
• Gastrointestinal Tract / metabolism
• Kidney / metabolism
• Liver / metabolism
• Nervous System Diseases / prevention & control
• Obesity / prevention & control
• Oryza / chemistry*
• Oryza / classification*
• Osteoporosis / prevention & control
• Phenols / analysis
• Phenols / pharmacology
• Phytochemicals / analysis
• Phytochemicals / pharmacology
• Terpenes / analysis
• Terpenes / pharmacology
• Anthocyanins
• Anti-Inflammatory Agents
• Antineoplastic Agents
• Antioxidants
• Phytochemicals

black rice Recently Published Documents

Total documents.

• Latest Documents
• Most Cited Documents
• Contributed Authors
• Related Sources
• Related Keywords

Effect of black rice flour with different particle sizes on frozen dough and steamed bread quality

Protective effect of two thai pigmented rice cultivars against h2o2-induced oxidative damage in ht-29 cell culture.

Radicals derived from exogenous and endogenous sources are considered to be the principal cause of genetic damage. Exogenous and endogenous radicals participate in the reactive oxygen species (ROS) formation, which leads to damages in the DNA, RNA, proteins and lipids. However, dietary compounds, mainly from pigmented rice, are an essential source of antioxidants that help protect cells from damage. This study seeks to determine the antioxidant properties and cytoprotective effect of two Thai pigmented rice extracts namely the glutinous black rice (native name: Neaw dum moa37) and red rice (native name: Hom gradung-nga57) on H2O2-induced damage in HT-29 cells. The bioactive compound contents, as well as antioxidant activities of both rice extracts, were investigated. The protective effect of rice extracts on H2O2-induced damage was executed following the co-incubation method. HT-29 cells were exposed to H2O2 and different rice extract concentrations for 3 h and an MTT assay was used to measure the viability of the cell. The ROS level was determined using the 2′,7′-dichlorofluorescin diacetate (DCFDA). The result showed that glutinous black rice extract contained significantly higher contents of all analysed antioxidants and activities than red rice extract. Glutinous black rice showed a higher cytotoxic effect compared to red rice. At the non-toxic concentration of both rice extracts, the HT-29 cells were guarded against the H2O2 induced oxidative stress. Besides, the intracellular ROS accumulation result from H2O2 exposure was significantly reduced in the presence of rice extracts for both glutinous black rice and red rice compared to control. Hence, this study has demonstrated the potential properties of both pigmented rice extracts in alleviating H2O2-mediated damage in HT-29 cells.

Ultrasound‐assisted extraction of anthocyanin from black rice bran using natural deep eutectic solvents: Optimization, diffusivity, and stability

Black rice anthocyanins alleviate hyperuricemia in mice: possible inhibitory effects on xanthine oxidase activity by cyanidin 3-o-glucoside, phenolic profiles and bioactivities of different milling fractions of rice bran from black rice, sustainable dyeing and functionalization of wool fabrics with black rice extract, metabolite profiling of black rice (oryza sativa l.) following xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae infection, growth kinetics and survival of lactobacillus acidophilus in black rice milk, sensory evaluation and antimicrobial activity of snack bar from black soybean and black rice containing anthocyanins.

Snack bars made from black soybean and black rice could be used as a food product to complement the energy and nutrients needs. Both have anthocyanins content in black soybean and black rice as well as the potential as an antimicrobial agent. The purpose of this study was to obtain an optimal formula, evaluate the sensory acceptance, analyze the total monomeric anthocyanin content of the snack bars, and compare the growth of probiotic and pathogenic bacteria in anthocyanins crude extracts from the snack bars. The production of snack bars was done by using three variations of main ingredients, including 30% of black soybean + 70% of black rice (formula 1), 50% of black soybean + 50% of black rice (formula 2), and 70% of black soybean + 30% of black rice (formula 3). The results performed that consumers acceptance for formulas 2 and 3 was not significantly different (P > 0.05), but significantly higher (P < 0.05) than formula 1. Total monomeric anthocyanin content analyzed by the pH differential method in these three snack bars formulas had no significant difference (P > 0.05). The growth analysis of probiotic and pathogenic bacteria showed that the percentage of growth inhibition of Escherichia coli and Salmonella enterica serovar Typhi bacteria was significantly higher (P = 0.00) compared to Lactobacillus acidophilus. Also, formulas 1 and 2 could significantly inhibit E. coli and S. enterica ser. Typhi bacteria (P = 0.00) compared to formula 3. It could be concluded that formula 2 showed the best snack bar based on sensory evaluation and pathogenic bacteria inhibition assay.

Evaluation of Phytochemical Contents and In Vitro Antioxidant, Anti-Inflammatory, and Anticancer Activities of Black Rice Leaf (Oryza sativa L.) Extract and Its Fractions

Black rice leaves (Oryza sativa L.) are a major part of rice straw left in open fields after rice harvest as agricultural waste. In this study, crude ethanolic extract (CEE) and various solvent fractions (hexane (Hex), ethyl acetate (EtOAc), n-butanol (n-BuOH), and aqueous fractions) of black rice leaves were investigated for their bioactive compound contents as well as antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer activities. The results demonstrated that among all the fractions, the n-BuOH fraction presented the greatest contents of total phenolics and flavonoids, while anthocyanins were found to be abundant in the n-BuOH and aqueous fractions, which also exhibited powerful antioxidant abilities according to DPPH and ABTS radical-scavenging assays and a reducing power assay. Regarding anti-inflammatory activity, CEE and EtOAc reduced the production of NO and cytokine secretion (PGE2, IL-6, and IL-1β) but displayed less effect on tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α) release in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced RAW 264.7 cells. They also significantly decreased iNOS and COX-2 protein expression. Additionally, the phenolics-rich ethyl acetate fraction showed the greatest activity against HepG2 liver carcinoma cells, inhibited cell growth, increased the Sub-G1 population, and induced apoptosis via mitochondrion-dependent mechanisms. In conclusion, black rice leaves, a byproduct of rice, exhibited strong antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer capacities and might be useful for application in functional foods and the pharmaceutical industry.

Export Citation Format

Share document.

Black rice: A review from its history to chemical makeup to health advantages, nutritional properties and dietary uses

• Deepak Kumar Panda Department of Botany, School of Applied Sciences, Centurion University of Technology and Management, Odisha, India https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0712-4626
• B Jyotirmayee Department of Botany, School of Applied Sciences, Centurion University of Technology and Management, Odisha, India https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9842-2011
• Gyanranjan Mahalik Department of Botany, School of Applied Sciences, Centurion University of Technology and Management, Odisha, India https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4953-9982

Rice is the most popular food variety globally and is consumed as a staple food due to its high nutritional value. It is primarily black rice because of its rich anthocyanin levels, carbs, lipids, proteins, dietary fibres and minerals. Consumers are increasingly more aware of consuming healthy foods to maintain good health. Because of the strong demand from consumers, cultivars are now more interested in developing black rice due to its high anthocyanin content. The rice appears black because of the presence of anthocyanin in rice bran. Lysine, tryptophan and other essential amino acids are found in black rice. It also contains many antioxidants, the first line that protects against free radical damage and helps maintain good health. This rice type offers several health advantages and may reduce the risk of several ailments, including chronic ones. There are several health benefits associated with eating black rice. Atherosclerosis is lessened, the digestive system is strengthened, high blood pressure is stabilized, allergies are lessened, the body is cleansed, diabetes is better controlled, weight loss is more manageable and cancer development is slowed. It is now used in different food industries as a substitute for wheat due to its high nutritional profile, increasing protein digestion and decreasing starch digestion. This variety is also gluten-free and gluten-sensitive consumers can consume it. Black rice's history, chemical makeup and nutritional and functional qualities are all examined in this study. Black rice scientifically verified therapeutic benefits are the focus of this study paper.

Agrawal A. Black Rice, the New black gold of India. Food and Agriculture Spectrum Journal. 2021;2(03):237-40.

Prasad JB, Pazhaniyandi SS, Rengaraj S. Retracted: Health benefits of black rice-A review. 2019:109-13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gaost.2019.09.005

Thanuja B, Parimalavalli R. Role of black rice in health and diseases. Int. J. Health Sci. Res. 2018; 8:241-48.

Yamuangmorn S, Prom-u-Thai C. The potential of high-anthocyanin purple rice as a functional ingredient in human health. Antioxidants. 2021;10(6): 833. https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox10060833

Sah SK, Kushwaha UKS. Book Review: Black Rice: Research, History and Development. Adv Plants Agric Res. 2016;5(1):00165. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-30153-2

Pratiwi R, Purwestri YA. Black rice as a functional food in Indonesia. Functional Foods in Health and Disease. 2017;7(3):182-94. https://doi.org/10.31989/ffhd.v7i3.310

Pal I. Black Rice-An Extensive Review. Paragon International Publishers. 2018; 126. https://doi.org/10.1353/sew.2018.0026

Sridevi J, Kowsalya S, Bhooma Mani N. Physico-chemical characteristics of black rice and its acceptability in traditional recipes. International Journal of Recent Scientific Research. 2015; Vol.6, No. 12, p.80165-223.

Moirangthem K, Jenkins D, Ramakrishna P, Rajkumari R, Cook D. Indian black rice: A brewing raw material with novel functionality. Journal of the Institute of Brewing. 2020; 126(1):35-45. https://doi.org/10.1002/jib.584

Rozee V, Upadhyay S, Gururani P, Singh B. Black rice Oryza sativa L. and their traditional products: A review. Oct. Jour Env Res. 2020;Vol. 8(2):046-49.

Hartati FK, Widjanarko SB, Widyaningsih TD, Rifa'i M. Anti-Inflammatory evaluation of black rice extract inhibits TNF-?, IFN-? and IL-6 cytokines produced by immunocompetent cells. Food and Agricultural Immunology. 2017;28(6):1116-25. https://doi.org/10.1080/09540105.2017.1332006

Mahajan S, Barthwal S, Attri MK., Bajpai S, Dabral S, Khanuja M, Varma A. Impact of ZnO Nano Materials on Medicinal Black Rice Seed Germination. Journal of Minerals and Materials Characterization and Engineering. 2019; 7(04), 180. https://doi.org/10.4236/jmmce.2019.74014

Lee YM, Kim IS, Lim BO. Black rice (Oryza sativa L.) fermented with Lactobacillus casei attenuates osteoclastogenesis and ovariectomy-induced osteoporosis. BioMed Research International. 2019. https://doi.org/10.1155/2019/5073085

Kushwaha U.K.S. Black Rice: Research, history and development. Springer. 2016. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-30153-2

American Society of Plant Biologists. The origin and spread of 'Emperor's rice': Scientists solve the mystery of black rice. Science Daily. 2015. Retrieved 2022.

Roy SC, Shil P. Black rice developed through interspecific hybridization (O. sativa x O. rufipogon): Origin of black rice gene from Indian wild rice. bioRxiv. 2020. https://doi.org/10.1101/2020.12.25.423663

Kumar N, Murali R.D. Black Rice: A novel ingredient in food processing. J Nutr Food Sci. 2020;10(2):771. https://doi.org/10.35248/2155-9600.20.10.771

Karkee SS, Sah SK, Marhatta S, Dhakal S, Kandel M, Shrestha J. Nitrogen uptake and economics of black rice (Oryza sativa L. indica) under different crop geometries and nitrogen management practices. Archives of Agriculture and Environmental Science. 2019;4(2):171-76. https://doi.org/10.26832/24566632.2019.040207

Purwanto E, Meidini AN. Morphology, production and chemical content performance of black rice Matesih accession with several comparisons. I.O.P. Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science. 2018;142(1):012052. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/142/1/012052

Sholikhah U, Handoyo T, Yunus A. Anthocyanin Content in Some Black Rice Cultivars. I.O.P. Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science. 2021;709(1):012076. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/709/1/012076

Bennett C, Sookwong P, Jakmunee J, Mahatheeranont S. Smartphone digital image colorimetric determination of the total monomeric anthocyanin content in black rice via the pH differential method. Analytical Methods. 2021;13(30):3348-58. https://doi.org/10.1039/D1AY00719J

Zhu Y, Sun H, He S, Lou Q, Yu M, Tang M, Tu L. Metabolism and prebiotics activity of anthocyanins from black rice (Oryza sativa L.) in vitro. PLoS One. 2018;13(4): e0195754. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0195754

Kim JY, Do MH, Lee SS. The effects of a mixture of brown and black rice on lipid profiles and antioxidant status in rats. Annals of nutrition and metabolism. 2006;50(4): 347-53. https://doi.org/10.1159/000094298

Deng GF, Xu XR, Zhang Y, Li D, Gan RY, Li H.B. Phenolic compounds and bioactivities of pigmented rice. Critical reviews in food science and nutrition. 2013; 53(3), 296-306. https://doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2010.529624

Poonia A, Pandey S. Bioactive compounds, nutritional benefits and food applications of black rice: a review. Nutrition & Food Science. 2021; Vol. 52 No. 3, pp. 466-82. https://doi.org/10.1108/NFS-07-2021-0208

Fatchiyah F, Sari D.R.T., Safitri A, Cairns JR. Phytochemical compound and nutritional value in black rice from Java Island, Indonesia. Sys Rev Pharm. 2020; 11(7), 414-21.

Zhang H, Kai G, Xia Y, Wang G, Ai L. Antioxidant and in vitro digestion property of black rice (Oryza sativa L.): a comparison study between whole grain and rice bran. International Journal of Food Engineering. 2020;16(9). https://doi.org/10.1515/ijfe-2019-0260

Al-Jameel SS, Abd El-Rahman SN. Preventive effect of black rice antioxidant extract on oxidative stress induced by ethyl alcohol. African Journal of Biotechnology. 2018; 17(14): 478-85. https://doi.org/10.5897/AJB2017.16260

Dias ALDS, Pachikian B, Larondelle Y, Quetin-Leclercq J. Recent advances on bioactivities of black rice. Current opinion in clinical nutrition and metabolic care. 2017; 20(6): 470-76. https://doi.org/10.1097/MCO.0000000000000417

Han M, Bae JS, Ban JJ, Shin HS, Lee DH, Chung JH. Black rice (Oryza sativa L.) extract modulates ultraviolet-induced expression of matrix metalloproteinases and procollagen in a skin cell model. International Journal of Molecular Medicine. 2018;41(5):3073-80. https://doi.org/10.3892/ijmm.2018.3508

Chandramouli B, Mallikarjuna K. Studies on phytochemistry and biological activities of methanolic extracts of black rice (Oryza sativa L.). reported in an ancient Telugu palm-leaf manuscript. 2018.

Sari N, Wahyuni AS. Effect of black rice bran extract (Black rice bran) to decrease glucose level in diabetic rats. Pharmacon: Jurnal Farmasi Indonesia. 2108; 14(1): 8-13. https://doi.org/10.23917/pharmacon.v14i1.539

Marvelous Health Benefits of Forbidden Rice (Black Rice) Reviewed by Mollie Meldahl, RD, L.D., C.P.T., Registered Dietitian. 2022.

Bo P, An-Qi L, Xiao-Dong L, Rui W, Shuang T, Zi-Yi X et al. The nutritional value and application of black rice-A review. Academic Research Publishing Group. 2021;7(4):63-72. https://doi.org/10.32861/jbr.74.63.72

Lin XQ, Zhu DF, Chen HA, Cheng SH, Uphoff N. Effect of plant density and nitrogen fertilizer rates on grain yield and nitrogen uptake of hybrid rice (Oryza sativa L.). J. Agric. Biotech. Sustain. Dev. 2009; 1:44-53.

Sheehy JE, Mitchell PL, Hardy B. Charting new pathways: C4 rice. Int. Rice Res. Inst., Los Baños, Philippines. 2007. https://doi.org/10.1142/6560

San-oh Y, Sugiyama T, Yoshita D, Ookawa T, Hirasawa T. The effect of planting pattern on the rate of photosynthesis and related processes during ripening in rice plants. Field Crops Res. 2006;96:113-24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fcr.2005.06.002

Pasuquin E, Lafarge T, Tubana B. Transplanting young seedlings in irrigated rice fields: Early and high tiller production enhanced grain yield. Field Crops Res. 2008;105:141-55. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fcr.2007.09.001

Sarwar N, Ali H, Maqsood H, Ahmad A, Ullah E, Khaliq T, Hill JE. Influence of nursery management and seedling age on growth and economic performance of fine rice. J Plant Nutr. 2014;37:1287-303. https://doi.org/10.1080/01904167.2014.881490

Thakur AK. Critiquing SRI. criticism: Beyond scepticism with empiricism. Curr Sci. 2010; 98:1294-99.

Yang C, Yang L, Yang Y, Ouyang Z. Rice root growth and nutrient uptake as influenced by organic manure in continuously and alternately flooded paddy soils. Agric Water Manage. 2004;70:67-81. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2004.05.003

Zhang H, Xue Y, Wang Z, Yang J, Zhang J. An alternate wetting and moderate soil drying regime improves root and shoot growth in rice. Crop Sci. 2009;49:2246-60. https://doi.org/10.2135/cropsci2009.02.0099

Uphoff N, Randriamiharisoa R. Reducing water use in irrigated rice production with the Madagascar system of rice intensification. Int Rice Res Inst Los Baños, Philippines. 2002;71-88.

Mishra A, Salokhe VM. Seedling characteristics and the early growth of transplanted rice under different water regimes. Exp Agric. 2008;44:365-83. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0014479708006388

Abraham B, AdeOluwa OO, Araya H, Berhe T, Bhatt YS. The system of crop intensification (S.C.I.): Reports from the field on improving agricultural production, food security and resilience to climate change for multiple crops. Agric Food Security. 2014; 3:4. https://doi.org/10.1186/2048-7010-3-4

Behera D, Chaudhury A, Vutukutu VK, Gupta A, Machiraju S, Shah P. Enhancing agricultural livelihoods through community institutions in Bihar, India. World Bank, New Delhi. 2013.

Papademetriou MK. Rice production in the Asia-Pacific region: issues and perspectives. Bridging the rice yield gap in the Asia-Pacific region. 2000;220.

