steroids essay research paper

The science of steroids

Affiliations.

• 1 Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, Melbourne, Vic, 3800, Australia; Division of Endocrinology & Metabolism, Hudson Institute, Monash Medical Centre, Clayton, Vic, Australia. Electronic address: [email protected].
• 2 Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, Melbourne, Vic, 3800, Australia.
• 3 The Richie Centre, Hudson Institute, Monash Medical Centre, Clayton, Vic, Australia; Department of Obstetrics & Gynaecology, Monash Medical Centre, Clayton, Vic, Australia.
• PMID: 31147162
• DOI: 10.1016/j.siny.2019.05.005

Steroids are complex lipophilic molecules that have many actions in the body to regulate cellular, tissue and organ functions across the life-span. Steroid hormones such as cortisol, aldosterone, estradiol and testosterone are synthesised from cholesterol in specialised endocrine cells in the adrenal gland, ovary and testis, and released into the circulation when required. Steroid hormones move freely into cells to activate intracellular nuclear receptors that function as multi-domain ligand-dependent transcriptional regulators in the cell nucleus. Activated nuclear receptors modify expression of hundreds to thousands of specific target genes in the genome. Steroid hormone actions in the fetus include developmental roles in the respiratory system, brain, and cardiovascular system. The synthetic glucocorticoid steroid betamethasone is used antenatally to reduce the complications of preterm birth. Development of novel selective partial glucocorticoid receptor agonists may provide improved therapies to treat the respiratory complications of preterm birth and spare the deleterious effects of postnatal glucocorticoids in other organs.

Keywords: Betamethasone; Fetal lung development; Glucocorticoid receptor; Glucocorticoids; Steroids.

© 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Publication types

• Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't
• Fetal Development / physiology
• Glucocorticoids / pharmacology
• Lung / drug effects
• Lung / embryology
• Receptors, Cytoplasmic and Nuclear / physiology
• Receptors, Steroid / physiology
• Signal Transduction / physiology
• Steroids / biosynthesis
• Steroids / physiology*
• Glucocorticoids
• Receptors, Cytoplasmic and Nuclear
• Receptors, Steroid

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Medical Issues Associated with Anabolic Steroid Use: Are They Exaggerated?

For the past 50 years anabolic steroids have been at the forefront of the controversy surrounding performance enhancing drugs. For almost half of this time no attempt was made by sports governing bodies to control its use, and only recently have all of the major sports governing bodies in North America agreed to ban from competition and punish athletes who test positive for anabolic steroids. These punitive measures were developed with the primary concern for promotion of fair play and eliminating potential health risks associated with androgenic-anabolic steroids. Yet, controversy exists whether these testing programs deter anabolic steroid use. Although the scope of this paper does not focus on the effectiveness of testing, or the issue of fair play, it is of interest to understand why many athletes underestimate the health risks associated from these drugs. What creates further curiosity is the seemingly well-publicized health hazards that the medical community has depicted concerning anabolic steroidabuse. Is there something that the athletes know, or are they simply naïve regarding the dangers? The focus of this review is to provide a brief history of anabolic steroid use in North America, the prevalence of its use in both athletic and recreational populations and its efficacy. Primary discussion will focus on health issues associated with anabolic steroid use with an examination of the contrasting views held between the medical community and the athletes that are using these ergogenic drugs. Existing data suggest that in certain circumstances the medical risk associated with anabolic steroid use may have been somewhat exaggerated, possibly to dissuade use in athletes.

• For many years the scientific and medical communities depicted a lack of efficacy and serious adverse effects from anabolic steroid use.
• Clinical case studies continue to link anabolic steroid administration with myocardial infarct, suicide, and cancer, evidence to support a cause and effect relationship is lacking.
• It may be other contributing factors (i.e. genetic predisposition, diet, etc.) that play a substantial role and potentiate the harmful effects from anabolic steroids.

Introduction

Anabolic-androgenic steroids (herein referred to as only anabolic steroids) are the man-made derivatives of the male sex hormone testosterone. Physiologically, elevations in testosterone concentrations stimulate protein synthesis resulting in improvements in muscle size, body mass and strength (Bhasin et al., 1996 ; 2001 ). In addition, testosterone and its synthetic derivatives are responsible for the development and maturation of male secondary sexual characteristics (i.e. increase in body hair, masculine voice, development of male pattern baldness, libido, sperm production and aggressiveness).

Testosterone was isolated in the early 20 th century and its discovery led to studies demonstrating that this substance stimulated a strong positive nitrogen balance in castrated dogs and rats (Kochakian, 1950 ). Testosterone, because of its rapid degradation when given through either oral or parenteral administration, poses some limitations as an ergogenic aid. Although its potency is rapidly observed, the high frequency of administration needed becomes problematic. In addition, testosterone has a therapeutic index of 1 meaning there is similarity in the proportion between the anabolic and androgenic effects. As a result it becomes necessary to chemically modify testosterone to retard the degradation process and reduce some of the negative side effects. This allows for maintenance of effective blood concentrations for longer periods of time, may increase its interaction with the androgen receptor, and achieves the desired anabolic and androgenic changes.

Boje, 1939 was the first to suggest that exogenous testosterone administration may enhance athletic performance. By the late 1940’s and 1950’s testosterone compounds were experimented with by some west coast bodybuilders (Yesalis et al., 2000 ). The first dramatic reports of anabolic steroid use occurred following the 1954 world weightlifting championships (Yesalis et al., 2000 ). Use of these drugs spread quickly through the 1960’s and became popular among athletes in a variety of Olympic sports (Dubin, 1990 ). Wide spread use has also been reported in power lifters (Wagman et al., 1995 ), National Football League players (Yesalis et al., 2000 ), collegiate athletes (Yesalis, 1992 ), and recent claims of wide spread use in many sports including Major League Baseball players has made anabolic steroids the number one sports story of 2005 in some markets (Quinn, 2006 ). The ergogenic effects associated with anabolic steroids are presented in Table 1 .

Ergogenic effects associated with anabolic steroid use.

Athletes typically use anabolic steroids in a “stacking” regimen, in which they administer several different drugs simultaneously. The rationale for stacking is to increase the potency of each drug. That is, the potency of one anabolic agent may be enhanced when consumed simultaneously with another anabolic agent. They will use both oral and parenteral compounds. Most users will take anabolic steroids in a cyclic pattern, meaning the athletes will use the drugs for several weeks or months and alternate these cycles with periods of discontinued use. Often the athletes will administer the drugs in a pyramid (step-up) pattern in which dosages are steadily increased over several weeks. Towards the end of the cycle the athlete will ‘step-down’ to reduce the likelihood of negative side effects. At this point, some athletes will discontinue drug use or perhaps initiate another cycle of different drugs (i.e., drugs that may increase endogenous testosterone production to prevent the undesirable drop in testosterone concentrations that follows the removal of the pharmaceutical agents). A recent study has shown that the typical steroid regimen involved 3.1 agents, with a typical cycle ranging from 5 – 10 weeks (Perry et al., 2005 ). The dose that the athlete administers was reported to vary between 5 - 29 times greater than physiological replacement doses (Perry et al., 2005 ). These higher pharmacological dosages appear necessary to elicit the gains that these athletes desire. In a classic study on the dose-response curve of anabolic steroids, Forbes, 1985 demonstrated that the total dose of anabolic steroids have a logarithmic relationship to increases in lean body mass. These results exacerbate the athlete’s philosophy that if a low dose is effective, then more must be better.

