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Digital Commons @ USF > College of Behavioral and Community Sciences > Criminology > Theses and Dissertations

Criminology Theses and Dissertations

Theses/dissertations from 2023 2023.

Efficacy of Online Social Movements for Sparking Change: The Case of the Missing Murdered and Indigenous Women Movement (#MMIW) , Kacy A. Bleeker

An Examination of Racial Disparities in Arrest Across Florida Counties, 1998-2018: A Test of the Racial Threat and Political Representation Hypotheses , Xavier D. Burch

The Invisible Victims of Commercial Sexual Exploitation: Boys and Their Barriers to Access to Services , Amanda L. Connella

Damned & Damned: Examining Vexatious Litigation and the Vexatious Litigant Statute in Florida Courts , Sarah L. Harper

The Contributions of Mental Health Issues, Traumatic Brain Injury, and Adverse Childhood Experiences to Recidivism Among Rural Jail Incarcerees , Lauren N. Miley

Assessing the Relationship Between True Crime Documentary and Podcast Consumption, Fear of Crime, and Protective Behaviors , Lauren A. Tremblay

Police Officers’ Perceptions of Gunshot Detection Technology , Courtney L. Weber

Theses/Dissertations from 2022 2022

A Macro Social Examination of the Relationship Between Disabilities and Crime Using Neighborhood and County Level Data , Natasha A. Baloch

Racial Differences in Perceptions of Sanction Severity , Sarah L. Franklin

Juvenile Homicide Offenders: A Life-Course Perspective , Norair Khachatryan

Exploring the Effectiveness of a Life-Skills Program in a Florida Prison Through a Social Bond and General Strain Theory Perspective , Danielle M. Thomas

Theses/Dissertations from 2021 2021

Clean Water for All: Examining Safe Drinking Water Act Violations of Water Systems and Community Characteristics , Junghwan Bae

Morality and Offender Decision-Making: Testing the Empirical Relationship and Examining Methodological Implications , Jacquelyn Burckley

The Ring of Gyges 2.0: How Anonymity Providing Behaviors Affect Willingness to Participate in Online Deviance , Cassandra E. Dodge

A Macro Analysis of Illegal Hunting and Fishing Across Texas Counties: Using an Economic Structural Approach , Leo J. Genco Jr.

Self-Protection in Cyberspace: Assessing the Processual Relationship Between Thoughtfully Reflective Decision Making, Protection Motivation Theory, Cyber Hygiene, and Victimization , C. Jordan Howell

Racial Threat Theory: A Test of the Economic Threat Hypothesis , Carl L. Reeds

Online Perceptions of Panamanian Prisons and Incarcerated persons: An analysis of YouTube user comments , Mahaleth J. Sotelo

Theses/Dissertations from 2020 2020

Toxic Colonialism and Green Victimization of Native Americans: An Examination of the Genocidal Impacts of Uranium Mining , Averi R. Fegadel

Cross-National Incarceration Rates as Behavior of Law , Christopher J. Marier

The Effects of Perceived Motivations and Mental Distress on the Likelihood of Reporting and Engaging in Self-Protective Measures Among Victims of Stalking , Daniela Oramas Mora

Mental Health and In-Prison Experiences: Examining Socioeconomic and Sex Differences in the Effect of Mental Illness on Institutional Misconduct and Disciplinary Segregation , Rachel E. Severson

Theses/Dissertations from 2019 2019

Dating Application Facilitated Victimization: An Examination of Lifestyle-Routine Activities, Self-Control, and Self-Efficacy , Vanessa Centelles

Social Constructionism and Cultivation Theory in Development of the Juvenile “Super-Predator” , Elizabeth R. Jackson-Cruz

Bystander Intervention, Victimization, and Routine Activities Theory: An Examination of Feminist Routine Activities Theory in Cyber Space , Jennifer A. Leili

Sexual Assault and Robbery Disclosure: An Examination of Black’s Theory of the Behavior of Law , Caitlyn N. Muniz