Swaminathan MS. Can science and technology feed the world in 2025? Field Crops Res. 2007;104:3-9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fcr.2007.02.004

Peng B, Lou AQ, Luo XD, Wang R, Tu S, Xue ZY, Wang QX. The Nutritional Value and Application of Black Rice-A Review. Journal of Biotechnology Research. 2021;7(4): 63-72. https://doi.org/10.32861/jbr.74.63.72

Rajenan M, Chanan KR. Grain dimension, nutrition and nutraceutical properties of black and red varieties of rice in India. Current Research in Nutrition and Food Science. 2020; 8(3):903. https://doi.org/http://dx.doi.org/10.12944/CRNFSJ.8.3.20

Chomean S, Sukanto T, Piemsup A, Chaiya J, Saenguthai K, Kaset C. Evaluation of black glutinous rice (Oryza sativa L.) extract as a novel nuclear stain for human sperm head assessment by microscopic examination. Clinical and Experimental Reproductive Medicine. 2019;46(2):60. https://doi.org/10.5653/cerm.2019.46.2.60

• Check for updates

How to Cite

• Endnote/Zotero/Mendeley (RIS)

Copyright (c) 2022 Deepak Kumar Panda, B Jyotirmayee , Gyanranjan Mahalik

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License .

Copyright and Licence details of published articles

Authors who publish with this journal agree to the following terms:

• Authors retain copyright and grant the journal right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under a  Creative Commons Attribution License  that allows others to share the work with an acknowledgement of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal.
• Authors are able to enter into separate, additional contractual arrangements for the non-exclusive distribution of the journal's published version of the work (e.g., post it to an institutional repository or publish it in a book), with an acknowledgement of its initial publication in this journal.

Open Access Policy

Plant Science Today is an open access journal. There is no registration required to read any article. All published articles are distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC Attribution 4.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited ( https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ ). Authors are permitted and encouraged to post their work online (e.g., in institutional repositories or on their website) prior to and during the submission process, as it can lead to productive exchanges, as well as earlier and greater citation of published work (See  The Effect of Open Access ).

Most read articles by the same author(s)

• Ushashee Mandal, B Jyotirmayee, Gyanranjan Mahalik, Traditional plants utilized for the viral disease treatment , Plant Science Today: Vol. 9 No. 2 (2022)
• Srinivas Acharya, Madhusmita Pradhan, Gyanranjan Mahalik, Ram Babu, Sangeeta Parida, Pradipta Kumar Mohapatra, Abiotic stress tolerance in mangroves with a special reference to salinity , Plant Science Today: Vol. 10 No. 2 (2023)
• Ipsita Priyadarsini Samal, Sameer Jena, Srinivas Acharya, Ram Babu, Gyanranjan Mahalik, Study of medicinal and allelopathic effect of different weeds of Odisha, India , Plant Science Today: Vol. 11 No. 2 (2024)

Make a Submission

Announcements, new special issue: international conference on multidisciplinary approaches to sdgs: life sciences perception.

The special issue aims to make a comprehensive compilation of papers presented during the International conference on Multidisciplinary Approaches to SDGs: Life Sciences Perception.

CALL FOR PAPERS for Special Issue: Recent advances in ethnobotanical research

The special issue aims to make a comprehensive compilation of articles on ethnobotany.

Plant Science Today Receives Its First Journal Impact Factor!

The journal has received an impressive impact factor of 0.9 as given in the latest Journal Citation Reports.

Current Issue

North-East Research Conclave

NERC 2022: Conservation of Biodiversity in the North Eastern States of India pp 173–184 Cite as

A Study on Various Factors Affecting the Pigmented Rice Value Chain of North East India with a Focus on Black Rice

• Rubeka Idrishi   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-3025-0516 3 ,
• Siddhartha Singha   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-7673-2713 3 &
• Latha Rangan   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-3593-157X 4  
• Conference paper
• First Online: 24 March 2023

61 Accesses

1 Citations

Pigmented rice is primarily consumed in Asian countries, especially in China, Indonesia, Korea and India. India constitutes about 5.1% of the total world production of pigmented rice. Among many unexplored varieties of pigmented rice, Black rice ( Oryza sativa L ) grown in the North Eastern Region (NER) of India is widely popular for its distinct flavor and has immense significance in the rice value chain system. The pigment, flavor and aroma, its chemical composition and volatility are still being studied by many researchers. Black rice is found to be advantageous as compared to white rice due to its high anthocyanin, protein, vitamin and mineral content. All these vary with the cultivars. There are various factors, which affects the biodiversity of black rice production, processing and storage including variety diversity, genetic diversity and ecosystem diversity. The type of landcover of NE India, the trading system and the climatic factors are few major factors which makes the soil of NE India viable enough to grow black rice. In India, Manipur Black rice has been tagged with Geographical Indication (GI) in 2020 for its quality and organic production. In this study, following gaps has been addressed with respect to the various factors discussed above and reviewed on the basis of the authors interaction with farmers (specifically Assam and Manipur farmers) during sample collection and on the basis of published literature.

Locally consumed recipes: Black rice in NER is usually consumed in the form of kheer (rice pudding), desserts, bread, flakes, beverages and cakes. They have specific preparations with different states of North East India such as Utong Chak which is a special snack prepared within bamboo sticks in Manipur, Chubitchi—a fermented rice beverage having potential probiotic benefits in Meghalaya to name a few.

These black rice varieties are aromatic and nutritionally better than white rice, but they yield very less and are highly land specific. It is less exported, not studied in terms of processing, storage and other properties.

Quantity and quality of black rice production depend upon the vagaries of nature, variability from land to land, natural calamity etc.

Persisting weaknesses in the linkages and the lack of coordination among the actors in the pigmented rice value chain.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution .

Buying options

• Available as PDF
• Read on any device
• Instant download
• Own it forever
• Available as EPUB and PDF
• Compact, lightweight edition
• Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
• Free shipping worldwide - see info
• Durable hardcover edition

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Umakanth, B., Vishalakshi, B., Kumar, P.S., Devi, S.J.S.R.: Diverse rice landraces of North-East India enables the identification of novel genetic resources for Magnaporthe resistance. 8 (August), 1–13 (2017). https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2017.01500

Chatterjee, S., Saikia, A., Dutta, P., Ghosh, D., Pangging, G., Goswami, A.K.: Background Paper on Biodiversity Significance of North East India, pp. 1–71. World Wide Fund for Nature-India (2006)

Google Scholar  

Ito, V.C., Schnitzler, E., Demiate, I.M., Eusébio, M.E.S., Lacerda, L.G., Castro, R.A.E.: Physicochemical, thermal, crystallographic, and morphological properties of biodynamic black rice starch, and of residual fractions from aqueous extraction. Starch/Staerke 70 (11–12) (2018). https://doi.org/10.1002/star.201700348

Mohanty, S.V.N.A.K., Pattanayak, A.: Rice in North East India Status Paper on Rice in North East India, pp. 1–82 (2019)

Hu, C., Zawistowski, J., Ling, W., Kitts, D.D.: Black rice (Oryza sativa L. indica) pigmented fraction suppresses both reactive oxygen species and nitric oxide in chemical and biological model systems. J. Agric. Food Chem. 5271–5277 (2003). https://doi.org/10.1021/jf034466n

Kushwaha, U.K.S.: Book review: black rice: research, history, and development. Adv. Plants Agric. Res. 5 (1), 15406 (2016b). https://doi.org/10.15406/apar.2016.05.00165

Vanlalsanga, Singh, S.P., Singh, Y.T.: Rice of Northeast India harbor rich genetic diversity as measured by SSR markers and Zn/Fe content. BMC Genet. 20 (1), 1–13 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12863-019-0780-6

Choudhury, B., Khan, M.L., Dayanandan, S.: Genetic structure and diversity of indigenous rice (Oryza sativa) varieties in the Eastern Himalayan region of Northeast India. 2 (1), 1 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1186/2193-1801-2-228

UNDP and Export-Import Bank of India: Value chain studies (2010)

SFAC: Value Chain Analysis of Select Crops in North Eastern States (2012)

Sudhakar Reddy, C., Jha, C.S., Manaswini, G., Alekhya, V.V.L.P., Vazeed Pasha, S., Satish, K.V., Dadhwal, V.K., et al.: Nationwide assessment of forest burnt area in India using Resourcesat-2 AWiFS data. Curr. Sci. 112 (7), 1521–1532 (2017). https://doi.org/10.18520/cs/v112/i07/1521-1532

Ahuja, U., Ahuja, S.C., Chaudhary, N., Thakrar, R.: Red rices—past, present, and future. Asian Agri-Hist. 11 (4), 291–304 (2007)

Roy, S.C., Shil, P.: Black rice developed through interspecific hybridization (O. sativa x O. rufipogon): origin of black rice gene from Indian wild rice. BioRxiv 1–35 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1101/2020.12.25.423663

Hore, D.K.: Rice diversity collection, conservation and management in northeastern India. Genet. Resour. Crop Evol. 52 , 1129–1140 (2005)

Article   Google Scholar  

Sarkar, A.N.: Resource potential and biodiversity of north eastern region. Indian J. Hill Farming 7 , 11–21 (1994)

Yadav, H., Shalendra, A.: Kiwi value chain analysis and market assessment for lower subansiri district Arunachal Pradesh. Report by CCS National Institute of Agricultural Marketing (A Govt of India organization under Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers welfare) (2017)

Asem, I.D., Imotomba, R., Mazumder, P.B.: Black scented rice (Chakhao) of Manipur. In: Advances in International Rice Research, pp. 125–136 (2017). https://doi.org/10.5772/67193

Roy, S., Verma, B.C., Banerjee, A., Kumar, J., Ray, U.S.: Genetic diversity for drought and low‑phosphorus tolerance in rice (Oryza sativa L.) varieties and donors adapted to rainfed drought‑prone ecologies. Sci. Rep. 11 , 1–10 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-93325-2

Rajendran, M., Chandran, K.R.: Grain dimension, nutrition and nutraceutical properties of black and red varieties of rice in India. Curr. Res. Nutr. Food Sci. 8 (3), 903–923 (2020). https://doi.org/10.12944/CRNFSJ.8.3.20

Rathna Priya, T., Raeboline, A., Eliazer, L., Ravichandran, K., Antony, U.: Nutritional and functional properties of coloured rice varieties of South India: a review. 3 , 1–11 (2019)

Verma, D.K., Srivastav, P.P.: Bioactive compounds of rice (Oryza sativa L.): review on paradigm and its potential benefit in human health. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 97 (November 2019), 355–365 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2020.01.007

Yu, S., Nehus, Z.T., Badger, T.M., Fang, N.: Quantification of vitamin E and gamma-oryzanol components in rice germ and bran. J. Agric. Food Chem. 55 , 7308–7313 (2007)

Article   CAS   PubMed   Google Scholar  

Saikia, S., Dutta, H., Saikia, D., Mahanta, C.L.: Quality characterization and estimation of phytochemicals content and antioxidant capacity of aromatic pigmented and non-pigmented rice varieties. Food Res. Int. 46 (1), 334–340 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2011.12.021

Article   CAS   Google Scholar  

Borah, N., Athokpam, F.D., Semwal, R.L., Garkoti, S.C.: Chakhao (black rice; Oryza sativa L.): a culturally important and stress tolerant traditional rice variety of Manipur. Indian J. Tradit. Knowl. 17 (4), 789–794 (2018)

Singh, K.I., Singh, M.P., Sharma, P.R., Singh, T.R.: Screening of certain promising local rice varieties for resistance to the Manipur gall midge (Orseoliaoryzae wood-Mason) biotype. Indian J. Entomol. 68 (3), 265–268 (2006)

Mahender, A., Swain, D.M., Gitishree, D., Subudhi, H.N., Rao, G.J.N.: Molecular analysis of native Manipur rice accessions for resistance against blast. Afr. J. Biotechnol. 11 , 1321–1329 (2012)

Anon: Package of Practices for Rabi Crops. Department of Agriculture, Govt. of Assam, Guwahati (1997)

Santhosh, K.: Black rice cultivation and forming practices: success story of Indian farmers. J. Rice Res. 9 (2) (2021). ISSN 2375-4338

Menaka, P., Lala, S.: Indian journal of hill farming performance of black rice with different nitrogen management practice under mid hill of Meghalaya. 31 (1), 115–119 (2018)

Kushwaha, U.K.S.: Black rice anthocyanin content increases with increase in altitude of its plantation. Adv. Plants Agric. Res. 5 (1), 469–472 (2016a). https://doi.org/10.15406/apar.2016.05.00170

Handique, A.K., Handique, G.K.: Nutritional parameters of unique black rice in Assam, India, and its prospect of boosting rural economy. Curr. Sci. 119 (10), 1613–1615 (2020)

CAS   Google Scholar  

Kumar, S., Devi, E.L., Sharma, S.K., Ansari, M.A., Phurailatpam, S., Ng, T.C., Kumar, A., et al.: Review article rice breeding strategies of North Eastern India for resilience to biotic and abiotic stresses: a review. 54 (1) (2017)

Anupam, A., Imam, J., Quatadah, S.M., Siddaiah, A., Prasad Das, S., Variar, M., Prasad Mandal, N.: Genetic diversity analysis of rice germplasm in Tripura state of Northeast India using drought and blast linked markers. Rice Sci. 24 (1), 10–20 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rsci.2016.07.003

Saha, S., Vijayakumar, S., Saha, S., Mahapatra, A., Kumar, M., Sundaram, R.M.: Black rice cultivation in India—prospects and opportunities 6 (2), 044–048 (2022)

Kumar, N., Chhokar, R.S., Meena, R.P., Kharub, A.S., Gill, S.C., Tripathi, S.C., Gupta, O.P.,·Mangrauthia, S.K., Sundaram, R.M., Sawant, C.P., Gupta, A., Naorem, A., Kumar, M., Singh, G.P.: Challenges and opportunities in productivity and sustainability of rice cultivation system: a critical review in Indian perspective. Cereal Res. Commun. 1–29 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s42976-021-00214-5

Download references

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

School of Agro and Rural Technology, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Guwahati, 781039, Assam, India

Rubeka Idrishi & Siddhartha Singha

Department of Biosciences and Bioengineering, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Guwahati, 781039, Assam, India

Latha Rangan

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Latha Rangan .

Editor information

Editors and affiliations.

Department of Chemical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Guwahati, India

Ramagopal V. S. Uppaluri

BioSciences and BioEngineering, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Guwahati, Assam, India

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2023 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.

About this paper

Cite this paper.

Idrishi, R., Singha, S., Rangan, L. (2023). A Study on Various Factors Affecting the Pigmented Rice Value Chain of North East India with a Focus on Black Rice. In: Uppaluri, R.V.S., Rangan, L. (eds) Conservation of Biodiversity in the North Eastern States of India. NERC 2022. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0945-2_10

Download citation

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0945-2_10

Published : 24 March 2023

Publisher Name : Springer, Singapore

Print ISBN : 978-981-99-0944-5

Online ISBN : 978-981-99-0945-2

eBook Packages : Biomedical and Life Sciences Biomedical and Life Sciences (R0)

Share this paper

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Publish with us

Policies and ethics

• Find a journal
• Track your research

Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript.

• View all journals
• My Account Login
• Explore content
• About the journal
• Publish with us
• Sign up for alerts
• Review Article
• Open access
• Published: 14 October 2022

Two decades of rice research in Indonesia and the Philippines: A systematic review and research agenda for the social sciences

• Ginbert P. Cuaton   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-5902-3173 1 &
• Laurence L. Delina   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-8637-4609 1  

Humanities and Social Sciences Communications volume  9 , Article number:  372 ( 2022 ) Cite this article

8469 Accesses

2 Citations

3 Altmetric

Metrics details

• Development studies
• Environmental studies

While rice studies are abundant, they usually focus on macro-level rice production and yield data, genetic diversity, cultivar varieties, and agrotechnological innovations. Moreover, many of these studies are either region-wide or concentrated on countries in the Global North. Collecting, synthesizing, and analyzing the different themes and topic areas in rice research since the beginning of the 21st century, especially in the Global South, remain unaddressed areas. This study contributes to filling these research lacunae by systematically reviewing 2243 rice-related articles cumulatively written by more than 6000 authors and published in over 900 scientific journals. Using the PRISMA 2020 guidelines, this study screened and retrieved articles published from 2001 to 2021 on the various topics and questions surrounding rice research in Indonesia and the Philippines—two rice-producing and -consuming, as well as emerging economies in Southeast Asia. Using a combination of bibliometrics and quantitative content analysis, this paper discusses the productive, relevant, and influential rice scholars; key institutions, including affiliations, countries, and funders; important articles and journals; and knowledge hotspots in these two countries. It also discusses the contributions of the social sciences, highlights key gaps, and provides a research agenda across six interdisciplinary areas for future studies. This paper mainly argues that an interdisciplinary and comparative inquiry of potentially novel topic areas and research questions could deepen and widen scholarly interests beyond conventional natural science-informed rice research in Indonesia and the Philippines. Finally, this paper serves other researchers in their review of other crops in broader global agriculture.

Similar content being viewed by others

Agricultural diversification promotes sustainable and resilient global rice production

Xueqing He, Péter Batáry, … Thomas Cherico Wanger

Southeast Asia must narrow down the yield gap to continue to be a major rice bowl

Shen Yuan, Alexander M. Stuart, … Patricio Grassini

Characterization of rice farming systems, production constraints and determinants of adoption of improved varieties by smallholder farmers of the Republic of Benin

Yêyinou Laura Estelle Loko, Charlemagne D. S. J. Gbemavo, … François Sabot

Introduction

Rice feeds the majority of the world’s population and employs millions, especially in developing countries in the Global South (Muthayya et al., 2014 ). Rice consumption has increased globally over the last decade. Statista data show that, in the cropping year 2020/2021, the world population consumed about 504.3 million metric tons of rice, increasing from 437.18 million metric tons in 2008/2009 (Shabandeh, 2021 ). These data highlight the crop’s global contribution and importance, especially in realizing the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), the blueprint for global prosperity (Gil et al., 2019 ). The SDGs call for systems transformation, including in agriculture, guided by the principles of sustainability and equity, driven by the leave-no-one-behind aphorism, to address the root causes of perennial poverty and chronic hunger.

Pathologist M. B. Waite ( 1915 ) pointed out that the apparent indicator of progress in modern agriculture is the application of scientific research and the subsequent modification and improvement of farming systems based on those research. For example, the Green Revolution resulted in increased agricultural production in developing countries due to the transfer of agrotechnological innovations from countries in the Global North to countries in the Global South. Although, we acknowledge that this project came with a cost (Glaeser, 2010 ; Pielke and Linnér, 2019 ; Pingali, 2012 ).

