how to teach critical thinking in middle school

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Eight Instructional Strategies for Promoting Critical Thinking

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(This is the first post in a three-part series.)

The new question-of-the-week is:

What is critical thinking and how can we integrate it into the classroom?

This three-part series will explore what critical thinking is, if it can be specifically taught and, if so, how can teachers do so in their classrooms.

Today’s guests are Dara Laws Savage, Patrick Brown, Meg Riordan, Ph.D., and Dr. PJ Caposey. Dara, Patrick, and Meg were also guests on my 10-minute BAM! Radio Show . You can also find a list of, and links to, previous shows here.

You might also be interested in The Best Resources On Teaching & Learning Critical Thinking In The Classroom .

Current Events

Dara Laws Savage is an English teacher at the Early College High School at Delaware State University, where she serves as a teacher and instructional coach and lead mentor. Dara has been teaching for 25 years (career preparation, English, photography, yearbook, newspaper, and graphic design) and has presented nationally on project-based learning and technology integration:

There is so much going on right now and there is an overload of information for us to process. Did you ever stop to think how our students are processing current events? They see news feeds, hear news reports, and scan photos and posts, but are they truly thinking about what they are hearing and seeing?

I tell my students that my job is not to give them answers but to teach them how to think about what they read and hear. So what is critical thinking and how can we integrate it into the classroom? There are just as many definitions of critical thinking as there are people trying to define it. However, the Critical Think Consortium focuses on the tools to create a thinking-based classroom rather than a definition: “Shape the climate to support thinking, create opportunities for thinking, build capacity to think, provide guidance to inform thinking.” Using these four criteria and pairing them with current events, teachers easily create learning spaces that thrive on thinking and keep students engaged.

One successful technique I use is the FIRE Write. Students are given a quote, a paragraph, an excerpt, or a photo from the headlines. Students are asked to F ocus and respond to the selection for three minutes. Next, students are asked to I dentify a phrase or section of the photo and write for two minutes. Third, students are asked to R eframe their response around a specific word, phrase, or section within their previous selection. Finally, students E xchange their thoughts with a classmate. Within the exchange, students also talk about how the selection connects to what we are covering in class.

There was a controversial Pepsi ad in 2017 involving Kylie Jenner and a protest with a police presence. The imagery in the photo was strikingly similar to a photo that went viral with a young lady standing opposite a police line. Using that image from a current event engaged my students and gave them the opportunity to critically think about events of the time.

Here are the two photos and a student response:

F - Focus on both photos and respond for three minutes

In the first picture, you see a strong and courageous black female, bravely standing in front of two officers in protest. She is risking her life to do so. Iesha Evans is simply proving to the world she does NOT mean less because she is black … and yet officers are there to stop her. She did not step down. In the picture below, you see Kendall Jenner handing a police officer a Pepsi. Maybe this wouldn’t be a big deal, except this was Pepsi’s weak, pathetic, and outrageous excuse of a commercial that belittles the whole movement of people fighting for their lives.

I - Identify a word or phrase, underline it, then write about it for two minutes

A white, privileged female in place of a fighting black woman was asking for trouble. A struggle we are continuously fighting every day, and they make a mockery of it. “I know what will work! Here Mr. Police Officer! Drink some Pepsi!” As if. Pepsi made a fool of themselves, and now their already dwindling fan base continues to ever shrink smaller.

R - Reframe your thoughts by choosing a different word, then write about that for one minute

You don’t know privilege until it’s gone. You don’t know privilege while it’s there—but you can and will be made accountable and aware. Don’t use it for evil. You are not stupid. Use it to do something. Kendall could’ve NOT done the commercial. Kendall could’ve released another commercial standing behind a black woman. Anything!

Exchange - Remember to discuss how this connects to our school song project and our previous discussions?

This connects two ways - 1) We want to convey a strong message. Be powerful. Show who we are. And Pepsi definitely tried. … Which leads to the second connection. 2) Not mess up and offend anyone, as had the one alma mater had been linked to black minstrels. We want to be amazing, but we have to be smart and careful and make sure we include everyone who goes to our school and everyone who may go to our school.

As a final step, students read and annotate the full article and compare it to their initial response.

Using current events and critical-thinking strategies like FIRE writing helps create a learning space where thinking is the goal rather than a score on a multiple-choice assessment. Critical-thinking skills can cross over to any of students’ other courses and into life outside the classroom. After all, we as teachers want to help the whole student be successful, and critical thinking is an important part of navigating life after they leave our classrooms.

‘Before-Explore-Explain’

Patrick Brown is the executive director of STEM and CTE for the Fort Zumwalt school district in Missouri and an experienced educator and author :

Planning for critical thinking focuses on teaching the most crucial science concepts, practices, and logical-thinking skills as well as the best use of instructional time. One way to ensure that lessons maintain a focus on critical thinking is to focus on the instructional sequence used to teach.

Explore-before-explain teaching is all about promoting critical thinking for learners to better prepare students for the reality of their world. What having an explore-before-explain mindset means is that in our planning, we prioritize giving students firsthand experiences with data, allow students to construct evidence-based claims that focus on conceptual understanding, and challenge students to discuss and think about the why behind phenomena.

Just think of the critical thinking that has to occur for students to construct a scientific claim. 1) They need the opportunity to collect data, analyze it, and determine how to make sense of what the data may mean. 2) With data in hand, students can begin thinking about the validity and reliability of their experience and information collected. 3) They can consider what differences, if any, they might have if they completed the investigation again. 4) They can scrutinize outlying data points for they may be an artifact of a true difference that merits further exploration of a misstep in the procedure, measuring device, or measurement. All of these intellectual activities help them form more robust understanding and are evidence of their critical thinking.

In explore-before-explain teaching, all of these hard critical-thinking tasks come before teacher explanations of content. Whether we use discovery experiences, problem-based learning, and or inquiry-based activities, strategies that are geared toward helping students construct understanding promote critical thinking because students learn content by doing the practices valued in the field to generate knowledge.

An Issue of Equity

Meg Riordan, Ph.D., is the chief learning officer at The Possible Project, an out-of-school program that collaborates with youth to build entrepreneurial skills and mindsets and provides pathways to careers and long-term economic prosperity. She has been in the field of education for over 25 years as a middle and high school teacher, school coach, college professor, regional director of N.Y.C. Outward Bound Schools, and director of external research with EL Education:

Although critical thinking often defies straightforward definition, most in the education field agree it consists of several components: reasoning, problem-solving, and decisionmaking, plus analysis and evaluation of information, such that multiple sides of an issue can be explored. It also includes dispositions and “the willingness to apply critical-thinking principles, rather than fall back on existing unexamined beliefs, or simply believe what you’re told by authority figures.”

Despite variation in definitions, critical thinking is nonetheless promoted as an essential outcome of students’ learning—we want to see students and adults demonstrate it across all fields, professions, and in their personal lives. Yet there is simultaneously a rationing of opportunities in schools for students of color, students from under-resourced communities, and other historically marginalized groups to deeply learn and practice critical thinking.

For example, many of our most underserved students often spend class time filling out worksheets, promoting high compliance but low engagement, inquiry, critical thinking, or creation of new ideas. At a time in our world when college and careers are critical for participation in society and the global, knowledge-based economy, far too many students struggle within classrooms and schools that reinforce low-expectations and inequity.

If educators aim to prepare all students for an ever-evolving marketplace and develop skills that will be valued no matter what tomorrow’s jobs are, then we must move critical thinking to the forefront of classroom experiences. And educators must design learning to cultivate it.

So, what does that really look like?

Unpack and define critical thinking

To understand critical thinking, educators need to first unpack and define its components. What exactly are we looking for when we speak about reasoning or exploring multiple perspectives on an issue? How does problem-solving show up in English, math, science, art, or other disciplines—and how is it assessed? At Two Rivers, an EL Education school, the faculty identified five constructs of critical thinking, defined each, and created rubrics to generate a shared picture of quality for teachers and students. The rubrics were then adapted across grade levels to indicate students’ learning progressions.

At Avenues World School, critical thinking is one of the Avenues World Elements and is an enduring outcome embedded in students’ early experiences through 12th grade. For instance, a kindergarten student may be expected to “identify cause and effect in familiar contexts,” while an 8th grader should demonstrate the ability to “seek out sufficient evidence before accepting a claim as true,” “identify bias in claims and evidence,” and “reconsider strongly held points of view in light of new evidence.”

When faculty and students embrace a common vision of what critical thinking looks and sounds like and how it is assessed, educators can then explicitly design learning experiences that call for students to employ critical-thinking skills. This kind of work must occur across all schools and programs, especially those serving large numbers of students of color. As Linda Darling-Hammond asserts , “Schools that serve large numbers of students of color are least likely to offer the kind of curriculum needed to ... help students attain the [critical-thinking] skills needed in a knowledge work economy. ”

So, what can it look like to create those kinds of learning experiences?

Designing experiences for critical thinking

After defining a shared understanding of “what” critical thinking is and “how” it shows up across multiple disciplines and grade levels, it is essential to create learning experiences that impel students to cultivate, practice, and apply these skills. There are several levers that offer pathways for teachers to promote critical thinking in lessons:

1.Choose Compelling Topics: Keep it relevant

A key Common Core State Standard asks for students to “write arguments to support claims in an analysis of substantive topics or texts using valid reasoning and relevant and sufficient evidence.” That might not sound exciting or culturally relevant. But a learning experience designed for a 12th grade humanities class engaged learners in a compelling topic— policing in America —to analyze and evaluate multiple texts (including primary sources) and share the reasoning for their perspectives through discussion and writing. Students grappled with ideas and their beliefs and employed deep critical-thinking skills to develop arguments for their claims. Embedding critical-thinking skills in curriculum that students care about and connect with can ignite powerful learning experiences.

2. Make Local Connections: Keep it real

At The Possible Project , an out-of-school-time program designed to promote entrepreneurial skills and mindsets, students in a recent summer online program (modified from in-person due to COVID-19) explored the impact of COVID-19 on their communities and local BIPOC-owned businesses. They learned interviewing skills through a partnership with Everyday Boston , conducted virtual interviews with entrepreneurs, evaluated information from their interviews and local data, and examined their previously held beliefs. They created blog posts and videos to reflect on their learning and consider how their mindsets had changed as a result of the experience. In this way, we can design powerful community-based learning and invite students into productive struggle with multiple perspectives.

3. Create Authentic Projects: Keep it rigorous

At Big Picture Learning schools, students engage in internship-based learning experiences as a central part of their schooling. Their school-based adviser and internship-based mentor support them in developing real-world projects that promote deeper learning and critical-thinking skills. Such authentic experiences teach “young people to be thinkers, to be curious, to get from curiosity to creation … and it helps students design a learning experience that answers their questions, [providing an] opportunity to communicate it to a larger audience—a major indicator of postsecondary success.” Even in a remote environment, we can design projects that ask more of students than rote memorization and that spark critical thinking.

Our call to action is this: As educators, we need to make opportunities for critical thinking available not only to the affluent or those fortunate enough to be placed in advanced courses. The tools are available, let’s use them. Let’s interrogate our current curriculum and design learning experiences that engage all students in real, relevant, and rigorous experiences that require critical thinking and prepare them for promising postsecondary pathways.

Critical Thinking & Student Engagement

Dr. PJ Caposey is an award-winning educator, keynote speaker, consultant, and author of seven books who currently serves as the superintendent of schools for the award-winning Meridian CUSD 223 in northwest Illinois. You can find PJ on most social-media platforms as MCUSDSupe:

When I start my keynote on student engagement, I invite two people up on stage and give them each five paper balls to shoot at a garbage can also conveniently placed on stage. Contestant One shoots their shot, and the audience gives approval. Four out of 5 is a heckuva score. Then just before Contestant Two shoots, I blindfold them and start moving the garbage can back and forth. I usually try to ensure that they can at least make one of their shots. Nobody is successful in this unfair environment.

I thank them and send them back to their seats and then explain that this little activity was akin to student engagement. While we all know we want student engagement, we are shooting at different targets. More importantly, for teachers, it is near impossible for them to hit a target that is moving and that they cannot see.

Within the world of education and particularly as educational leaders, we have failed to simplify what student engagement looks like, and it is impossible to define or articulate what student engagement looks like if we cannot clearly articulate what critical thinking is and looks like in a classroom. Because, simply, without critical thought, there is no engagement.

The good news here is that critical thought has been defined and placed into taxonomies for decades already. This is not something new and not something that needs to be redefined. I am a Bloom’s person, but there is nothing wrong with DOK or some of the other taxonomies, either. To be precise, I am a huge fan of Daggett’s Rigor and Relevance Framework. I have used that as a core element of my practice for years, and it has shaped who I am as an instructional leader.

So, in order to explain critical thought, a teacher or a leader must familiarize themselves with these tried and true taxonomies. Easy, right? Yes, sort of. The issue is not understanding what critical thought is; it is the ability to integrate it into the classrooms. In order to do so, there are a four key steps every educator must take.

• Integrating critical thought/rigor into a lesson does not happen by chance, it happens by design. Planning for critical thought and engagement is much different from planning for a traditional lesson. In order to plan for kids to think critically, you have to provide a base of knowledge and excellent prompts to allow them to explore their own thinking in order to analyze, evaluate, or synthesize information.
• SIDE NOTE – Bloom’s verbs are a great way to start when writing objectives, but true planning will take you deeper than this.