Mass Shootings and Gun Sales: A Study on the Influence of Red and Blue Power , Maria Jose Rozo Osuna

A Multi-dimensional Macrolevel Study of Drug Enforcement Strategies, Heroin Prices, and Heroin Consumption Rates , Alexander G. Toth

Theses/Dissertations from 2018 2018

The Impact of a Religious/Spiritual Turning Point on Desistance: A Lifecourse Assessment of Racial/Ethnic Differences , Rhissa Briones Robinson

Political Decisions on Police Expenditures: Examining the Potential Relationship Between Political Structure, Police Expenditures and the Volume of Crime Across US States , Xavier D. Burch

Identifying the Personal and Perceived Organizational Characteristics Associated with Job Satisfaction Among Juvenile Probation Staff , Julie M. Krupa

The Role of Organizational Justice in Predicting Attitudes Toward Body-Worn Cameras in Police Officers , Nathaniel L. Lawshe

Yet Another Ferguson Effect: An Exploratory Content Analysis of News Stories on Police Brutality and Deadly Force Before and After the Killing of Michael Brown , Carl Root

The Role of Race/Ethnicity and Risk Assessment on Juvenile Case Outcomes , Tayler N. Shreve

Theses/Dissertations from 2017 2017

Intimate Partner Violence and the Capacity and Desire for Self-Control , Krista Taralynne Brewer

School Shootings in the United States from 1997 to 2012: A Content Analysis of Media Coverage , Victoria N. Iannuzzi

Chronic Runaway Youth: A Gender-Based Analysis , Michelle N. Jeanis

A Test of Wikström’s Situational Action Theory Using Self-Report Data on Intimate Partner Violence , Lauren Nicole Miley

An Exploratory Study of Macro-Social Correlates of Online Property Crime , Hyojong Song

Female Incarceration and Prison Social Order: An Examination of Gender Differences in Prison Misconduct and In-Prison Punishments , Elisa L. Toman

Adverse Childhood Experiences and Their Role as Mitigators for Youthful and Non-Youthful Offenders in Capital Sentencing Cases , Jessica R. Trapassi

Theses/Dissertations from 2016 2016

Disinhibition, Violence Exposure, and Delinquency: A Test of How Self-Control Affects the Impact of Exposure to Violence , Wyatt Brown

The Guilty But Mentally Ill Verdict: Assessing the Impact of Informing Jurors of Verdict Consequences , Erin Elizabeth Cotrone

The Relationship between Psychopathic Personality Traits and Lying , Jason A. Dobrow

Delving into the Heart of Victimization Risk: Examining the Interactive Relationship between Demographic Factors and Context , Amy Sheena Eggers

A Power Conflict Approach to Animal Cruelty: Examining How Economic Power Influences the Creation of Animal Cruelty Laws , Leonard J. Genco

The Role of Gender in Self-Control and Intimate Partner Violence , Laura Marie Gulledge

The Restrictive Deterrent Effect of Warning Banners in a Compromised Computer System , Christian Jordan-Michael Howell

Tactics of Sexual Control and Negative Health Outcomes , Anna Elizabeth Kleppe

The Applicability of Criminology to Terrorism Studies: An Exploratory Study of ISIS Supporters in the United States , Amanda Marie Sharp Parker

The Path to Violent Behavior: The Harmful Aftermath of Childhood Trauma , Nicholas Michael Perez

The Effects of Racial Bias on Perceptions of Intimate Partner Violence Scenarios , Batya Yisraela Rubenstein

Theses/Dissertations from 2015 2015

Reel or Reality? The Portrayal of Prostitution in Major Motion Pictures , Raleigh Blasdell

Psychopathy and Perception of Vulnerability , Barbara Joyce Dinkins

Effect of Empathy on Death Penalty Support in Relation to the Racial Divide and Gender Gap , Brian Godcharles

Exploring the Interactive Effects of Social Learning Theory and Psychopathy on Serious Juvenile Delinquency , Brandy Barenna Henderson

