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The Perfect Country: Myanmar

• Categories: Developing Country Transportation

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Words: 613 |

Published: Feb 12, 2019

Words: 613 | Page: 1 | 4 min read

Works Cited

• Aung-Thwin, M. A. (2017). The mists of Rāmañña: The legend that was lower Burma. University of Hawai'i Press.
• Bird, G., Soe, H. K., & Willcox, M. (2016). Checklist of the Birds of Myanmar. Lynx Edicions.
• Cho, W. K. T. (2017). Ethnicity, conflict and inequality in Myanmar. Routledge.
• D'Cunha, J. M., & Ong, D. K. (2019). Tourism in Southeast Asia: Challenges and new directions. Routledge.
• Hill, J. (2014). Through the Jade Gate to Rome: A Study of the Silk Routes during the Later Han Dynasty, 1st to 2nd Centuries CE. BookBaby.
• Kyaw, T. M., & Aung, T. T. (2021). Tourism development and sustainability in Myanmar. Routledge.
• Myanmar. (2022, March 11). In CIA World Factbook. Retrieved March 30, 2023, from https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/myanmar/
• Myanmar. (2022, March 11). In World Tourism Organization. Retrieved March 30, 2023, from https://www.unwto.org/myanmar
• Tin, H. H. (2021). Golden Myanmar. White Lotus Press.
• Win, N. N. (2017). Buddhism and Buddhist Art in Myanmar. Asia Society.

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The great divider: Learning English in Myanmar

• March 5, 2024

Mastery of English has defined social status to varying degrees since the colonial era, but the economic fallout from the coup has strengthened its power to both uplift and exclude.

By KAUNG THANT NYEIN | FRONTIER

A few months ago, an acquaintance in Yangon told me about his desire to open a small English language academy with affordable prices, as well as a library of English-language books. He hoped that after attending his classes, people would widen their knowledge of the world through Anglophone media and literature. Although this plan has yet to materialise, it got me thinking about the relationship between English and social status in Myanmar.

This relationship can be traced back to the country’s last royal dynasty, which ruled from the mid-18th century. The Konbaung kings employed English-speaking locals and foreigners to communicate with the increasingly powerful British East India Company. However, the real marriage of English and political power began with colonisation in the 19 th century. The occupying British introduced a secular education system where the top schools taught only in English. Those wanting a university degree went to India, where courses were also taught in English, until Rangoon and Judson colleges were merged to form Rangoon University in 1920 with a largely European academic staff. The student boycott of 1920 demanded, among other things, that fluency in English not be required for admittance to the university, in what has come to be considered a foundational moment for the anti-colonial nationalist movement.

But while the strike arguably planted the seeds for independence, the language requirement remained and an English-speaking elite came to dominate the colonial administration. Burmese, meanwhile, came to be seen as the language of the uncultivated. Even Maung Htin Aung, a nationalist historian who made it his life’s mission to counter the distortions of European scholars, wrote several books on Myanmar folklore, custom and religion in English.

More than a decade after independence, in 1962, General Ne Win staged a coup and cut the country off from the world. Western-educated individuals were dismissed or demoted to minor positions and universities were ordered to change their language of instruction from English to Burmese. The learning of English was reserved for children older than 10 and the departure of most of the foreign professionals and businesses from the country meant that English became all but obsolete as a means of communication.

In 1988, a new military regime came to power and reversed many of these policies. Children could again learn English starting from five years old, while mastery of English became once more synonymous with academic achievement. Textbooks for the sciences, which are required for entering the coveted professions of medicine and engineering, were produced in English, while the textbooks for subjects chosen by lower-achieving students, such as history and geography, were published in Burmese. Meanwhile, PhD programmes, which increased during the 2000s, required students to submit their work in English.

However, the quality of state-provided education remained poor during the decades preceding the 2021 military coup. Despite attending English classes throughout their time at school, children were mostly not encouraged to read beyond their textbooks. Meanwhile, rather than testing for grammar or creative language use, exams merely required them to repeat passages they had memorised in advance. Marks were even deducted for adding additional sentences or paraphrasing texts. The result was a very limited grasp of English. Most of the PhD students I knew would even write their thesis in Burmese before hiring someone to translate it.