QUESTIONING

• If the questions and prompts given in a classroom have correct answers or if the teacher ends up answering their own questions, the lesson will lack critical thought and rigor.
• Script five questions forcing higher-order thought prior to every lesson. Experienced teachers may not feel they need this, but it helps to create an effective habit.
• If lessons are rigorous and assessments are not, students will do well on their assessments, and that may not be an accurate representation of the knowledge and skills they have mastered. If lessons are easy and assessments are rigorous, the exact opposite will happen. When deciding to increase critical thought, it must happen in all three phases of the game: planning, instruction, and assessment.

TALK TIME / CONTROL

• To increase rigor, the teacher must DO LESS. This feels counterintuitive but is accurate. Rigorous lessons involving tons of critical thought must allow for students to work on their own, collaborate with peers, and connect their ideas. This cannot happen in a silent room except for the teacher talking. In order to increase rigor, decrease talk time and become comfortable with less control. Asking questions and giving prompts that lead to no true correct answer also means less control. This is a tough ask for some teachers. Explained differently, if you assign one assignment and get 30 very similar products, you have most likely assigned a low-rigor recipe. If you assign one assignment and get multiple varied products, then the students have had a chance to think deeply, and you have successfully integrated critical thought into your classroom.

Thanks to Dara, Patrick, Meg, and PJ for their contributions!

Please feel free to leave a comment with your reactions to the topic or directly to anything that has been said in this post.

Consider contributing a question to be answered in a future post. You can send one to me at [email protected] . When you send it in, let me know if I can use your real name if it’s selected or if you’d prefer remaining anonymous and have a pseudonym in mind.

You can also contact me on Twitter at @Larryferlazzo .

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20 Critical Thinking Activities for Middle Schoolers

• Middle School Education

Introduction:

  Critical thinking is vital for middle school students, as it helps them develop problem-solving skills, make informed decisions, and understand different perspectives. Integrating critical thinking activities into classroom learning experiences can greatly enhance students’ cognitive abilities. The following are 20 engaging critical thinking activities designed for middle school students.

1. Brain Teasers: Use age-appropriate puzzles to challenge students’ cognitive abilities and encourage them to find creative solutions.

2. Socratic Circles: Divide the class into groups and encourage them to participate in a philosophical discussion on a given topic, asking questions that stimulate critical thinking and deeper understanding.

3. Compare and Contrast: Assign two similar but different texts for students to compare and contrast, analyzing similarities and differences between each author’s perspective.

4. What-If Questions: Encourage children to think critically about hypothetical scenarios by asking what-if questions, such as “What if the internet didn’t exist?”

5. Debate Club: Organize a debate club where students are encouraged to research and defend differing viewpoints on a topic.

6. Mind Mapping: Teach students how to create a mind map – a visual representation of their thoughts – to help them brainstorm complex issues effectively.

7. Mystery Bag: In small groups, give students a bag containing several random objects and ask them to invent an innovative product or story using all items in the bag.

8. Critical Thinking Journal: Have students maintain journals where they analyze their thought processes after completing activities, promoting self-reflection and metacognition.

9. Moral Dilemmas: Present students with moral dilemmas, requiring them to weigh pros and cons before making ethical decisions.

10. Fact or Opinion?: Give students various statements and ask them to differentiate between fact or opinion, helping them build critical thinking skills when handling information.

11. Research Projects: Assign project topics that require deep research from multiple sources, developing students’ abilities to sift through information and synthesize their findings.

12. Think-Pair-Share: Have students think individually about a complex question, then pair up to discuss their thoughts, and finally share with the class.

13. Art Interpretation: Display an artwork and ask students to interpret its meaning, theme, or message, pushing them to look beyond the surface.

14. Reverse Role Play: Assign roles for a scenario where students exchange positions (e.g., teacher-student, parent-child), fostering empathetic understanding and critical thinking skills.

15. Critical Evaluation of Media: Analyze news articles, commercials, or social media posts by asking questions about their purpose, target audience, and accuracy.

16. Six Thinking Hats: Teach students Edward de Bono’s “Six Thinking Hats” technique to improve critical thinking by exploring diverse perspectives when solving problems.

17. Analogy Building: Encourage students to create analogies from one concept to another, enhancing abstract thinking and problem-solving abilities.

18. Current Events Analysis: Keep track of current events and have students critically evaluate news stories or blog posts to encourage informed decision-making in real-world contexts.

19. Brainstorming Sessions: Hold group brainstorming sessions where students invent solutions for complex problems while practicing active listening and critical thinking.

20. Reflection Activities: Use reflective writing prompts at the end of lessons or activities to foster metacognition, self-awareness, and the development of critical thinking skills.

Conclusion:

Critical thinking activities are vital for middle schoolers as they foster intellectual growth and prepare them for future learning experiences. By incorporating these 20 activities into your classroom curriculum, you can help students develop essential critical thinking skills that will serve them throughout their academic careers and beyond.

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Boosting Critical Thinking Across the Curriculum

Visible thinking routines that encourage students to document and share their ideas can have a profound effect on their learning.

In my coaching work with schools, I am often requested to model strategies that help learners think deeply and critically across multiple disciplines and content areas. Many teachers are looking to adapt research-based methods to help students think about content in meaningful ways by making connections to previous learning, asking relevant questions, displaying understanding through learning artifacts , and identifying their challenges with the material.

Educator Alfred Mander said, “Thinking is skilled work. It is not true that we are naturally endowed with the ability to think clearly and logically—without learning how and without practicing.”

Visible thinking routines can be an excellent and simple way to start using systematic but flexible approaches to teaching thinking dispositions to young people at any grade level. Focusing on thinking types, powerful routines can strengthen learners’ ability to analyze, synthesize (design), and question effectively. Classroom teachers want these skills to become habits, making students the most informed stakeholder in their own learning.

Not to be confused with visible learning research by John Hattie , Visible Thinking is a research-based initiative by Harvard’s Project Zero with more than 30 routines aimed at making learning the consequence of good thinking dispositions . Students begin to comprehend content through thinking routines composed of short questions or a series of steps. During routines, their learning becomes visible because their ideas are documented, voiced, discussed with others, and reflected on.

For example, the routine See, Think, Wonder can be used to get students to analyze and interpret graphs, text, infographics, or video during the entry event of project-based learning units or daily lessons. Guiding students to have rich and lively discussions about their thoughts, interpretations, and wonderings (questions) can help teachers decide on appropriate lessons and next steps.

Another effective visible thinking routine is Connect, Extend, Challenge (CEC). Learners can use CEC to organize, clarify, and simplify complex information on graphic organizers. The graphic organizer becomes a kinesthetic activity for creating an informational artifact that students can refer to as the lesson or unit progresses.

Here are some creative but simple ways to carry out these two routines across multiple classrooms.

See, Think, Wonder

See, Think, Wonder can be leveraged as a thinking routine to launch engagement and inquiry in daily lessons by introducing an interesting object (graphic, artifact, etc.). The idea is for students to think carefully about why the object looks or is a certain way. Teachers introduce the following question prompts to guide students’ thinking:

• What do you see?
• What do you think about that?
• What does it make you wonder?

When the routine is new, sometimes young children may not know where to begin expressing themselves—this is where converting the above question prompts into sentence stems, “I see…,” “I think…,” and “I wonder…,” comes into play. For students struggling with analytical skills, it’s empowering for them to accept themselves where they currently are—learning how to analyze critically can be achieved over time and with practice. Teachers can help them build confidence with positive reinforcement .

Adapt the routine to meet the needs of your kids, which may be to have them work individually or to engage with classmates. I use it frequently—especially when introducing emotionally compelling graphics to students learning about environmental issues (e.g., the UN’s Goals for Sustainable Development) and social issues . This is useful in helping them better understand how to interpret graphs, infographics, and what’s happening in text and visuals. Furthermore, it also promotes interpretations, analysis, and questioning.

Content teachers can use See, Think, Wonder to get learners thinking critically by introducing graphics that reinforce essential academic information and follow up the routine with lessons and scaffolds to support students’ ideas and interpretations.

Connect, Extend, Challenge

CEC is a powerful visible learning routine to help students connect previous learning to new learning and identify where they are struggling in various educational concepts. Taking stock of where they are stuck in the material is as vital as articulating their connections and extensions. Again, they might struggle initially, but here’s where front-loading vocabulary and giving them time to talk through challenges can help.

A good place to introduce CEC is after students have analyzed or observed something new. This works as a natural next step to have them dig deeper with reflection and use what they learned in the analysis process to create their own synthesis of ideas. I also like to use CEC after engaging them in the See, Think, Wonder routine and at the end of a unit.

Again, learners can work individually or in small groups. Teachers can also have them move into the routine after reading an article or some form of targeted informational text where the learning is critical to moving forward (e.g., proportional relationships, measurement, unit conversion). Regardless of your approach, Project Zero suggests having learners reflect on the following question prompts:

• How is the _____ connected to something you already know?
• What new ideas or impressions do you have that extended your thinking in new directions?
• What is challenging or confusing? What do you need to improve your understanding?

I like to have learners in small groups answer a version of the question prompts in a simple three-column graphic organizer. The graphic organizer can also become a road map for prioritizing the next steps in learning for students of all ages. Here are some visual examples of how I used the activity with educators in a professional development session targeting emotional intelligence skills.

More Visible Thinking Resources

• Project Zero’s Thinking Routine Toolbox : Access to core thinking routines
• Making Thinking Visible: How to Promote Engagement, Understanding, and Independence for All Learners , by Ron Ritchhart, Mark Church, and Karin Morrison
• Creating Cultures of Thinking: The 8 Forces We Must Master to Truly Transform Our Schools , by Ron Ritchhart

ChatGPT for Teachers

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The pervasiveness of social media has significantly changed how people receive and understand information. By steering people to content that’s similar to what they have already read, algorithms create echo chambers that can hinder critical thinking. Consequently, the person may not develop critical thinking skills or be able to refine the abilities they already possess.

Teachers can act as the antidote to the algorithms by strengthening their focus on teaching students to think critically. The following discusses how to teach critical thinking skills and provides resources for teachers to help their students.

What is critical thinking?

Oxford: Learner’s Dictionaries defines critical thinking as “the process of analyzing information in order to make a logical decision about the extent to which you believe something to be true or false.” A critical thinker only forms an opinion on a subject after first understanding the available information and then refining their understanding through:

• Comparisons with other sources of information

A person who is capable of critical thought relies entirely on scientific evidence, rather than guesswork or preconceived notions.

Key critical thinking skills

There isn’t a definitive list of key critical thinking skills, but Bloom’s Taxonomy is often used as a guide and illustration. It starts with base skills, such as remembering and understanding, and rises to optimal skills that include evaluating and creating.

• Remembering: Recalling specific facts
• Understanding: Grasping the information’s meaning
• Applying: Using the information in a new but similar situation
• Analyzing: Identifying connections between different source materials
• Evaluating: Examining the information and making judgments
• Creating: Using the information to create something new

Promoting critical thinking in the classroom

A Stanford Medicine study from 2022 finds that one quarter of children aged 10.7 years have mobile phones. This figure rises to 75% by age 12.6 and almost 100% by age 15. Consequently, children are routinely exposed to powerful algorithms that can dull their critical thinking abilities from a very young age. 

Teaching critical thinking skills to elementary students can help them develop a way of thinking that can temper the social media biases they inevitably encounter. 

At the core of teaching critical thinking skills is encouraging students to ask questions. This can challenge some educators, who may be tempted to respond to the umpteenth question on a single subject with “it just is.” Although that’s a human response when exasperated, it undermines the teacher’s previous good work.

After all, there’s likely little that promotes critical thinking more than feeling safe to ask a question and being encouraged to explore and investigate a subject. Dismissing a question without explanation risks alienating the student and those witnessing the exchange.

How to teach critical thinking skills

Teaching critical thinking skills takes patience and time alongside a combination of instruction and practice. It’s important to routinely create opportunities for children to engage in critical thinking and to guide them through challenges while providing helpful, age-appropriate feedback. 

The following covers several of the most common ways of teaching critical thinking skills to elementary students. Teachers should use an array of resources suitable for middle school and high school students. 

Encourage curiosity

It’s normal for teachers to ask a question and then pick one of the first hands that rise. But waiting a few moments often sees more hands raised, which helps foster an environment where children are comfortable asking questions. It also encourages them to be more curious when engaging with a subject simply because there’s a greater probability of being asked to answer a question.

It’s important to reward students who demonstrate curiosity and a desire to learn. This not only encourages the student but also shows others the benefits of becoming more involved. Some may be happy to learn whatever is put before them, while others may need a subject in which they already have an interest. Using real-world examples develops curiosity as well because children can connect these with existing experiences. 

Model critical thinking

We know children model much of their behavior on what they see and hear in adults. So, one of the best tools in an educator’s toolbox is modeling critical thinking. Sharing their own thoughts as they work through a problem is a good way for teachers to help children see a workable thought process they can mimic. In time, as their confidence and experience grow, they will develop their own strategies.

Encourage debate and discussion

Debating and discussing in a safe space is one of the most effective ways to develop critical thinking skills. Assigning age-appropriate topics, and getting each student to develop arguments for and against a position on that topic, exposes them to different perspectives. 

Breaking classes into small groups where students are encouraged to discuss the topic is also helpful, as small groups often make it easier for shy children to give their opinions. The “think-pair-share” method is another strategy that helps encourage students hiding out in class to come out of their shells.