Adverse effects associated with anabolic steroid use are listed in Table 2 . For years, the medical and scientific communities attempted to reduce anabolic steroid use by athletes by underscoring their efficacy and focusing on the unhealthy side effects (Biely, 1987 ; Darden, 1983 ; Fahey and Brown, 1973 ; Fowler et al., 1965 ; Golding et al., 1974 ). For the most part, this may have proved to be ineffective and caused athletes to lose trust in the physician’s knowledge of anabolic steroids thereby forcing them to seek advice from friends, internet sites or drug suppliers (Pope et al., 2004 ). However, recent literature has suggested that the medical issues associated with anabolic steroids may be somewhat overstated (Berning et al., 2004 ; Sturmi and Diorio, 1998 ; Street et al., 1996 ) considering that many of the side effects associated with anabolic steroid abuse are reversible upon cessation. It is important to note that there are differences in the side effects associated with anabolic steroid use (i.e.under medical supervision) versus abuse (i.e. consumption of many drugs at high doses).

Adverse effects associated with anabolic steroid use.

The clinical examination of anabolic steroid use is quite limited. Much of the problem in prospectively examining the effects of anabolic steroids on the athletic population is related to the unwillingness of institutional review boards to approve such studies in a non-clinical population. As a result, most of the investigations concerning medical issues associated with anabolic steroid administration have been performed on athletes self-administering the drugs. Anecdotally, it appears that a disproportionate magnitude of use and incidence of adverse effects are evident in bodybuilders (who are also known for consuming several other drugs that relieve some side effects but potentiate other risk factors as well, i.e. diuretics, thyroid hormones, insulin, anti-estrogens, etc.) compared to strength/power athletes. The mindset and motivation of these two types of athletes can be quite different. The strength/power athlete will typically use anabolic steroids to prepare themselves for a season of competition. They will generally cycle the drug to help them reach peak condition at a specific time of the training year. In contrast, bodybuilders use anabolic steroids to enhance muscle growth and definition. Their success is predicated on their aesthetic appearance. As a result many of these athletes may use anabolic steroids excessively for severalyears without cycling off or perhaps minimizing the length of “off cycles” depending on their competition schedule. Recent research has indicated that those athletes exhibit behavior that are consistent with substance dependence disorder (Perry et al., 2005 ). Although the medical issues associated with anabolic steroids may be quite different between these two types of athletes, the scientific literature generally does not differentiate between the two. The following sections will discuss adverse effects on specific physiological systems associated with anabolic-androgenic steroid use. It is important to note that many athletes consume multiple drugs in addition to anabolic steroids. Thus, the unhealthy side effects could be potentiated by the use of drugs such as human growth hormone or IGF-1.

Cardiovascular System

In both the medical and lay literature one of the principal adverse effects generally associated with anabolic steroid use is the increased risk for myocardial infarction. This is primarily based upon several case reports published over the past 20 years describing the occurrence of myocardial infarctions in young and middle-aged body builders or weight lifters attributed to anabolic steroid use and/or abuse (Bowman, 1989 ; Ferenchick and Adelman, 1992 ; Gunes et al., 2004 ; Kennedy and Lawrence, 1993 ; Luke et al., 1990 ; McNutt et al., 1988 ). However, direct evidence showing cause and effect between anabolic steroid administration and myocardial infarction is limited. Many of the case studies reported normal coronary arterial function in anabolic steroid users that experienced an infarct (Kennedy and Lawrence, 1993 ; Luke et al., 1990 ), while others have shown occluded arteries with thrombus formation (Ferenchick and Adelman, 1992 ; Gunes et al., 2004 ; McNutt et al., 1988 ). Still, some of these studies have reported abnormal lipoprotein concentrations with serum cholesterol levels nearly approaching 600 mg·dl -1 (McNutt et al., 1988 ). Interestingly, in most case studies the effects of diet or genetic predisposition for cardiovascular disease were not disseminated and could not be excluded as contributing factors.

Alterations in serum lipids, elevations in blood pressure and an increased risk of thrombosis are additional cardiovascular changes often associated with anabolic steroid use (Cohen et al., 1986 ; Costill et al., 1984 ; Dhar et al., 2005 ; Kuipers et al., 1991 ; LaRoche, 1990 ). The magnitude of these effects may differ depending upon the type, duration, and volume of anabolic steroids used. Interesting to note is that these effects appear to be reversible upon cessation of the drug (Dhar et al., 2005 , Parssinen and Seppala, 2002 ). In instances where the athlete remains on anabolic steroids for prolonged periods of time (e.g “abuse”), the risk for developing cardiovascular disease may increase. Sader and colleagues ( 2001 ) noted that despite low HDL levels in bodybuilders, anabolic steroid use did not appear to cause significant vascular dysfunction. Interestingly, athletes participating in power sports appear to have a higher incidence of cardiovascular dysfunction than other athletes, regardless of androgen use (Tikkanen et al., 1991 ; 1998 ). Thus, a strength/power athlete with underlying cardiovascular abnormalities that begins using anabolic steroids is at a much higher risk for cardiovascular disease. However, anabolic steroid-induced changes in lipid profiles may not, per se, lead to significant cardiovascular dysfunction.

The risk of sudden death from cardiovascular complications in the athlete consuming anabolic steroids can occur in the absence of atherosclerosis. Thrombus formation has been reported in several case studies of bodybuilders self-administering anabolic steroids (Ferenchick, 1991 ; Fineschi et al., 2001 ; McCarthy et al., 2000 ; Sahraian et al., 2004 ). Melchert and Welder, 1995 have suggested that the use of 17α-alkylated steroids (primarily from oral ingestion) likely present the highest risk for thrombus formation. They hypothesized that anabolic steroid consumption can elevate platelet aggregation, possibly through an increase in platelet production of thromboxane A 2 and/or decreasing platelet production of prostaglandin PgI 2, resulting in a hypercoagulable state.