At the same time, economic liberalisation after 1988 created more private opportunities to learn English – but on a highly unequal basis. Families with money could send their children to study abroad more easily than before, and could also enrol them in expensive English classes that proliferated in Myanmar’s big cities. Meanwhile, elite private schools hired native English speakers and charged steep fees. But in a poor and conflict-ridden country like Myanmar, most people were denied these learning opportunities. And so, like in the colonial era, English became the great social divider, and a gateway to wealth and power.

In her book The Politics of Cultural Capital, British scholar Julian Lovell referred to “the Nobel complex” to describe post-Mao China’s preoccupation with its citizens winning Nobel prizes, and the sense of insecurity and need for recognition that this reveals. A similar complex is arguably at work in the Myanmar people’s adoration of Daw Aung San Suu Kyi. This is not only because of her receipt of a Nobel Peace Prize in 1991, but also her superior command of English and related status as an Oxford graduate. This meant she was perfectly placed to communicate the desires of the Myanmar people to the world, but it also set her apart from the ruling generals, who were disdained for their intellectual crudeness and need for interpreters during meetings with foreign diplomats.

The “English complex”, as it might more accurately be called in Myanmar, is sometimes absurdly counterproductive. A professor in Yangon told me of a time about five years ago, when his university was invited to send a student to an environmental conference in Manila. Eager to show that Myanmar students could speak English well, the administrators sent a student from the English department who was said to be fluent. The trouble was, he knew next to nothing about the environment and so didn’t contribute anything to the conference.

But despite these excesses, there are hard economic factors behind the pre-eminence of English and its status relative to other foreign languages. The most sought-after jobs include jobs in foreign firms and embassies, international NGOs and United Nations agencies, all of which require a high level of English. These jobs have become even more attractive amid the economic downturn following the 2021 coup, partly because they pay in foreign currencies, which have become far more valuable as the Myanmar kyat has collapsed.

Few people are qualified for these positions, while wages in other sectors often fail to cover the rising cost of living. Many are therefore heading to work overseas in record numbers, primarily in wealthier Asian countries. This exodus has only intensified with the junta’s implementation of the military service law, but ever since the coup, entrepreneurs have been opening private language academies teaching Japanese, Korean and Chinese. Walking around the busy Yangon neighbourhoods of Hledan or Myaynigone, you can see these academies everywhere.

It’s also easy to spot the students from their uniforms – mostly young people who need to pass language tests to get menial jobs in the relevant country. In fact, several of my friends now dream about working in Japan as a paper boy or an assistant in an elderly care facility. These Asian languages, therefore, aren’t considered languages of higher learning and mastering them doesn’t carry the same prestige as English.

Learning English also offers a route out of Myanmar through higher education, with many youths now taking TOFEL and IELTS exams in order to attend universities in the West – or in other Asian countries that offer degree courses in English. But again, this pathway is only open to those from more privileged backgrounds, and is another example of how the coup has furthered class divides – with English helping to widen the gap.

More than a century on from the student boycott at Rangoon University, a colonial-era hierarchy remains intact and is even gathering strength, limiting what millions of people are able to achieve in life.

Kaung Thant Nyein is the pen name of a Myanmar-born independent researcher based in Chiang Mai who has contributed to The Irrawaddy, Tea Circle and LSE Blogs.

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MYANMORE’s recommendations of eBooks and audiobooks available in Myanmar

Due to the covid-19 outbreak, people are now working from home and it can be a bit boring to just stay at home for many days. here is the guide to ebooks and audiobooks that you can use for free so let’s overcome this pandemic together by using our time usefully with these ebooks and audiobooks..

Wun Zinn is the mostly used one among eBooks. When we tried to use Wun Zinn Comic App, it showed an error as “A system issue occurred”. However, the usual application is still useful by logging in with your Facebook account or creating your own account.

Under the Sale Tab, you can also find audiobooks of author Mya, author Thu Maung, author Chit Naing (Psychology) and author Ma Sandar, which are worth listening to for free.