Provide problem-solving opportunities

Creating tailored problem-solving opportunities helps children discover solutions rather than become frustrated by problems they don’t yet understand. Splitting classes into groups and assigning each an age-appropriate real-world problem they can analyze and solve is a good way of developing critical thinking and team working skills. Role-playing and simulation activities are engaging and fun because the children can pretend to be different people and act out scenarios in a safe environment.

Teach children how to ask the right questions

Learning how to ask the right questions is a vital critical-thinking skill. Questions should be open-ended and thought-provoking. Students should be taught different question stems, such as:

• “What if …?”
• “Can you explain …?”
• “What would happen if …?”
• “What do you think about …?”

Teachers should be aware of students who don’t use these stems. A gentle reminder of how to phrase a question can impact the answer received.

Encourage independent thinking

Critical and independent thinking are partners that are more effective together than either can be apart. To encourage independent thinking, teachers should allow children to pick some of their own topics of study, research, and projects . 

Helping students identify and select different ways to complete an assignment can build their confidence. They should be persuaded to think of as many solutions to problems as possible, as this can open their minds to a wider scope of opportunities.

Provide feedback

Constructive feedback is a crucial part of the learning process. The following list summarizes key strategies that teachers can apply to encourage students through feedback:

• Identify what the child did well and what needs improving.
• Provide feedback as soon as possible after the task or assignment.
• Use positive and encouraging language devoid of criticism or negative language.
• Offer specific suggestions for improvement.
• Provide positive and negative feedback and focus on how to progress without dwelling on mistakes.
• Ensure the feedback is easy to understand and give examples if necessary.
• Be consistent with feedback for all students to avoid being seen as having favorites.
• Listen to the student’s responses to feedback and be open to their perspective.

A mind muscle

Finally, critical thinking is a mind muscle. If it is not exercised, it gets weak, and intellectual laziness takes its place. Teachers might consider asking students to present instances of how they used critical thinking outside of the classroom, which provides practice and reminds the students that these skills aren’t only for the classroom.

You may also like to read

• Critical Thinking Resources for Middle School Teachers
• Critical Thinking Resources for High School Teachers
• Teaching Critical Thinking Through Debate
• Build Critical Thinking Skills With Believing and Doubting Games
• Try These Tips to Improve Students' Critical Thinking Skills
• Teaching Styles That Require Abstract Thinking

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How to Teach Critical Thinking

Last Updated: September 28, 2023 Approved

This article was co-authored by Jai Flicker . Jai Flicker is an Academic Tutor and the CEO and Founder of Lifeworks Learning Center, a San Francisco Bay Area-based business focused on providing tutoring, parental support, test preparation, college essay writing help, and psychoeducational evaluations to help students transform their attitude toward learning. Jai has over 20 years of experience in the education management industry. He holds a BA in Philosophy from the University of California, San Diego. There are 7 references cited in this article, which can be found at the bottom of the page. wikiHow marks an article as reader-approved once it receives enough positive feedback. This article received 11 testimonials and 100% of readers who voted found it helpful, earning it our reader-approved status. This article has been viewed 293,486 times.

If you want to teach your students critical thinking, give them opportunities to brainstorm and analyze things. Classroom discussions are a great way to encourage open-mindedness and creativity. Teach students to ask "why?" as much as possible and recognize patterns. An important part of critical thinking is also recognizing good and bad sources of information.

Encouraging Students to Have an Open Mind

• For example, ask students an open-ended question like, "What would be a good way to get more people to recycle in the school?"
• Whether or not it's realistic, offer praise for an inventive answer like, "we could start to make a giant sculpture out of recyclable things in the middle of the school. Everyone will want to add to it, and at the end of the year we can take pictures and then break it down to bring to the recycling plant."

• Try including a brief creative exercise in the beginning of class to help get their minds working. For example, you could ask students to identify 5 uses for a shoe besides wearing it.

• For instance, make columns to name the good things about both a camping trip and a city excursion, then have students think about a happy medium between the two.

Helping Students Make Connections

• For instance, environmental themes may come up in science, history, literature, and art lessons.
• If you are teaching geometry, then you might ask if they have ever seen a building that resembles the shapes you are teaching about. You could even show them some images yourself.

• Explain to your students how the clues and their own personal influences form their final conclusions about the picture.
• For instance, show students a picture of a man and woman shaking hands in front of a home with a "For Sale" sign in front of it. Have students explain what they think is happening in the picture, and slowly break down the things that made them reach that conclusion.

• "To take a train."
• "To get to the city."
• "To meet his friend."
• "Because he missed him."
• "Because he was lonely."
• On a more advanced level, students will benefit from interrogating their research and work to determine its relevance.

Teaching Students About Reliable Information

• For instance, if a student says that there are fewer libraries than there used to be, have them provide some actual statistics about libraries to support their statement.

• Encourage students to ask the simple question, "Who is sharing this information, and why?"
• For instance, an advertisement for a low calorie food product may be disguised as a special interest television segment about how to lose weight on a budget.

• The date it was published, whether or not it has been updated, and how current the information is. Tell students where to find this information on the website.
• What the author's qualifications are. For instance, a medical article should be written by a doctor or other medical professional.
• If there is supporting evidence to back up what the writer says. Sources should always have information to back them up, especially when the source is something your students find on the internet.

• For example, if your students are reviewing the political viewpoint of a senator in the USA, ask your students to look up donations provided to that senator from any special interest groups. This may provide your students with insight into the reasons for the senator’s views.

How Do You Improve Critical Thinking Skills?

Expert Q&A

You Might Also Like

• ↑ http://www.scholastic.com/parents/resources/article/thinking-skills-learning-styles/think-about-it-critical-thinking
• ↑ Jai Flicker. Academic Tutor. Expert Interview. 20 May 2020.
• ↑ https://www.weareteachers.com/10-tips-for-teaching-kids-to-be-awesome-critical-thinkers/
• ↑ https://ww2.kqed.org/mindshift/2016/11/06/three-tools-for-teaching-critical-thinking-and-problem-solving-skills/
• ↑ http://www.pbs.org/now/classroom/lessonplan-07.html
• ↑ http://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2016/11/23/503129818/study-finds-students-have-dismaying-inability-to-tell-fake-news-from-real
• ↑ http://www.apa.org/ed/precollege/ptn/2017/05/fake-news.aspx

About This Article

To teach critical thinking, start class discussions by asking open-ended questions, like "What does the author mean?" Alternatively, have your students make lists of pros and cons so they can see that two conflicting ideas can both have merit. You can also encourage your students to think more deeply about their own reasoning by asking them “Why?” 5 times as they explain an answer to you. Finally, teach students to figure out whether information, especially from online sources, is reliable by checking to see if it comes from a trusted source and is backed by evidence. For more from our reviewer on how to help students make connections that lead to more critical thinking, read on! Did this summary help you? Yes No

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How to teach Critical Thinking: Lesson plans for teachers

Knowing how to teach critical thinking is not always clear. These critical thinking lesson plans will help teachers build the critical thinking skills that their students need to become better engaged and informed global citizens.

The plans were developed in collaboration with psychology and brain researchers at Indiana University and with teachers across the country. All of our lesson plans are free to download, use and share. Primarily for middle schools, the topics range from cognitive biases to common logical fallacies, to subject-specific lessons in math, sciences, and social studies. 

We invite you to check out our library of lessons, to share any thoughts and feedback that you might have

Teaching about control groups

Teaching about the confirmation bias

Teaching about the cognitive bias called overgeneralization

Using Unit Rates and Math to teach critical thinking

Critical Thinking and Statistics

Teaching Critical Thinking Skills

Social Media and the Confirmation Bias

Experimenter Bias in Science

Critical Thinking About Science News

Common Logical Fallacies in Science (Grades 6-8)

Common Logical Fallacies in Math (Grades 6-8)

Using Questions to Foster Critical Thinking in Science (Grades 6-8)

Teaching About Common Biases & Fallacies Using Social Studies (Grade 6)

TEACHING ABOUT COMMON BIASES & FALLACIES USING MATH (Grade 6)

TEACHING ABOUT COMMON BIASES & FALLACIES USING MATH (Grade 5)

Teaching About Common Biases & Fallacies Using Social Studies (Grade 4)

Teaching About Common Biases & Fallacies Using Math (Grade 4)

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5 Critical Thinking Skills Every Kid Needs To Learn (And How To Teach Them)

Teach them to thoughtfully question the world around them.

Little kids love to ask questions. “Why is the sky blue?” “Where does the sun go at night?” Their innate curiosity helps them learn more about the world, and it’s key to their development. As they grow older, it’s important to encourage them to keep asking questions and to teach them the right kinds of questions to ask. We call these “critical thinking skills,” and they help kids become thoughtful adults who are able to make informed decisions as they grow older.

What is critical thinking?

Critical thinking allows us to examine a subject and develop an informed opinion about it. First, we need to be able to simply understand the information, then we build on that by analyzing, comparing, evaluating, reflecting, and more. Critical thinking is about asking questions, then looking closely at the answers to form conclusions that are backed by provable facts, not just “gut feelings” and opinion.

Critical thinkers tend to question everything, and that can drive teachers and parents a little crazy. The temptation to reply, “Because I said so!” is strong, but when you can, try to provide the reasons behind your answers. We want to raise children who take an active role in the world around them and who nurture curiosity throughout their entire lives.

Key Critical Thinking Skills

So, what are critical thinking skills? There’s no official list, but many people use Bloom’s Taxonomy to help lay out the skills kids should develop as they grow up.

Source: Vanderbilt University

Bloom’s Taxonomy is laid out as a pyramid, with foundational skills at the bottom providing a base for more advanced skills higher up. The lowest phase, “Remember,” doesn’t require much critical thinking. These are the skills kids use when they memorize math facts or world capitals or practice their spelling words. Critical thinking doesn’t begin to creep in until the next steps.

Understanding requires more than memorization. It’s the difference between a child reciting by rote “one times four is four, two times four is eight, three times four is twelve,” versus recognizing that multiplication is the same as adding a number to itself a certain number of times. Schools focus more these days on understanding concepts than they used to; pure memorization has its place, but when a student understands the concept behind something, they can then move on to the next phase.

Application opens up whole worlds to students. Once you realize you can use a concept you’ve already mastered and apply it to other examples, you’ve expanded your learning exponentially. It’s easy to see this in math or science, but it works in all subjects. Kids may memorize sight words to speed up their reading mastery, but it’s learning to apply phonics and other reading skills that allows them to tackle any new word that comes their way.

Analysis is the real leap into advanced critical thinking for most kids. When we analyze something, we don’t take it at face value. Analysis requires us to find facts that stand up to inquiry, even if we don’t like what those facts might mean. We put aside personal feelings or beliefs and explore, examine, research, compare and contrast, draw correlations, organize, experiment, and so much more. We learn to identify primary sources for information, and check into the validity of those sources. Analysis is a skill successful adults must use every day, so it’s something we must help kids learn as early as possible.

Almost at the top of Bloom’s pyramid, evaluation skills let us synthesize all the information we’ve learned, understood, applied, and analyzed, and to use it to support our opinions and decisions. Now we can reflect on the data we’ve gathered and use it to make choices, cast votes, or offer informed opinions. We can evaluate the statements of others too, using these same skills. True evaluation requires us to put aside our own biases and accept that there may be other valid points of view, even if we don’t necessarily agree with them.

In the final phase, we use every one of those previous skills to create something new. This could be a proposal, an essay, a theory, a plan—anything a person assembles that’s unique.

Note: Bloom’s original taxonomy included “synthesis” as opposed to “create,” and it was located between “apply” and “evaluate.” When you synthesize, you put various parts of different ideas together to form a new whole. In 2001, a group of cognitive psychologists removed that term from the taxonomy , replacing it with “create,” but it’s part of the same concept.

How To Teach Critical Thinking

Using critical thinking in your own life is vital, but passing it along to the next generation is just as important. Be sure to focus on analyzing and evaluating, two multifaceted sets of skills that take lots and lots of practice. Start with these 10 Tips for Teaching Kids To Be Awesome Critical Thinkers . Then try these critical thinking activities and games. Finally, try to incorporate some of these 100+ Critical Thinking Questions for Students into your lessons. They’ll help your students develop the skills they need to navigate a world full of conflicting facts and provocative opinions.

One of These Things Is Not Like the Other

This classic Sesame Street activity is terrific for introducing the ideas of classifying, sorting, and finding relationships. All you need are several different objects (or pictures of objects). Lay them out in front of students, and ask them to decide which one doesn’t belong to the group. Let them be creative: The answer they come up with might not be the one you envisioned, and that’s OK!

The Answer Is …

Post an “answer” and ask kids to come up with the question. For instance, if you’re reading the book Charlotte’s Web , the answer might be “Templeton.” Students could say, “Who helped save Wilbur even though he didn’t really like him?” or “What’s the name of the rat that lived in the barn?” Backwards thinking encourages creativity and requires a good understanding of the subject matter.

Forced Analogies

Practice making connections and seeing relationships with this fun game. Kids write four random words in the corners of a Frayer Model and one more in the middle. The challenge? To link the center word to one of the others by making an analogy. The more far out the analogies, the better!

Learn more: Forced Analogies at The Owl Teacher

Primary Sources

Tired of hearing “I found it on Wikipedia!” when you ask kids where they got their answer? It’s time to take a closer look at primary sources. Show students how to follow a fact back to its original source, whether online or in print. We’ve got 10 terrific American history–based primary source activities to try here.