Left ventricular function and anabolic steroid use/abuse has been examined. Climstein and colleagues ( 2003 ) demonstrated that highly strength-trained athletes, with no history of anabolic steroid use exhibited a higher incidence of wave form abnormalities relative to recreationally-trained or sedentary individuals. However, when these athletes self-administered anabolic steroids, a higher percentage of wave form abnormalities were exhibited. Further evidence suggestive of left ventricular dysfunction has been reported in rodent models. A study on rats has shown that 8 weeks of testosterone administration increased left ventricle stiffness and caused a reduction in stroke volume and cardiac performance (LeGros et al., 2000 ). It was hypothesized that the increased stiffness may have been related to formation of crosslinks between adjacent collagen molecules within the heart. Others have suggested that anabolic steroid use may suppress the increases normally shown in myocardial capillary density following prolonged endurance training (Tagarakis et al., 2000 ). However, there are a number of interpretational issues with this study. The changes reported were not statistically significant. In addition, the exercise stimulus employed (prolonged endurance training) is not the primary mode of exercise frequently used by anabolic steroid users. Resistance training, independent of anabolic steroid administration, has been shown to increase left ventricular wall and septal thickness due to the high magnitude of pressure overload (Fleck et al., 1993 ; Fleck, 2003 ; Hoffman, 2002 ). This is known as concentric hypertrophy and does not occur at the expense of left ventricular diameter. In general, cardiac hypertrophy (resulting from a pressure overload, i.e. hypertension) may not be accompanied by a proportional increase in capillary density (Tomanek, 1986 ). Therefore, the potential for a reduction in coronary vasculature density exists for the resistance- trained athlete. However, it does not appear to pose a significant cardiac risk for these athletes. Recent observations have shown a dose-dependent increase in left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH) in anabolic steroid users (Parssinen and Seppala, 2002 ). This may have the potential to exacerbate the reduction in coronary vasculature density. However, the authors have acknowledged that their results may have been potentiated by a concomitant use of human growth hormone by their subjects. Other studies have failed to show additive effects of anabolic steroid administration and LVH in resistance-trained athletes (Palatini et al., 1996 ; Dickerman et al., 1998 ).

Hepatic System

An elevated risk for liver tumors, damage, hepatocellular adenomas, and peliosis hepatitis are often associated with anabolic steroid use or abuse. This is likely due to the liver being the primary site of steroid clearance. In addition, hepatic cancers have been shown to generally occur with higher frequency in males compared to females (El-Serag, 2004 ). It is thought that high endogenous concentrations of testosterone and low estrogen concentrations increase the risk of hepatic carcinomas (Tanaka et al., 2000 ). However, this appears to be prevalent for men with pre-existing liver disease. In normal, healthy men the relationship between testosterone concentrations and liver cancer has not been firmly established. Additional reports of liver cancer and anabolic steroids have been reported in non- athletic populations being treated with testosterone for aplastic anemia (Nakao et al., 2000 ). In regards to liver cancer and disease in athletes consuming anabolic steroids, many concerns have been raised based primarily on several case studies that have documented liver disease in bodybuilders using anabolic steroids (Cabasso, 1994 ; Socas et al., 2005 ; Soe et al., 1992 ).

A few studies have recently questioned the risk to hepatic dysfunction from anabolic steroid use (Dickerman et al., 1999 ). A recent study examining the blood chemistry of bodybuilders self-administering anabolic steroids reported elevations in aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and creatine kinase (CK), but no change in the often-regarded more sensitive gamma- glutamyltranspeptidase (GGT) concentration (Dickerman et al., 1999 ). Thus, some experts have questioned these criteria tools because of the difficulty in dissociating the effects of muscle damage resulting from training from potential liver dysfunction. This has prompted some researchers to suggest that steroid-induced hepatotoxicity may be overstated. Another study involved a survey sent to physicians asking them to provide a diagnosis for a 28-year-old anabolic steroid using bodybuilder with abnormal serum chemistry profile (elevations in AST, ALT, CK, but with a normal GGT) (Pertusi et al., 2001 ). The majority of physicians (63%) indicated liver disease as the primary diagnosis as 56% of physicians failed to acknowledge the potential role of muscle damage or disease thereby increasing the likelihood of overemphasized anabolic steroid-induced hepatotoxicity diagnoses. Many case reports involving anabolic steroid administration and hepatic cancers examined individuals who were treated with oral steroids (17α-alkylated) for many years. No cysts or tumors have been reported in athletes using 17β-alkylated steroids. Thus, evidence appears to indicate that the risk for hepatic disease from anabolic steroid use may not be as high as the medical community had originally thought although a risk does exist especially with oral anabolic steroid use or abuse.

Bone and Connective Tissue

The issue of anabolic steroids and bone growth has been examined in both young and adult populations. In both populations, androgens have been successfully used as part of the treatment for growth delay (Albanese et al., 1994 ; Bagatell and Bremner, 1996 ; Doeker et al., 1998 ), and for osteoporosis in women (Geusens et al., 1986 ). Androgens are bi-phasic in that they stimulate endochondral bone formation and induce growth plate closure at the end of puberty. The actions of androgens on the growth plate are mediated to a large extent by aromatization to estrogens (Vanderschueren et al., 2004 ; Hoffman, 2002 ). Anabolic steroid use results in significant elevations in estrogens thought to impact premature closure of the growth plate. The acceleration of growth in adolescents treated with testosterone has raised concern for the premature closure of the epiphyseal plate (NIDA, 1996 ; Sturmi and Diorio, 1998 ). However, there does not appear to be any reports documenting the occurrence of premature stunted growth inadolescents taking anabolic steroids. Interesting, anabolic steroid administration in colts has been reported to delay epiphyseal plate closure (Koskinen and Katila, 1997 ). Although comparisons between humans and animals are difficult to make, suprapharmacological dosages that most athletes use may pose a greater risk than the doses studied to date. Thus, for the adolescent athlete using anabolic steroids the risk of premature epiphyseal plate closure may exist.

Anabolic steroids have been suggested to increase the risk of tendon tears in athletes (David et al., 1994 ; Stannard and Bucknell, 1993 ). Studies in mice have suggested that anabolic steroids may lead to degeneration of collagen (proportional to duration of steroid administration) and potentially lead to a decrease in tensile strength (Michna, 1986 ). In addition, a decrease in collagen synthesis has been reported from anabolic steroid administration in rats (Karpakka et al., 1992 ). The response in humans has been less clear. Mechanical failure has been suggested as a mechanism in anabolic steroid-using athletes. Skeletal muscle adaptations (i.e. hypertrophy and strength increases) take place rather rapidly in comparison to connective tissue. Therefore, tendon injuries in athletes are thought to occur from a rapid increase in training intensity and volume where connective tissue fails to withstand the overload. However, case reports of spontaneous tendon ruptures of weightlifters and athletes are limited.Although experimental data from animal models suggest that anabolic steroids may alter biomechanical properties of tendons, ultrastructural evidence supporting this claim is lacking. One study has shown that high doses of anabolic steroids decrease the degradation and increase the synthesis of type I collagen (Parssinen et al., 2000 ). Evans and colleagues ( 1998 ) performed an ultrastructural analysis on ruptured tendons from anabolic steroid users. They concluded that anabolic steroids did not induce any ultrastructural collagen changes that would increase the risk of tendon ruptures. Although the incidences of tendon rupture in anabolic steroid users should not be discounted, it is important to consider it in relation to the mechanical stress encountered from the rapid increases in muscular performance. Prospective research on anabolic steroid use and connective tissue injury is warranted.

Psychological and Behavioral

An issue that is often raised with anabolic steroid use is the psychological and behavioral effects. Increases in aggressiveness, arousal and irritability have been associated with anabolic steroid use. This has potentially beneficial and harmful implications. Elevations in arousal and self-esteem may be a positive side effect for the athlete. The increase in aggressiveness is a benefit that athletes participating in a contact sport may possess. However, increased aggressiveness may occur outside of the athletic arena thereby posing significant risks for anabolic steroid users and those they come in contact with. Anabolic steroids are associated with mood swings and increases in psychotic episodes. Studies have shown that nearly 60% of anabolic steroid users experience increases in irritability and aggressiveness (Pope and Katz, 1994 ; Silvester, 1995 ). A recent study by Pope and colleagues ( 2000 ) reported that significant elevations in aggressiveness and manic scores were observed following 12 weeks of testosterone cypionate injections in a controlled double-blind cross-over study. Interestingly, the results of this study were not uniform across the subjects. Most subjects showed little psychological effect and few developed prominent effects. A cause and effect relationship has yet to be identified in anabolic steroid users and it does appear that individuals who experience psychological or behavioral changes do recover when steroid use is discontinued (Fudula et al., 2003 ).