Shwe Nar Sin

For audiobooks, we would also recommend Shwe Nar Sin by MPT. It offers only audiobook service so there are a lot more options for you. The charges will be 99 Ks per day and can be used only by MPT SIMs.

If you can give some time on YouTube, you can also find audiobooks of Mya Yae La, Yay Myaw Thee and Ayeyarwady Pone Pyin by author Juu, which are narrated by famous celebrities such as Htoo Eain Thin, Hay Mar Nay Win and Ye Deight.

Ps: You can also download free PDF files from the Facebook page of NDSP Books.

Amazon’s Audible

Audible is the one where you can listen to some of Amazon’s online audiobooks for free. You can start listening to those in English, French, German, Spanish, Italian and Japanese by clicking the “ Start Listening”  button on the page after opening the link, without having to create your own account.

You can listen to classic literature such as Moby Dick and The Call of the Wild in Literary Classics and Folk & Fairy Tales for All will be favourite folktales for everyone.

Neil Gaimen

You might have heard Sandman and Good Omens by British Author Neil Gaimen, even if you haven’t read those before. You can now read his short novels and essays for free on the website. 

On his MouseCircus website, audiobooks such as Graveyard and Coraline which are narrated by Gaiman, his friends and some other authors.

Educational books and books in public domain that you can download

Project Gutenberg is our favourite website, with over 60,000 books inside. This website only offers books whose copyright licenses are already expired so that every book can be officially downloaded for free. You can find eBooks in the Open Library and audiobooks in LibriVox. 

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Myanmar’s first literary work since coup reveals ‘courage and altruism’ of writers

Picking Off New Shoots Will Not Stop the Spring was born from a desire to preserve online expressions of outrage, grief and dissent, say editors

The first literary work to emerge from Myanmar since the military seized control of the country a year ago reveals the altruism and courage of a new generation of writers, its editor has said.

Picking Off New Shoots Will Not Stop the Spring is an anthology of poems and essays, many of which were written during the military crackdown after last February’s coup . Others date from 1988 to 2020.

Since the coup, “scores of poets have been persecuted, executed or killed in resistance”, said Ko Ko Thett, poet and co-editor of the anthology. The deaths of Myint Myint Zin and K Za Win in March 2021 sent shock waves through Myanmar, he said.

In the book’s introduction, Ko Ko Thett and co-editor Brian Haman wrote: “Many poets … have been jailed for taking part in the protests. We are honoured to include poems by a number of these poets, including some best-loved poems by Khet Thi who died at the hands of the junta’s inquisitors on 8 May.”

After the military seized control, hundreds of people, including children, were killed in street protests . Security forces used water cannon, rubber bullets and live ammunition to disperse protesters. The military imposed restrictions, including curfews and limits to gatherings.

“In the wake of the military’s overthrow of Myanmar’s democratically elected government in February 2021, we found the online literary outpouring of outrage, grief and dissent particularly generous, altruistic and courageous,” said the book’s editors.

The relatively recent introduction of the internet and social media in Myanmar became a powerful vehicle for the circulation of what Ko Ko Thett terms “witness writing”.

“The removal of so much of the censorship following the 2010 election in the so-called ‘transitional Myanmar’ coincided with the introduction of the internet and social media,” he told the Guardian.

“Many poets and writers became active online overnight. In the instantaneity and virality of social media, protest poets who posted their poems online got easily known, easily identified and easily tracked down.”

In the decade after, the internet became a “major vehicle for poetry and voices of protests,” he said.

Witness writing was distinct from protest writing, said Ko Ko Thett, who was a student activist in Yangon in the 1990s and now lives in the UK. “All protest writings may be witness writings, but not all witness writings are protest writings. Witness writing is more subjective and does not usually have an explicit political agenda – however politicised it might be or become.”

The book’s editors said there was an “urgently felt need to preserve these online writings in a more durable and enduring format. Not only does this corpus of writing demonstrate the power and possibilities of the written word when faced with the barrel of a gun, but it also reveals Burmese writing to be aesthetically accomplished and significant.”

Among the pieces in the anthology is Portrait of the Need for Oxygen by Zeyar Lynn, which compares the suffocating grip of the military on the country with that of Covid on an individual.