Science Experiments

Hands-on science experiments and STEM challenges are a surefire way to engage students, and they involve all sorts of critical thinking skills. We’ve got hundreds of experiment ideas for all ages on our STEM pages , starting with 50 Stem Activities To Help Kids Think Outside the Box .

Not the Answer

Multiple-choice questions can be a great way to work on critical thinking. Turn the questions into discussions, asking kids to eliminate wrong answers one by one. This gives them practice analyzing and evaluating, allowing them to make considered choices.

Learn more: Teaching in the Fast Lane

Correlation Tic-Tac-Toe

Here’s a fun way to work on correlation, which is a part of analysis. Show kids a 3 x 3 grid with nine pictures, and ask them to find a way to link three in a row together to get tic-tac-toe. For instance, in the pictures above, you might link together the cracked ground, the landslide, and the tsunami as things that might happen after an earthquake. Take things a step further and discuss the fact that there are other ways those things might have happened (a landslide can be caused by heavy rain, for instance), so correlation doesn’t necessarily prove causation.

Learn more: Critical Thinking Tic-Tac-Toe at The Owl Teacher

Inventions That Changed the World

Explore the chain of cause and effect with this fun thought exercise. Start it off by asking one student to name an invention they believe changed the world. Each student then follows by explaining an effect that invention had on the world and their own lives. Challenge each student to come up with something different.

Learn more: Teaching With a Mountain View

Critical Thinking Games

There are so many board games that help kids learn to question, analyze, examine, make judgments, and more. In fact, pretty much any game that doesn’t leave things entirely up to chance (Sorry, Candy Land) requires players to use critical thinking skills. See one teacher’s favorites at the link below.

Learn more: Miss DeCarbo

This is one of those classic critical thinking activities that really prepares kids for the real world. Assign a topic (or let them choose one). Then give kids time to do some research to find good sources that support their point of view. Finally, let the debate begin! Check out 100 Middle School Debate Topics , 100 High School Debate Topics , and 60 Funny Debate Topics for Kids of All Ages .

How do you teach critical thinking skills in your classroom? Come share your ideas and ask for advice in the WeAreTeachers HELPLINE group on Facebook .

Plus, check out 38 simple ways to integrate social-emotional learning throughout the day ..

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10 Tips for Teaching Kids To Be Awesome Critical Thinkers

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{{item.title}}, my essentials, ask for help, contact edconnect, directory a to z, how to guides, education for a changing world, how to teach critical thinking.

Daniel Willingham is a Professor of Psychology at the University of Virginia. His paper explores the ongoing debate over how critical thinking skills are developed and taught. He also outlines a plan for teaching specific critical thinking skills.

Willingham argues that while there is plenty of evidence to support explicit instruction of critical thinking skills, the evidence for how well critical thinking skills transfer from one problem to another is mixed.

Published: 2019.

Download the paper

How to teach critical thinking (PDF 373KB)

Other resources

• Peter Ellerton, Thinking critically for an AI world (Edspresso episode 3)
• Sandra Lynch, Teaching critical thinking through philosoph y (Edspresso episode 4)
• Peter Ellerton, On critical thinking and collaborative inquiry
• Learning First, Teaching critical thinking: Implications for stages 4 and 5 Science and History teaching
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Developing Critical Thinking: 80 Contemplative Journal Prompts For Middle School Students 

August 8, 2023 //  by  Lauren Du Plessis

In a world focused on the daily hustle and bustle, your middle schoolers need opportunities to slow down and think critically about the deeper things in life. When learners engage in high-order thinking, their focus narrows as they analyze information from a variety of personal background experiences and sources. Not only do our journal prompts aim to enhance your students’ complex reasoning abilities, but they also strive to provide character growth opportunities as well! Use our collection as a critical-thinking springboard for your middle schoolers! 

1. If you could change one rule at school, what would it be and why?

2. What is one thing you wish adults understood about being a middle school student today?

3. If you could spend a day with any historical figure, who would it be and why?

4. Write about a time when you felt truly proud of yourself. What happened, and why did it make you feel this way?

5. If you could invent a new subject that would be taught in schools, what would it be? Explain why it’s important.

6. What are the three most important qualities a leader should have? Provide examples of leaders who embody these qualities.

7. Is there a difference between making a mistake and failing? Explain your thoughts.

8. If you could solve one world problem, what would it be and why?

9. What would you do if you were president for a day?

10. How does the music we listen to influence us?

11. How can you show more empathy towards people who are different from you?

12. What is your definition of success?

13. What does it mean to be a good friend?

14. How does social media influence our perception of reality?

15. How would you feel if money didn’t exist? How would the world change?

16. What does courage look like to you?

17. Describe a difficult decision you had to make. How did you decide what to do?

18. Is it more important to be a good listener or a good speaker?

19. If you could give any piece of advice to your younger self, what would it be?

20. How can one person make a difference in the world?

21. What is something you believe in that others might not agree with?

22. What does it mean to be a global citizen?

23. If you could time travel, where would you go and why?

24. How does nature impact our well-being?

25. What is the purpose of art in society?

26. How does our environment shape our behavior?

27. Do you believe in fate or free will? Explain your stance.

28. What would you do if you were not afraid of failure?

29. What do you value most in your friendships and why?

30. What does honesty mean to you? Is it always better to tell the truth?

31. Can you judge a book by its cover? When is it fair to judge someone or something?

32. How does technology affect our relationships with others?

33. What does equality mean to you?

34. How would life be different if humans could communicate telepathically?

35. How would the world change if animals could talk?

36. What is the purpose of school and education?

37. Is there such a thing as ‘good’ or ‘bad’ emotions?

38. What would a perfect society look like?

39. How important is the first impression? Do they accurately represent individuals?

40. What is the role of dreams in our lives?

41. How important are our choices in shaping our lives?

42. Is it better to work in a team or alone?

43. What are the most important qualities of a teacher?

44. How does learning about the past impact our future?

45. What makes a book or movie good?

46. Can someone be happy without money?

47. How does learning a new language change a person?

48. Is it more important to enjoy your job or to earn a high salary?

49. What does it mean to be a hero? Who are some heroes in real life?

50. How does the place where we grow up shape our identity?

51. Should animals have rights? Why or why not?

52. How does advertising influence what people buy?

53. What is the biggest challenge young people face today?

54. Is there such a thing as true altruism?

55. What does ‘home’ mean to you?

56. What role does fear play in your life?

57. How does fiction reveal the truth about real life?

58. Why do we dream? What purpose does it serve?

59. What is the value of solitude?

60. How does physical activity affect our mental health?

61. How do your surroundings impact your creativity?

62. Can a person change who they are, or are we predestined to stay the same?

63. What is the role of ‘play’ in learning?

64. How does one’s appearance affect their personality or how they’re treated?

65. What does it mean to be rich? Is wealth more than just money?

66. How does our culture shape our identity?

67. Why is it important to learn about other cultures?

68. How does the news shape our understanding of the world?

69. What role do hobbies play in people’s lives?

70. What is the value of silence in a world full of noise?

71. How does prejudice arise? How can we combat it?

72. How does travel broaden our perspective?

73. What is the impact of climate change on our future?

74. How do different generations view the world differently?

75. Is knowledge always a good thing, or can it be dangerous?

76. What makes people want to follow a leader?

77. How do the books we read influence our lives?

78. How does society define beauty?

79. What is the value of expressing gratitude?

80. How important is the quest for truth? Is it always objective?

How To Teach Your Kids Critical-Thinking Skills

Your kids are learning math and reading skills, but are they learning critical-thinking skills? In a recent study commissioned by MindEdge Learning, only 36 percent of millennials surveyed said they were “well-trained” in these skills. As many as 37 percent of the 1,000 young people surveyed admitted they were sharing information on their social media networks that was likely inaccurate news. And more than half of them used social media for their main source of news.

Frank Connolly, senior editor at MindEdge, notes, “By 2020, the World Economic Forum anticipates critical thinking will be the second most important skill to exhibit, second only to complex problem-solving.”

Kids need to learn critical-thinking skills to become successful adults. But how can parents and educators ensure kids learn to be critical thinkers? Here are four simple ways to communicate better with your child, while teaching them how to think for themselves, when it comes to dissecting and sharing news and information.

1. Teach Your Child to Question What They Read or Hear

Brainstorming is always a great skill that helps teach creativity. And parents can use many types of news to start a brainstorming session—a new bit of juicy gossip, something that sounds scary, or something exciting are all an open door for exploration and discussion. Teach your children to ask questions and even find out who is spreading such information. Is it a reliable news source? A tabloid? A fellow classmate who has only heard it from someone else? The right questions can lead to discussions about the state of the world or other relevant topics.

2. Make Thinking a Family Affair

In today’s world, where so many kids are glued to their digital devices , how can you start discussions that foster critical thinking? Use the times that you are together as a family—around the dinner table, during long car rides , or while on a weekend picnic—to bring up topics that encourage questions and problem-solving techniques. “What do you think of such-and-such?” Or, “What is your opinion on ____?” Leave the floor open for discussion, and always be open-minded yourself during these conversations.

3. Go Deeper

Encourage your kids to read books on similar topics, watch movies related to the topic , or visit the local library together to study and keep the conversation going. Don’t be afraid to let them explore a topic of interest. If they are showing some critical-thinking skills in the realm of politics, for example, you can study world history or watch relevant documentaries on the subject.

4. Teach Them to Be Socially Responsible

Talk about their social network “news” and why it may or may not be a good idea to share certain stories. During your discussions, bring up the point about their social networks being a public platform, which can either be used for good or have negative repercussions and even be a place for “ fake news .” Teach them to pause and check in with themselves before automatically sharing something on the internet.

Remember, critical thinking is more than just being rational. It’s about the ability to think independently. When your children are able to draw their own conclusions and make up their own minds on matters, without being “swayed” by peers or even other adults, then they will be true critical thinkers!

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Home » Blog » General » The Importance of Teaching Critical Thinking in Middle School: A Comprehensive Guide

The Importance of Teaching Critical Thinking in Middle School: A Comprehensive Guide

Introduction.

Why is critical thinking important in today’s world? In a rapidly changing society, it is crucial for students to develop the skills necessary to think critically and solve complex problems. The Discovery stage of middle school is a pivotal time for students to begin honing their critical thinking abilities. This comprehensive guide will explore the importance of teaching critical thinking in middle school and provide practical strategies for educators to implement in their classrooms.

Understanding Critical Thinking

Critical thinking can be defined as the ability to analyze, evaluate, and synthesize information in order to make informed decisions and solve problems. It involves a combination of skills such as logical reasoning, creative thinking, and effective communication. Developing critical thinking skills in middle school students is essential as it lays the foundation for their academic success and prepares them for the challenges they will face in the future.

Benefits of Teaching Critical Thinking in Middle School

Teaching critical thinking in middle school has numerous benefits for students:

Enhances problem-solving abilities

By teaching students how to think critically, they become better problem solvers. They learn to approach challenges from different angles, consider multiple perspectives, and develop innovative solutions.

Fosters creativity and innovation

Critical thinking encourages students to think outside the box and explore new ideas. It nurtures their creativity and helps them develop innovative approaches to solving problems.

Promotes effective communication skills

When students engage in critical thinking, they learn to articulate their thoughts and ideas effectively. They develop strong communication skills, both verbal and written, which are essential for success in school and beyond.

Develops decision-making skills

Teaching critical thinking empowers students to make informed decisions. They learn to weigh evidence, evaluate options, and make choices based on logical reasoning rather than impulse or emotions.

Encourages independent and analytical thinking

Critical thinking fosters independence and autonomy in students. They become confident in their ability to analyze information, draw conclusions, and form their own opinions. This skill is crucial for navigating the complexities of the modern world.

Strategies for Teaching Critical Thinking in Middle School

Here are some practical strategies that educators can use to teach critical thinking in middle school:

Incorporating open-ended questions in classroom discussions

Encourage students to think critically by asking open-ended questions that require them to analyze, evaluate, and synthesize information. This promotes deeper thinking and encourages students to consider multiple perspectives.

Engaging students in debates and discussions

Debates and discussions provide opportunities for students to practice critical thinking skills. Encourage them to present evidence, challenge assumptions, and engage in respectful dialogue with their peers.

Encouraging students to analyze and evaluate information

Teach students how to critically analyze and evaluate information by providing them with real-world examples and guiding them through the process. Help them develop the skills to distinguish between reliable and unreliable sources of information.

Providing opportunities for collaborative problem-solving

Collaborative problem-solving activities allow students to work together to solve complex problems. This not only enhances their critical thinking skills but also promotes teamwork and communication.

Introducing real-world scenarios and case studies

By incorporating real-world scenarios and case studies into lessons, students can apply their critical thinking skills to practical situations. This helps them see the relevance and importance of critical thinking in their everyday lives.

Using technology to enhance critical thinking skills

Utilize technology tools and resources that promote critical thinking, such as online simulations, interactive games, and virtual reality experiences. These tools engage students and provide them with opportunities to think critically in a digital context.

Overcoming Challenges in Teaching Critical Thinking

Teaching critical thinking may come with its own set of challenges. Here are some strategies to overcome them:

Addressing resistance to change

Some students may resist the shift towards critical thinking as it requires them to step out of their comfort zones. Create a supportive and inclusive classroom environment where students feel safe to take risks and explore new ideas.

Nurturing a growth mindset in students

Encourage students to embrace challenges and view them as opportunities for growth. Teach them that intelligence and abilities can be developed through effort and perseverance.