Regional rice studies have proliferated in Europe (Ferrero and Nguyen, 2004 ; Kraehmer et al., 2017 ), the Americas (Singh et al., 2017 ), Africa (Zenna et al., 2017 ), the Asia Pacific (Papademetriou et al., 2000 ), and South Asia (John and Fielding, 2014 ). Country studies on rice production have also emerged in Australia (Bajwa and Chauhan, 2017 ), China (Peng et al., 2009 ), and India (Mahajan et al., 2017 ). Scholars have also systematically reviewed rice’s phytochemical and therapeutic potentials (Sen et al., 2020 ), quality improvements (Prom-u-thai and Rerkasem, 2020 ), and its role in alleviating the effects of chronic diseases and malnutrition (Dipti et al., 2012 ).

These extant studies, however, are limited on at least three fronts. First, their foci were on rice production, yield, and operational practices and challenges at the macro level. Second, there have been zero attempts at synthesizing this corpus since the 21st century. Third, there are also no attempts at examining the various rice research areas that scholars, institutions, and countries need to focus on, especially in developing country contexts, and their nexuses with the social sciences. This paper addresses these gaps by unpacking and synthesizing multiple rice studies conducted in the emerging Southeast Asian economies of Indonesia and the Philippines from 2001 to 2021. A focus on these developing countries matters since they are home to over 35 million rice farmers (IRRI, 2013 ).

We conducted our review from the Scopus database, using a combination of bibliometric and quantitative content analyses. Section “Results and discussions” reports our results, where we discuss (1) the most relevant and influential rice scholars and their collaboration networks; (2) the most rice research productive institutions, including author affiliations, their countries, and their research funders; and (3) the most significant articles and journals in rice research. This section also identifies 11 topic areas belonging to four major themes of importance for rice research in the two countries. Section “Contributions from and research agenda for the social sciences” provides a research agenda, where we identify and discuss the contributions of our review in terms of future work. Despite the preponderance of rice research in the last two decades and more in Indonesia and the Philippines, contributions from the social sciences remain marginal. Thus, in the section “Conclusion”, we conclude that emphasis is needed on expanding and maximizing the contributions of social scientists given the many opportunities available, especially for conducting interdisciplinary and comparative rice research in these Southeast Asian countries.

Review methods and analytical approach

We used bibliometric and quantitative content analyses to systematically categorize and analyze more than two decades of academic literature on rice in Indonesia and the Philippines. Bibliometric methods, also known as bibliometrics, have grown to be influential in evaluating various research fields and topic areas. Bibliometrics mushroomed because of the increasing availability of online databases and new or improved analysis software (Dominko and Verbič, 2019 ). Bibliometrics quantitatively and statistically analyze research articles using their bibliographic data, such as authors, affiliations, funders, abstracts, titles, and keywords. These data are analyzed to identify and assess the development, maturity, research hotspots, knowledge gaps, and research trends (Aria and Cuccurullo, 2017 ). For example, bibliometrics have been used in reviewing hydrological modeling methods (Addor and Melsen, 2019 ), business and public administration (Cuccurullo et al., 2016 ), and animals’ cognition and behavior (Aria et al., 2021 ).

This review article used bibliometrix , a machine-assisted program that offers multiple options and flexibility to map the literature comprehensively (Aria and Cuccurullo, 2017 ). We run this program using R Studio version 4.1.2 (2021-11-01; “Bird Hippie”) for its source code readability, understandability, and easy-to-do computer programming (Cuaton et al., 2021 ). We used bibliometrix in three critical analytical phases: (a) importing and converting data to R format, (b) identifying our dataset’s collaboration networks and intellectual and conceptual structures, and (c) processing, presenting, and analyzing our dataset. Bibliometrix, however, is unable to produce specific data that we want to highlight in this paper; examples of these are our coding criteria on interdisciplinarity and author gender, where such information was not captured in the articles’ bibliographic data in Scopus. We addressed these issues by conducting a quantitative content analysis (QCA) of our dataset. QCA is a method to record, categorize, and analyze textual, visual, or aural materials (Coe and Scacco, 2017 ). QCA has been applied in other reviews, such as in energy research development in the social sciences (Sovacool, 2014 ), the concepts of energy justice (Jenkins et al., 2021 ), and in examining agricultural issues in Botswana (Oladele and Boago, 2011 ) and Bangladesh (Khatun et al., 2021 ).

Search strategies

We constructed our dataset from the Scopus database, which we accessed via our institution’s online library on 14 November 2021. Scopus is a scientific database established in 2004 and owned by Elsevier Ltd. (Elsevier, 2021 ). We excluded other databases, such as Google Scholar, ScienceDirect, Web of Science, and EBSCO, suggesting one potential bias in our review (Waltman, 2016 ; Zupic and Čater, 2015 ). Our decision to exclusively use Scopus arises from two main reasons. First, the database has broader coverage than others, including the abovementioned (Falagas et al., 2008 ). Scopus includes new and emerging journals published in developing countries like Indonesia and the Philippines, our focus countries. Second, Scopus has a user-friendly interface and its search options allow researchers to flexibly explore its universe of indexed articles based on authors, institutions, titles, abstracts, keywords, and references (Donthu et al., 2021 ).

We followed the PRISMA 2020 Guideline (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses) (Page et al., 2021 ) in our search for potential rice-related studies in Indonesia and the Philippines (see Fig. 1 ). We used the initial search string: “rice” AND “Indonesia*” OR “Philippine*” (asterisk or “*” was used as a wildcard search strategy) and limited the year coverage from 2001 to 2021. Our first round of searches resulted in 3846 documents (results as of 14 November 2021). We filtered these documents by including only peer-reviewed, full-text English articles on rice. We did not include any documents from the grey literature (e.g., news items, press releases, government or corporate reports), and other document types indexed in Scopus such as reviews, books, conference papers, errata, comments, editorials, and short reports.

Our initial result of 3846 documents (results as of 14 November 2021) was filtered by including only peer-reviewed, full-text English articles on rice, resulting in 2243 eligible documents.

We also excluded articles with irrelevant keywords by using the following combined queries:

This resulted in 2243 eligible documents. We downloaded these documents as raw files in BibTex format and imported them to Biblioshiny , a web interface in Bibliometrix, where they were further filtered. Our verified final dataset comprises 2243 full-text English articles cumulatively written by 6893 authors and published across 909 journals (see Table 1 ).

Structure and analytical approach

We examined the authors’ profiles based on their gender, relevance in the study, and global impact. For gender, we coded them into ‘man,’ ‘woman,’ and ‘undetermined’ because some did not put enough information that helps in gender identification. We identified their gender by counter-checking their Scopus profiles to their verified accounts in Google Scholar, ResearchGate, Publons/Web of Science, or institutional profiles. We measured the authors’ relevance and impact against their (a) productivity, (b) citations, and (c) H-indices. We acknowledge, however, that some Filipino and Indonesian scholars, whose papers may not be indexed in Scopus, could also be prolific based on different parameters, but we excluded them. We proceeded to map the collaboration networks of these authors to identify “who works with whom on what.” A collaboration network illustrates nodes (circle shape) as authors and links (connecting lines) as co-authorships (Glänzel and Schubert, 2005 ).

Institutions, countries, funders

Following Sovacool ( 2014 ), we categorized the authors’ institutions into four: (1) University and research included authors who are researchers, instructors/lecturers/professors, other academic faculty from various non-university research think tanks, institutes, and national and local research centers; (2) Government consisted country or state departments, bureaus, ministries, and other government regulatory bodies; (3) Interest groups and NGOs included intergovernmental bodies, such as the United Nations Food and Agriculture Office (FAO) and international organizations like the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) and Oxfam; and (4) Banking and finance encompassed players from the finance sector, including multilateral development banks such as the Asian Development Bank (ADB), World Bank, and the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD). After coding and categorizing, we analyzed the authors’ institutional collaboration networks.

We identified the country’s productivity and coded them by global region based on their geographical location: (a) Asia, (b) Australia, New Zealand, and South Pacific, (c) Europe, (d) North America, (e) South America, and (f) Africa. We did this to show how various countries have been researching rice in Indonesia and the Philippines since the 21st century.

We then constructed a country collaboration map as a visual macro-representation of countries working together on rice research using these data. Bibliometrix, however, measured the country’s productivity based on the corresponding authors’ affiliations. We, therefore, noted two critical points here. First, many corresponding authors may have multiple institutional affiliations. For example, one corresponding author may belong to more than two affiliations (e.g., a corresponding Filipino author may have concurrent institutional affiliations in Japan, Australia, and New Zealand). Second, the corresponding authors may not necessarily be nationals of that country. Note that the unit of analysis is based on the corresponding authors’ institutional affiliations at the time of publication and not on their country/ies of citizenship or nationality. Despite these, our findings still provide insight into the macro-level productivity of countries conducting rice research in Indonesia and the Philippines.

We analyzed the funders using Scopus’ in-house Analytics Tool and determined their relevance based on the number of articles mentioning them in the Funding source or Acknowledgment section in the paper. We categorized the funders into six: (1) government (e.g., ministries, departments, or regulatory agencies), (2) research (e.g., research councils, research centers, and national academies), (3) foundations and non-government organizations (NGOs), (4) universities, (5) private companies and corporations, and (6) intergovernmental organizations/IGOs, including multilateral development banks.

Articles and journals

In terms of interdisciplinarity, we coded the articles as (a) interdisciplinary, (b) disciplinary, or (c) unidentified by using the authors’ department or division affiliation/s as a proxy to determine their disciplinary training. We coded an article as interdisciplinary if it belonged to any of the three criteria: (1) it had an author that had training or belonged to a department/division in at least two conventional disciplines (e.g., agriculture, anthropology, sociology, biology); (2) it had an author that had a self-identified interdisciplinary department (e.g., interdisciplinary division, sustainability, agriculture economics, etc.); or (3) it had at least two authors with different disciplinary training or expertise (e.g., business and economics; crop science and political science, etc.). We coded an article as disciplinary if its author/s had only belonged to one conventional department/division affiliation (e.g., Division of Agriculture, Department of Economics, Division of Environmental Science, etc.). On the other hand, we coded an article as undetermined when the authors had only indicated the name of their institutions or did not indicate their departmental or division affiliations (e.g., only the University of the Philippines, IRRI, Universitas Gadja Mada, etc.).

We examined the articles based on their local relevance and global influence. Bibliometrix measured the articles’ relevance based on their “local citations” or citations received from the 2243 articles of our sample dataset. We did this to determine which papers are considered relevant by authors studying various areas of rice research in Indonesia and the Philippines. Global influence is measured based on the articles’ citations from the global research community or other scientific works beyond our sample dataset. We also conducted a co-citation analysis of the cited references. Co-citation is the frequency by which articles cite together two or more articles relevant to the topic areas of inquiry (Aria and Cuccurullo, 2017 ). Bibliometrix had identified some co-cited articles published before our timeline of interest (i.e., pre-2001) which provide scholars with a more profound understanding of rice research in the two countries.

On the other hand, Bibliometrix identified the most relevant journals based on the number of papers the journals had published and the local citations of the articles. These data guide readers and researchers on which journals to look for on rice studies in Indonesia and the Philippines.

Knowledge hotspots

Bibliometrix creates a thematic map that allows researchers to identify which study areas have been adequately explored and which areas need further investigation or re-investigation to identify knowledge hotspots and research gaps (Aria and Cuccurullo, 2017 ). Della Corte et al. ( 2019 , pp. 5–6) discussed the major themes in Bibliometrix in the following:

“Themes in the lower-right quadrant are the Basic Themes , characterized by high centrality and low density. These themes are considered essential for a research field and concerned with general topics across different research areas.

Themes in the upper-right quadrant are the Motor Themes , characterized by high centrality and density. Motor themes are considered developed and essential for the research field.

Themes in the upper-left quadrant are the highly developed and isolated themes or Niche Themes . They have well-developed internal links (high density) but unimportant external links, which could be interpreted as having limited importance for the field (low centrality).

Themes in the lower-left quadrant are known as Emerging or Declining Themes . They have low centrality and density, making them weakly developed and marginal.”

Contributions from and research agenda for the social sciences

As interdisciplinary environmental and social scientists, we also focused our review on the social studies of rice in the two countries. This section highlighted the gaps between the natural and the social sciences in rice research and advanced a research agenda for interdisciplinary and comparative social scientists.

Limitations

As in any systematic review, we acknowledge certain limitations to our work. We discuss four of these.

First, to keep a certain level of reliability, we focused only on peer-reviewed full-length research articles written in the English language and indexed in the Scopus database. Therefore, we may have excluded some relevant articles, including those written in Filipino, Indonesian, and other local or indigenous languages and published in local or international journals but are not indexed in Scopus. Our review also excluded conference papers, commentaries, book reviews, book chapters, conference reviews, data papers, errata, letters, notes, and non-academic publications like policy briefings, reports, and white papers.

Second, in our quantitative content analysis, we acknowledge the highly cis-heteronormative approach we used in coding the author’s gender as “man” or “woman.” We identified these genders from the names and pictures of the authors in their verified Scopus, Publons/ Web of Science, and institutional profiles. It is not our deliberate intention to neglect the varying genders of researchers and scientists beyond the traditional binary of man or woman.

Third, we recognize that our analysis cannot directly identify how much each funder provided as the unit of analysis in bibliometrix may depend on how prolific researchers were in publishing articles despite smaller funds. For instance, one research project supported by Funder A with US$1 million may have published only one article based on their project design or the funder's requirement. Since the authors published only one paper from this project, the data could show that Funder A only funded one research. Another research project, supported by Funder B, with only US$300,000 in funding, may have published more than five papers; therefore, more articles counted as funded by Funder B. This issue is not within the scope of our review.

Lastly, it should be noted that the future research works we discussed were highly influenced by our research interests and the general overview of the literature, and thus neither intend to cover nor aim to discuss the entire research topics that other scholars could study.

Despite these limitations, we strongly argue that our review provided relevant insights and proposed potentially novel topic areas and research questions for other scholars to explore, especially social scientists, in deepening and widening rice research in Indonesia and the Philippines. To end, we hope that researchers heed our call to conduct more interdisciplinary and comparative rice-related studies in these two emerging Southeast Asian countries.

Results and discussions

Our dataset comprises 2243 peer-reviewed journal articles cumulatively written by 6893 authors who cited around 80,000 cumulative references. The average annual publications from 2001 to 2013 were only 57 papers but elevated to hundreds beginning in 2014 (Fig. 2 ).

The average number of annual publications on rice research in Indonesia and the Philippines from 2001 to 2013 was only 57 papers but elevated to hundreds beginning in 2014.

Of the 159 authors, one had a duplicate profile; thus, we identified 158 authors publishing on rice studies; the majority (66%) are men. The top 50 most prolific scholars produced a little over 25% (567 articles) of the total articles. Australian ecologist Finbarr Horgan topped this list ( n  = 21), followed by Bas Bouman and Grant Singleton—each with 20 articles. The top 10 authors with the highest number of publications have affiliations with the IRRI, the University of the Philippines, the University of Gadjah Mada, and the Philippine Rice Research Institute (PhilRice). For the full list of prolific scholars with at least 10 articles published, see Supplementary Table 1 .

In terms of the authors with the most local citations, although Finbarr Horgan has the most documents, Johan Iskandar ( n  = 36 citations) from the Universitas Padjadjaran, who studies rice genetic diversity, is the most cited. Local citations refer to the citations received by authors from our sample dataset of 2243 articles. Muhidin Muhidin from the Universitas Halu Oleo and Ruhyat Partasasmita from the Universitas Padjadjaran, followed him with 30 and 28 local citations, respectively. Common to these three authors are their Biology background/expertise and interest in rice genetic diversity. To check the top 20 most locally cited scholars, refer to Supplementary Table 2 .

The H-index is the author-level measure of publications’ productivity and citation impacts (Hirsch, 2005 ). Bas Bouman (H-index = 18) leads the top 10 scholars among rice-related researchers in Indonesia and the Philippines. Yoshimichi Fukuta (H index = 13) and Shaobing Peng (H index = 13) followed him. These three authors are affiliated with or have collaborated with the IRRI. To check the top 10 scholars with the highest H-indices, refer to Supplementary Table 3 .

Figure 3 reveals the top 80 authors who collaborate across eight major clusters of rice research. The Red cluster shows Finbarr Horgan as the most prominent author with at least four significant collaborators in pest management, specifically on rice stemborers (Horgan et al., 2021 ), anthropods’ biodiversity in tropical rice ecosystems (Horgan et al., 2019 ), and virulence adaptations of rice leafhoppers (Horgan et al., 2018 ). In the Purple Cluster, Yoshimichi Fukuta has multiple publications with at least six collaborators in the study of rice blast (Ebitani et al., 2011 ; Kadeawi et al., 2021 ; Mizobuchi et al., 2014 ). In the Brown cluster, Bernard Canapi from the IRRI has collaborated with at least five scholars in the study of rice insect pest management (Cabasan et al., 2019 ; Halwart et al., 2014 ; Litsinger et al., 2011 ), farmers’ preference for rice traits (Laborte et al., 2015 ), and the drivers and consequences of genetic erosion in traditional rice agroecosystems in the Philippines (Zapico et al., 2020 ). The Gray cluster shows that Siti Herlinda has collaborated with at least four scholars to study anthropods in freshwater swamp rice fields (Hanif et al., 2020 ; Herlinda et al., 2020 ) and the benefits of biochar on rice growth and yield (Lakitan et al., 2018 ).

The authors’ collaboration networks show eight major clusters of rice research in Indonesia and the Philippines.

Institutions

Author affiliations.

In terms of institutional types, Fig. 4 shows that most rice researchers in Indonesia and the Philippines have affiliations with “University and research.” Figure 5 shows the top 20 institutions in terms of research productivity led by the IRRI, the University of the Philippines System, the PhilRice, the Institute Pertanian Bogor/IPB University, and the University of Gadja Mada. These 20 institutions produced 66% of the articles in our dataset.

The majority of rice researchers in Indonesia and the Philippines have affiliations with “University and research”.

The top 5 most productive institutions in terms of rice research in Indonesia and the Philippines are the IRRI, the University of the Philippines System, the PhilRice, the Institute Pertanian Bogor/IPB University, and the University of Gadja Mada.

Scholars affiliated with the IRRI have written the most papers (at least 19% or 358 articles) in our dataset. The range of topics covers both regional and country studies. Some regional examples include the drivers of consumer demand for packaged rice and rice fragrance in South and Southeast Asia (Bairagi et al., 2020 ; Bairagi, Gustafson et al., 2021 ). Country studies, for example, include an investigation of rice farming in Central Java, Indonesia (Connor et al., 2021 ), the cultural significance of heirloom rice in Ifugao in the Philippines (Bairagi, Custodio et al., 2021 ), and the distributional impacts of the 2019 Philippine rice tariffication policy (Balié and Valera, 2020 ).