Residual Lives by Mi Chan Wai is a first-hand account of the terror the poet felt in her neighbourhood on the outskirts of Yangon.

In Whose Footfall is Loudest, Thawda Aye Lei described how “flip-flops had always been important witnesses to our revolutions”. In 2021, “every time a group of people were chased by guns and batons, dozens of ownerless flip-flops would be left abandoned on the street … When the security forces were gone, people picked them up and organised them in pairs for their owners to come and collect them.”

Last year was extraordinarily tragic for Myanmar, and there was “no sign of abating conflict in the year to come, if not years”, said Ko Ko Thett. “The stage is set for protracted conflicts, poverty beneath human dignity, human suffering and environmental degradation.”

Picking Off New Shoots Will Not Stop the Spring was published on 29 January

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Essay on Myanmar

Students are often asked to write an essay on Myanmar in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on Myanmar

Introduction to myanmar.

Myanmar, also known as Burma, is a country in Southeast Asia. It is the largest country in the region by land area. It is bordered by India and Bangladesh to its west, Thailand and Laos to its east, and China to its north and northeast.

People and Culture

Myanmar is a melting pot of different cultures. The country is home to over 100 ethnic groups, each with their own traditions and languages. The main language is Burmese. The people are known for their friendliness and hospitality.

Religion in Myanmar

Buddhism is the main religion in Myanmar. Most people follow Theravada Buddhism. You will find many beautiful pagodas and temples all over the country. These religious sites are important places for prayer and meditation.

Economy of Myanmar

Myanmar’s economy is based on agriculture. Rice is the main crop. The country also has rich natural resources like oil, gas, and precious stones. In recent years, tourism has also become an important part of the economy.

Political History

Myanmar has a complex political history. It was a British colony until 1948. After gaining independence, it faced many years of military rule. Today, the country is working towards democracy, but it still faces many challenges.

250 Words Essay on Myanmar

Myanmar, also known as Burma, is a country in Southeast Asia. It is the largest country in mainland Southeast Asia and the 10th largest in Asia. It shares borders with India, Bangladesh, China, Laos, and Thailand.

Capital and Population

The capital city of Myanmar is Naypyidaw. It became the capital in 2005, replacing the city of Yangon. Myanmar has a population of about 54 million people. Many people from different ethnic groups live in Myanmar. The largest group is the Bamar people.

Language and Religion

The official language of Myanmar is Burmese. It is spoken by most people in the country. English is also taught in schools. The main religion in Myanmar is Buddhism. A large majority of the people in Myanmar follow this religion.

Natural Beauty

Myanmar is known for its natural beauty. It has many rivers, mountains, and forests. The Irrawaddy River is the longest river in the country. Myanmar also has beautiful beaches along its western and southern coasts.

The economy of Myanmar is based on agriculture. Rice is the main crop. Other important sectors of the economy are mining and manufacturing. Myanmar is rich in resources like oil, gas, and precious stones like jade and rubies.

In conclusion, Myanmar is a country with a rich history, diverse culture, and stunning natural beauty. Despite facing many challenges, it continues to grow and develop.

500 Words Essay on Myanmar

Myanmar, also known as Burma, is a country in Southeast Asia. It is one of the largest and most diverse countries in its region. Myanmar is famous for its rich history, diverse culture, and beautiful landscapes.

Geography of Myanmar

Myanmar is located between India and Thailand. It shares borders with India, Bangladesh, China, Laos, and Thailand. The country has a diverse landscape. It has high mountains, wide rivers, and fertile plains. The largest river, the Ayeyarwady, is very important for farming and transportation. The country also has a long coastline along the Andaman Sea and the Bay of Bengal.

People and Culture of Myanmar

The people of Myanmar are known as Burmese. They are very friendly and welcoming. There are more than 100 ethnic groups in Myanmar. Each group has its own language, traditions, and culture. The main religion is Buddhism. Many people visit Myanmar to see its beautiful Buddhist temples. The most famous one is the Shwedagon Pagoda in Yangon, the largest city in the country.