Additional Adverse Effects Associated with Anabolic Steroid Use

Other adverse events generally associated with anabolic steroid use include acne, male pattern baldness, gynecomastia, decreased sperm count, testicular atrophy, impotence, and transient infertility. Acne is one of the more common side effects associated with anabolic steroid administration. One study reported that 43% of users experienced acne as a consequence from androgen use (O’Sullivan et al., 2000 ). Few other investigations have been able to prospectively determine the occurrence of side effects associated with androgen administration. Increases in acne are thought to be related to a stimulation of sebaceous glands to produce more oil. The most common sites of acne development are on the face and back. Acne appears to disappear upon cessation of androgen administration.

Male pattern baldness does not appear to be a common adverse effect, but is often discussed as a potential side effect associated with androgen use. This is likely related to the role that androgens have in regulating hair growth (Lee et al., 2005 ). An abnormal expression of a specific cutaneous androgen receptor increases the likelihood of androgenic alopecia (Kaufman and Dawber, 1999 ; Lee et al., 2005 ). Thus, it is likely that androgenic alopecia observed as a result of exogenous androgen use is more prevalent in individuals that have a genetic predisposition to balding.

Gynecomastia is a common adverse effect associated with anabolic steroid use. Research has demonstrated a prevalence rate of 37% in anabolic steroid users (O’Sullivan et al., 2000 ). Gynecomastia isa benign enlargement of the male breast resulting from an altered estrogen-androgen balance, or increased breast sensitivity to a circulating estrogen level. Increases in estrogen production in men are seen primarily through the aromatization of circulating testosterone. Many anabolic steroid users will use anti-estrogens (selective estrogen receptor modulators) such as tamoxifen and clomiphene or anastrozole which is a nonsteroidal aromatase inhibitor to minimize side effects of estrogen and stimulate testosterone production. Once gynecomastia is diagnosed cosmetic surgery is often needed to correct the problem.

Changes in libido appear to be the most common adverse event (approximately 61% of users) reported in a small sample of anabolic steroid users (O’Sullivan et al., 2000 ). Although testosterone is often used in hypogonadal men to restore normal sexual function, increasing testosterone above the normal physiological range does not appear to increase sexual interest or frequency of sexual behavior in healthy men administered anabolic steroids in supraphysiological dosages (up to 500 mg·wk -1 ) for 14 weeks (Yates et al., 1999 ). Other studies confirm unchanged libido following 10 weeks of anabolic steroid administration in dosages ranging up to 200 mg·wk -1 (Schurmeyer, et al., 1984 ). However, reports do indicate that towards the end of an androgen cycle some men may experience loss of libido (O’Sullivan et al., 2000 ). It was thought that the decreased libido was related to the transient hypogonadism which typically occurs during exogenous androgen administration. Decreases in libido as a result of hypogonadism appear to be a function of high baseline levels of sexual functioning and desire (Schmidt et al., 2004 ). This may explain the conflicting reports seen in the literature. Regardless, changes in libido do appear to normalize once baseline endogenous testosterone concentrations return (Schmidt et al., 2004 ).

Another frequent adverse event relating to sexual function in males administering anabolic steroids is reversible azoospermia and oligospermia (Alen and Suominen, 1984 ; Schurmeyer et al., 1984 ). As exogenous androgen use increases, endogenous testosterone production is reduced. As a result, testicular size is reduced within three months of androgen administration (Alen and Suominen, 1984 ). In addition, sperm concentration and the number of spermatozoa in ejaculate may be reduced or eliminated by 7 weeks of administration (Schurmeyer et al., 1984 ). During this time risk for infertility is elevated. However, the changes seen in testicular volume, sperm count and concentration are reversible. Anabolic steroid-induced hypogonadism returns to baseline levels within 4 months following discontinuation of androgen use (Jarow and Lipshultz, 1990 ), and sperm counts and concentration return to normal during this time frame (Alen and Suominen, 1984 ; Schurmeyer et al., 1984 ).

Medical Issues Associated with Female Steroid Use

In female anabolic steroid users the medical issues are quite different than that shown in men. Deepening of the voice, enlargement of the clitoris, decreased breast size, altered menstruation, hirsutism and male pattern baldness are all clinical features common to hyperandrogenism in females (Derman, 1995 ). Androgen excess may occur as the result of polycystic ovary syndrome, congenital adrenal hyperplasia and possibly Cushing’s syndrome (Derman, 1995 ; Redmond, 1995 ). However, these clinical symptoms are seen in young, female athletes that are self-administering anabolic steroids. In contrast to men, many of these adverse events in the female anabolic steroid user may not be transient (Pavlatos et al., 2001 ).

Long Term Health Issues Associated with Anabolic Steroid Administration

The acute health issues associated with anabolic steroid use appear to be transient and more prevalent in individuals with genetic predisposition (e.g. hair loss, heart disease). It is the long-term effects that become a larger issue. However, limited data are available. In one study in mice, anabolic steroids were administered in relative dosages typically used by bodybuilders. However, the duration of the study was 1/5 the life span of the mouse which is relatively greater than that experienced by most athletes self-administering androgens. The results demonstrated a shortened life span of the mice with evidence of liver, kidney and heart pathology (Bronson and Matherne, 1997 ). In a study on Finnish power lifters, investigators examined 62 athletes who finished in the top 5 in various weight classes between the years 1977 and 1982 (Parssinen et al., 2000 ). These investigators reported that during a 12-year follow-up, the mortality rate for the power lifters was 12.1% compared to 3.1% in a control population. They concluded that their study depicted the detrimental long-term health effects from anabolic steroid use. Others have suggested that prolonged anabolic steroid use may increase the risk for premature death, but this may be more relevant in subjects with substance abuse or underlying psychiatric disease (Petersson et al., 2006 ).

The use of anabolic steroids in strength/power athletes has been reported for more than 50 years in North America. As discussed in the beginning of this review, during the 1970’s and 1980’s anecdotal reports on the rampant use of anabolic steroids in professional athletes were prevalent. However, little information is available concerning steroid-related diseases or associated deaths in these former strength/power athletes who are now well into middle age. Regardless, research should focus on these former athletes to ascertain possible long-term effects from androgen use.

Is There a Clinical Role of Androgenic Anabolic Steroids?