The University of the Philippines System, with rice scholars affiliated with their campuses in Los Baños, Diliman, Mindanao, and Manila, produced the next largest number of papers (more than 200 or 10%) on topics about rice pests and parasites (Horgan et al., 2019 , 2021 ; Vu et al., 2018 ), weed control (Awan et al., 2014 , 2015 ; Fabro and Varca, 2012 ), and climate change impacts on rice farming (Alejo and Ella, 2019 ; Ducusin et al., 2019 ; Gata et al., 2020 ). Social studies of rice conducted by the University of the Philippines researchers include indigenous knowledge on climate risk management (Ruzol et al., 2020 , 2021 ), management options in extreme weather events (Lopez and Mendoza, 2004 ), agroecosystem change (Aguilar et al., 2021 ; Neyra-Cabatac et al., 2012 ), and the development and change over time of rice production landscapes (Santiago and Buot, 2018 ; Tekken et al., 2017 ).

PhilRice, a government-owned corporation under the Department of Agriculture (Official Gazette of the Philippines, 2021 ), is the third most prolific rice research-producing institution (122 papers) on topics ranging from nematodes or rice worms (Gergon et al., 2001 , 2002 ) and arthropods (invertebrates found in rice paddies) (Dominik et al., 2018 ), hybrid rice (Perez et al., 2008 ; Xu et al., 2002 ), alternate wetting-and-drying technology (Lampayan et al., 2015 ; Palis et al., 2017 ), and community development strategies on rice productions (Romanillos et al., 2016 ).

The IPB University, a public agrarian university in Bogor, Indonesia, investigates rice productivity and sustainability (Arif et al., 2012 ; Mucharam et al., 2020 ; Setiawan et al., 2013 ), irrigation (Nugroho et al., 2018 ; Panuju et al., 2013 ), extreme weather events such as drought (Dulbari et al., 2021 ), floods (Wakabayashi et al., 2021 ), and emerging social issues such as food security (Putra et al., 2020 ), land-use change (Chrisendo et al., 2020 ; Munajati et al., 2021 ), and sustainability (Mizuno et al., 2013 ). This university has 23 research centers, including those which focus on environmental research; agricultural and village development; engineering applications in tropical agriculture; Southeast Asian food and agriculture; and agrarian studies.

Universitas Gadja Maja in Yogyakarta, Indonesia, hosts 21 research centers, including its Agrotechnology Innovation Centre. It carries out research incubation and development activities, product commercialization, and integration of agriculture, animal husbandry, energy, and natural resources into a sustainable Science Techno Park. Some of their published studies focused on drought-tolerant rice cultivars (Salsinha et al., 2020 , 2021 ; Trijatmiko et al., 2014 ), farmers’ technical efficiency (Mulyani et al., 2020 ; Widyantari et al., 2018 , 2019 ), systems of rice intensification (Arif et al., 2015 ; Syahrawati et al., 2018 ), and climate change adaptation (Ansari et al., 2021 ).

In terms of institutional collaboration, the IRRI tops the list with at least eleven collaborators (Fig. 6 ), including the Japan International Center for Agricultural Sciences, the PhilRice, the University of the Philippines System, and the Indonesian Center for Rice Research.

The IRRI, as an international organization focused on many aspects of rice, is not surprising to have the greatest number of institutional collaborators ( n  = 11 institutions).

Rice studies’ authors are from at least 79 countries; the majority of them are working in Asia (79%), followed by Europe (13%) and North America (9%). At least 90% of rice scholars are in Indonesia, and more than 51% have affiliations in the Philippines, followed by Japan, the USA, and China. For the list of the top 20 most productive countries researching rice in Indonesia and the Philippines, see Supplementary Table 4 . Figure 7 shows a macro-level picture of how countries have collaborated on rice-related projects in Indonesia and the Philippines since 2001, suggesting that rice research in both countries has benefited from international partnerships.

A macro-level picture of how countries have collaborated on rice-related projects in Indonesia and the Philippines since 2001. It suggests that rice research in both countries has benefited from international partnerships.

Only around 47% (1050 studies) of our dataset acknowledged their funding sources, where most received financial support either from governments (45%), research (27%), or university funders (16%) (Fig. 8 ). To see the top 15 funders that supported at least 10 rice-related research projects in Indonesia and the Philippines from 2001 to 2021, refer to Supplementary Table 5 . Of over 150 rice research funders, Indonesia’s Ministry of Education, Culture, and Research (formerly the Ministry of Research and Technology) funded ~6% (62 out of 1050 studies). The Japan Society for the Promotion of Science and Japan’s Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology came in as the second and third largest funders, respectively.

The majority of rice research projects in Indonesia and the Philippines were funded by governments (45%), research (27%), and university institutions (16%).

Half of all articles in the dataset were borne out of interdisciplinary collaboration. More than a quarter of the articles, however, were unidentified, showing an apparent undercount of the total number of disciplinary collaborations. Most of these collaborative pieces of work (~61%) belong to the natural science subject areas of agricultural and biological sciences; biochemistry, genetics, and molecular biology; and environmental science (see Table 2 ). Note that the cumulative number of articles in Table 2 is more than the total number of the sample dataset since an article may belong to multiple subject areas as indicated by its authors in Scopus. Less than 9% (354) of all papers were written by social scientists, highlighting their marginal contribution to rice research. The social studies of rice can increase our understanding of the many facets of rice production, including their socio-political, economic, and cultural aspects.

Our review shows that there are 10 major networks of rice research co-citations (Fig. 9 ). The papers by Bouman et al. ( 2005 ), Bouman et al. ( 2007 ), Bouman and Tuong ( 2001 ), and Tuong and Bouman ( 2003 ) were co-cited by scholars studying the relationship between water scarcity management vis-à-vis rice growth and yield (the purple cluster in Fig. 9 ). Papers by Yoshida et al. ( 2009 ), De Datta ( 1981 ), and Peng et al. ( 1999 ) were co-cited by scholars researching the genetic diversity, yield, and principles and practices of rice production in Indonesia (the red cluster in Fig. 9 ). Papers by Ou ( 1985 ), Mackill and Bonman ( 1992 ), Sambrook et al. ( 1989 ), Kauffman et al. ( 1973 ), Iyer and McCouch ( 2004 ), and Mew ( 1987 ) were considered essential references in studying rice diseases (blue cluster in Fig. 9 ). The top-cited article on rice research in Indonesia and the Philippines, based on their overall global citations, is a study on water-efficient and water-saving irrigation (Belder et al., 2004 ). This study detailed alternative options for typical water management in lowland rice cultivation, where fields are continuously submerged, hence requiring a continuous large amount of water supply (Belder et al., 2004 ). Global citations refer to the citations received by the articles within and beyond our sample dataset of 2243 articles. To see the top 10 most globally cited articles on rice research in Indonesia and the Philippines, refer to Supplementary Table 6 .

There are 10 major networks of rice research co-citations in Indonesia and the Philippines.

The journal Biodiversitas: Journal of Biological Diversity published the most number of papers on rice research in the two countries. Biodiversitas publishes papers “dealing with all biodiversity aspects of plants, animals, and microbes at the level of gene, species, ecosystem, and ethnobiology” (Biodiversitas, 2021 ). Following its indexing in Scopus in 2014, Biodiversitas has increasingly published rice studies, most of which were authored by Indonesian researchers. To see the top 10 most relevant journals for rice research in Indonesia and the Philippines based on the number of documents published since 2001, refer to Supplementary Table 7 .

Based on their local citations, the journals Field Crops Research , Theoretical & Applied Genetics , and Science are the most relevant. Field Crops Research focuses on crop ecology, crop physiology, and agronomy of field crops for food, fiber, feed, medicine, and biofuel. Theoretical and Applied Genetics publishes original research and review articles in all critical areas of modern plant genetics, plant genomics, and plant biotechnology. Science is the peer-reviewed academic journal of the American Association for the Advancement of Science and one of the world’s top academic journals. To see the top 30 most relevant journals for rice research in Indonesia and the Philippines based on the number of local citations, refer to Supplementary Table 8 .

The most used keywords found in 2243 rice research papers published between 2001 and 2021 in Indonesia and the Philippines are food security, climate change, drought, agriculture, irrigation, genetic diversity, sustainability, technical efficiency, and production (Fig. 10 ). We found 11 clusters across four significant themes of rice research in these countries (Fig. 11 ).

The most used keywords found in 2243 rice research papers published between 2001 and 2021 in Indonesia and the Philippines are food security, climate change, drought, agriculture, irrigation, genetic diversity, sustainability, technical efficiency, and production.

There are four major themes composed of 11 clusters of rice research in Indonesia and the Philippines since 2001.

Basic themes

We identified four major clusters under ‘basic themes’ (refer to Fig. 11 ):

The Red Cluster on studies in the Philippines related to rice yield and productivity, drought, nitrogen, the Green Revolution, and the use and potential of biomass;

The Blue Cluster on studies in Indonesia related to food security, climate change, agriculture, upland rice, irrigation, technical efficiency, and sustainability vis-à-vis rice production;

The Green Cluster on rice genetic diversity, bacterial blight diseases, resistant rice genes, aerobic rice, and brown planthoppers; and

The Gray Cluster on the nutritional aspects of rice, including studies on biofortified rice cultivars.

Agriculture suffers from climate change impacts and weather extremes. Rice researchers in Indonesia and the Philippines are identifying drought-tolerant rice cultivars that can produce high yields in abiotic stress-prone environments (Afa et al., 2018 ; Niones et al., 2021 ). These hybrid cultivars are vital for increasing rice productivity, meeting production demand, and feeding the growing Filipino and Indonesian populations (Kumar et al., 2021 ; Lapuz et al., 2019 ). Researchers have also looked at alternative nutrient and water management strategies that farmers can use, especially those in rainfed lowland areas during drought (Banayo, Bueno et al., 2018 ; Banayo, Haefele et al., 2018 ). There were also studies on the socio-cultural dynamics under which farmers adapt to droughts, such as how past experiences of hazards influence farmers’ perceptions of and actions toward drought (Manalo et al., 2020 ).

Motor themes

We identified three significant clusters of ‘motor themes’ (refer to Fig. 11 ):

The Pink Cluster on yield loss and integrated pest management of rice fields;

The Blue-Green Cluster on biodiversity, ecosystem services, remote sensing, and water productivity; and

The Orange Cluster on the antioxidant properties of rice bran and black rice.

In both countries, pests, including weeds (Awan et al., 2014 , 2015 ), insects (Horgan et al., 2018 , 2021 ), and rodents (Singleton, 2011 ; Singleton et al., 2005 , 2010 ), have significant impacts on yield loss in rice production and human health. To address these, many farmers have embraced chemical-heavy pest management practices to prevent yield loss and increase economic benefits. Pesticides began their use in Indonesia and the Philippines and rapidly expanded from the 1970s to the 1980s (Resosudarmo, 2012 ; Templeton and Jamora, 2010 ). However, indiscriminate use of pesticides caused an ecological imbalance that exacerbated pest problems (Templeton and Jamora, 2010 ) and contributed to farmers’ acute and chronic health risks (Antle and Pingali, 1994 ; Pingali and Roger, 1995 ).

Integrated pest management was introduced, applied, and studied in both countries to address these issues. This approach combines multiple compatible pest control strategies to protect crops, reduce pesticide use, and decrease farming costs (Gott and Coyle, 2019 ). For example, Indonesia’s 1989 National Integrated Pest Management Program trained hundreds of thousands of farmers and agricultural officials about its principles, techniques, and strategies (Resosudarmo, 2012 ). In the Philippines, the government of then-President Fidel V. Ramos (1992–1996) prohibited using hazardous pesticides and instituted a “multi-pronged approach to the judicious use of pesticides” (Templeton and Jamora, 2010 , p. 1). President Ramos’ suite of policies included deploying Integrated Pest Management “as a national program to encourage a more ecologically sound approach to pest control” (Templeton and Jamora, 2010 , p. 1). This pesticide policy package benefited the Philippine government in terms of private health costs avoided (Templeton and Jamora, 2010 ).

To address weed problems, farmers traditionally use manual weeding, a labor-intensive practice. However, as labor costs for manual weeding increased, herbicide use became economically attractive to farmers (Beltran et al., 2012 ). Herbicide experiments were made to address common rice weeds including barnyard grass ( Echinochloa crus-galli ) (Juliano et al., 2010 ), crowfoot grass ( Dactyloctenium aegyptium ) (Chauhan, 2011 ), three-lobe morning glory ( Ipomoea triloba ) (Chauhan and Abugho, 2012 ), and jungle rice ( Echinochloa colona ) (Chauhan and Johnson, 2009 ). Knowledge gained from these experiments contributed to the development of integrated weed management strategies.

Yet, many factors come into play when farmers decide to use herbicides. Beltran et al. ( 2013 ) reported that farmers’ age, household size, and irrigation use are significant determinants of adopting herbicides as an alternative to manual weeding. Beltran et al. ( 2013 ) further showed that economic variables, like the price of the herbicide, household income, and access to credit, determined farmers’ level of herbicide use (Beltran et al., 2013 ). Their study highlights the complex decision-making process and competing factors affecting weed management in the Philippines.

Apart from weeds, insects, like brown planthoppers ( Nilaparvata lugens ) and green leafhoppers ( Cicadella viridis ) and their accompanying diseases, affect rice production. In Java, Indonesia, Triwidodo ( 2020 ) reported a significant influence between the insecticide use scheme and the brown planthopper ( Nilaparvata lugens ) attack rates in rice fields. Brown planthopper attacks increased depending on the frequency of pesticide application, their varieties, and volume (Triwidodo, 2020 ). In the Philippines, Kim and colleagues ( 2019 ) developed a rice tungro epidemiological model for a seasonal disaster risk management approach to insect infestation.

Some social studies of integrated pest management included those that looked at the cultural practices that mitigate insect pest losses (Litsinger et al., 2011 ) and farmers’ knowledge, attitudes, and methods to manage rodent populations (Stuart et al., 2011 ). Other social scientists evaluated the value of amphibians as pest controls, bio-monitors for pest-related health outcomes, and local food and income sources (Propper et al., 2020 ).

Niche themes

We identified two ‘niche themes’ consisting of studies related to (a) temperature change and (b) organic rice production (refer to Fig. 11 ). Temperature change significantly affects rice farming. In the Philippines, Stuecker et al. ( 2018 ) found that El Niño-induced soil moisture variations negatively affected rice production from 1987–2016. According to one experiment, high night temperature stress also affect rice yield and metabolic profiles (Schaarschmidt et al., 2020 ). In Indonesia, a study suggests that introducing additional elements, such as Azolla, fish, and ducks, into the rice farming system may enhance rice farmers’ capacity to adapt to climate change (Khumairoh et al., 2018 ). Another study produced a rainfall model for Malang Regency using Spatial Vector Autoregression. This model is essential as rainfall pattern largely determines the cropping pattern of rice and other crops in Indonesia (Sumarminingsih, 2021 ).

Studies on organic rice farming in the Philippines include resource-poor farmers’ transition from technological to ecological rice farming (Carpenter, 2003 ) and the benefits of organic agriculture in rice agroecosystems (Mendoza, 2004 ). Other studies on organic rice focused on its impacts on agricultural development (Broad and Cavanagh, 2012 ) and climate resilience (Heckelman et al., 2018 ). In Indonesia, Martawijaya and Montgomery ( 2004 ) found that the local demand for organic rice produced in East Java was insufficient to generate revenue enough to cover its production costs. In West Java, Komatsuzaki and Syuaib ( 2010 ) found that organic rice farming fields have higher soil carbon storage capacity than fields where rice is grown conventionally. In Bali, farmers found it challenging to adopt organic rice farming vis-à-vis the complex and often contradictory and contested administration of the Subaks (MacRae and Arthawiguna, 2011 ) and the challenges they have to confront in marketing their produce (Macrae, 2011 ).

Emerging or declining themes

We identified two clusters of ‘emerging/declining themes’ or areas of rice research that are weakly developed and marginal (refer to Fig. 11 ). The Purple Cluster (emerging) studies rice straw, rice husk, methane, and rice cultivation, while the Light Blue Cluster (declining) pertains to local rice research.

In this section, we present and discuss the contributions of the social sciences, highlight key gaps, and provide a research agenda across six interdisciplinary areas for future studies. In Table 3 , we summarized the various topic areas that other scholars could focus on in their future studies of rice in Indonesia and the Philippines.

Economic, political, and policy studies

Political scientist Ernest A. Engelbert ( 1953 ) was one of the earliest scholars to summarize the importance of studying agricultural economics, politics, and policies. Engelbert ( 1953 ) identified three primary reasons scholars and laypeople alike need to understand the nature of political processes in agriculture. First, the rapid change and highly contested political environment where agriculture operates often places agriculture last on national policy agenda. Second, the formulation of agricultural policies intersects with contemporary national and economic contexts by which these policies revolve. Third, understanding the political processes around agriculture can help avoid political pressures and machinations aimed at undermining agricultural development.

Politics play a crucial role in better understanding rice- and agriculture-related policies, their evolution, dynamics, challenges, developments, and futures. Grant ( 2012 , p. 271) aptly asks, “Who benefits [from government policies, regulations, and programs]?” . Knowing, understanding, and answering this question is crucial since policymaking is a highly contested process influenced and negotiated not only by farmers and decision-makers but also by other interest groups, such as people’s organizations and non-government organizations. On the other hand, understanding macro- and micro-economic government arrangements come hand-in-hand in analyzing how policies impact farmers and consumers. Using tariffs as an example, Laiprakobsup ( 2014 , p. 381) noted the effects of government interventions in the agrarian market:

“… when the government implements consumer subsidy programs by requiring the farmers to sell their commodities at a cheaper price, it transfers the farmers’ incomes that they were supposed to earn to the consumers. Moreover, the government transfers tax burdens to the farmers via export taxes in that the agricultural industry is likely to purchase the farmers’ commodities as cheaply as possible in order to make up for its cost.”