History of Myanmar

Myanmar has a long and interesting history. It was home to many ancient kingdoms. The British ruled Myanmar from 1824 to 1948. After gaining independence, the country faced many challenges. In 1962, a military government took control. They ruled for almost 50 years. In 2015, Myanmar started a new chapter with its first democratic election in many years.

The economy of Myanmar is based on agriculture. Rice is the main crop. Other important products are beans, sesame, rubber, and teak. The country also has valuable resources like jade, pearls, and gems. Myanmar is trying to grow its economy by attracting foreign investors and tourists.

Challenges and Future of Myanmar

Myanmar faces many challenges. It has problems with poverty, health care, and education. The country also struggles with conflicts between different ethnic groups. Despite these problems, there is hope for the future. Many people in Myanmar are working hard to improve their country. They hope to build a peaceful and prosperous nation.

In conclusion, Myanmar is a fascinating country with a rich history and culture. It has many beautiful places to see and friendly people to meet. Despite its challenges, the country has a bright future. The people of Myanmar are hopeful and determined to make their country a better place.

That’s it! I hope the essay helped you.

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What’s Happening In Myanmar’s Civil War?

By Hannah Beech and Weiyi Cai

• Why did the military stage a coup?
• Who is fighting back?

How successful have the rebels been?

How are civilians affected, who lives in the country, is it myanmar or burma, will myanmar hold together.

Myanmar’s military staged a coup in 2021, strangling democratic reforms and jailing much of the country’s civilian leadership. Three years on, the Southeast Asian nation is teetering on the brink of failed statehood. Insurgent groups, including pro-democracy forces and ethnic militias, are battling the junta’s soldiers. Tens of thousands of people have been killed, and millions more are displaced.

The resistance now controls more than half of Myanmar’s territory

Areas of control

Largely military junta control

Largely resistance control

Bay of Bengal

Source: Special Advisory Council for Myanmar (SAC-M)

The fighting, in forests and towns across Myanmar, gets little of the international attention claimed by the conflicts in Ukraine and Gaza. Yet a decade ago, this nation wedged between India and China was touted as a rare example of a country peacefully transitioning from military dictatorship toward democratic rule. The army putsch ended any illusion of political progress. Myanmar has returned to a military reign of terror and the fractured reality of civil war. The lawlessness that thrives in conflict areas has radiated outward, with transnational crime networks using Myanmar as a base and exporting the products of their illicit activity worldwide.

Soldiers from 8th Battalion of the Karenni Nationalities Defense Force, an armed insurgent group, during their graduation ceremony in Karenni State in February.

Adam Ferguson for The New York Times

Why is there a civil war in Myanmar?

The short answer: The military coup was met by widespread peaceful protests. Then the junta, led by Senior Gen. Min Aung Hlaing, quickly reverted to its old playbook: jail, terrorize, kill.

Pro-democracy forces took up arms, joining with militias that for decades had been fighting for the rights of ethnic minorities.

The longer answer: Myanmar has been in turmoil practically since gaining independence from British rule in 1948. Some of the world’s longest-running armed conflicts have simmered in the country’s borderlands, where ethnic militias are seeking autonomy or simply freedom from the Myanmar military’s repression.

A brief period of political reform, with a civilian government led by Daw Aung San Suu Kyi, the Nobel laureate, did not make life much better for many ethnic minorities. After her political party trounced the military-linked party in Myanmar’s 2020 elections , a junta grabbed full control of the country again.

Myanmar’s decades of political turmoil

colonial rule

Gained independence, but ethnic rebels soon began insurgency.

Parliamentary rule

Military coup

Nearly five decades

of military rule

Widespread pro-democracy protests followed by bloody military crackdown.

Elections were held, and Daw Aung San Suu Kyi’s party won. But the military junta ignored the result.

A democratic uprising led by Buddhist monks called for political change.

Military began political reforms.

Ms. Aung San Suu Kyi’s party won elections in a landslide.

Ms. Aung San Suu Kyi’s party

scored another victory.

civil unrest

Military coup ended power sharing

with civilian government.

Parliamentary

ended power

with civilian

government.

Nearly five decades of military rule

Military coup ended

power sharing with

civilian government.