The efficacy of anabolic steroids in enhancing muscle strength and lean tissue accruement is no longer an issue for debate. While the issue of medical risks in individuals self-administering anabolic steroids is still being hotly debated, the medical community is no longer denying the potential clinical use of these androgens (Dobs, 1999 ). In recent years clinical treatment with anabolic steroids has increased lean tissue and improved daily functional performance in AIDS patients (Strawford et al., 1999 ) patients receiving dialysis (Johansen et al., 1999 ), patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (Ferreira et al., 1998 ), and patients recovering from a myocardial infarction (Nahrendorf et al., 2003 ). In addition, research has demonstrated a positive effect on healing from muscle contusion injuries (Beiner et al., 1999 ). Although the medical community has generally taken a conservative approach to promoting anabolic steroids as part of a treatment plan in combating diseases involving muscle wasting, the body of knowledge that has developed indicates the potential positive effects of androgen therapy for certain diseased populations.

Conclusions

For many years the scientific and medical communities depicted a lack of efficacy and serious adverse effects from anabolic steroid use. However, competitive athletes continued to experiment with, use, and abuse anabolic steroids on a regular basis to enhance athletic performance despite the potential harmful side effects. The empirical evidence that the athletes viewed may have led to the development of distrust between the athletic and medical communities. Science has been lagging several years behind the experimental practices of athletes. In fact, most athletes consume anabolic steroids on a trial and error approach based on information gained from other athletes, coaches, websites, or gym “gurus.” Science has lacked in its approach to study anabolic steroids because only few studies have examined long-term cyclical patterns, high doses, and the effects of stacking different brands of steroids. These practices are common to the athletic community and not for the medicinal purposes of anabolic steroid therapy. In addition, some athletes (especially bodybuilders) have experimented with drugs unbeknown to the medical community, i.e. insulin, thyroid hormones, and site-specific enhancers such as Synthol and Esiclene to name a few.

When examining the potential medical issues associated with anabolic steroid use, evidence indicates that most known side effects are transient. More so, few studies have been able to directly link anabolic steroids to many of the serious adverse effects listed. Although clinical case studies continue to link anabolic steroid administration with myocardial infarct, suicide, and cancer, the evidence to support a cause and effect relationship is lacking and it may be other contributing factors (i.e. genetic predisposition, diet, etc.) play a substantial role and potentiate the harmful effects from anabolic steroids. Consistent physician monitoring is critical to the athlete who consumes anabolic steroids. However, many athletes may not undergo extensive medical exams prior to androgen administration and few physicians may be willing to provide such monitoring.

The purpose of this review was not to support or condone anabolic steroid use. Rather, the aim was to discuss pertinent medical issues and provide another perspective in light of the fact that many anabolic steroids users do not appear to prioritize the health/safety hazards or potential adverse medical events. In order to maintain credibility with the athlete, it is important to provide accurate information to the athlete in regards to these performance enhancing drugs, and provide education about alternative means and potential risks. Finally, anabolic steroids have been used legitimately for several clinical purposes such as muscle wasting or hypogonadal related diseases.

Biographies

Jay R. HOFFMAN

The College of New Jersey.

Research interests

Sport supplementation, resistance training, eExercise endocrinology.

E-mail: ude.jnct@jnamffoh

Nicholas A. RATAMESS

Sport supplementation, resistance training, exercise endocrinolgy.

E-mail: ude.jnct@ssematar

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Anabolic Steroids and Sports

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Research Paper

Steroids research paper.

This sample Steroids Research Paper is published for educational and informational purposes only. If you need help writing your assignment, please use our research paper writing service and buy a paper on any topic at affordable price. Also check our tips on how to write a research paper , see the lists of research paper topics , and browse research paper examples .

The generic term steroids refers to a group of substances sharing a common basic chemical structure, many of which function as hormones in the human body. The two best-known classes of human steroid hormones are corticosteroids and anabolic-androgenic steroids. Corticosteroids are hormones secreted by the adrenal gland, such as corti-sol, which modulate a range of physiologic functions, such as inflammatory responses and blood pressure. Many synthetic corticosteroids have been developed, such as hydrocortisone, beclomethasone, and dexamethasone; these synthetic substances have effects similar to those of naturally occurring corticosteroids and are widely prescribed in medicine for a range of conditions. For example, hydrocortisone is often a component of skin creams used to treat poison ivy reactions or other inflammatory skin conditions; beclomethasone is a common component of inhalers used in the treatment of asthma; and high doses of corticosteroids are administered to recipients of organ transplants to prevent rejection of the foreign tissue. In low dosages, corticosteroids have few psychiatric effects, but higher doses may sometimes cause manic symptoms (e.g., euphoria, hyperactivity, increased self-confidence, and impaired judgment) or even psychotic symptoms (e.g., delusions or hallucinations) in some predisposed individuals. Corticosteroids have very little potential for abuse and are rarely ingested by illicit substance abusers.

Anabolic-androgenic steroids represent an entirely different class of hormones. The prototype hormone of this class is the male hormone testosterone, which is secreted primarily by the testes in males. Anabolic-androgenic steroids produce masculinizing (androgenic) effects—such as beard growth, male pattern baldness, and male sexual characteristics—together with muscle-building (anabolic) effects. These latter effects account for the greater muscle mass and lower body fat of men as compared to women. Many synthetic anabolic-androgenic steroids have been developed over the last fifty years. Like testosterone, these synthetic substances produce both anabolic and androgenic effects; there are no purely anabolic or purely androgenic compounds. In medical practice, the principal use of testosterone is in the treatment of hypo-gonadal men—men who do not secrete sufficient testosterone in their own bodies, and who therefore require testosterone supplementation to maintain normal masculine characteristics. Aside from this application, anabolic-androgenic steroids have only very limited medical uses, such as in the treatment of certain forms of anemia.

Unlike corticosteroids, anabolic-androgenic steroids are widely abused by individuals wishing to gain muscle and lose body fat. The great majority of these illicit users are male; women generally do not abuse anabolic-andro-genic steroids because of the drugs’ undesirable masculinizing characteristics, such as beard growth, deepening of the voice, and shrinkage of the breasts. Men generally do not have to worry about these masculinizing effects and therefore may take doses far in excess of the amounts naturally present in the body. Specifically, an average man secretes between 50 and 75 milligrams of testosterone per week in his testes, whereas illicit anabolic-androgenic steroid abusers often ingest the equivalent of 500 to 1,000 milligrams of testosterone per week. When taken in these very high doses, anabolic-androgenic steroids can produce dramatic increases in muscle mass and strength, making it possible for users to far exceed the upper limits of muscularity attainable under natural conditions, without these drugs. Because of these properties, anabolic-androgenic steroids are widely used by athletes in sports requiring strength or muscle mass for feats such as hitting home runs in baseball or playing line positions in American football. In the United States there have been many recent well-publicized cases of prominent professional athletes who were found to be taking anabolic-androgenic steroids, and this issue became a subject of several congressional hearings in 2005. In addition, anabolic-androgenic steroids are increasingly abused by boys and young men who have no particular athletic aspirations, but who simply want to look more muscular. This pattern of abuse is particularly prevalent in North America, Australia, and some European countries—cultures where muscularity is sometimes portrayed as a measure of masculinity. By contrast, anabolic-androgenic steroids are rarely abused for purposes of body image in Asia, probably because Asian cultural traditions do not emphasize muscularity as an index of masculinity. However, anabolic-androgenic steroids are certainly used by some Asian athletes, especially at the elite level because these individuals are seeking a performance advantage, rather than a body-image effect.