The two countries have compelling economic, political, and policy-oriented rice studies. Some examples of this type of research in the Philippines are the following. Intal and Garcia ( 2005 ) argued that the price of rice had been a significant determinant in election results since the 1950s. Fang ( 2016 ) analyzed how the Philippines’ colonial history bolstered an oligarchy system, where landed elite politicians and patronage politics perpetuated corruption to the detriment of rice farmers. Balié and Valera ( 2020 ) examined rice trade policy reforms’ domestic and international impacts. San Juan ( 2021 ) contends that the 2019 Rice Tariffication Law of the Philippines only encouraged the country to rely on imports and failed to make the local rice industry more competitive.

In Indonesia, some political studies on rice production are the following. Putra et al. ( 2020 ) analyzed how urbanization affected food consumption, food composition, and farming performance. Noviar et al. ( 2020 ) provided evidence that households in the rice sub-sector have achieved an insufficient level of commercialization in their rice production. Rustiadi et al. ( 2021 ) investigated the impacts of land incursions over traditionally rice farming regions due to Jakarta’s continuous expansion. Satriawan and Shrestha ( 2018 ) evaluated how Indonesian households participated in the Raskin program, a nationwide rice price subsidy scheme for the poor. Misdawita et al. ( 2019 ) formulated a social accounting matrix and used a microsimulation approach to assess the impacts of food prices on the Indonesian economy.

Future work

Social science researchers could further explore and compare the local, regional, and national similarities and differences of the abovementioned issues or conduct novel research related to land-use change, land management, urbanization, food and agricultural policies, trade policies, irrigation governance, and price dynamics. Comparative social studies of rice could also lead to meaningful results. As social policy scholar Linda Hantrais noted:

“Comparisons can lead to fresh, exciting insights and a deeper understanding of issues that are of central concern in different countries. They can lead to the identification of gaps in knowledge and may point to possible directions that could be followed and about which the researcher may not previously have been aware. They may also help to sharpen the focus of analysis of the subject under study by suggesting new perspectives.” (Hantrais, 1995 , p. n/a).

Sociological, anthropological, and cultural studies

Biologists dominated agricultural research until the mid-1960s (Doorman, 1991 ). Agriculture, in other words, was no social scientist’s business. However, this situation gradually changed when governments and scholars realized the long-term impacts of the Green Revolution from the 1950s to the 1980s, which underscores that the development, transfer, and adoption of new agrotechnology, especially in developing countries, is driven not only by techno-biological factors but also by the socio-economic, political, and cultural realities under which the farmers operate. Since then, sociologists, anthropologists, and cultural scholars have become indispensable in answering the “how”, “what”, and “why” agrarian communities follow, adopt, utilize, or, in some cases, prefer local/traditional production technologies over the technological and scientific innovations developed by engineers, biologists, geneticists, and agriculturists. Nyle C. Brady, a soil scientist and the former Director-General of the IRRI pointed out:

“… we increasingly recognize that factors relating directly to the farmer, his family, and his community must be considered if the full effects of agricultural research are to be realized. This recognition has come partly from the participation of anthropologists and other social scientists in interdisciplinary teams … during the past few years.” (IRRI, 1982 ).

Since the late 19th century, many rice studies have tried to answer the roles of social scientists in agricultural research. Social sciences have contributed to agricultural research in many ways, especially regarding technology adoption by farmers (DeWalt, 1985 ; Doorman, 1990 ). Doorman ( 1991 , p. 4) synthesized these studies and offered seven roles for sociologists and anthropologists in agricultural research as follows:

“Accommodator of new technology, ex-post and ex-ante evaluator of the impact of new technology, an indicator of the needs for new technology, translator of farmer’s perceptions, broker-sensitizer, adviser in on-farm research, and trainer of team members from other disciplines.”

Social studies of rice are especially critical in Indonesia and the Philippines—home to hundreds of Indigenous cultural communities and Indigenous peoples (Asian Development Bank, 2002 ; UNDP Philippines, 2010 ). Regardless of the highly contested debates surrounding “indigeneity” or “being indigenous,” especially in Indonesia (Hadiprayitno, 2017 ), we argue that Indigenous cultural communities and Indigenous peoples have similarities (i.e., they are often farming or agrarian societies) but also recognize their differences and diversity in terms of their farming practices, beliefs, traditions, and rituals. These socio-cultural factors and human and non-human interactions influence rice production; thus, these differences and diversity bring front-and-center the importance of needs-based, community-driven, and context-sensitive interventions or projects for rice farming communities. These are research areas best explored by sociologists, anthropologists, and cultural scholars.

Today, agriculture’s sociological, anthropological, and cultural research have gone beyond the classic technology adoption arena. In Indonesia, studies have explored farmers’ technical efficiency in rice production (e.g., Muhardi and Effendy, 2021 ), the similarities and differences of labor regimes among them (e.g., White and Wijaya, 2021 ), the role of social capital (e.g., Salman et al., 2021 ), and the reciprocal human–environmental interactions in the rice ecological system (e.g., Sanjatmiko, 2021 ). Disyacitta Nariswari and Lauder ( 2021 ) conducted a dialectological study to examine the various Sundanese, Javanese, and Betawi Malay words used in rice production. Rochman et al. ( 2021 ) looked into the ngahuma (planting rice in the fields) as one of the inviolable customary laws of the Baduy Indigenous cultural community in Banten, Indonesia.

In the Philippines, Balogbog and Gomez ( 2020 ) identified upland rice farmers’ productivity and technical efficiency in Sarangani. Aguilar et al. ( 2021 ) examined the drivers of change, resilience, and potential trajectories of traditional rice-based agroecosystems in Kiangan, Ifugao. Pasiona et al. ( 2021 ) found that using the “modified listening group method” enables farmers’ peer-to-peer learning of technical concepts. Sociologist Shunnan Chiang ( 2020 ) examined the driving forces behind the transformation of the status of brown rice in the country.

Social scientists could further look into the social, cultural, technological, and human–ecological interactions in the temporal and spatial studies of different rice farming regions in Indonesia and the Philippines. Other topics could include the cultural practices and the techno-social relationships of rice farmers (e.g., Shepherd and McWilliam, 2011 ) and other players in the rice value chain, local and indigenous knowledge and practices on agrobiodiversity conservation, historical and invasive pests and diseases, agricultural health and safety, farmer education, and aging agricultural infrastructures. Lastly, future researchers can explore the impacts of adopting rice farming technologies in the different stages or processes of the rice value chain. They can look into its short- and longer-term effects on farmers’ livelihoods and conduct comparative analyses on how it improves, or not, their livelihoods, and whether farmers regard them better compared to the traditional and indigenous practices and beliefs that their communities apply and observe in rice farming.

Social and environmental psychology

Our review yielded no article published on the social and environmental psychology aspects of rice farming in Indonesia and the Philippines, suggesting a new research frontier. The increasing demand for and competition over agricultural and natural resources due to climate change and population expansion (Foley et al., 2011 ) opens up new and emerging sociopsychological dilemmas for society to understand, answer, and, hopefully, solve. Social and environmental psychologists can help shed light on these questions, such as those related to understanding farmers’ pro-environmental agricultural practices (Price and Leviston, 2014 ), sustainable sharing and management of agricultural and natural resources (Anderies et al., 2013 ; Biel and Gärling, 1995 ), and understanding the psychosocial consequences of resource scarcity (Griskevicius et al., 2013 ). Broadly, social psychology examines human feelings, thoughts, and behaviors and how they are influenced by the actual, imagined, and implied presence, such as the effects of internalized social norms (Allport, 1985 ). Social psychologists look at the many facets of personality and social interactions and explore the impacts of interpersonal and group relationships on human behavior (American Psychological Association, 2014b ). On the other hand, environmental psychology examines psychological processes in human encounters with their natural and built environments (Stern, 2000 ). Environmental psychologists are interested in studying and understanding people’s responses to natural and technological hazards, conservation, and perceptions of the environment (American Psychological Association, 2014a ).

Using the Asian Journal of Social Psychology and the Journal of Environmental Psychology as benchmarks, we recommend that scholars explore the following uncharted or least studied areas of rice research in Indonesia and the Philippines: sociopsychological processes such as attitude and behavior, social cognition, self and identity, individual differences, emotions, human–environmental health and well-being, social influence, communication, interpersonal behavior, intergroup relations, group processes, and cultural processes. Researchers could also investigate the psycho-behavioral areas of nature–people interactions, theories of place, place attachment, and place identity, especially in rice farming. Other topics may include farmers’ perceptions, behaviors, and management of environmental risks and hazards; theories of pro-environmental behaviors; psychology of sustainable agriculture; and the psychological aspects of resource/land management and land-use change.

Climate change, weather extremes, and disaster risk reduction

Indonesia’s and Philippines’ equatorial and archipelagic location in the Pacific Ring of Fire (Bankoff, 2016 ; Parwanto and Oyama, 2014 ), coupled with their political, social, and economic complexities (Bankoff, 2003 , 2007 ; UNDRR and CRED, 2020 ), expose and render these countries highly vulnerable to hazards, such as typhoons, strong winds, tsunamis, storm surges, floods, droughts, and earthquakes. The accelerating global climate change increases the frequency and intensity of some of these hazards, such as prolonged droughts, torrential rainfalls causing floods, and super typhoons (IPCC, 2014 ). For example, torrential flooding, induced by heavy rains caused by low pressures and southwest monsoons, has been damaging lives and livelihoods, including rice production (Statista, 2021 ). The 2020 droughts caused over 12 trillion pesos (~US$239.40 billion) of economic losses in the Philippines (Statista, 2021 ) and affected millions of Indonesians (UNDRR, 2020 ). Prolonged drought in Indonesia has also exacerbated fire hazards, which caused transboundary haze pollution in neighboring countries, like Singapore and the Philippines, inflecting environmental health damages (Aiken, 2004 ; Sheldon and Sankaran, 2017 ; Tan-Soo and Pattanayak, 2019 ). Increasing sea-level rise due to anthropogenic climate change puts cities like Jakarta and Manila at risk of sinking in the next 30–50 years (Kulp and Strauss, 2019 ). The high vulnerability, frequent exposure, and low capacities of marginalized and poor Indonesians and Filipinos turn these hazards into disasters (Gaillard, 2010 ; Kelman, 2020 ; Kelman et al., 2015 ), negatively affecting rice agriculture.

Given these contexts, climate change, weather extremes, and disaster risks, vis-à-vis its impacts on the rice sector, are issues of profound interest to scholars and the Indonesian and Philippine governments. In the Philippines, climate adaptation studies include re-engineering rice drying systems for climate change (Orge et al., 2020 ) and evaluating climate-smart farming practices and the effectiveness of Climate-Resiliency Field Schools in Mindanao (Chandra et al., 2017 ). In Indonesia, where some rice farming communities are vulnerable to sea-level rise, scholars are experimenting to identify rice cultivars with high yields under different salinity levels (Sembiring et al., 2020 ). Hohl et al. ( 2021 ) used a regional climate model to develop index-based drought insurance products to help the Central Java government make drought-related insurance payments to rice farmers. Aprizal et al. ( 2021 ) utilized land-use conditions and rain variability data to develop a flood inundation area model for the Way Sekampung sub-watershed in Lampung, Sumatra. Others also looked at the science behind liquefaction hazards caused by irrigation systems for wet rice cultivation in mountainous farming communities like the 2018 earthquake-triggered landslides in Palu Valley, Sulawesi (Bradley et al., 2019 ).

Examples of climate mitigation-related studies in the Philippines include investigating the social innovation strategies in engaging rice farmers in bioenergy development (Minas et al., 2020 ) and evaluating the environmental performance and energy efficiency of rice straw-generated electricity sources (Reaño et al., 2021 ). Doliente and Samsatli ( 2021 ) argue that it is possible to combine energy and food production to increase farm productivity and reduce GHG emissions with minimal land expansion. Other studies have looked into the potential of alternate wetting and drying irrigation practices to mitigate emissions from rice fields (Sander et al., 2020 ).

Future work could explore the following topic areas: demand-driven research and capacity building on climate information and environmental monitoring; nature-based solutions for climate mitigation and adaptation; water–energy–food nexus in rice farming; the nexus of climate change and conflict in rice farming communities; the potentials and pitfalls of social capital in farmer’s everyday adaptation; just energy transitions in rice farming; vulnerabilities from and traditional/local/indigenous ways of adapting to climate change, including the various learning strategies communities use for its preservation; and examples, potentials, and barriers in adopting climate-smart agriculture technologies and practices.

Demographic transitions and aging farmers

Farmers are in various stages and speeds of aging globally (Rigg et al., 2020 ). Evidence of aging farmers in the Global North has been reported in Australia (O’Callaghan and Warburton, 2017 ; Rogers et al., 2013 ), the Czech Republic (Zagata et al., 2015 ), England (Hamilton et al., 2015 ), Japan (Poungchompu et al., 2012 ; Usman et al., 2021 ), and the United States of America (Mitchell et al., 2008 ; Reed, 2008 ; Yudelman and Kealy, 2000 ). Similarly, in the Global South, HelpAge International ( 2014 , p. 21) reported that “there has been a universal trend of an increase in the proportion of older people… attached to agricultural holdings… across [Low and Middle-income Countries in] Asia, sub-Saharan Africa, Latin America, and the Caribbean.” Moreover, farming populations are aging rapidly in East and Southeast Asia (Rigg et al., 2020 ) and southern Africa (HelpAge, 2014 ). Despite this, the literature on aging farmers in Southeast Asian countries remains scant, except for case studies conducted in some villages and provinces in Thailand (Poungchompu et al., 2012 ; Rigg et al., 2018 , 2020 ) and the Philippines (Moya et al., 2015 ; Palis, 2020 ).

Rice farmers’ quiet but critical demographic transformation in Indonesia and the Philippines has not received much attention from scientists, policymakers, and development practitioners. The impacts of aging farmers on the micro-, meso-, and macro-level agricultural processes and outcomes are important issues that require urgent attention. Studies done in other countries could guide future work to explore these questions in Indonesia and the Philippines. These include aging’s potential negative implications in terms of agricultural efficiency and productivity (e.g., Tram and McPherson ( 2016 ) in Vietnam, and Szabo et al. ( 2021 ) in Thailand), food security (e.g., Bhandari and Mishra ( 2018 ) in Asia), farming continuity and sustainability (e.g., O’Callaghan and Warburton ( 2017 ) in Australia, Palis ( 2020 ) in the Philippines, and Rigg et al. ( 2018 , 2020 ) in Thailand), aging and feminization of farm labor (e.g., Liu et al. ( 2019 ) in China), cleaner production behaviors (e.g., Liu et al. ( 2021 ) in Northern China), youth barriers to farm entry (e.g., Zagata and Sutherland ( 2015 ) in Europe), and health and well-being of aging farmers (Jacka, 2018 ; Rogers et al., 2013 ; Ye et al., 2017 ).

Other critical new topics include the (dis)engagement and re-engagement of young people in rice farming; gender dynamics—including structures and systems of inclusion and/or exclusion—in rice production; the impacts of migration and return migration to farming households; community-based and policy-oriented case studies that provide examples of successfully engaging and retaining youth workers in farming; and social protection measures for aging farmers, to name a few.

Contemporary and emerging challenges

One of the biggest and most visible contemporary global challenges is the Covid-19 pandemic. Most pronounced is the pandemic’s impacts on the healthcare system and the economic toll it caused on the lives and livelihoods of people, including rice farmers. Only 0.18% (4 articles) of our dataset have investigated the impacts of Covid-19 on rice systems in Indonesia and the Philippines. Ling et al. ( 2021 ) assessed the effects of the pandemic on the domestic rice supply vis-à-vis food security among ASEAN member-states. They found that Singapore and Malaysia were highly vulnerable to a pandemic-induced rice crisis, while Brunei, Indonesia, and the Philippines are moderately vulnerable. They argued that Southeast Asian rice importers should consider alternative import strategies to reduce their high-risk reliance on rice supply from Thailand and Vietnam and look for other suppliers in other continents.

Rice prices did not change in the early months of the pandemic in Indonesia (Nasir et al., 2021 ); however, as the health emergency progressed, distributors and wholesalers incurred additional costs due to pandemic-induced mobility restrictions (Erlina and Elbaar, 2021 ). In the Philippines, San Juan ( 2021 ) argues that the global rice supply disruption due to the pandemic proves that the country cannot heavily rely on rice imports; instead, it should work on strengthening its domestic rice supply. To realize this, he recommended drastic investments in agriculture and research, rural solar electrification, and the promotion of research on increasing rice yields, boosting productivity, and planting sustainably as feasible steps on the road to rice self-sufficiency.

The ways and extent to which the pandemic negatively affected or exacerbated the vulnerabilities of rice farmers and other value chain actors remain an understudied area in the social studies of rice. Scholars could study the pandemic’s impacts in conjunction with other contemporary and emerging challenges like climate change, weather extremes, aging, conflict, and poverty. Scholars could also explore the medium- and longer-term impacts of the pandemic on rice production, unemployment risks, rice supply and nutrition security of farming households, and the potential and extent to which economic stimulus can benefit rice farmers, to name a few. Most importantly, the pandemic allows researchers and governments to assess the business-as-usual approach that resulted in the disastrous impacts of the pandemic on different sectors, including rice farmers, and hopefully devise strategies to learn from these experiences.

From our review of 2243 articles, cumulatively written by 6893 authors using almost 80,000 references, we conclude that a voluminous amount of rice research has been conducted in Indonesia and the Philippines since 2001. As in other reviews, (e.g., on energy research by Sovacool, 2014 ), our results show that women scholars remain underrepresented in rice research in Indonesia and the Philippines. While interdisciplinary collaboration is abundant, most of these studies belong to the natural sciences with minimal contributions from the social sciences, arts, and humanities. University and research institutions contributed the most to rice research in Indonesia and the Philippines: from hybrid rice cultivars, water management, and technology adoption to socio-cultural, political, economic, and policy issues. Influential scholars in the field were affiliated with the IRRI, which can be expected given the institute’s focus on rice, and key agriculture-focused universities and government bureaus such as the University of the Philippines and the PhilRice in the Philippines, and the Institut Pertanian Bogor University and the Universitas Gadja Maja in Indonesia. We also discussed some examples of economic, political, and policy studies; social, anthropological, and cultural research; social and environmental psychology; climate change, weather extremes, and disaster risk reduction; demographic transitions; and contemporary and emerging issues and studies on rice in the two Southeast Asian countries. Ultimately, we hope that this systematic review can help illuminate key topic areas of rice research in Indonesia and the Philippines and magnify the crucial contributions from and possible research areas and questions that interdisciplinary and comparative social scientists can further explore.

Data availability

The dataset analyzed in this study is available in the Figshare online repository via https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.17284814.v2 . All codes about Bibliometrix are available at https://bibliometrix.org/ .