A common goal of overthrowing the junta has led to unity between pro-democracy militias and armed ethnic groups. Together, these resistance forces have claimed significant territory from the Myanmar military. On April 11, they captured a key border town from the junta’s forces, their biggest victory yet.

Who exactly is fighting the Myanmar military?

Hundreds of pro-democracy militias, ethnic armies and local defense forces. The sheer diversity of resistance groups battling the junta makes Myanmar the most fractured country on Earth, according to the Armed Conflict Location and Event Data Project, which tracks 50 high-level conflicts worldwide. Complicating matters, some of the rebel groups fight one another, too.

More than 20 militias representing various ethnic minorities have been fighting for autonomy for decades. Some of these insurgent groups control territory in Myanmar’s resource-rich periphery.

Ethnic militias exert control in different parts of Myanmar

Independence

Myanmar National

Alliance Army

Karen National

Liberation Army

Ta’ang National

Pa-O National

Karen Benevolent

Karenni National

People's Liberation

Chin National

Mon National

Bamar People’s

Democratic Alliance

When ousted politicians and democracy advocates fled arrest after the coup, they found sanctuary in these ethnic rebel-held areas and formed a shadow authority called the National Unity Government.

Tens of thousands of young people — among them doctors, actors, lawyers, teachers, models, Buddhist monks, D.J.s and engineers — escaped from the junta-held cities and formed more than 200 People’s Defense Forces, pledging allegiance to the shadow government.

Often trained by the ethnic militias, the P.D.F. is now fighting in more than 100 townships across the country.

Hundreds of militias groups make up the People’s Defense Forces

Ther are 89 such groups in the Sagaing Region alone.

Source: Myanmar Peace Monitor

Since an alliance of three ethnic armies, backed by the P.D.F., began an offensive on Oct. 27, the resistance has gained significant ground. Rebels now control much of Myanmar’s border region, including a strategic trading town that was captured on April 11. A few days later, they fired rockets at the nation’s top military academy. Some of the fighting is taking place within striking distance of Naypyidaw, the bunkered capital that the generals built early this century.

This year could be a turning point in Myanmar’s war, military analysts say. With each week, the junta’s forces abandon more outposts. Myanmar’s military is overstretched and underprovisioned. Even at the best of times, its biggest asset has been numbers, not expertise. In February, the military brought in a draft, signaling its desperation for fresh recruits.

Resistance soldiers riding in the back of a pickup truck in southern Karenni State in January.

The Armed Conflict Location and Event Data Project says that the war in Myanmar is the most violent of the 50 conflicts it tracks. Since the coup, at least 50,000 people have been killed there, including at least 8,000 civilians, the group says.

The military’s deadly attacks against civilians

Excessive force against protesters

Other attacks

An airstrike killed 60 at an outdoor concert.

The military fired artillery rounds into a camp for displaced persons.

The military bombed a

large gathering in​ the

Sagaing Region last

April, killing more than

150 people.

The military shot dead protesters in Mandalay on March 27, 2021.

The military

tortured and

burned over 30

fleeing civilians.

The military bombed

a large gathering in​

the Sagaing Region

last April, killing more

than 150 people.

An irstrike killed 60 at an outdoor concert.

The military shot dead

protesters in Mandalay

on March 27, 2021.

Note: Data as of March 15

Source: The Armed Conflict Location and Event Data Project

More than 26,500 people have been detained for opposing the junta, according to the Assistance Association for Political Prisoners (Burma), a rights group.

Myanmar’s military has bombarded the country with airstrikes on over 900 days since the coup, according to the Myanmar Peace Monitor, an exile group that tracks the war. Since the rebels’ October offensive, there has been a fivefold increase in aerial bombardment, according to Tom Andrews, the United Nations Special Rapporteur for human rights in Myanmar.

By the end of last year, more than 2.6 million people had been driven from their homes in a country of about 55 million, according to the United Nations human rights office. Nearly 600,000 of those internally displaced people fled after the fighting intensified in October. More than 18 million people are in desperate need of humanitarian assistance, according to the United Nations, which says that a million had required such aid before the coup.