Tailoring instruction to individual learning styles

Recognize that students have different learning styles and adapt your teaching strategies accordingly. Provide a variety of activities and resources that cater to visual, auditory, and kinesthetic learners.

Incorporating critical thinking across different subject areas

Integrate critical thinking skills into all subject areas to reinforce their importance and provide students with consistent opportunities to practice and apply them.

Assessing and Evaluating Critical Thinking Skills

Assessing critical thinking skills is essential to monitor student progress and provide targeted feedback. Here are some strategies for assessing critical thinking skills:

Importance of ongoing assessment

Regularly assess students’ critical thinking skills throughout the school year rather than relying solely on end-of-year exams. This allows for timely intervention and targeted instruction.

Strategies for assessing critical thinking skills

Use a variety of assessment methods such as performance tasks, projects, and portfolios to evaluate students’ critical thinking abilities. Provide clear criteria and rubrics to guide the assessment process.

Providing constructive feedback to students

When providing feedback, focus on specific areas for improvement and offer suggestions for further development. Encourage students to reflect on their thinking processes and set goals for growth.

Teaching critical thinking in middle school is crucial for preparing students to thrive in an ever-changing world. By developing their critical thinking skills, students become better problem solvers, creative thinkers, and effective communicators. As educators, it is our responsibility to prioritize critical thinking in our classrooms and provide students with the tools they need to succeed. Start your EverydaySpeech Free trial today and unlock a world of resources to support your students’ critical thinking journey.

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Career Readiness | Middle School | 21st Century Skills

How to Teach 21st Century Skills in Middle School

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June 16th, 2022 | 10 min. read

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It’s an unfortunate reality that thousands of middle schoolers across the country aren’t being taught the skills they need to flourish in the modern workspace.

21st Century skills are essential to cultivate in your students if you want them to lead successful professional lives. But too often teachers send their students on to high school without even being aware of these skills, let alone how to teach them.

As a career readiness curriculum developer , teachers who’ve heard of these skills often come to us asking for more information about them and the best ways to teach them. You want to plant the seeds of success in your students’ minds as early as possible, so that when they finally enter adulthood, they’re ready. 

In this post, you’ll find tips and resources to help you teach 21st Century skills in your middle school courses. 

By the end of this article, you’ll have a better understanding of each skill and will know where to find 21st Century skills lesson plans for your classes. 

But before we get into the details, what does the phrase “21st Century skills” actually mean?

What Are 21st Century Skills?

21st Century skills are 12 abilities that today’s students need to succeed in their future careers:

• Critical thinking
• Collaboration
• Communication
• Information literacy
• Media literacy
• Technology literacy
• Flexibility
• Productivity
• Social skills

By mastering these skills, your students will be better equipped to start and grow in whatever career path they choose.

Now that you know what skills we’ll be discussing, let’s dive into how you can teach them!

1. Critical Thinking

Critical thinking involves logically assessing information to make informed decisions.

It’s an important skill many employers expect from new employees, which means there are a ton of articles on how to improve critical thinking skills .

However, these resources often focus on professionals, not middle school students.

To help you effectively teach this skill in your classes, we’ve researched some of the best places to find critical thinking lessons and activities:

• Leonore Annenberg Institute for Civics
• Room 241 from Concordia University
• Global Digital Citizen Foundation
• Teachers Pay Teachers
• Morningside Center
• We Are Teachers

These websites each have great resources to teach critical thinking and other related skills.

Once you’ve tackled critical thinking, add some decision making activities to reinforce the concepts even more.

Related Resource: Free Critical Thinking Lesson Download  

2. Creativity

Creativity empowers people to see concepts in a different light, leading to innovative thinking and problem solving.

In many cases, it’s tough to directly teach students how to be creative thinkers. That’s why we recommend using problem solving lessons to get your students thinking creatively.

Some of the best places you can find lessons that focus on problem solving and creativity are:

• TeacherVision
• Ed Creative
• Discovery Education

After you’ve introduced creativity and problem solving, you and your students will find that many of the other 21st Century skills can help reinforce them!

3. Collaboration

Collaboration involves multiple people working together to achieve a common goal.

When teaching collaboration skills in your classroom, it’s common to assign group projects and call it a day. After all, if students are working together, they are learning collaboration skills, right?

While group work can help reinforce collaboration and teamwork, it’s important to address these skills in your daily lessons to make them stick.

To teach collaboration skills that your students will remember you should start by incorporating teamwork lessons and activities.

Once your students understand the importance of good collaboration skills, assigning group work will help to reinforce the concepts and skills you’ve discussed.

4. Communication

Communication is the practice of conveying ideas by using a variety of methods.

With texting and messaging apps, today’s middle school students can communicate quicker than ever before.

But just because it’s easier to connect with others doesn’t mean your students have good communication skills -- especially ones that will translate to the workforce.

When teaching these skills, it’s important to cover multiple facets of communication, including:

• Listening skills
• Verbal communication
• Written communication
• Collaborative communication
• Social media

If you’re wondering how to incorporate all of these pieces in your lessons, here’s a great place to get started: Best Places to Find Communication Lesson Plans for Middle School.

5. Information Literacy

Information literacy gives your students the tools needed to distinguish fact from fiction.

When teaching information literacy , we recommend a five-step approach:

• Define information literacy
• Show examples of trustworthy and untrustworthy information
• Define what makes a source trustworthy
• Encourage critical thinking
• Introduce other 21st Century skills

Following these steps will help your students hone their information literacy skills while reinforcing other skills you’re teaching.

If you need resources to support your information literacy lessons, consider checking out Common Sense Education or the News Literacy Project.

6. Media Literacy

Media literacy helps students analyze media and understand potential issues that can arise when using digital tools.

Often times, media literacy is incorporated as a small piece in some teachers’ digital citizenship lessons .

Some teachers also include social media and cyberbullying as topics within their media literacy lessons, since they are so closely intertwined.

But where exactly can you find resources to help teach such a complex topic?

For media literacy lessons, you can start by looking into:

• Common Sense Education
• NewseumEd’s Fact Finder
• Media Smarts
• The International Literacy Association

These resources can help you dive into how media can influence beliefs and behaviors of people.

7. Technology Literacy

Technology literacy involves students understanding different applications and the best ways to use them.

Very often, technology literacy is taught in a computer applications course focused on Microsoft Office or Google Applications .

If that’s the case in your school, you won’t need to spend much time discussing technology literacy as part of your classes.

However, if you’re required to include lessons on technology literacy, you could connect with the computer teacher to tie in with the skills they are teaching.

Here are a few ideas you could start with:

• Have students create a presentation in the computer class and present it in your class.
• Ask students to write an email in the computer class to practice good communication skills.
• Use a word processing application to create a flyer about a 21st Century skill you’re teaching.

8. Flexibility

Flexibility is someone’s ability to adapt to change and understand differences in views that can impact decisions.

It involves letting go of control and adapting to decisions you may not always agree with. That makes it one of the most difficult 21st Century skills to teach to middle schoolers.

However, if you approach flexibility in relation to other skills such as collaboration, creativity, and critical thinking you may find it’s easier to teach than you first thought.

To get started, look into some of the popular flexible thinking lessons and activities on Teachers Pay Teachers.

9. Leadership

Leadership involves someone’s ability to influence and guide others towards a common goal.

There are hundreds of articles dedicated to helping employers and professionals grow their leadership skills. But finding leadership resources that are relevant to middle school isn’t easy.

When teaching leadership, it’s important to dive into the qualities that make a good leader, including problem solving, teamwork, goal setting, and responsibility .

Some of the best places to find resources that teach leadership qualities include:

• The Student Leadership Challenge
• Learning to Give

Once you find lessons that break leadership down into more concrete qualities, you’ll find it’s easier to teach than leadership as one topic!

10. Initiative

Initiative, sometimes called intrinsic motivation, relates to employees starting projects, creating plans, and executing strategies on their own.

Many websites include tips and tricks for keeping employees motivated, but how can you teach these skills before your students even head for their first interview?

Some of our best tips for teaching initiative include:

• Tie your lessons to the end goal
• Incorporate group work
• Let students work independently
• Find ways to help students stay productive
• Encourage students to discover connections

When teaching your students about initiative it may also be a great time to discuss the six pillars of character and how they can influence someone’s initiative.

11. Productivity

Productivity measures how well someone is able to prioritize, plan, and manage their work.

In order to be productive, a person needs to be able to hold themselves accountable for meeting goals and identify when an obstacle may prevent them from meeting that goal.

One of the most important topics to discuss as part of productivity is time management.

When teaching time management skills in middle school, it’s best to tie it back to their current lives rather than looking ahead at the future. After all, it’s likely your students would benefit from improving their productivity skills right now!

Start by discussing productivity in your classes and get students thinking about good time management. Once you’ve covered the basics, you can tie in with other skills by explaining how problem solving and critical thinking also help people work productively!

12. Social Skills

Social skills are one of the most ambiguous pieces of teaching 21st Century skills in middle school.

Before you can teach social skills, you need to know what that phrase actually means!

As a 21st Century skill, social skills refer to the skills needed to interact effectively with others, especially when working with a diverse group of people.

While this includes having good communication, it’s important to focus on the use of empathy and understanding others who may have different social or cultural backgrounds.

Teaching empathy to middle schoolers may seem nearly impossible.

Luckily we’ve found some stellar resources to help you teach empathy:

• The Teachers Guild
• Hasbro & Ashoka
• Preventing Bullying
• Brookes Publishing Co.
• Minneapolis Public Schools

You can also reinforce the importance of empathy and social skills by relating it back to communication and collaboration with others.

Discover the Ultimate Guide to 21st Century Skills

Effectively leveraging 21st Century skills will set up your students to become successful professionals. But if they don't learn these skills, they'll risk falling behind in today’s workspace. 

When you use strategies and resources from this article, your students will be on the way to developing good behaviors that will benefit them throughout their lives.

But this article only touched on the basics of implementing 21st Century skills in your middle school courses. 

For a more structured guide that will teach you all you need to know about how to teach these valuable skills, download the  Ultimate Guide to Teaching 21st Century Skills .

You'll discover answers to the most common questions teachers ask about 21st Century skills so you're more prepared to teach your middle school students.

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Open Access

Peer-reviewed

Research Article

The “thinking system” in a new school concept: A rhythmic teaching approach in physical education to develop creativity

Roles Conceptualization, Investigation, Resources, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

Affiliations Department of Biomedical Sciences for Health, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milano, Italy, UCAM Catholic University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain

Roles Conceptualization, Investigation, Methodology, Resources, Supervision, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

Affiliation Department of Biomedical Sciences for Health, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milano, Italy

Roles Data curation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

Roles Data curation, Formal analysis, Methodology, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

Roles Methodology, Supervision, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

Roles Data curation, Formal analysis, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

* E-mail: [email protected]

Affiliation Department of Biotechnology and Life Sciences (DBSV), University of Insubria, Varese, Italy

Roles Resources, Supervision, Visualization

Affiliation Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences and Technologies, University of Salento, Lecce, Italy

Roles Data curation, Formal analysis

Affiliation Human Performance Laboratory, Mapei Sport, Olgiate Olona, Italy

Roles Supervision, Visualization, Writing – review & editing

Affiliation UCAM Catholic University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain

• Marta Rigon, 
• Pietro Luigi Invernizzi, 
• Gabriele Signorini, 
• Athos Trecroci, 
• Raffaele Scurati, 
• Damiano Formenti, 
• Dario Colella, 
• Andrea Bosio, 
• Domenico Cherubini

• Published: April 16, 2024
• https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0301858
• Reader Comments

System Thinking is an actual construct supported by several scientific evidence that offer a perspective on how phenomena relate. Rhythm methodology, teaching-learning, and enjoyment in physical education are the main system elements we hypothesize interacting closely to determine direct or mediated effects on motor creativity and rhythmic perceptive capacity. Seventy-six elementary and middle school students (8.9 ± 2.1 years) were randomly assigned to two groups: a) an intervention group that received a physical education lesson based on rhythmic methodology and b) a control group that received conventional lessons without specific rhythmic interventions. Participants were engaged in eight physical education lessons lasting one hour each for eight weeks. Tests and questionnaires were administered before and after the intervention to evaluate motor creativity, rhythmic perception capacity, self-perception and enjoyment. Two lessons were randomly analyzed to identify the teaching style and motor content (moderate and vigorous activity). The main results revealed direct effects on the intervention group’s motor creativity (p = 0.001) and its rhythmic perception capacity (p = 0.02). Furthermore, enjoyment mediated the effects of the intervention on motor creativity (p = 0.01). Finally, the results have shown that self-perception does not mediate the effect of rhythmic intervention group on motor creativity and rhythmic perceptive capacity (p > 0.05). A rhythmic methodology proposed by specific multi-teaching styles can involve children and young people in an enjoyable activity with more moderate to vigorous physical activity.

Citation: Rigon M, Invernizzi PL, Signorini G, Trecroci A, Scurati R, Formenti D, et al. (2024) The “thinking system” in a new school concept: A rhythmic teaching approach in physical education to develop creativity. PLoS ONE 19(4): e0301858. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0301858

Editor: Hesam Ramezanzade, Damghan University, ISLAMIC REPUBLIC OF IRAN

Received: December 14, 2023; Accepted: March 22, 2024; Published: April 16, 2024

Copyright: © 2024 Rigon et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Data Availability: All relevant data are within the manuscript and its Supporting Information files.