Addor N, Melsen LA (2019) Legacy, rather than adequacy, drives the selection of hydrological models. Water Resour Res 55(1):378–390. https://doi.org/10.1029/2018WR022958

Article   ADS   Google Scholar  

Afa LO, Purwoko BS, Junaedi A, Haridjaja O, Dewi IS (2018) Screening of hybrid rice tolerance through stimulated condition of drought stress in rainfed lowland. Biosci Res 15(3):1630–1637

Google Scholar  

Aguilar CHM, Altoveros NC, Borromeo TH, Dayo MHF, Koohafkan P (2021) Traditional rice-based agroecosystem in Kiangan, Ifugao, Philippines: drivers of change, resilience, and potential trajectories. Agroecol Sustain Food Syst 45(2):296–316. https://doi.org/10.1080/21683565.2020.1813861

Article   Google Scholar  

Aiken SR (2004) Runaway fires, smoke‐haze pollution, and unnatural disasters in Indonesia. Geogr Rev 94(1):55–79. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1931-0846.2004.tb00158.x

Alejo LA, Ella VB (2019) Assessing the impacts of climate change on dependable flow and potential irrigable area using the swat model. The case of maasin river watershed in Laguna, Philippines. J Agric Eng 50(2):88–98. https://doi.org/10.4081/jae.2018.941

Allport GW (1985) The historical background of social psychology. In: Lindzey G, Aronson E (eds.) The handbook of social psychology. McGraw Hill

American Psychological Association (2014a) A career in climate and environmental psychology. https://www.apa.org/education-career/guide/subfields/environment/education-training

American Psychological Association (2014b) Social psychology examines interpersonal relationships. https://www.apa.org/education-career/guide/subfields/social

Anderies JM, Janssen MA, Lee A, Wasserman H (2013) Environmental variability and collective action: experimental insights from an irrigation game. Ecol Econ 93:166–176. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2013.04.010

Ansari A, Lin Y-P, Lur H-S (2021) Evaluating and adapting climate change impacts on rice production in Indonesia: a case study of the Keduang subwatershed, Central Java. Environments-MDPI 8(11) https://doi.org/10.3390/environments8110117

Antle JM, Pingali PL (1994) Pesticides, productivity, and farmer health: a Philippine case study. Am J Agric Econ 76(3):418–430. https://doi.org/10.2307/1243654

Aprizal, Alisjahbana SW, Nurhasanah A (2021) The development of the flood inundation area model in the way Sekampung subwatershed in Lampung. Rev Int Geogr Educ 11(3):1246–1256. https://doi.org/10.33403/rigeo.800567

Aria M, Alterisio A, Scandurra A, Pinelli C, D’Aniello B (2021) The scholar’s best friend: research trends in dog cognitive and behavioral studies. Animal Cogn 24(3):541–553. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10071-020-01448-2

Aria M, Cuccurullo C (2017) bibliometrix: an R-tool for comprehensive science mapping analysis. J Informetr 11(4):959–975. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joi.2017.08.007

Arif C, Setiawan BI, Sofiyuddin HA, Martief LM, Mizoguchi M, Doi R (2012) Estimating crop coefficient in intermittent irrigation paddy fields using excel solver. Rice Sci 19(2):143–152. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1672-6308(12)60033-X

Arif C, Toriyama K, Nugroho BDA, Mizoguchi M (2015) Crop coefficient and water productivity in conventional and system of rice intensification (SRI) irrigation regimes of terrace rice fields in Indonesia. J Teknol 76(15):97–102. https://doi.org/10.11113/jt.v76.5958

Asian Development Bank (ed.) (2002) Indigenous peoples/ethnic minorities and poverty reduction. Environment and Social Safeguard Division, Regional and Sustainable Development Department, Asian Development Bank

Awan TH, Chauhan BS, Sta Cruz PC (2014) Influence of environmental factors on the germination of Urena lobata L. and its response to herbicides. PLoS ONE 9(3) https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0090305

Awan TH, Cruz PCS, Chauhan BS (2015) Efficacy and economics of different herbicides, their weed species selectivity, and the productivity of mechanized dry-seeded rice. Crop Prot 78:239–246. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cropro.2015.09.016

Article   CAS   Google Scholar  

Bairagi S, Custodio MC, Durand-Morat A, Demont M (2021) Preserving cultural heritage through the valorization of Cordillera Heirloom rice in the Philippines. Agric Hum Values 38(1):257–270. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10460-020-10159-w

Bairagi S, Demont M, Custodio MC, Ynion J (2020) What drives consumer demand for rice fragrance? Evidence from South and Southeast Asia. Br Food J 122(11):3473–3498. https://doi.org/10.1108/BFJ-01-2019-0025

Bairagi S, Gustafson CR, Custodio MC, Ynion J, Demont M (2021) What drives consumer demand for packaged rice? Evidence from South and Southeast Asia. Food Control 129 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodcont.2021.108261

Bajwa AA, Chauhan BS (2017) Rice production in Australia. In: Chauhan BS, Jabran K, Mahajan G (eds.) Rice production worldwide. Springer International Publishing, pp. 169–184

Balié J, Valera HG (2020) Domestic and international impacts of the rice trade policy reform in the Philippines. Food Policy 92 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2020.101876

Balogbog KJM, Gomez NU (2020) Determinants of productivity and technical efficiency of upland rice farming system in Sarangani Province, Phillipines. Mindanao J Sci Technol 18(2):125–137

Banayo NPMC, Bueno CS, Haefele SM, Desamero NV, Kato Y (2018) Site-specific nutrient management enhances sink size, a major yield constraint in rainfed lowland rice. Field Crops Res 224:76–79. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fcr.2018.05.006

Banayo NPMC, Haefele SM, Desamero NV, Kato Y (2018) On-farm assessment of site-specific nutrient management for rainfed lowland rice in the Philippines. Field Crops Res 220:88–96. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fcr.2017.09.011

Bankoff G (2003) Cultures of disaster: society and natural hazards in the Philippines. RoutledgeCurzon

Bankoff G (2007) Dangers to going it alone: social capital and the origins of community resilience in the Philippines. Contin Change 22(2):327–355. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0268416007006315

Bankoff G (2016) Hazardousness of place a new comparative approach to the Filipino past. Philipp Stud: Hist Ethnogr Viewp 64(3/4):335–357

Belder P, Bouman BAM, Cabangon R, Guoan L, Quilang EJP, Yuanhua L, Spiertz JHJ, Tuong TP(2004) Effect of water-saving irrigation on rice yield and water use in typical lowland conditions in Asia. Agric Water Manag 65(3):193–210. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2003.09.002

Beltran JC, Pannell DJ, Doole GJ (2012) Economic implications of herbicide resistance and high labour costs for management of annual barnyardgrass ( Echinochloa crus-galli ) in Philippine rice farming systems. Crop Prot 31(1):31–39. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cropro.2011.09.012

Beltran JC, White B, Burton M, Doole GJ, Pannell DJ (2013) Determinants of herbicide use in rice production in the Philippines. Agric Econ (UK) 44(1):45–55. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1574-0862.2012.00631.x

Bhandari H, Mishra AK (2018) Impact of demographic transformation on future rice farming in Asia. Outlook Agric 47(2):125–132. https://doi.org/10.1177/0030727018769676

Biel A, Gärling T (1995) The role of uncertainty in resource dilemmas. J Environ Psychol 15(3):221–233. https://doi.org/10.1016/0272-4944(95)90005-5

Biodiversitas (2021) Aims and scope|biodiversitas. J Biol Divers https://smujo.id/biodiv/aimsandscope

Bouman BAM, Humphreys E, Tuong TP, Barker R (2007) Rice and water. In: Advances in agronomy, vol 92. Elsevier, pp. 187–237

Bouman BAM, Peng S, Castañeda AR, Visperas RM (2005) Yield and water use of irrigated tropical aerobic rice systems. Agric Water Manag 74(2):87–105. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2004.11.007

Bouman BAM, Tuong TP (2001) Field water management to save water and increase its productivity in irrigated lowland rice. Agric Water Manag 49(1):11–30. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-3774(00)00128-1

Bradley K, Mallick R, Andikagumi H, Hubbard J, Meilianda E, Switzer A, Du N, Brocard G, Alfian D, Benazir B, Feng G, Yun S-H, Majewski J, Wei S, Hill EM (2019) Earthquake-triggered 2018 Palu Valley landslides enabled by wet rice cultivation. Nat Geosci 12(11):935–939. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41561-019-0444-1

Article   ADS   CAS   Google Scholar  

Broad R, Cavanagh J (2012) The development and agriculture paradigms transformed: reflections from the small-scale organic rice fields of the Philippines. J Peasant Stud 39(5):1181–1193. https://doi.org/10.1080/03066150.2012.722082

Cabasan MTN, Tabora JAG, Cabatac NN, Jumao-as CM, Soberano JO, Turba JV, Dagamac NHA, Barlaan E (2019) Economic and ecological perspectives of farmers on rice insect pest management. Global J Environ Sci Manag 5(1):31–42. https://doi.org/10.22034/gjesm.2019.01.03

Carpenter D (2003) An investigation into the transition from technological to ecological rice farming among resource poor farmers from the Philippine island of Bohol. Agric Hum Values 20(2):165–176. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1024013509602

Chandra A, Dargusch P, McNamara KE, Caspe AM, Dalabajan D (2017) A Study of Climate-Smart Farming Practices and Climate-resiliency Field Schools in Mindanao, the Philippines. World Dev 98:214–230. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2017.04.028

Chauhan BS (2011) Crowfootgrass ( Dactyloctenium aegyptium ) germination and response to herbicides in the Philippines. Weed Sci 59(4):512–516. https://doi.org/10.1614/WS-D-11-00048.1

Chauhan BS, Abugho SB (2012) Threelobe morningglory ( Ipomoea triloba ) germination and response to herbicides. Weed Sci 60(2):199–204. https://doi.org/10.1614/WS-D-11-00137.1

Chauhan BS, Johnson DE (2009) Seed germination ecology of junglerice ( Echinochloa colona ): a major weed of rice. Weed Sci 57(3):235–240. https://doi.org/10.1614/WS-08-141.1

Chiang S-N (2020) Transecting the fall and rise of brown rice—the historic encounters of the global food system, nutrition science, and malnutrition in the Philippines. Food Cult Soc 23(2):229–248. https://doi.org/10.1080/15528014.2019.1682889

Chrisendo D, Krishna VV, Siregar H, Qaim M (2020) Land-use change, nutrition, and gender roles in Indonesian farm households. Forest Policy Econ 118 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forpol.2020.102245

Coe K, Scacco J (2017) Content analysis, quantitative. In: Matthes J, Davis CS, Potter RF (eds.) The International Encyclopedia of Communication Research methods, 1st edn. Wiley

Connor M, de Guia AH, Pustika AB, Sudarmaji, Kobarsih M, Hellin J (2021) Rice farming in central java, Indonesia—adoption of sustainable farming practices, impacts and implications. Agronomy 11(5) https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy11050881

Cuaton GP, Caluza LJB, Neo JFV (2021) A topic modeling analysis on the early phase of COVID-19 response in the Philippines. Int J Disaster Risk Reduct 61:102367. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2021.102367

Article   PubMed   PubMed Central   Google Scholar  

Cuccurullo C, Aria M, Sarto F (2016) Foundations and trends in performance management. A twenty-five years bibliometric analysis in business and public administration domains. Scientometrics 108(2):595–611. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11192-016-1948-8

De Datta SK (1981) Principle and practices of rice production. John Wiley and Sons.

Della Corte V, Del Gaudio G, Sepe F, Sciarelli F (2019) Sustainable tourism in the open innovation realm: a bibliometric analysis. Sustainability 11(21):6114. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11216114

DeWalt BR (1985) Anthropology, sociology, and farming systems research. Hum Organ 44(2):106–114

Dipti SS, Bergman C, Indrasari SD, Herath T, Hall R, Lee H, Habibi F, Bassinello PZ, Graterol E, Ferraz JP, Fitzgerald M (2012) The potential of rice to offer solutions for malnutrition and chronic diseases. Rice 5(1):16. https://doi.org/10.1186/1939-8433-5-16

Disyacitta Nariswari RA, Lauder MRMT (2021) Agricultural terms in rice production: a dialectological study [TÉrminos agrÍcolas en la producciÓn de arroz: Un estudio dialectal]. Dialectologia 26:145–178. https://doi.org/10.1344/DIALECTOLOGIA2021.26.7

Doliente SS, Samsatli S (2021) Integrated production of food, energy, fuels and chemicals from rice crops: multi-objective optimisation for efficient and sustainable value chains. J Clean Prod 285 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.124900

Dominik C, Seppelt R, Horgan FG, Settele J, Václavík T (2018) Landscape composition, configuration, and trophic interactions shape arthropod communities in rice agroecosystems. J Appl Ecol 55(5):2461–2472. https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.13226

Dominko M, Verbič M (2019) The economics of subjective well-being: a bibliometric analysis. J Happiness Stud 20(6):1973–1994. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-018-0022-z

Donthu N, Kumar S, Mukherjee D, Pandey N, Lim WM (2021) How to conduct a bibliometric analysis: an overview and guidelines. J Bus Res 133:285–296. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2021.04.070

Doorman F (1990) A social science contribution to applied agricultural research for the small farm sector: the diagnostic case study as a tool for problem identification. Agricult Syst 32(3):273–290. https://doi.org/10.1016/0308-521X(90)90005-B

Doorman F (1991) Adept at adapting. Contributions of sociology to agricultural research for small farmers in developing countries: the case of rice in the Dominican Republic. Wagening Stud Sociol https://www.researchgate.net/publication/40176828_Adept_at_adapting_Contributions_of_sociology_to_agricultural_research_for_small_farmers_in_developing_countries_the_case_of_rice_in_the_Dominican_Republic

Ducusin RJC, Espaldon MVO, Rebancos CM, De Guzman LEP (2019) Vulnerability assessment of climate change impacts on a Globally Important Agricultural Heritage System (GIAHS) in the Philippines: the case of Batad Rice Terraces, Banaue, Ifugao, Philippines. Clim Change https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-019-02397-7

Dulbari, Santosa E, Koesmaryono Y, Sulistyono E, Wahyudi A, Agusta H, Guntoro D (2021) Local adaptation to extreme weather and it’s implication on sustainable rice production in Lampung, Indonesia. Agrivita 43(1):125–136. https://doi.org/10.17503/agrivita.v43i1.2338

Ebitani T, Hayashi N, Omoteno M, Ozaki H, Yano M, Morikawa M, Fukuta Y (2011) Characterization of Pi13, a blast resistance gene that maps to chromosome 6 in Indica rice ( Oryza sativa L. variety, Kasalath). Breed Sci 61(3):251–259. https://doi.org/10.1270/jsbbs.61.251

Elsevier (2021) About Scopus—Abstract and citation database. Elsevier

Engelbert EA (1953) Agriculture and the political process. In: Increasing understanding of public problems and policies. AgEconSearch Res Agric Appl Econ https://doi.org/10.22004/AG.ECON.17209

Erlina Y, Elbaar EF (2021) Impact of COVID-19 pandemic on local rice supply chain flow patterns in Kapuas regency, Central Kalimantan, Indonesia. WSEAS Trans Bus Econ 18:941–948. https://doi.org/10.37394/23207.2021.18.89

Fabro L, Varca LM (2012) Pesticide usage by farmers in Pagsanjan-Lumban catchment of Laguna de Bay, Philippines. Agric Water Manag 106:27–34. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2011.08.011

Falagas ME, Pitsouni EI, Malietzis GA, Pappas G (2008) Comparison of PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar: strengths and weaknesses. FASEB J 22(2):338–342. https://doi.org/10.1096/fj.07-9492LSF

Article   CAS   PubMed   Google Scholar  

Fang AH (2016) Linkage between rural voters and politicians: effects on rice policies in the Philippines and Thailand: voter–politician linkage & rice policies. Asia Pacif Policy Stud 3(3):505–517. https://doi.org/10.1002/app5.150

Ferrero A, Nguyen NV (2004) The sustainable development of rice-based production systems in Europe. https://www.fao.org/3/y5682e/y5682e0g.htm

Foley JA, Ramankutty N, Brauman KA, Cassidy ES, Gerber JS, Johnston M, Mueller ND, O’Connell C, Ray DK, West PC, Balzer C, Bennett EM, Carpenter SR, Hill J, Monfreda C, Polasky S, Rockström J, Sheehan J, Siebert S, Zaks DPM (2011) Solutions for a cultivated planet. Nature 478(7369):337–342. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature10452

Article   ADS   CAS   PubMed   Google Scholar  

Gaillard JC (2010) Vulnerability, capacity and resilience: perspectives for climate and development policy. J Int Dev 22(2):218–232. https://doi.org/10.1002/jid.1675

Article   MathSciNet   Google Scholar  

Gata L, Losloso J, Nilo P (2020) Gender and the use of climate information in agricultural decision-making amidst climate change: the case of rice and corn production in oriental Mindoro, Philippines. Philipp Agric Sci 103(Special issue):93–104

Gergon EB, Miller SA, Davide RG, Opina OS, Obien SR (2001) Evaluation of cultural practices (surface burning, deep ploughing, organic amendments) for management of rice root-knot nematode in rice–onion cropping system and their effect on onion ( Allium cepa L.) yield. Int J Pest Manag 47(4):265–272. https://doi.org/10.1080/09670870110047118

Gergon EB, Miller SA, Halbrendt JM, Davide RG (2002) Effect of rice root-knot nematode on growth and yield of Yellow Granex onion. Plant Dis 86(12):1339–1344. https://doi.org/10.1094/PDIS.2002.86.12.1339

Gil JDB, Reidsma P, Giller K, Todman L, Whitmore A, van Ittersum M (2019) Sustainable development goal 2: Improved targets and indicators for agriculture and food security. Ambio 48(7):685–698. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13280-018-1101-4

Glaeser B (ed.) (2010) The green revolution revisited, 1st edn. Routledge.