Each month, hundreds of thousands of people are displaced by the fighting

200,000 people displaced

Note: Data as of April 2

United Nations investigators say that the junta’s forces should be investigated for war crimes and crimes against humanity, and they cite reports of organized sexual violence, village burnings and the indiscriminate use of landmines. Such abuses predate the coup. In 2017, the military conducted what the United States says was a genocidal campaign against the Rohingya Muslim minority.

Myanmar is an extraordinarily diverse nation whose borders were shaped by British imperialism rather than ethnic boundaries. Officially, 135 ethnic groups live in the country, and practically the only thing they agree on is that this figure is wrong.

Myanmar has extraordinary ethnic diversity

Ta’ang

Bamar (majority)

Note: The Karenni are also known as the Kayah, the Karen as the Kayin, the Rakhine as the Arakan, and the Ta’ang as the Palaung.

Source: General Administration Department, Myanmar

Some ethnic minorities have more in common with people in China, India and Thailand than with the Bamar, Myanmar’s largest ethnicity. Others come from princely states that were not under the full authority of a central administration until the middle of the last century. Still others, such as over a million Rohingya, have been rendered stateless because the military refuses to recognize them as rightful inhabitants of the country.

What Myanmar’s ethnic minorities, particularly non-Buddhist ones, share is a long record of persecution by the military.

Myanmar’s ethnic diversity is concentrated in the foothills of the Himalayas and the forested border regions that cradle the delta and lowlands through which the Irrawaddy River flows.

In 1948, the Union of Burma declared independence from British rule. In the Burmese language, the root of the words Burma and Myanmar are the same. In 1989, a year after the violent crushing of a pro-democracy movement, a junta renamed the country internationally as Myanmar, the name by which it is known locally. The generals argued that Myanmar was a more inclusive name, because it was not so explicitly linked to the nation’s Bamar ethnic majority.

Nevertheless, the pro-democracy front, led by Ms. Aung San Suu Kyi, tended to refer to the country as Burma to show opposition to the military regime. Ethnic minority groups often called the country Burma when speaking English. The United States still officially calls the country Burma, but most foreign governments use Myanmar. After the 2021 coup, some exiled politicians and other pro-democracy activists who once called it Myanmar switched to Burma with an international audience.

Most people, however, still refer to Myanmar.

There is no commonly accepted word for the inhabitants of the country. Some refer to the Burmese of Myanmar, which seems a usage at cross-purposes. In Myanmar, the citizens are generally referred to as Myanmar, the word serving as both a nation and a nationality.

Three years after the coup, the center of Myanmar remains mostly under junta control, but the rest of the country is a kaleidoscopic array of competing influences, fiefs, democratic havens and drug-lord hideouts. Ethnic armed groups govern some areas. Administrators aligned with the National Unity Government have set up schools and clinics in others. No one is in charge in still other parts of the country, leaving residents lacking basic services and vulnerable to life in the margins.

A soldier from the Pa-O National Liberation Army was treated at a secret hospital in Karenni State in January.

The junta forces’ widespread use of landmines has made parts of Myanmar off limits. Within areas under the regime’s control, more than 100,000 civil servants refuse to turn up for work as part of a long-running civil disobedience campaign. Many of Myanmar’s most educated people are in exile or living in the jungles. Others are in prison.

The military is still the country’s largest and most influential institution, and a militarized culture pervades many areas that ethnic minorities control. The question is whether the Myanmar military will jettison Senior General Min Aung Hlaing, its supreme commander, if he is judged to be an impediment to the armed forces’ survival — Myanmar’s history is filled with military men being pushed aside for other military men. With more and more of its soldiers dying, the military is facing an existential threat.

It’s possible that a junta, perhaps not even the current one but a new coterie, will try to negotiate cease-fires with the many armed groups arrayed against it. But given the Myanmar military’s history of turning its guns against its own people, trust will be difficult to find.

The future of Myanmar will likely remain fractured, with no single authority in charge. Such a splintered state is likely to breed more chaos that will not be contained by national borders. Myanmar is again the world’s top opium producer , displacing Afghanistan. Some ethnic armed groups survive by churning out methamphetamine and other synthetic drugs. And the country is at the center of a cyber-scam industry that steals billions of dollars from unsuspecting people and kidnaps others to forcibly work the cons.