Funding: The author(s) received no specific funding for this work.

Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Introduction

Thinking system and scholastic vision.

A thinking system approach considers complexity as an intrinsic element of every change process, and this can be extended even to a formative path. This topic addresses a growing interest related to the community of practice and the connection with other elements that can be functional in managing educational policy in real contexts. The thinking system approach encompasses emerging ideas and methods that promote the exploration of the most comprehensive framework, encouraging one to look at the bigger picture [ 1 – 3 ]. Thinking system can be traced back to three keywords: interrelation, as the connection between the elements of the system; multiple vision, as an approach to the issue that considers different viewpoints and perspectives (as qualitative and quantitative research with the use of mediators and moderators); boundaries, which delimited the interconnected elements and what is external to this system of interests. Literature has already shown a multi-faceted integrated system approach [ 4 – 6 ].

The framework proposed in a previous study is an example of how the formative system results from a complex relationship of many integrated domains, with different points of view and some elements found inside and outside the system of interest [ 6 ].

This way, to embrace an integrated and complex vision, the school is increasingly oriented towards a transdisciplinary approach that reflects the thinking system. The interrelation of several disciplines promotes a learning system based on a multiple vision, in which each discipline while maintaining its identity and characterizing elements, i.e., its boundaries, can also lead to other subjects enriching the learning process (i.e., music and physical education to improve on rhythm and motor creativity). Disciplines should not be presented as territories to be protected by defining rigid boundaries but as interpretive keys available for every possible use. Complex problems require different disciplinary viewpoints to dialogue with each other and to pay attention to the border and hinge zones between disciplines [ 7 ].

Rhythmic training and systemic view in scholastic context

The ability to sequence is very important in children’s learning process. Rhythm-based practice in school settings enables children to acquire good temporal and rhythmic perception, which are essential for learning reading, writing, and language skills [ 8 ]. In a systemic view, the interrelation of music and physical education, through rhythmic perception and motor creativity improvement, can enforce the learning of reading, writing, and language skills in a multiple-vision concept [ 9 – 12 ]. In music, rhythm is the most important structural element. The music domain is organized into temporally structured sequences. It is composed of rhythmic structures that underlie an important organization of temporal successions [ 13 ]. Its metric organization is similar to linguistic syntax. Sensory-motor integration, motor control, and action planning can be analyzed through rhythmic syntax [ 14 ]. It is common to see how movement can be easily integrated within a musical environment through dancing, tapping, or nodding one’s head to follow the rhythm. In more complex situations, two or more people interact during musical activity, playing and dancing together [ 15 ], and in social contexts, individuals act concurrently. Rhythm denotes a quality aspect of movement. More specifically, rhythmic movement in physical education considers a structured sequential form to utilize for favoring the acquisition of motor skills or expressions movements as manifestations of mental, social, and emotional responses [ 16 ].

Creativity in scholastic thinking system

Creativity must be considered a process incorporated in the cultural sphere of reference [ 17 ].

Creativity represents an act, an idea, that is produced in a particular field or that, starting from an existing field, generates a new one. Symbolic elements and specific notation systems mediate the knowledge expressed in the creative act. Each domain follows specific and rigid rules that limit its nature, modes of expression, and accessibility [ 18 ]. Creativity understood as a system must consider three components [ 18 ]:

• The domain, made up of the specific symbolic rules and procedures that make up its structure. The domain referred to in this study consists of scholastic physical education and, with a finer concept analysis, in motor creativity.
• The field, which refers to "the custodians" of the domain through which the possibility of including a new idea and didactic path is considered. The field in the school environment directly involves the teachers of the disciplines
• People directly involved in the didactic-creative action (schoolchildren), and who, using the symbols of a domain, learn to express and identify a new pattern

Creativity in a specific domain has boundaries that determine what content can be included and what should be excluded. This way, transversality is a modality that can be used to grant new skills through the opening to accessible and related domains.

The efficacy of the choice of a related domain must be based on the criteria of clarity and simplicity of the new structure, its accessibility, and its possible recognizable presence in the main domain.

Transversal and transferable skills through the operational dimension of doing (as in the context of connection between rhythm and movement) can include new processes of critical thinking forming the basis of the creative domain of PE. These processes involved motricity and stimulated a new type of reflective and internalized learning that plays an essential role in self-construction, in which the student is an actor in his or her skills and knowledge acquisition [ 19 ].

Developing creativity in children is important to let them express themselves through the art of music and body expression. The student’s proficiency in these multi-perspective skills can significantly impact their attitude, strategies’ effectiveness, interpersonal interactions, and ability to gather and utilize feedback for adapting and improving actions across the considered domains [ 19 ]. In this regard, it becomes important that the context provides many possibilities for acquiring, memorizing, internalizing, and reproducing the stimuli of the different integrated domains. The school must develop integrated educational action to foster connections between relational domains and domains involving teachers who, in a transversal approach, follow a common path of intervention [ 19 ].

In this process, physical education and rhythm are the elements of the system that are considered within and beyond the interest in developing critical thinking processes. In particular, rhythm is conceived as a point in a system that can produce broad changes in motor creativity (leverage point) [ 20 ].

Added value by considering a comprehensive set of factors influencing motor creativity (understanding the complex drivers that can foster learning)

Factor 1: teacher and motor creativity..

Although the students occupy a central position in their learning process, the teacher also plays a crucial role in success. The teacher acts as an artist who has to shape his opera, referring to the context. He or she must create proper transdisciplinary pathways to achieve the transversal competencies. The teacher plays a key role in this complex system: through proper teaching practice, he/she can influence the students to learn and improve in a specific field. School autonomy [ 21 ] lets the teacher find strategies peculiar to the context to ensure their attainment of competencies at the end of the education cycle. The teacher is responsible for employing an integration teaching style related to the context [ 7 ]. Several studies highlight a relationship between the teacher’s ability to vary the use of different teaching styles and the involvement of cognitive, motivational, motor, and emotional aspects essential for maintaining an interest in developing creative-motor skills [ 22 , 23 ].

Not surprisingly, an integration of several teaching styles allows for better creative thinking outcomes than a classical linear approach. Such an approach stimulates the student to find more personal solutions through continuous exploration of different and creative motor behaviors and flexible use of attention to solve environmental problems. Furthermore, through teaching styles that stimulate a maieutic and collaborative process, he or she can help the student develop his or her soft skills, which are indispensable for building the relationship with the teacher himself or herself and on which the outcome of the learning process depends [ 24 , 25 ]. The teacher’s task is to encourage motor activity within the educational process.

He or she can successfully achieve this goal through rhythm-based practice, offering age-appropriate qualitative and quantitative stimuli. Music, by its nature (temporal scansion and succession, structure, rhythm, sequencing), facilitates and makes the approach to motor practice almost spontaneous. A multi-teaching approach involving music, physical education, and creativity could enhance the learning process [ 26 ].

The relationship between music, movement, and creativity can be explained by the intervention of the primary motor cortex M1, which appears to mediate the potential for creative motor action associated with a pre-planned creative idea. The basis for a creative idea may form in brain areas associated with higher-order creative processes and then flow in part through M1 and be realized as a creative motor action [ 12 ].

In addition to the teacher’s ability to establish relationships with his or her students, the ability to elicit enjoyment also plays a crucial role in the learning process [ 27 ].

Factor 2: Enjoyment and motor creativity.

Enjoyment is a positive psychological effect that reflects happiness, pleasure, enthusiasm, liking, excitement, and fun [ 28 ]. In physical activity, enjoyment represents a positive attitude toward practice and is one of the most important aspects of motor development and sports participation [ 29 ].

Adequate levels of enjoyment and self-perception of physical fitness increase motivation, engagement, and participation in physical activity [ 30 ]. Pleasant and fun motor experiences in varied contexts are crucial for acquiring adequate bodily self-awareness in children and young people [ 31 ].

Factor 3: Motor creativity and self-perception.

Assiduous participation in physical practice makes it possible to acquire and consolidate new motor patterns and increase motor competence in the long run. Children with a high level of motor competence are more likely to have an active lifestyle that positively influences physical and mental well-being [ 32 ]. Motor competence relies on its specific and highest manifestation in motor creativity, a perceptual ability that favors the development of new motor patterns aimed at solving problems or as body expression of ideas and emotions [ 33 ]. Motor creativity enables the production of motor movements and gestures to solve specific motor tasks or express emotion physically [ 33 , 34 ].

Compared to motor competence, motor creativity develops more through exploratory teaching in an environment with well-adapted constraints, where kinesthetic variety is supported and where everyone is free to experiment through movement [ 34 , 35 ]. Varied and positive kinesthetics and motor experiences improve the self-perception of children and young people by promoting the awareness of successfully acquiring different motor skills [ 36 ]. This capacity for self-perception is linked to the cognitive, motor, and social resources that the subject can mobilize in the different contexts in which he/she must produce motor skills [ 32 ]. The quality of experience provided by the teacher through effective teaching processes increases the positive self-perception capacity of young people [ 37 , 38 ].

Research questions

Two research questions can be posed considering the following premises and the complexity of the thinking system approach in the school system. Does a skilled teacher using rhythm-based activities and appropriate challenges help students become more creative in their movements and better at recognizing rhythms? Also, how does the enjoyment of the activities, feeling competent, and age influence this learning process?

Materials and methods

Participants.

Seventy-six elementary and middle school students were voluntarily recruited (from the 12th to the 19th of September 2022) for our study. Thirty-two students were in the second year of elementary school (2 nd elementary school), twenty were in the fourth year of elementary school (4 th elementary school), and twenty-two were in the third year of middle school (3 rd middle school). Thirty-six participants were males, and forty participants were females. The students were divided into an experimental (section A) and a control group (section B), utilizing a class-randomized procedure. In this study, the experimental group underwent a rhythm-based intervention (RI), while the control group did not receive any rhythm-based intervention (NI). Participants’ demographics are shown in Table 1 . All participants and their parents were informed about the purpose and experimental protocol of the study. Parents or legal guardians provided written informed consent before the investigation. Following the Declaration of Helsinki, the study was approved by the Ethics Committee of the local University (approval number 18/22).

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https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0301858.t001

Rhytmic perceptive capacity.

Mira Stambak test was employed to assess the rhythmic perceptive capacity. Stambak’s test evaluates spatiotemporal structure by testing the rhythmic ability on multiple levels as a replication of temporal structures: the evaluator plays twenty rhythmic sequences in which each circle corresponds to a beat, and each space corresponds to silence. The child had to reproduce it respecting the beating and resting time; symbolization of spatial: the evaluator shows ten rhythmic structures one by one. After showing a structure for a few seconds, the examiner hid it from the participant. The participant had to memorize the structure and reproduce graphically each sequence; symbolization of temporal structures: the examiner reproduces the rhythmic structures by tapping. After listening, the participant had to write the sequence respecting circles and spaces. In each task, after two consecutive incorrect sequences, the test ends. A point is obtained when each successful structure is performed, and, in the end, the points obtained for each level are added [ 39 ]. Since 1951, Stambak’s test has been used in different fields and research demonstrating its validity and reliability [ 6 , 39 , 40 ].

Motor creativity.

Divergent Movement Ability (DMA) test was performed to investigate motor creativity in school-aged children. The DMA’s validity and reliability were previously established [ 41 ]. No warm-up was done before performing the test. DMA measures the fluency and flexibility dimensions of creativity of three dimensions of movement skills: locomotor, for which an individual is asked to use the tools provided (e.g., two mattresses of different sizes, four cones arranged diagonally, a suspended rope, and a hoop supported by three cones) stimulating them to create as many movements as possible; stability, for which an individual is free to take on different figures (with their body parts) within an area with a 45.5 cm high bench placed in the middle; manipulation, for which an individual handles a ball (23 cm diameter) within an area (3 m × 4.5 m) delimitated by cones (on three sides) and a wall (on the last side). Participants were tested on their ability to manipulate the ball. They were constantly motivated to provide as many solutions as possible. The examiner provided no feedback about their performance. Two-time trials were given for each skill with the following arrangements: 90 s for each trial with a 60-s resting period in between. Then, 120 s of rest were given between each dimension of fundamental movement skills. Each student was video recorded, and results were evaluated using video analysis. The score is composed of the number of solutions the student performs for each dimension of movement skills. A total score was assessed, summing score obtained in locomotor, stability, and manipulative areas [ 41 ].

Enjoyment was recorded using the Italian version of the Physical Activity Enjoyment Scale (PACES) [ 42 ]. PACES questionnaire included 16 items classified into a 5-point bipolar Likert Scale (1 = totally disagree; 2 = disagree; 3 = not sure; 4 = agree; 5 = totally agree). A high score of positive items and a low score of negative items is related to high enjoyment. A total score can be calculated by reversing and adding the negative item score to the positive item score. The validity and reliability of the Italian version was investigated by Carraro and colleagues [ 42 ].

Self-perception.

Self-efficacy . The Italian version of the Physical Self-Efficacy Scale (PSES) [ 43 ] was employed to evaluate Self-efficacy in year four elementary school students and in year three middle school students. PSES is structured into six items having a 1- to 4-point format scale. Students had to think about themselves when performing physical activity, and for each item, they had to choose the sentence that closely represents their performance. The total test is 1–24 scored. The higher the score, the higher the self-efficacy. The validity of the Italian version was investigated by Colella and colleagues [ 43 ].