Glänzel W, Schubert A (2005) Analysing scientific networks through co-authorship. In Moed HF, Glänzel W, Schmoch U (eds.) Handbook of quantitative science and technology research. Kluwer Academic Publishers, pp. 257–276

Gott RC, Coyle DR (2019) Educated and engaged communicators are critical to successful integrated pest management adoption. J Integr Pest Manag 10(1):35. https://doi.org/10.1093/jipm/pmz033

Grant WP (2012) Can political science contribute to agricultural policy. Policy Soc 31(4):271–279. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polsoc.2012.09.001

Griskevicius V, Ackerman JM, Cantú SM, Delton AW, Robertson TE, Simpson JA, Thompson ME, Tybur JM (2013) When the economy falters, do people spend or save? Responses to resource scarcity depend on childhood environments. Psychol Sci 24(2):197–205. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797612451471

Article   PubMed   Google Scholar  

Hadiprayitno II (2017) The limit of narratives: ethnicity and indigenous rights in Papua, Indonesia. Int J Minor Group Rights 24(1):1–23. https://doi.org/10.1163/15718115-02401004

Halwart M, Litsinger JA, Viray MC, Kaule G (2014) Efficacy of common carp and Nile tilapia as biocontrol agents of the golden apple snail in the Philippines. Philipp J Sci 143(2):125–136

Hamilton W, Bosworth G, Ruto E (2015) Entrepreneurial younger farmers and the “young farmer problem” in England. Agric For 61(4):61–69

Hanif KI, Herlinda S, Irsan C, Pujiastuti Y, Prabawati G, Hasbi, Karenina T (2020) The impact of bioinsecticide overdoses of Beauveria bassiana on species diversity and abundance of not targeted arthropods in South Sumatra (Indonesia) freshwater swamp paddy. Biodiversitas 21(5):2124–2136. https://doi.org/10.13057/biodiv/d210541

Hantrais L (1995) Comparative research methods. Soc Res Update 13(Summer):2–11

Heckelman A, Smukler S, Wittman H (2018) Cultivating climate resilience: a participatory assessment of organic and conventional rice systems in the Philippines. Renew Agric Food Syst 33(3):225–237. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1742170517000709

HelpAge (2014) The ageing of rural populations: evidence on older farmers in low and middle-income countries. HelpAge International, p. 24

Herlinda S, Prabawati G, Pujiastuti Y, Susilawati, Karenina T, Hasbi, Irsan C (2020) Herbivore insects and predatory arthropods in freshwater swamp rice field in South Sumatra, Indonesia sprayed with bioinsecticides of entomopathogenic fungi and abamectin. Biodiversitas 21(8):3755–3768. https://doi.org/10.13057/biodiv/d210843

Hirsch JE (2005) An index to quantify an individual’s scientific research output. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 102(46):16569–16572

Hohl R, Jiang Z, Tue Vu M, Vijayaraghavan S, Liong S-Y (2021) Using a regional climate model to develop index-based drought insurance for sovereign disaster risk transfer. Agric Finance Rev 81(1):151–168. https://doi.org/10.1108/AFR-02-2020-0020

Horgan FG, Bernal CC, Vu Q, Almazan MLP, Ramal AF, Yasui H, Fujita D (2018) Virulence adaptation in a rice leafhopper: exposure to ineffective genes compromises pyramided resistance. Crop Prot 113:40–47. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cropro.2018.07.010

Horgan FG, Martínez EC, Stuart AM, Bernal CC, Martín EC, Almazan MLP, Ramal AF (2019) Effects of vegetation strips, fertilizer levels and varietal resistance on the integrated management of arthropod biodiversity in a tropical rice ecosystem. Insects 10(10) https://doi.org/10.3390/insects10100328

Horgan FG, Romena AM, Bernal CC, Almazan MLP, Ramal AF (2021) Differences between the strength of preference-performance coupling in two rice stemborers (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae, Crambidae) promotes coexistence at field-plot scales. Environ Entomol 50(4):929–939. https://doi.org/10.1093/ee/nvab034

Article   CAS   PubMed   PubMed Central   Google Scholar  

Intal PS, Garcia MC (2005) Rice and Philippine politics. Working Paper No. 2005–13. PIDS Discussion Paper Series. https://www.econstor.eu/handle/10419/127899

IPCC (2014) Climate change 2014: mitigation of climate change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press

IRRI (1982) The role of anthropologists and other social scientists in interdisciplinary teams developing improved food production technology. International Rice Research Institute, p. 103

IRRI (2013) Rice almanac: source book for the most important economic activities on Earth, 4th edn. IRRI

Iyer AS, McCouch SR (2004) The rice bacterial blight resistance gene xa5 encodes a novel form of disease resistance. Mol Plant–Microbe Interact® 17(12):1348–1354. https://doi.org/10.1094/MPMI.2004.17.12.1348

Jacka T (2018) Translocal family reproduction and agrarian change in China: a new analytical framework. J Peasant Stud 45(7):1341–1359. https://doi.org/10.1080/03066150.2017.1314267

Jenkins KEH, Sovacool BK, Mouter N, Hacking N, Burns M-K, McCauley D (2021) The methodologies, geographies, and technologies of energy justice: a systematic and comprehensive review. Environ Res Lett 16(4):043009. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/abd78c

John A, Fielding M (2014) Rice production constraints and ‘new’ challenges for South Asian smallholders: Insights into de facto research priorities. Agric Food Secur 3(1):18. https://doi.org/10.1186/2048-7010-3-18

Juliano LM, Casimero MC, Llewellyn R (2010) Multiple herbicide resistance in barnyardgrass ( Echinochloa crus-galli ) in direct-seeded rice in the Philippines. Int J Pest Manag 56(4):299–307. https://doi.org/10.1080/09670874.2010.495795

Kadeawi S, Swaruno, Nasution A, Hairmansis A, Telebanco-Yanoria MJ, Obara M, Hayashi N, Fukuta Y (2021) Pathogenicity of isolates of the rice blast pathogen ( Pyricularia oryzae ) from Indonesia. Plant Disease 105(3):675–683. https://doi.org/10.1094/PDIS-05-20-0949-RE

Kauffman HE, Reddy APK, Hsieh SPY, Merca SD (1973) An improved technique for evaluating resistance of rice varieties to Xanthomonas oryzae . Plant Disease Report 57:537–541

Kelman I (2020) Disaster by choice: how our actions turn natural hazards into catastrophes (new product). Oxford University Press.

Kelman I, Gaillard JC, Mercer J (2015) Climate change’s role in disaster risk reduction’s future: beyond vulnerability and resilience. Int J Disaster Risk Sci 6(1):21–27. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13753-015-0038-5

Khatun MM, Siddik MS, Rahman MA, Khaled S (2021) Content analysis of Covid-19 and agriculture news in Bangladesh using topic modeling algorithm. Curr Appl Sci Technol 21(02):299–317

Khumairoh U, Lantinga EA, Schulte RPO, Suprayogo D, Groot JCJ (2018) Complex rice systems to improve rice yield and yield stability in the face of variable weather conditions. Sci Rep 8(1) https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-32915-z

Kim K-H, Raymundo AD, Aikins CM (2019) Development of a rice tungro epidemiological model for seasonal disease risk management in the Philippines. Eur J Agron 109 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eja.2019.04.006

Komatsuzaki M, Syuaib MF (2010) Comparison of the farming system and carbon sequestration between conventional and organic rice production in West Java, Indonesia. Sustainability 2(3):833–843. https://doi.org/10.3390/su2030833

Kraehmer H, Thomas C, Vidotto F (2017) Rice production in Europe. In Chauhan BS, Jabran K, Mahajan G (eds.) Rice production worldwide. Springer International Publishing, pp. 93–116

Kulp SA, Strauss BH (2019) New elevation data triple estimates of global vulnerability to sea-level rise and coastal flooding. Nat Commun 10(1):4844. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-019-12808-z

Article   ADS   CAS   PubMed   PubMed Central   Google Scholar  

Kumar S, Tripathi S, Singh SP, Prasad A, Akter F, Syed MA, Badri J, Das SP, Bhattarai R, Natividad MA, Quintana M, Venkateshwarlu C, Raman A, Yadav S, Singh SK, Swain P, Anandan A, Yadaw RB, Mandal NP, Henry A (2021) Rice breeding for yield under drought has selected for longer flag leaves and lower stomatal density. J Exp Bot 72(13):4981–4992. https://doi.org/10.1093/jxb/erab160

Laborte AG, Paguirigan NC, Moya PF, Nelson A, Sparks AH, Gregorio GB (2015) Farmers’ preference for rice traits: insights from farm surveys in Central Luzon, Philippines, 1966–2012. PLoS ONE 10(8):e0136562. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0136562

Laiprakobsup T (2014) Populism and agricultural trade in developing countries: a case study of Thailand’s rice-pledging scheme. Int Rev Public Adm 19(4):380–394. https://doi.org/10.1080/12294659.2014.967000

Lakitan B, Alberto A, Lindiana L, Kartika K, Herlinda S, Kurnianingsih A (2018) The benefits of biochar on rice growth and yield in tropical riparian wetland, South Sumatra, Indonesia. Chiang Mai Univ J Nat Sci 17(2):111–126. https://doi.org/10.12982/CMUJNS.2018.0009

Lampayan RM, Samoy-Pascual KC, Sibayan EB, Ella VB, Jayag OP, Cabangon RJ, Bouman BAM (2015) Effects of alternate wetting and drying (AWD) threshold level and plant seedling age on crop performance, water input, and water productivity of transplanted rice in Central Luzon, Philippines. Paddy Water Environ 13(3):215–227. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10333-014-0423-5

Lapuz RR, Javier S, Aquino JDC, Undan JR (2019) Gene expression and sequence analysis of BADH1 gene in CLSU aromatic rice ( Oryza sativa L.) accessions subjected to drought and saline condition. J Nutr Sci Vitaminol 65:S196–S199. https://doi.org/10.3177/jnsv.65.S196

Ling TJ, Shamsudin MN, Bing WZ, Thi Cam Nhung P, Rabbany MG (2021) Mitigating the impacts of COVID-19 on domestic rice supply and food security in Southeast Asia. Outlook Agric 50(3):328–337. https://doi.org/10.1177/00307270211024275

Litsinger JA, Canapi BL, Bandong JP (2011) Cultural practices mitigate irrigated rice insect pest losses in the Philippines. Philipp J Sci 140(2):179–194

Liu J, Du S, Fu Z (2021) The impact of rural population aging on farmers’ cleaner production behavior: evidence from five provinces of the North China Plain. Sustainability 13(21):12199. https://doi.org/10.3390/su132112199

Liu J, Xu Z, Zheng Q, Hua L (2019) Is the feminization of labor harmful to agricultural production? The decision-making and production control perspective. J Integr Agric 18(6):1392–1401. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2095-3119(19)62649-3

Lopez MV, Mendoza TC (2004) Management options for salt-affected rice-based farming systems during the El Niño and La Niña phenomena. J Sustain Agric 23(4):19–37. https://doi.org/10.1300/J064v23n04_04

Mackill DJ, Bonman JM (1992) Inheritance of rice resistance in near-isogenic lines of rice. Phytopathology 82:746–749

Macrae G (2011) Rice farming in Bali organic production and marketing challenges. Crit Asian Stud 43(1):69–92. https://doi.org/10.1080/14672715.2011.537852

MacRae GS, Arthawiguna IWA (2011) Sustainable agricultural development in Bali: is the Subak an obstacle, an agent or subject. Hum Ecol 39(1):11–20. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10745-011-9386-y

Mahajan G, Kumar V, Chauhan BS (2017) Rice production in India. In: Chauhan BS, Jabran K, Mahajan G (eds.) Rice production worldwide. Springer International Publishing, pp. 53–91

Manalo IJA, van de Fliert E, Fielding E (2020) Rice farmers adapting to drought in the Philippines. Int J Agric Sustain 18(6):594–605. https://doi.org/10.1080/14735903.2020.1807301

Martawijaya S, Montgomery RD (2004) Bureaucrats as entrepreneurs: a case study of organic rice production in East Java. Bull Indones Econ Stud 40(2):243–252. https://doi.org/10.1080/0007491042000205303

Mendoza TC (2004) Evaluating the benefits of organic farming in rice agroecosystems in the Philippines. J Sustain Agric 24(2):93–115. https://doi.org/10.1300/J064v24n02

Mew TW (1987) Current Status and future prospects of research on bacterial blight of rice. Annu Rev Phytopathol 25(1):359–382. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.py.25.090187.002043

Minas AM, Mander S, McLachlan C (2020) How can we engage farmers in bioenergy development? Building a social innovation strategy for rice straw bioenergy in the Philippines and Vietnam. Energy Res Soc Sci 70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.erss.2020.101717

Misdawita, Hartono D, Nugroho A (2019) Impacts of food prices on the economy: social accounting matrix and microsimulation approach in Indonesia. Rev Urban Reg Dev Stud 31(1–2):137–154. https://doi.org/10.1111/rurd.12099

Mitchell J, Bradley D, Wilson J, Goins RT (2008) The aging farm population and rural aging research. J Agromed 13(2):95–109. https://doi.org/10.1080/10599240802125383

Mizobuchi R, Sato H, Fukuoka S, Yamamato S, Kawasaki-Tanaka A, Fukuta Y (2014) Mapping of a QTL for field resistance to blast ( Pyricularia oryzae Cavara) in Ingngoppor-tinawon, a rice ( Oryza sativa L.) landrace from the Philippines. Japan Agric Res Q 48(4):425–431. https://doi.org/10.6090/jarq.48.425

Mizuno K, Mugniesyah SS, Herianto AS, Tsujii H (2013) Talun-Huma, Swidden agriculture, and rural economy in West Java, Indonesia. Southeast Asian Stud 2(2):351–381

Moya P, Kajisa K, Barker R, Mohanty S, Gascon F, San Valentin MR (2015) Changes in rice farming in the Philippines: insights from five decades of a household-level survey. International Rice Research Institute.

Mucharam I, Rustiadi E, Fauzi A, Harianto (2020) Assessment of rice farming sustainability: evidence from Indonesia provincial data. Int J Sustain Dev Plan 15(8):1323–13332. https://doi.org/10.18280/ijsdp.150819

Muhardi, Effendy (2021) Technical efficiency and the factors that affect it in rice production in Indonesia. Asian J Agric Rural Dev 11(3):230–235. https://doi.org/10.18488/journal.ajard.2021.113.230.235

Mulyani A, Darwanto DH, Widodo S, Masyhuri (2020) Production efficiency of inpago unsoed-1 and situbagendit rice farming in central Java, Indonesia. Biodiversitas 21(7):3276–3286. https://doi.org/10.13057/biodiv/d210751

Munajati SL, Kartodihardjo H, Saleh MB, Nurwadjedi (2021) Ecosystem services dynamics in Bogor Regency. Indones J Geogr 53(2):264–273. https://doi.org/10.22146/IJG.64493

Muthayya S, Sugimoto JD, Montgomery S, Maberly GF (2014) An overview of global rice production, supply, trade, and consumption: global rice production, consumption, and trade. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1324(1):7–14. https://doi.org/10.1111/nyas.12540

Article   ADS   PubMed   Google Scholar  

Nasir MA, Jamhar, Mulyo JH, Dumasari D (2021) Spatial study on How COVID-19 affects the Indonesian rice markets integration: period of March to July 2020. Rev Int Geogr Educ 11(4):672–683. https://doi.org/10.33403/rigeo.8006781

Neyra-Cabatac NM, Pulhin JM, Cabanilla DB (2012) Indigenous agroforestry in a changing context: the case of the Erumanen ne Menuvu in Southern Philippines. Forest Policy Econ 22:18–27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forpol.2012.01.007

Niones JM, Lipio PLG, Cruz AS, Cabral MCJ, Hautea DM, Lucob-Agustin N, Suralta RR (2021) Genome-wide association mapping for the identification of SNPs controlling lateral root plasticity in selected rice germplasms of the Philippines. Philipp J Sci 150(3):663–674

Noviar H, Masbar R, Aliasuddin, Syahnur S, Zulham T, Saputra J (2020) The agricultural commercialisation and its impact on economy management: an application of duality-neoclassic and stochastic frontier approach. Ind Eng Manag Syst 19(3):510–519. https://doi.org/10.7232/iems.2020.19.3.510

Nugroho BDA, Toriyama K, Kobayashi K, Arif C, Yokoyama S, Mizoguchi M (2018) Effect of intermittent irrigation following the system of rice intensification (SRI) on rice yield in a farmer’s paddy fields in Indonesia. Paddy Water Environ 16(4), 715–723. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10333-018-0663-x

O’Callaghan Z, Warburton J (2017) No one to fill my shoes: narrative practices of three ageing Australian male farmers. Ageing Soc 37(3):441–461. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0144686X1500118X

Official Gazette of the Philippines (2021) Executive order no. 1061, s. 1985|GOVPH. Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines. https://mirror.officialgazette.gov.ph/1985/11/05/executive-order-no-1061-s-1985/

Oladele OI, Boago C (2011) Content analysis of agricultural news in Botswana newspapers. J Hum Ecol 36(3):173–177. https://doi.org/10.1080/09709274.2011.11906432

Ou SK (1985) Rice diseases, 2nd edn. Commonwealth Agricultural Bureau.