In Europe and North America illicit anabolic-androgenic steroid use represents a significant and probably growing public health problem. Taken in massive doses, these hormones may pose long-term medical risks, especially because of their adverse effects on cholesterol levels, which may greatly increase the risk of heart attacks or strokes at an early age (sometimes in the forties or fifties). In addition, high doses of anabolic-androgenic steroids may have psychiatric effects such as irritability, aggressiveness, and even violent behavior (sometimes popularly called “roid rage”) in some individuals. Thus, these drugs may pose a danger not only to users themselves, but even to some nonusers—particularly women—who may become victims of such violence. Men who use anabolic-androgenic steroids for long periods may also suffer depressive symptoms, sometimes accompanied by suicidal thoughts or even successful suicide, if they abruptly stop these drugs. Despite these risks, however, it appears unlikely that illicit anabolic-androgenic steroid use will decline in the near future because these drugs are readily available on the black market and offer a great temptation to men seeking muscle and strength gains.

Bibliography:

• Kanayama, Gen, Harrison G. Pope Jr., Geoffrey Cohane, and James I. Hudson. 2003. Risk Factors for Anabolic-Androgenic Steroid Use among Weightlifters: A Case-Control Study. Drug Alcohol Dependence 71 (1): 77–86.
• Pope, Harrison G., Jr., and Kirk J. Brower. 2005. Anabolic-Androgenic Steroid Abuse. In Comprehensive Textbook of Psychiatry, vol. 3, eds. Benjamin J. Sadock and Virginia A. Sadock, 1318–1328. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins.
• Yesalis, Charles E., ed. 2000. Anabolic Steroids in Sport and Exercise. 2nd ed. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
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Steroids: Mechanism Of Action And Their Effects On The Human Body Research Papers Example

Type of paper: Research Paper

Topic: Body , Human , Muscle , Abuse , Violence , Bullying , Drugs , Health

Words: 1100

Published: 2021/01/03

Steroids according to Klugger (2014) is a class of synthetic or natural organic compounds characterized by a 17 carbon atom molecular structures arranged in four rings (sec. 1). Being carbon-based compounds, steroids exhibit significant biochemical properties at both the cellular and tissue levels in the human body. Naturally, in the human body the steroid groups typically include all the human sex hormones, the bile acids, and the adrenal cortical hormones. Thus, according to Scovell (n.d.), steroids represent a family of somatic lipid molecules (amphipathic molecules) such as cholesterol (sec. 1). What is of primary concern, however, is steroid use and their effects on the human body especially among athletes. Thus according to Husak and Irschick (2009) the use of steroid to enhance athletic ability in the human performance arena has sparked a broad discussion as far as their effect (both long and short term) are concerned (sec. 2). Numerous studies show that steroids have over the years over-inflated the popular demand among individuals especially sportsmen and women and compelled them to conform to the male muscles imagery. Within these spheres of thought, enhancing one’s body is deemed fashionable as it enables an individual to correspond with the muscular and the dexterous bodily shape portrayed by the media and advocated by the extension of time. Historical evidence reveals that since the 1950s, human athletes have in one way or the other attempted to enhance their athletic performance by using steroids. (review by Ryan 1981; George 2003; Hartgens and Kuipers, 2004 as cited in Klugger sec. 1). Nevertheless, whether steroids are clean sufficient remains controversial.According to National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA) (2000), the commonest steroid used by athletes encompass a wide variety of anabolic forms packed with strains of the androgen testosterone. (as cited in "HEALTH - Research Report Series: Anabolic Steroid Abuse", Chapter 1). The choice of such steroids stems from the fact that most of these synthetic steroids possesses both the classical biological androgenic and anabolic effects on men (George, 2003 as cited in Klugger, sec. 1). Other synthetic drugs include steroidal supplements such as dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) and androstenedione ("HEALTH - Research Report Series: Anabolic Steroid Abuse", chapter 2). Scientific literature further divulges that testosterone is principally a male hormone naturally produced in the testis and which has a profound anabolic and androgenic effects. Its major anabolic effects include enhancing rapid tissues and cellular recovery from injury, stimulating somatic growth of muscles and promoting bone density. On the other hand, the androgenic or the masculinizing effects of the testosterone hormone is the growth, development and maintenance of the inherent male characteristics such as muscle mass, testicles, and facial hair. However, testosterone also occur in women though in minute amounts ("Steroids" sec. 1). With such numerous biological significance, steroids have a wider scope of medical applicability such as in the treatment of osteoporosis. However, most men and women who use steroids do so illegally to increase lean muscle mass. Steroids are thus used to reduce the fat level within the body and to stimulate the discharge of testosterone whose high concentration causes the over-inflated growth of the muscular, as well as the skeletal structure of the body. For that reason, steroids mechanism of action stems from their ability to squelch the body's natural fabrication of the stress hormone cortisol preceding physical exercises. This is because naturally, the cortisol hormone is a muscle tissue destroyer and therefore keeping the levels of cortisol low reduces chances of bodily muscle damage. To accomplish this, Anabolic-Androgenic Steroids (AAS) works to block cortisol from binding to the muscle cell's receptor sites in the body. This action as previously revealed diminishes the muscle breakdown process. Consequently, less muscle breakdown translates to less muscle fatigue, which would allow an athlete to recover more quickly from strenuous exercises (Peterson, sec. 3).In addition, AAS also work by limiting the properties of naturally occurring muscle-regulating body hormones such as bile acids and estrogens and augmenting the cumulative effects of other hormones such as testosterone. Biologically speaking, muscle tissues are peppered with receptor sites specific to growth and which requires the correct “key” and “lock” combination to activate and access the sites. Nevertheless, AAS can activate these sites because their chemical alignment is so similar to the natural testosterone hormone. Once the muscle receptor sites are stimulated by these AAS, “a domino effect of metabolic reactions occurs” as the steroid, instructs the body to increase the muscle tissue production process. ("Steroids", sec. 3).In commenting on the mechanism of work and chemistry behind the effects of steroids on the human body, Fahey asserts that anabolic steroids work by enhancing the tissue building properties of the androgens while minimizing its androgenic (sex-linked) properties (sec. 2). To compound their effect on the human body, these synthetic hormones operate by further stimulating the receptor molecules in muscle cells, which in turn activate specific cellular genes to produce the required growth proteins. Steroids also accelerate the activation rates of enzyme systems involved in body protein metabolism. The acceleration of the enzymatic activation rates further enhances protein synthesis and inhibits protein degradation. This phenomenon is referred to as the anti-catabolic effects of AAS. Even though steroids have sufficed the phenomenal image of the fit and muscular male body, they have had profound effects on the human body. According to NIDA, anabolic steroid abuse has increasingly been associated with a broad range of adverse side effects such as acne, cancers, and breast development in men, to unprecedented heart attacks. (sec. 1). However, according to Fahey the major influences of AAS on its users is the rebound effects of cortisol and its receptors with particular problems stemming from psychological addictions to the drugs (sec. 4). Studies reveal that increased levels of the cortisol hormone suppresses the immune system. This makes steroid users more prone to multiple diseases following the “off-use” period and years immediately after steroid administration. Other side effects of ASS are multifaceted spanning across general physical effects, impacts on the musculoskeletal system, psychological effects, and effects on the cardiovascular systems. Conclusively, therefore, despite the widespread interest in steroids and their acclaimed effects on human athletic performance, these drugs have broad implications for the human wellbeing. For instance, the impact of steroids on the human hormonal balance are well documented. Results from numerous studies show that steroid abuse show potentially irreversible and reversible disruption in the proper production of hormones in the human body. Among the possibly reversible hormonal effects, include reduced sperm production and testicular atrophy in male. However, irreversible changes in men include gynecomastia (breast development) and male-pattern baldness. Among the female users, studies show that AAS abuse causes masculinization. Masculinization is expressed majorly by reduced breast size and lessened body fat. Other effects on women include enlarged clitoris, deepened voice, and coarse skin. Even though most of these impacts in female are reversible, continued administration of steroids renders them irreversible.