Perceived motor competence . To measure the self-efficacy in the second-year elementary school students, the Pictorial Scale of Perceived Movement Skill Competence for Young Children (PMSC-2) [ 44 ] was used, instead of PSES. Indeed, according to previous studies [ 45 , 46 ], self-efficacy, self-perception, perceived motor competence are related. PMSC-2 is structured with four graphical representations of the process of the movement. For each skill, students must think about how to perform the movement and choose images that best fit their thinking. The validity and reliability were established by Barnett and colleagues [ 44 ].

Video analysis.

The video analysis was conducted through the System for Observing Fitness Instruction Time (SOFIT) [ 47 ] and through the Identifying the Teaching Styles (IFITS) [ 48 ]. Two out of eight lessons were randomly selected and recorded in both groups. The analysis was evaluated by some Physical Education (PE) experts using SOFIT to calculate the quantity of physical activity during each lesson and IFITS to evaluate the quality of physical activity in terms of the teaching style used. The data resulting from IFITS and SOFIT analysis were resumed and compared in the two groups as percentages. For both IFIT and SOFIT procedures, lessons were coded simultaneously by two independent observers using the same sampling pace. One of the two observers was considered the lead observer, and his data were considered for the analysis, while the second represented the reliability observer. Moreover, both observers performed the evaluation twice, distanced by a week.

Intra- and inter-rater reliability of SOFIT and IFITS was assessed using the following formula:

R% = (n° of agreement/ (n° agreement + n° disagreement)) * 100.

The intra and inter-rater reliability was considered valid if the percent of agreement (R%) overpassed the 80% [ 41 ]. The same procedure of reliability was performed for the DMA valuation.

The experimentation was led during PE classes, using the gym to perform the tests and the rhythmic and standard lessons, and the classrooms to complete the questionnaires. Anthropometric measures of height and weight were recorded to the nearest 0.1 cm with a standing stadiometer (Seca 217, Basel, Switzerland), and weight was measured to the nearest 0.1 Kg with a high-precision mechanical scale (Seca 877, Basel, Switzerland). Body mass index (BMI) was calculated as the ratio of body mass to height squared. Before testing the participants, a familiarization period was led. The two-week familiarization period included testing sessions for motor creativity and rhythmic perception. Both DMA and Mira Stambak’s tests were repeated twice for reliability. The experimental tests and the questionnaires related to enjoyment and self-perception were performed after the familiarization period. The experimental session was carried out after the tests’ performance and the completion of questionnaires. Eight rhythmic lessons, lasting one hour each, were conducted for the RI group, and eight no-rhythmic lessons were conducted for the NI group. The same PE teacher led the lessons. Two of eight lessons were recorded randomized, with a camera, and the videos were analyzed successively by a PE expert. At the end of the experimental period, tests and questionnaires were repeated. The experimental timeline is shown in Fig 1 .

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0301858.g001

Content of the lessons

The lessons were led by an expert PE teacher who worked in elementary and middle school for four years and cooperated with the University of Milan in both groups, interacting with the school’s music teacher. The 2 nd elementary school RI group students attended lessons focused on rhythm perception using music, listening, discovering, and inventing rhythmic sequences with gym equipment. They worked individually, in pairs, and small groups. On the other hand, the 2 nd elementary school NI group students attended lessons focused on topological and Euclidean space perception. They worked individually, in pairs, and in small groups as well. The 4 th elementary and 3 rd middle school RI group students attended lessons focused on rhythm in team sports such as basketball and handball, playing with music, following the rhythm of the music, or discovering rhythmic sequences in the technical skills. The 4 th elementary and 3 rd middle school NI groups attended lessons focused on team sports without taking care of rhythm perception but focusing on technical aspects, tactical strategies, and rules. Both groups worked individually, in pairs, and small groups. In the 2 nd elementary school classes, we used most rhythmic cadence in 4/4 and few kid’s songs as “Super simple songs for kids”. In the 4 th elementary and 3 rd middle school classes we used rhythmic cadence in 4/4 as well and we choose songs from 100 (for technical aspects as bouncing, passing the ball, basketball and handball running shots) to a maximum of 140 bpm (for the musical fitness lessons only in the 3 rd middle school). In 140 bpm songs we used a halved rhythm for marching or running on the spot, high knees, and toe touch, one movement every 2 quarters for squats and lunges.

Statistical analysis

The Shapiro-Wilk normality test and kurtosis/skewness analysis [ 49 ] were performed to assess the normal distribution of the data. Data are shown as mean ± standard deviation (SD). The reliability of DMA and Mira Stambak’s tests was performed using the Intraclass Correlation Coefficient (ICC). The two-way Anova Time × Intervention (with repeated measures on time) was performed to investigate the intervention’s effects on creativity and rhythmic perceptive capacity. The significance level was set at α = 0.05 while the effect sizes were calculated as eta squared (ɳ2), using the small = 0.01, medium = 0.06, and large = 0.14 interpretation [ 50 ]. In addition, a multiple regression analysis was performed to obtain information about mediators and moderators. The mediation analysis was performed by Baron & Kenny’s method following criteria for establishing mediation in which the independent variable (IV) is the intervention, the dependent variable (DV) is the main outcome, and the mediator is the variable controlling the IV-DV relationship. The mediation models were structured by placing intervention as IV, rhythmic perceptive capacity and creativity as DV, and enjoyment as a mediator variable (MedV) together with self-perception to provide a comprehensive measure of the effect of IV on DV, Pre-Post changes for each intervention group (RI and NI) was used as DV. A dummy variable was computed to distinguish RI and NI intervention. Specifically, the dummy variable took the value 1 for data corresponding to RI and 0 for data corresponding to NI.

Additionally, a moderator analysis was employed to investigate the role of BMI and age (as ModV) in influencing the effect of IV on DV. The total, direct, and indirect effects estimate was reported using β together with 95% Confidence Intervals (CI, lower: upper limits), while the significance level was set at α = 0.05. The statistical analysis was performed using Jamovi (V. 1.6, R 4.0).

All data met the normal distribution. All tests were found reliable (DMA Locomotor: ICC = 0.945; DMA Stability: ICC = 0.936; DMA Manipulative: ICC = 0.966; DMA total score: ICC = 0.974; Mira Stambak’s test: ICC = 0.923). Table 2 shows descriptive statistics of each variable for RI And NI.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0301858.t002

For rhythmic perceptive capacity, a significant Time × Intervention interaction was found (p < 0.001; ɳ2 = 0.080, medium). From Pre to Post, the RI group improved better than the NI group ( Fig 2 ).

Data are mean ± SD. ***p < 0.001 for time × intervention interaction. RI = Rhythmic Intervention. NI = No-Rhythmic Intervention.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0301858.g002

For creativity, a significant Time × Intervention interaction was found (p = 0.001; ɳ2 = 0.041, small). From Pre to Post, the RI group improved better than the NI group ( Fig 3 ).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0301858.g003

The first mediation analysis revealed that the intervention had a significant direct effect on rhythmic perceptive capacity (β = 4.89, CI = 1.83:7.96; p = 0.002). Conversely, no significant mediation by enjoyment was found (i.e., indirect effect; β = 1.02, CI = -0.92:2.96; p = 0.30).

Moreover, the second mediation analysis revealed that the intervention had no significant direct effect on creativity (β = 4.09, CI = -4.83:13.0; p = 0.36). However, enjoyment significantly mediated the effect of the intervention on creativity (β = 7.63, CI = 1.76:13.5; p = 0.011).

The third mediation analysis with self-perception variables showed that no significant mediation by PSES and PMC-2 was found (i.e., indirect effect; β = -0.63, CI = -1.67:0.39; p = 0.22; β = -0.99, CI = -4.18:2.20; p = 0.54) on the effect of the intervention on rhythmic perceptive capacity. Similarly, the fourth mediation analysis with self-perception variables showed that no significant mediation by PSES and PMC-2 was found (i.e., indirect effect; β = 2.12, CI = -1.48:5.73; p = 0.24; β = 4.42, CI = -2.80:11.16; p = 0.23) on the effect of the intervention on creativity. The moderation analysis revealed a significant moderating impact of age on the relationship between intervention and rhythmic perceptive capacity (β = -1.13, CI = -2.16:-0.09; p = 0.032), but not of BMI (β = -0.62, CI = -1.54:0.30; p = 0.18). Regarding creativity, the moderation analysis revealed a non-significant moderating impact neither of age (β = -2.60, CI = -5.44:0.24; p = 0.07) nor of BMI (β = -1.41, CI = -4.13:1.30; p = 0.30) on intervention–creativity relationship. Fig 4 shows the structural model with the outcome of mediation and moderation analysis.

Panel A: Mediation model explaining the effect of intervention on creativity mediated by enjoyment. Panel B: Moderator model demonstrating age’s impact on the effect of the intervention on rhythmic perceptive capacity. IV: independent variable; MedV: mediation variable; ModV: moderator variable; DV: dependent variable; a: effect of IV on MedV; b: effect of MedV on DV; c’: direct effect of IV on DV controlling for MedV. **p < 0.01; ***p < 0.001; ns: non-significant.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0301858.g004

Both SOFIT and IFITS evaluations resulted reliable (SOFIT–Intra-rater reliability: R% = 84%, Inter-rater reliability: R% = 82%; IFITS—Intra-rater reliability: R% = 80%, Inter-rater reliability: R% = 81%). The qualitative and quantitative analysis of teaching styles are shown in Table 3 .

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0301858.t003

IFITS’s results per group and grade are shown in Table 4 .

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0301858.t004

This study in teaching physical education investigated the effect of a rhythmic approach on motor creativity and rhythmic perceptive capacity. The protocol of this research was based on system thinking and rhythms methodology. Teaching-learning and enjoyment in physical education are the main system elements that have been hypothesized to interact closely to determine direct or mediated effects on motor creativity and rhythmic perceptive capacity.

The main findings of the present study were that rhythmic teaching in physical education improved the rhythmic perceptive capacity and motor creativity in young students, which could be beneficial for other school subjects (i.e., music) [ 6 ]. Furthermore, such a teaching approach would increase the amount of moderate and vigorous physical activity during PE lessons in line with the recommendations and strategies for promoting motor practice established by the World Health Organization and other policy statements [ 16 , 51 ].

The rhythmic approach let the RI group achieve more significant improvements in rhythmic perception than the NI group, which did not focus on this ability, as Mira Stambak’s test results showed. The significant improvements in the RI group’s rhythmic perception compared to the NI group may be attributed to the specific nature of the intervention [ 52 ].

Analyzing the results of the DMA, the RI group showed greater motor creativity than the NI group after the eight-week intervention, although the guided and divergent discovery styles were used more in the NI group. Our data appears to contradict existing literature [ 33 ], suggesting that a nonlinear approach is primarily conducive to developing motor creativity and creative thinking [ 22 , 25 ]. Despite greater use of reproductive and linear styles, the rhythmic intervention has represented the leverage point in the context of system thinking through which it was possible to obtain substantial changes in motor creativity [ 6 , 20 ].

Specific studies show how rhythm plays an important role in vital functions such as breathing and circulation and to guarantee coordinated actions in any movement [ 53 ].

Rhythm is the basis of all coordinated movement, and consequently, rhythm and movement can be efficiently combined to increase effectiveness in these interdependent domains [ 54 ].

The rhythmic abilities of children and young people encompass creative experiences, including imitation and interpretation, such as folk and social dances, singing rhythms, auditory rhythmic mental representations, and motor skill guidance [ 15 ].

By considering the relative importance of various factors in the context of system thinking, we hypothesized that utilizing an integrated multiple teaching style, which was indeed achieved in rhythmic physical education, could have led to a non-linear causal relationship with a more substantial outcome effect [ 22 , 55 ].

Furthermore, greater use of practice and command styles in the RI group could allow learning better and consolidating rhythm and motor creativity skills. These observations are confirmed by the specific literature pointing out that internalization of a domain requires learning its rules and content through a large amount of information and frequency of stimuli obtainable through repeated exercises such as those guaranteed by practice and command styles [ 56 ] ( Table 4 ). Conversely, management was less employed in the RI group compared with the NI group in every grade. This may be due to the rhythmic approach and styles that require less organizational management than a productive approach [ 57 ]. Analysis of the quantitative aspects ( Table 3 ) of the SOFIT data showed that although the duration and motor content were similar in both groups, the RI group performed more MVPA% (Moderate to Vigorous Physical Activity%). This confirms how even this quantitative factor stimulated by the rhythmic proposition, probably due to the fast-paced nature that a rhythmic approach may require, may have contributed to a higher chance of exercising and assimilating the domain [ 16 ].

Furthermore, this data is not of secondary importance when also considering the effect of rhythmic teaching in increasing active practice (moderate and intense) during lessons with the consequent health benefits reported in the literature [ 16 , 51 , 58 ].

The reciprocal style primarily used in the RI group allows a continuous relationship and feedback between students. Furthermore, the student acting as an observer learns to analyze and correct his partner’s mistakes and stimulates critical thinking, which is essential in developing motor creativity. The interaction between the students determines the solicitation of social skills, making the proposals more exciting and pleasant [ 7 , 57 ].

The mediation analysis revealed that enjoyment was the only mediator that had a significant impact on the relationship between motor creativity and intervention. None of the other mediators under consideration had any impact on either the relationship between intervention and motor creativity or the relationship between intervention and rhythmic perception. The observed results can be primarily attributed to the direct impact of the rhythmic intervention, particularly when combined with a specific multi-teaching styles methodology [ 7 , 15 , 22 ].