Orge RF, Sawey DA, Leal LV, Gagelonia EC (2020) Re-engineering the paddy rice drying system in the Philippines for climate change adaptation Dry Technol 38(11):1462–1473. https://doi.org/10.1080/07373937.2019.1648289

Page MJ, McKenzie JE, Bossuyt PM, Boutron I, Hoffmann TC, Mulrow CD, Shamseer L, Tetzlaff JM, Akl EA, Brennan SE, Chou R, Glanville J, Grimshaw JM, Hróbjartsson A, Lalu MM, Li T, Loder EW, Mayo-Wilson E, McDonald S, Moher D (2021) The PRISMA 2020 statement: an updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews. BMJ 372:n71. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.n71

Palis FG (2020) Aging filipino rice farmers and their aspirations for their children. Philipp J Sci 149(2):321–331

Palis FG, Lampayan RM, Flor RJ, Sibayan E (2017) A multi-stakeholder partnership for the dissemination of alternate wetting and drying water-saving technology for rice farmers in the Philippines. AIMS Agric Food 2(3):290–309. https://doi.org/10.3934/agrfood.2017.3.290

Panuju DR, Mizuno K, Trisasongko BH (2013) The dynamics of rice production in Indonesia 1961–2009. J Saudi Soc Agric Sci 12(1):27–37. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jssas.2012.05.002

Papademetriou M, Dent F, Herath E (eds.) (2000) Bridging the rice yield gap in the Asia-Pacific Region. UNFAO

Parwanto NB, Oyama T (2014) A statistical analysis and comparison of historical earthquake and tsunami disasters in Japan and Indonesia. Int J Disaster Risk Reduct 7:122–141. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2013.10.003

Pasiona SP, Nidoy MGM, Manalo IV JA (2021) Modified listening group method as a knowledge-sharing and learning mechanism in agricultural communities in the Philippines. J Agric Educ Ext 27(1):89–106. https://doi.org/10.1080/1389224X.2020.1816477

Peng S, Cassman KG, Virmani SS, Sheehy J, Khush GS (1999) Yield potential trends of tropical rice since the release of IR8 and the challenge of increasing rice yield potential. Crop Sci 39(6):1552–1559. https://doi.org/10.2135/cropsci1999.3961552x

Peng S, Tang Q, Zou Y (2009) Current status and challenges of rice production in China. Plant Prod Sci 12(1):3–8. https://doi.org/10.1626/pps.12.3

Perez LM, Redoña ED, Mendioro MS, Vera Cruz CM, Leung H (2008) Introgression of Xa4, Xa7 and Xa21 for resistance to bacterial blight in thermosensitive genetic male sterile rice ( Oryza sativa L.) for the development of two-line hybrids. Euphytica 164(3):627–636. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10681-008-9653-1

Pielke R, Linnér B-O (2019) From Green Revolution to Green Evolution: a critique of the political myth of averted famine. Minerva 57(3):265–291. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11024-019-09372-7

Pingali PL (2012) Green Revolution: impacts, limits, and the path ahead. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 109(31):12302–12308. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0912953109

Pingali P, Roger P (eds.) (1995) Impact of pesticides on farmer health and the rice environment. Springer

Poungchompu S, Tsuneo K, Poungchompu P (2012) Aspects of the aging farming population and food security in agriculture for Thailand and Japan. Int J Environ Rural Dev 03(01):1–6

Price JC, Leviston Z (2014) Predicting pro-environmental agricultural practices: the social, psychological and contextual influences on land management. J Rural Stud 34:65–78. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrurstud.2013.10.001

Prom-u-thai C, Rerkasem B (2020) Rice quality improvement. A review. Agron Sustain Dev 40(4):28. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13593-020-00633-4

Propper CR, Hardy LJ, Howard BD, Flor RJB, Singleton GR (2020) Role of farmer knowledge in agro-ecosystem science: Rice farming and amphibians in the Philippines. Hum–Wildl Interact 14(2) https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-85091838772&partnerID=40&md5=4ad2c5129ee2e5bfbe34d6f1505327bc

Putra AS, Tong G, Pribadi DO (2020) Food security challenges in rapidly urbanizing developing countries: insight from Indonesia. Sustainability (Switzerland) 12(22):1–18. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12229550

Reaño RL, de Padua VAN, Halog AB (2021) Energy efficiency and life cycle assessment with system dynamics of electricity production from rice straw using a combined gasification and internal combustion engine. Energies 14(16) https://doi.org/10.3390/en14164942

Reed DB (2008) America’s aging farmers: tenacious, productive, and underresearched. J Agromed 13(2):69–70. https://doi.org/10.1080/10599240802293942

Resosudarmo BP (2012) Implementing a national environmental policy: Understanding the ‘success’ of the 1989–1999 integrated pest management programme in Indonesia: the 1989–1999 integrated pest management programme. Singap J Trop Geogr 33(3):365–380. https://doi.org/10.1111/sjtg.12006

Rigg J, Phongsiri M, Promphakping B, Salamanca A, Sripun M (2020) Who will tend the farm? Interrogating the ageing Asian farmer. J Peasant Stud 47(2):306–325. https://doi.org/10.1080/03066150.2019.1572605

Rigg J, Salamanca A, Phongsiri M, Sripun M (2018) More farmers, less farming? Understanding the truncated agrarian transition in Thailand. World Dev 107:327–337. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2018.03.008

Rochman KL, Misno, Mubarok Z, Bunyamin, Bahrudin (2021) Ngahuma (Planting rice in the fields) and tilled land limitation of the baduy tribe in Indonesia. Geoj Tour Geosites 34(1):63–68. https://doi.org/10.30892/gtg.34109-620

Rogers M, Barr N, O’Callaghan Z, Brumby S, Warburton J (2013) Healthy ageing: farming into the twilight. Rural Soc 22(3):251–262. https://doi.org/10.5172/rsj.2013.22.3.251

Romanillos RD, Dizon JT, Quimbo MAT, Cruz PCS, Miranda RB (2016) Community development strategies and other factors affecting rice productivity in inland valleys in Quezon province, Luzon, Philippines. Asia Life Sci 25(2):603–620

Rustiadi E, Pravitasari AE, Setiawan Y, Mulya SP, Pribadi DO, Tsutsumida N (2021) Impact of continuous Jakarta megacity urban expansion on the formation of the Jakarta-Bandung conurbation over the rice farm regions. Cities 111 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2020.103000

Ruzol C, Lomente LL, Pulhin J (2020) Mapping access and use of weather and climate information to aid farm decisions in the Philippines. Philipp Agric Sci 103(Special issue):25–39

Ruzol C, Lomente LL, Pulhin J (2021) Cultural consensus knowledge of rice farmers for climate risk management in the Philippines. Clim Risk Manag 32 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crm.2021.100298

Salman D, Kasim K, Ahmad A, Sirimorok N (2021) Combination of bonding, bridging and linking social capital in a livelihood system: nomadic duck herders amid the covid-19 pandemic in South Sulawesi, Indonesia. Forest Soc 5(1):136–158. https://doi.org/10.24259/fs.v5i1.11813

Salsinha YCF, Indradewa D, Purwestri YA, Rachmawati D (2020) Selection of drought-tolerant local rice cultivars from east Nusa Tenggara, Indonesia during vegetative stage Biodiversitas 21(1):170–178. https://doi.org/10.13057/biodiv/d210122

Salsinha YCF, Maryani, Indradewa D, Purwestri YA, Rachmawati D (2021) Morphological and anatomical characteristics of Indonesian rice roots from East Nusa Tenggara contribute to drought tolerance. Asian J Agric Biol 2021(1):1–11. https://doi.org/10.35495/ajab.2020.05.304

Sambrook J, Fritsch EF, Maniatis T (1989) Molecular cloning: a laboratory manual, 2nd edn. Cold Spring Harbor laboratory press.

San Juan DM (2021) A review of rice tariffication in the time of COVID-19: rationale and road to rice self-sufficiency in the Philippines. Asia-Pacif Soc Sci Rev 21(4):50–71

Sander BO, Schneider P, Romasanta R, Samoy-Pascual K, Sibayan EB, Asis CA, Wassmann R (2020) Potential of alternate wetting and drying irrigation practices for the mitigation of GHG emissions from rice fields: two cases in central Luzon (Philippines) Agriculture (Switzerland) 10(8):1–19. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture10080350

Sanjatmiko P (2021) Multispecies ethnography: reciprocal interaction between residents and the environment in Segara Anakan, Indonesia. South East Asia Res 29(3):384–400. https://doi.org/10.1080/0967828X.2021.1978313

Santiago JO, Buot Jr IE (2018) Conceptualizing the socio-ecological resilience of the Chaya rice terraces, a socio-ecological production landscape in Mayoyao, Ifugao, Luzon Island, Philippines. J Mar Island Cult 7(1):107–126. https://doi.org/10.21463/jmic.2018.07.1.07

Satriawan E, Shrestha R (2018) Mistargeting and regressive take up of the Indonesian Rice Subsidy Program. Asian Econ J 32(4):387–415. https://doi.org/10.1111/asej.12164

Schaarschmidt S, Lawas LMF, Glaubitz U, Li X, Erban A, Kopka J, Krishna Jagadish SV, Hincha DK, Zuther E (2020) Season affects yield and metabolic profiles of rice ( Oryza sativa ) under high night temperature stress in the field. Int J Mol Sci 21(9) https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21093187

Sembiring H, Subekti NA, Erythrina, Nugraha D, Priatmojo B, Stuart AM (2020) Yield gap management under seawater intrusion areas of Indonesia to improve rice productivity and resilience to climate change. Agriculture (Switzerland) 10(1). https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture10010001

Sen S, Chakraborty R, Kalita P (2020) Rice—not just a staple food: a comprehensive review on its phytochemicals and therapeutic potential. Trends Food Sci Technol 97:265–285. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2020.01.022

Setiawan BI, Irmansyah A, Arif C, Watanabe T, Mizoguchi M, Kato H (2013) Effects of groundwater level on CH4 and N2O emissions under SRI paddy management in Indonesia. Taiwan Water Conserv 61(4):135–146

Shabandeh M (2021) Total global rice consumption 2021. Statista https://www.statista.com/statistics/255977/total-global-rice-consumption/

Sheldon TL, Sankaran C (2017) The impact of Indonesian forest fires on Singaporean pollution and health. Am Econ Rev 107(5):526–529. https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.p20171134

Shepherd C, McWilliam A (2011) Ethnography, agency, and materiality: anthropological perspectives on rice development in east Timor. East Asian Sci Technol Soc 5(2):189–215. https://doi.org/10.1215/18752160-1262876

Singh V, Zhou S, Ganie Z, Valverde B, Avila L, Marchesan E, Merotto A, Zorrilla G, Burgos N, Norsworthy J, Bagavathiannan M (2017) Rice production in the Americas. In Chauhan BS, Jabran K, Mahajan G (eds.) Rice production worldwide. Springer International Publishing, pp. 137–168

Singleton G (2011) Outwit rats with smart, green solutions. Appropr Technol 38(1):66–67

Singleton GR, Belmain S, Brown PR, Aplin K, Htwe NM (2010) Impacts of rodent outbreaks on food security in Asia. Wildl Res 37(5):355–359. https://doi.org/10.1071/WR10084

Singleton GR, Sudarmaji, Jacob J, Krebs CJ (2005) Integrated management to reduce rodent damage to lowland rice crops in Indonesia. Agric Ecosyst Environ 107(1):75–82. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2004.09.010

Sovacool BK (2014) What are we doing here? Analyzing fifteen years of energy scholarship and proposing a social science research agenda. Energy Res Soc Sci 1:1–29. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.erss.2014.02.003

Statista (2021) Topic: natural disasters in the Philippines. Statista https://www.statista.com/topics/5845/natural-disasters-in-the-philippines-at-a-glance/

Stern PC (2000) Psychology and the science of human-environment interactions. Am Psychol 55(5):523–530. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.55.5.523

Stuart AM, Prescott CV, Singleton GR, Joshi RC (2011) Knowledge, attitudes and practices of farmers on rodent pests and their management in the lowlands of the Sierra Madre Biodiversity Corridor, Philippines. Crop Prot 30(2):147–154. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cropro.2010.10.002

Stuecker MF, Tigchelaar M, Kantar MB (2018) Climate variability impacts on rice production in the Philippines. PLoS ONE 13(8). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0201426

Sumarminingsih E (2021) Modeling rainfall using spatial vector autoregressive. Int J Agric Stat Sci 17(1):21–30

Syahrawati M, Martono E, Putra NS, Purwanto BH (2018) Effects of fertilizer, irrigation level and spider presence on abundance of herbivore and carnivore in rice cultivation in Yogyakarta. Asian J Agric Biol6(3):385–395

Szabo S, Apipoonanon C, Pramanik M, Leeson K, Singh DR (2021) Perceptions of an ageing agricultural workforce and farmers’ productivity strategies: evidence from Prachinburi Province, Thailand. Outlook Agric 50(3):294–304. https://doi.org/10.1177/00307270211025053

Tan-Soo J-S, Pattanayak SK (2019) Seeking natural capital projects: forest fires, haze, and early-life exposure in Indonesia. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 116(12):5239–5245. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1802876116

Tekken V, Spangenberg JH, Burkhard B, Escalada M, Stoll-Kleemann S, Truong DT, Settele J (2017) “Things are different now”: farmer perceptions of cultural ecosystem services of traditional rice landscapes in Vietnam and the Philippines. Ecosyst Serv 25:153–166. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoser.2017.04.010

Templeton DJ, Jamora N (2010) Economic assessment of a change in Pesticide Regulatory Policy in the Philippines. World Dev 38(10):1519–1526. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2010.06.009

Tram LTQ, McPherson M (2016) The ageing and feminization of the agricultural labor force in the lower Mekong Basin [Policy Brief]. Lower Mekong Public Policy Initiative

Trijatmiko KR, Supriyanta, Prasetiyono J, Thomson MJ, Vera Cruz CM, Moeljopawiro S, Pereira A (2014) Meta-analysis of quantitative trait loci for grain yield and component traits under reproductive-stage drought stress in an upland rice population. Mol Breed 34(2):283–295. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11032-013-0012-0

Triwidodo H (2020) Brown planthoppers infestations and insecticides use pattern in Java, Indonesia. Agrivita 42(2):320–330. https://doi.org/10.17503/agrivita.v0i0.2501

Tuong TP, Bouman BAM (2003) Rice production in water-scarce environments. In Kijne JW, Barker R, Molden DJ (eds.) Water productivity in agriculture: limits and opportunities for improvement. CABI Publisher

UNDP Philippines (2010) Indigenous peoples in the Philippines [Fast Facts]. United Nations Development Programme, pp. 1–2

UNDRR (2020) Disaster risk reduction in the Republic of Indonesia: status Report 2020 [Status Report 2020]. United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNDRR), Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific

UNDRR & CRED (2020) The Human Cost of Disasters—an overview of the last 20 years 2000–2019—world. ReliefWeb https://reliefweb.int/report/world/human-cost-disasters-overview-last-20-years-2000-2019

Usman M, Sawaya A, Igarashi M, Gayman JJ, Dixit R (2021) Strained agricultural farming under the stress of youths’ career selection tendencies: a case study from Hokkaido (Japan). Humanit Soc Sci Commun 8(1):19. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-020-00688-4

Vu Q, Ramal AF, Villegas JM, Jamoralin A, Bernal CC, Pasang JM, Almazan MLP, Ramp D, Settele J, Horgan FG (2018) Enhancing the parasitism of insect herbivores through diversification of habitat in Philippine rice fields. Paddy Water Environ 16(2):379–390. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10333-018-0662-y

Waite MB (1915) The importance of research as a means of increasing agricultural production. Ann Am Acad Political Soc Sci 59:40–50

Wakabayashi H, Hongo C, Igarashi T, Asaoka Y, Tjahjono B, Permata I (2021) Flooded rice paddy detection using sentinel-1 and planetscope data: a case study of the 2018 spring flood in West Java, Indonesia. IEEE J Sel Top Appl Earth Observ Remote Sens 14:6291–6301. https://doi.org/10.1109/JSTARS.2021.3083610

Waltman L (2016) A review of the literature on citation impact indicators. J Informetr 10(2):365–391. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joi.2016.02.007

White B, Wijaya H (2021) What kind of labour regime is contract farming? Contracting and sharecropping in Java compared. J Agrar Change https://doi.org/10.1111/joac.12459

Widyantari IN, Jamhari, Waluyati LR, Mulyo JH (2018) Does the tribe affect technical efficiency? Case study of local farmer rice farming in Merauke regency, Papua, Indonesia. Int J Mech Eng Technol 9(11):37–47

Widyantari IN, Jamhari, Waluyati LR, Mulyo JH (2019) Case study of farming from transmigrants and local farmers in the district of Semangga and Tanah Miring, Merauke Regency, Papua. Int J Civil Eng Technol 10(2):761–772

Xu W, Virmani SS, Hernandez JE, Sebastian LS, Redoña ED, Li Z (2002) Genetic diversity in the parental lines and heterosis of the tropical rice hybrids. Euphytica 127(1):139–148. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1019960625003

Ye J, He C, Liu J, Wang W, Chen S (2017) Left-behind elderly: Shouldering a disproportionate share of production and reproduction in supporting China’s industrial development. J Peasant Stud 44(5):971–999. https://doi.org/10.1080/03066150.2016.1186651

Yoshida T, Anas, Rosniawaty S, Setiamihardja R (2009) Genetic background of Indonesia rice germplasm and its relationship to agronomic characteristics and eating quality. Jpn J Crop Sci 78(3):335–343. https://doi.org/10.1626/jcs.78.335

Yudelman M, Kealy LJM (2000) The graying of farmers. Popul Today 28(4):1–6

Zagata L, Hádková Š, Mikovcová M (2015) Basic outline of the problem of the “ageing population of farmers” in the Czech Republic. Agris On-Line Pap Econ Inform 7(1):89–96. https://doi.org/10.7160/aol.2015.070110

Zagata L, Sutherland L-A (2015) Deconstructing the ‘young farmer problem in Europe’: towards a research agenda. J Rural Stud 38:39–51. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrurstud.2015.01.003

Zapico FL, DIzon JT, Borromeo TH, McNally KL, Fernando ES, Hernandez JE (2020) Genetic erosion in traditional rice agro-ecosystems in Southern Philippines: drivers and consequences. Plant Genet Resour: Charact Util 18(1):1–10. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1479262119000406

Zenna N, Senthilkumar K, Sie M (2017) Rice production in Africa. In: Chauhan BS, Jabran K, Mahajan G (eds.) Rice production worldwide. Springer International Publishing, pp. 117–135

Zupic I, Čater T (2015) Bibliometric methods in management and organization. Organ Res Methods 18(3):429–472. https://doi.org/10.1177/1094428114562629

Download references

Acknowledgements

The work described in this paper was substantially supported by a grant from the Research Grants Council of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China (Project No. HKUST 26600521). Partial funding was also made available by the HKUST Institute for Emerging Market Studies with support from EY.

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Hong Kong SAR, China

Ginbert P. Cuaton & Laurence L. Delina

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Contributions

GPC made substantial contributions through this paper’s original conceptualization, data curation and processing, formal analysis, methodology, writing the original draft, and reviewing, revising, and finalizing the paper. LLD made substantial contributions to its conceptualization, funding acquisition, supervision, and reviewing and editing of the review paper.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Ginbert P. Cuaton .

Ethics declarations

Competing interests.

The authors declare no competing interests.

Ethics approval

This article does not contain any studies with human participants performed by any of the authors.

Informed consent

Additional information.

Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Supplementary information

Supplementary info, rights and permissions.

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ .

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article.

Cuaton, G.P., Delina, L.L. Two decades of rice research in Indonesia and the Philippines: A systematic review and research agenda for the social sciences. Humanit Soc Sci Commun 9 , 372 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-022-01394-z

Download citation

Received : 20 February 2022

Accepted : 30 September 2022

Published : 14 October 2022

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-022-01394-z

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

Quick links

• Explore articles by subject
• Guide to authors
• Editorial policies