Works Cited

Better Health Channel. "Steroids." Better Health Channel. N.p., 18 Feb. 2015. Web. 25 Mar. 2015. <http://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/bhcv2/bhcarticles.nsf/pages/Steroids>. Fahey, Thomas D. "ANABOLIC-ANDROGENIC STEROIDS: Mechanism of Action and Effects on Performance." Encyclopedia of Sports Medicine and Science. N.p., 19 Apr. 1988. Web. 25 Mar. 2015. <www.sportsci.org/encyc/anabster/anabster.html>. "HEALTH - Research Report Series: Anabolic Steroid Abuse." The Endowment for Human Development - Improving Lifelong Health, One Pregnancy at a Time. N.p., n.d. Web. 25 Mar. 2015. <http://www.ehd.org/health_steroids_5.php>. Husak, Jerry F., and Duncan J. Irschick. "Steroid Use and Human Performance: Lessons for Integrative Biologists." Integrative and Comparative Biology 49.4 (2009): 354 - 364. Web. 25 Mar. 2015. <http://icb.oxfordjournals.org/content/49/4/354.full>. Kluger, Ronald H. "Steroid | Chemical Compound." Encyclopedia Britannica. 2014. Web. 25 Mar. 2015. <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/565825/steroid>. National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA). "What Are the Health Consequences of Steroid Abuse?" National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA). N.p., n.d. Web. 25 Mar. 2015. <http://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/research-reports/anabolic-steroid-abuse/what-are-health-consequences-steroid-abuse>. Peterson, Dan. "How Do Steroids Work?" LiveScience.com. N.p., 19 Feb. 2009. Web. 25 Mar. 2015. <http://www.livescience.com/3349-steroids-work.html>. Scovell, William M. "Steroids - Chemistry Encyclopedia - Structure, Water, Proteins, Number, Salt, Molecule, Atom." Chemistry: Foundations and Applications. N.p., n.d. Web. 25 Mar. 2015. <http://www.chemistryexplained.com/St-Te/Steroids.html>.

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AI Index Report

Welcome to the seventh edition of the AI Index report. The 2024 Index is our most comprehensive to date and arrives at an important moment when AI’s influence on society has never been more pronounced. This year, we have broadened our scope to more extensively cover essential trends such as technical advancements in AI, public perceptions of the technology, and the geopolitical dynamics surrounding its development. Featuring more original data than ever before, this edition introduces new estimates on AI training costs, detailed analyses of the responsible AI landscape, and an entirely new chapter dedicated to AI’s impact on science and medicine.

Read the 2024 AI Index Report

The AI Index report tracks, collates, distills, and visualizes data related to artificial intelligence (AI). Our mission is to provide unbiased, rigorously vetted, broadly sourced data in order for policymakers, researchers, executives, journalists, and the general public to develop a more thorough and nuanced understanding of the complex field of AI.

The AI Index is recognized globally as one of the most credible and authoritative sources for data and insights on artificial intelligence. Previous editions have been cited in major newspapers, including the The New York Times, Bloomberg, and The Guardian, have amassed hundreds of academic citations, and been referenced by high-level policymakers in the United States, the United Kingdom, and the European Union, among other places. This year’s edition surpasses all previous ones in size, scale, and scope, reflecting the growing significance that AI is coming to hold in all of our lives.

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A decade ago, the best AI systems in the world were unable to classify objects in images at a human level. AI struggled with language comprehension and could not solve math problems. Today, AI systems routinely exceed human performance on standard benchmarks.

Progress accelerated in 2023. New state-of-the-art systems like GPT-4, Gemini, and Claude 3 are impressively multimodal: They can generate fluent text in dozens of languages, process audio, and even explain memes. As AI has improved, it has increasingly forced its way into our lives. Companies are racing to build AI-based products, and AI is increasingly being used by the general public. But current AI technology still has significant problems. It cannot reliably deal with facts, perform complex reasoning, or explain its conclusions.

AI faces two interrelated futures. First, technology continues to improve and is increasingly used, having major consequences for productivity and employment. It can be put to both good and bad uses. In the second future, the adoption of AI is constrained by the limitations of the technology. Regardless of which future unfolds, governments are increasingly concerned. They are stepping in to encourage the upside, such as funding university R&D and incentivizing private investment. Governments are also aiming to manage the potential downsides, such as impacts on employment, privacy concerns, misinformation, and intellectual property rights.

As AI rapidly evolves, the AI Index aims to help the AI community, policymakers, business leaders, journalists, and the general public navigate this complex landscape. It provides ongoing, objective snapshots tracking several key areas: technical progress in AI capabilities, the community and investments driving AI development and deployment, public opinion on current and potential future impacts, and policy measures taken to stimulate AI innovation while managing its risks and challenges. By comprehensively monitoring the AI ecosystem, the Index serves as an important resource for understanding this transformative technological force.

On the technical front, this year’s AI Index reports that the number of new large language models released worldwide in 2023 doubled over the previous year. Two-thirds were open-source, but the highest-performing models came from industry players with closed systems. Gemini Ultra became the first LLM to reach human-level performance on the Massive Multitask Language Understanding (MMLU) benchmark; performance on the benchmark has improved by 15 percentage points since last year. Additionally, GPT-4 achieved an impressive 0.97 mean win rate score on the comprehensive Holistic Evaluation of Language Models (HELM) benchmark, which includes MMLU among other evaluations.

Although global private investment in AI decreased for the second consecutive year, investment in generative AI skyrocketed. More Fortune 500 earnings calls mentioned AI than ever before, and new studies show that AI tangibly boosts worker productivity. On the policymaking front, global mentions of AI in legislative proceedings have never been higher. U.S. regulators passed more AI-related regulations in 2023 than ever before. Still, many expressed concerns about AI’s ability to generate deepfakes and impact elections. The public became more aware of AI, and studies suggest that they responded with nervousness.

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Students Are Likely Writing Millions of Papers With AI

Students have submitted more than 22 million papers that may have used generative AI in the past year, new data released by plagiarism detection company Turnitin shows.