Durable sounds and sensations, such as those of the lullaby that mothers sing to children to make them fall asleep, determine sweet and pleasant rhythmic sensations, and reinforce the bond with their mother [ 59 ]. This example illustrates how appropriate rhythmic activities in physical education, such as songs and simple dances, can create enjoyable and satisfying experiences, thereby stimulating the desire for learning and fun in children and young people [ 16 , 60 ].

Furthermore, listening to pleasant music integrated with movement helps stimulate divergent thinking, a key element of creativity [ 61 ]. However, it was impossible to consider this “music component” through the IFITS analysis because it was not contemplated as a possible type of divergent style.

By looking at the data from the perspective of the key concepts of system thinking, some effects could be delayed and made observable over a longer period [ 62 ]. This effect could occur when trying to change a complex system. Behavioral and interaction fluctuations (characterizing complex systems) may hide more possible connections between the variables and the mediators considered, making it take longer to see other possible effects [ 62 ].

Although the literature recognizes possible relationships between positive self-perception, enjoyment, and competence not only in physical education but in numerous fields of school learning [ 63 ], we believe that the construction of a body image capable of mediating the relationship between rhythm and motor creativity, being the product of variables involving multiple domains in a transversal form, could require a longer intervention time to be assimilated determining a mediation effect [ 64 , 65 ].

The moderation analysis of intervention-rhythmic perception and age relationships shows a significant effect, highlighting how age and previous experience can affect rhythmic perception. Regarding motor creativity, weight appears to condition this domain. Students with a higher weight are generally older than those with a lower weight. Therefore, the age of practice could also condition motor creativity, and their expertise confirmed the relationship between age and DMA [ 6 ].

From the emerging results of this study, a multilevel model [ 4 ] based on system thinking can be characterized by three systems that, through a closed chain of causal connections, determine the effectiveness of the systemic approach. These three systems are:

• The exosystem, which is made up of the most distant level from the subjects towards whom the experimentation is directed. This system is represented by legislation, policies, and governance systems that, in a scholastic context, represent the national guidelines (ministerial guidelines) [ 7 ] that, by the support of empirical and scientific evidence, have acknowledged the important role that rhythmic education, creativity and the transversal/transdisciplinary nature of the proposals, play in the education of children and young people;
• the mesosystem, which represents an intermediate level, constituted by the cultural institutional reality of the school, made up of families, school leaders, teaching subjects, and other stakeholders. The efficacy of this intermediate level is characterized by an environment that permits the implementation of transversal educational experiments, avoiding being excessively repressive and conservative of boundaries of each discipline;
• the endosystem, which is made up of the environment in closest contact with the school children, of related teaching domain (music and physical education school subject) and its related fields (positive relationship and interaction between teachers transversally involved) [ 4 ].

This way, particularly relevant, is the teachers who direct the students’ interest, support them, and consider the students’ abilities by creating the right balance between "challenging proposals and execution skills" to promote pleasure and interest and avoid frustration by proposing tasks that are inadequate for them.

The mediation analysis revealed that enjoyment did not mediate the effect of the intervention on rhythmic perceptive capacity, suggesting that other variables (not assessed in the present study, such as attention, focus, and cognitive engagement) may play a mediating role in the relationship between the intervention and rhythmic perceptive capacity. This finding agrees with Vazou and colleagues [ 16 ].

Regarding creativity, the mediation analysis revealed that enjoyment significantly mediated the effect of the intervention on creativity. This suggests that the positive effect of the rhythm-based intervention on creativity was partially mediated by the enjoyment experienced by the students during the intervention. These findings are consistent with previous research highlighting the importance of enjoyment and its positive effect in promoting creativity [ 66 , 67 ]. The intervention’s rhythmic activities and music-based elements may have elicited positive emotions and a sense of enjoyment, enhancing the students’ creative thinking and expression. Overall, this emphasizes the teacher’s role in conducting physical education programs (like rhythmic-based interventions) utilizing strategies promoting enjoyment [ 68 ].

The moderation analysis showed that age had a significant moderating impact on the relationship between the intervention and rhythmic perceptive capacity, indicating that the effect of the intervention on rhythmic perceptive capacity varied depending on the age of the students. This finding suggests that younger students may benefit more from rhythm-based interventions to improve their rhythmic perceptive abilities. However, no significant moderating impact of BMI was found, indicating that BMI did not influence the effectiveness of the intervention on rhythmic perceptive capacity. These findings are consistent with a recent study showing age-related differences in rhythm perception [ 6 ]. Younger students’ developmental stage and cognitive abilities may make them more receptive to rhythm-based activities and interventions.

Regarding creativity, the moderation analysis revealed a non-significant moderating impact of age and BMI on the intervention-creativity relationship. This indicates that neither age nor BMI significantly moderated the intervention’s and creativity’s relationship. These findings suggest that the rhythm-based intervention positively affected creativity across different age groups and BMI categories. This aligns with research showing the universal benefits of music and movement interventions on creativity in diverse populations [ 69 ].

Limitations of this study

There is a paucity of literature on the relationships between rhythmic-motor teaching, motor creativity, teaching styles, children’s motor engagement during the lessons, enjoyment, and self-perception. It is therefore essential to recognize that the scholastic thinking system could represent the foundation of future studies to provide objective data on the effectiveness of the framework of the ecological model in physical education [ 6 ].

Data of our model include a small number of participants for a clear analysis that considers differences in age, gender, and other mediators and moderators considered self-perception or weight. In particular, as for self-perception, we used two types of questionnaires to measure self-efficacy and perceived motor competence (due to the lack of a single validated instrument capable of evaluating this component in children in the first elementary classes and the young in the last years of middle school), the small number further reduce the representativeness of the outcomes.

Practical applications

System thinking allowed us to highlight two fundamental points of rhythmic teaching (leverage and resistance points) to improve motor creativity. Thanks to the particularity of these domains, the transversality between physical education and rhythmic-musical education is a leverage point that can lead to effective results. A little skilled teacher and an unfavorable environmental reality could represent a resistance point. To avoid this, a competent teacher should have the ability to create, through a varied and engaging rhythmic multi-teaching approach, adequate relationships and enjoyment with the students to whom he relates (proposals adequate to the age and subjects’ characteristics, suiting what they can and know to do). Without these conditions, the resistance points compromise the project’s possibility. An environmental reality (educational managers, music teachers, parents, educational and ministerial programs) should be based, above all, on the possibility of encouraging overcoming the educational boundaries of the subjects involved in the project (possibility of blending physical education with other subjects).

Conclusions

This study emphasizes the relationship between rhythms and motor creativity and the importance of enjoyment in engaging during these lessons’ typology. The results of the present study, which also considered teaching styles and the type of motor practice, provide new insights for school teaching and support system thinking as a way to understand how all variables involved in the learning process can favor or hinder learning itself. Identifying, distinguishing, and analyzing the relationship between what is taught and what is produced represents a reflective practice confirming the adherence of our study with the reference frameworks setting themselves to an obliquity (to consider organizational, methodological, and environmental factors), and making PE teaching even more helpful and cutting edge.

Supporting information

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0301858.s001

Acknowledgments

We would like to thank the participants, parents, the director, and the teachers of the school Istituto Comprensivo Preziosissimo Sangue of Monza (MI), where this study was conducted.

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Why Teaching Students How to Use Artificial Intelligence Could Make Them Employable Adults

Wendy Jones is a K–12 Education Strategist Manager for CDW•G.

Jennette Vanderpool is an Education Strategist at CDW.

K–12 schools looking to adequately prepare students to participate successfully in a rapidly changing 21st century economy can no longer avoid artificial intelligence. There is an increasing consensus that teaching students to use AI is more than just a nice-to-have — it will make them competitive job candidates later in life. Harvard Business School professor Karim Lakhani, who has long studied AI and machine learning in the workplace, says, “ AI is not going to replace humans , but humans with AI are going to replace humans without AI.”  

The Department of Education's Office of Educational Technology recently produced a report noting that teachers play a critical role in the AI revolution: “Teachers and other people must be ‘in the loop’ whenever AI is applied in order to notice patterns and automate educational processes. We call upon all constituents to adopt Humans-in-the-Loop as a key criteria.”

Click the banner to unlock complimentary resources from CDW for your modern K–12 classroom.

Without Understanding AI, Graduates Risk Becoming Unemployable

Frankly, schools that do not integrate AI into the K–12 curriculum could be exacerbating the digital divide, especially for traditionally disadvantaged groups. The recent National Educational Technology Plan noted that one of the three digital divides in K–12 is the digital use divide, which describes the opportunities students have to use technology to further their learning.

According to the Office of Educational Technology’s release on the plan, this includes “dynamic applications of technology to explore, create and engage in critical analysis of academic content and knowledge.” What this means is that while students may have access to devices and other technology, they may only be using it to passively consume content instead of using it as a tool for creation.

No matter how many new technologies crop up that allow students to learn on their own, teachers remain subject matter experts and can still serve as a guide to help guide students. Such is the case with AI exploration. Unfortunately, students who get few or no opportunities to explore this new technology risk falling behind in the new economy, threatening their ability to secure AI-supported employment.

LEARN MORE: Check out new AI guidance from the Department of Education .

How Embracing AI Can Improve Critical Thinking in K–12

For those educators who worry that AI will negatively impact learning, it might help to think of it more as a resource that students can use to expand their efficiency and capacity. In the pre-internet era, students seeking to better understand a subject matter would go to libraries and hunt through physical encyclopedias for information. Today, students can do the same with generative AI. Much more powerful and efficient than legacy forms of information-gathering, AI can quickly collect and summarize data from across the web and present it in an easy-to-digest format.

What this means is that educators and librarians still have a job to do. They must understand AI in order to help students properly vet these sources. This is, in fact, not unlike how students learned to evaluate and cite references before generative AI became publicly available. This has also been part of the digital literacy wave that’s washed over K–12. As students are bombarded by millions of pieces of information everywhere they turn — from social media to traditional print and broadcast sources — more schools are implementing a digital citizenship curriculum to help students think critically and question more deeply the flood of information and disinformation that they face each day. When students produce projects informed by subject matter experts, websites or books, we ask them to properly cite their sources. Educators must teach them how to do the same thing with ChatGPT or other forms of AI. In fact, professional style guides such as MLA and APA already include entries on how to correctly cite generative AI.

Karim Lakhani Professor, Harvard Business School

Teaching prompt engineering in high school would not only help students learn what questions to ask but also how to validate the answers received, as generative AI is not always accurate. California State University, Sacramento recently established an AI institute where teachers are developing AI-driven assignments. In one such course “students will learn to use chatbots by inputting and refining various prompts and assessing the output via written response. … Faculty will then assess the work to determine if students’ written essays show the same command of the subject matter.”

It is well within reason to see how students with a firm grasp on using AI could leave school today and become competitive in the workforce. A recent work trends report found that there has been a jump in roles on LinkedIn that mention generative pretrained models — and this wouldn’t just apply to students planning for college-prep careers.

Students who take career and technology education routes to the workforce are already being affected. For example, students who go into the auto industry must know how to operate the computers that are built into each new car, and it’s conceivable that AI’s presence will grow in that industry. Students who go into the beauty industry could also lean on AI to help create 3D models to build and test beauty products or even help clients with color analysis .

DIVE DEEPER: K–12 schools can use AI in education.

How Schools Can Get Started with AI Today

If your school is still on the sidelines with AI, know that the longer you wait, the more you risk students falling through the cracks. Become better informed today so you can prepare your students tomorrow. Getting students ready for the AI workforce starts with taking a systemic approach and putting the best frameworks in place. Here are some things to consider:

Create an AI task force. Include participants from disciplines across your district, along with parents. A comprehensive approach will require that educators consider all the ways implementing this new tool might impact those inside and outside the classroom.

One of the responsibilities of the task force would be to help inform board policy on AI , create syllabi, define AI tool use, address cybersecurity, and discuss how AI could improve efficiency at the central office and in the classroom.

Select AI tools with an educational context. As more generative AI tech pops up on the market, schools need to consider how these tools could impact student data privacy. Merlyn Mind , an AI assistant that employs an education-based large language model, was specifically designed for education . Other AI tools may have privacy concerns or age restrictions. Before you bring AI into the classroom, vet the tool.

Incorporate AI learning into professional development. Because teachers already have a heavy workload, and the teacher shortage is ongoing, some of the best advocates for AI could be teachers who benefit from the tools. AI can help teachers write lesson plans or create rubrics for lessons. Once the tools allows teachers to become more productive without adding more hours to their workday, they will be more comfortable passing their AI knowledge on to students. This would require schools to provide professional development dedicated to AI, and is why board policies and creating memoranda of understanding around regular PD on AI should be included in teachers union contracts.

RELATED: AI can help reduce teacher burnout and boost productivity.

Work with your technology partners. Getting an outside perspective can be a valuable investment in your AI journey. Partners such as CDW can help you avoid costly mistakes and get your school set up for success. Connect with your CDW account manager or educational strategist to discuss AI offerings , such as CDW’s Mastering Operational AI Transformation strategy or its work with Aisera, a maker of generative AI solutions that can help resolve back-end IT issues.

Check out these slides from our AI in education presentation for more information.

This article is part of the  ConnectIT: Bridging the Gap Between Education and Technology  series. Please join the discussion on Twitter by using the  #ConnectIT  hashtag.

• Digital Transformation
• Professional Development
• Artificial Intelligence

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