A year ago, Turnitin rolled out an AI writing detection tool that was trained on its trove of papers written by students as well as other AI-generated texts. Since then, more than 200 million papers have been reviewed by the detector, predominantly written by high school and college students. Turnitin found that 11 percent may contain AI-written language in 20 percent of its content, with 3 percent of the total papers reviewed getting flagged for having 80 percent or more AI writing. (Turnitin is owned by Advance, which also owns Condé Nast, publisher of WIRED.) Turnitin says its detector has a false positive rate of less than 1 percent when analyzing full documents.

ChatGPT’s launch was met with knee-jerk fears that the English class essay would die . The chatbot can synthesize information and distill it near-instantly—but that doesn’t mean it always gets it right. Generative AI has been known to hallucinate , creating its own facts and citing academic references that don’t actually exist. Generative AI chatbots have also been caught spitting out biased text on gender and race . Despite those flaws, students have used chatbots for research, organizing ideas, and as a ghostwriter . Traces of chatbots have even been found in peer-reviewed, published academic writing .

Teachers understandably want to hold students accountable for using generative AI without permission or disclosure. But that requires a reliable way to prove AI was used in a given assignment. Instructors have tried at times to find their own solutions to detecting AI in writing, using messy, untested methods to enforce rules , and distressing students. Further complicating the issue, some teachers are even using generative AI in their grading processes.

Detecting the use of gen AI is tricky. It’s not as easy as flagging plagiarism, because generated text is still original text. Plus, there’s nuance to how students use gen AI; some may ask chatbots to write their papers for them in large chunks or in full, while others may use the tools as an aid or a brainstorm partner.

Students also aren't tempted by only ChatGPT and similar large language models. So-called word spinners are another type of AI software that rewrites text, and may make it less obvious to a teacher that work was plagiarized or generated by AI. Turnitin’s AI detector has also been updated to detect word spinners, says Annie Chechitelli, the company’s chief product officer. It can also flag work that was rewritten by services like spell checker Grammarly, which now has its own generative AI tool . As familiar software increasingly adds generative AI components, what students can and can’t use becomes more muddled.

Detection tools themselves have a risk of bias. English language learners may be more likely to set them off; a 2023 study found a 61.3 percent false positive rate when evaluating Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL) exams with seven different AI detectors. The study did not examine Turnitin’s version. The company says it has trained its detector on writing from English language learners as well as native English speakers. A study published in October found that Turnitin was among the most accurate of 16 AI language detectors in a test that had the tool examine undergraduate papers and AI-generated papers.

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Schools that use Turnitin had access to the AI detection software for a free pilot period, which ended at the start of this year. Chechitelli says a majority of the service’s clients have opted to purchase the AI detection. But the risks of false positives and bias against English learners have led some universities to ditch the tools for now. Montclair State University in New Jersey announced in November that it would pause use of Turnitin’s AI detector. Vanderbilt University and Northwestern University did the same last summer.

“This is hard. I understand why people want a tool,” says Emily Isaacs, executive director of the Office of Faculty Excellence at Montclair State. But Isaacs says the university is concerned about potentially biased results from AI detectors, as well as the fact that the tools can’t provide confirmation the way they can with plagiarism. Plus, Montclair State doesn’t want to put a blanket ban on AI, which will have some place in academia. With time and more trust in the tools, the policies could change. “It’s not a forever decision, it’s a now decision,” Isaacs says.

Chechitelli says the Turnitin tool shouldn’t be the only consideration in passing or failing a student. Instead, it’s a chance for teachers to start conversations with students that touch on all of the nuance in using generative AI. “People don’t really know where that line should be,” she says.

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About 1 in 5 U.S. teens who’ve heard of ChatGPT have used it for schoolwork

Roughly one-in-five teenagers who have heard of ChatGPT say they have used it to help them do their schoolwork, according to a new Pew Research Center survey of U.S. teens ages 13 to 17. With a majority of teens having heard of ChatGPT, that amounts to 13% of all U.S. teens who have used the generative artificial intelligence (AI) chatbot in their schoolwork.

Teens in higher grade levels are particularly likely to have used the chatbot to help them with schoolwork. About one-quarter of 11th and 12th graders who have heard of ChatGPT say they have done this. This share drops to 17% among 9th and 10th graders and 12% among 7th and 8th graders.

There is no significant difference between teen boys and girls who have used ChatGPT in this way.

The introduction of ChatGPT last year has led to much discussion about its role in schools , especially whether schools should integrate the new technology into the classroom or ban it .

Pew Research Center conducted this analysis to understand American teens’ use and understanding of ChatGPT in the school setting.

The Center conducted an online survey of 1,453 U.S. teens from Sept. 26 to Oct. 23, 2023, via Ipsos. Ipsos recruited the teens via their parents, who were part of its KnowledgePanel . The KnowledgePanel is a probability-based web panel recruited primarily through national, random sampling of residential addresses. The survey was weighted to be representative of U.S. teens ages 13 to 17 who live with their parents by age, gender, race and ethnicity, household income, and other categories.

This research was reviewed and approved by an external institutional review board (IRB), Advarra, an independent committee of experts specializing in helping to protect the rights of research participants.

Here are the  questions used for this analysis , along with responses, and its  methodology .

Teens’ awareness of ChatGPT

Overall, two-thirds of U.S. teens say they have heard of ChatGPT, including 23% who have heard a lot about it. But awareness varies by race and ethnicity, as well as by household income:

• 72% of White teens say they’ve heard at least a little about ChatGPT, compared with 63% of Hispanic teens and 56% of Black teens.
• 75% of teens living in households that make $75,000 or more annually have heard of ChatGPT. Much smaller shares in households with incomes between $30,000 and $74,999 (58%) and less than $30,000 (41%) say the same.

Teens who are more aware of ChatGPT are more likely to use it for schoolwork. Roughly a third of teens who have heard a lot about ChatGPT (36%) have used it for schoolwork, far higher than the 10% among those who have heard a little about it.

When do teens think it’s OK for students to use ChatGPT?

For teens, whether it is – or is not – acceptable for students to use ChatGPT depends on what it is being used for.

There is a fair amount of support for using the chatbot to explore a topic. Roughly seven-in-ten teens who have heard of ChatGPT say it’s acceptable to use when they are researching something new, while 13% say it is not acceptable.

However, there is much less support for using ChatGPT to do the work itself. Just one-in-five teens who have heard of ChatGPT say it’s acceptable to use it to write essays, while 57% say it is not acceptable. And 39% say it’s acceptable to use ChatGPT to solve math problems, while a similar share of teens (36%) say it’s not acceptable.

Some teens are uncertain about whether it’s acceptable to use ChatGPT for these tasks. Between 18% and 24% say they aren’t sure whether these are acceptable use cases for ChatGPT.

Those who have heard a lot about ChatGPT are more likely than those who have only heard a little about it to say it’s acceptable to use the chatbot to research topics, solve math problems and write essays. For instance, 54% of teens who have heard a lot about ChatGPT say it’s acceptable to use it to solve math problems, compared with 32% among those who have heard a little about it.

Note: Here are the  questions used for this analysis , along with responses, and its  methodology .

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Many Americans think generative AI programs should credit the sources they rely on

Americans’ use of chatgpt is ticking up, but few trust its election information, q&a: how we used large language models to identify guests on popular podcasts, striking findings from 2023, what the data says about americans’ views of artificial intelligence, most popular.

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