Tampa Electric Company's Big Bend Utility Plant in Hillsborough County, Florida: A Case Study , Lynne M. Hodalski-Champagne

Thirty Year Follow-Up of Juvenile Homicide Offenders , Norair Khachatryan

Organized Crime in Insurance Fraud: An Empirical Analysis of Staged Automobile Accident Rings , Chris Longino

The Role of Social Support in the Disclosure and Recovery Process of Rape Victims , Jessica Nicole Mitchell

Evaluating the Social Control of Banking Crimes: An Examination of Anti-Money Laundering Deficiencies and Industry Success , Erin M. Mulligan

Elite Deviance, Organized Crime, and Homicide: A Cross-National Quantitative Analysis , Carol L.s. Trent

An Evaluation of the Utah First District Mental Health Court: Gauging the Efficacy of Diverting Offenders Suffering With Serious Mental Illness , Stephen Guy VanGeem

Rape, Race, and Capital Punishment in North Carolina: A Qualitative Approach to Examining an Enduring Cultural Legacy , Douglas Wholl

Theses/Dissertations from 2014 2014

The Tattoo: A Mark of Subversion, Deviance, or Mainstream Self-Expression? , Jocelyn Camacho

Juvenile and Adult Involvement in Double Parricide and Familicide in the U.S.: An Empirical Analysis of 20 Years of Data , Averi Rebekah Fegadel

Predicting Successful Drug Court Graduation: Exploring Demographic and Psychosocial Factors among Medication-Assisted Drug Court Treatment Clients , Autumn Michelle Frei

Experimentally Evaluating Statistical Patterns of Offending Typology For Burglary: A Replication Study , Lance Edwin Gilmore

Developmental Trajectories of Physical Aggression and Nonaggressive Rule-Breaking among At-risk Males and Females during Late Childhood and Early Adolescence , Eugena Givens

Predicting Fear of Crime using a Multilevel and Multi-Model Approach: A Study in Hillsborough County , Jonathan Maskaly

Public Knowledge and Sentiments about Elite Deviance , Cedric Michel

The Influence of Community Context on Social Control: A Multi-Level Examination of the Relationship between Race/Ethnicity, Drug Offending, and Juvenile Court Outcomes , Jennifer Peck

Theses/Dissertations from 2013 2013

Assessing the Relationship Between Hotspots of Lead and Hotspots of Crime , Kimberly L. Barrett

A Life-Course Approach to Sexual Offending: Examining the Continuity of Juvenile Sexual Offending into Adulthood and Subsequent Patterns of Recidivism , Maude Beaudry-Cyr

Examining the link between self-control and misconduct in a multi-agency sample of police supervisors: A test of two theories , Christopher Matthew Donner

The Impact of Hyperfemininity on Explicit and Implicit Blame Assignment and Police Reporting of Alcohol Facilitated Rape in a Sample of College Women , Sarah Ehlke

Rurality and Intimate Partner Homicide: Exploring the Relationship between Place, Social Structure, and Femicide in North Carolina , Amelia Kirkland

Self-Control, Attitudinal Beliefs, and White-Collar Crime Intentions , Melissa Anne Lugo

Zero Tolerance for Marginal Populations: Examining Neoliberal Social Controls in American Schools , Brian Gregory Sellers

State-Corporate Crime in the Democratic Republic of Congo , Veronica Jane Winters

Theses/Dissertations from 2012 2012

The Walls Are Closing In: Comparing Property Crime Victimization Risk In Gated And Non-Gated Communities , Nicholas Branic

What Propels Sexual Homicide Offenders? Testing an Integrated Theory of Social Learning and Routine Activities Theories , Heng Choon Chan

A Deadly Way of Doing Business: A Case Study of Corporate Crime in the Coal Mining Industry , Charles Nickolas Stickeler

Deconstructing the "Power and Control Motive": Developing and Assessing the Measurability of Internal Power , Shelly Marie Wagers

Theses/Dissertations from 2011 2011

Assessing racial differences in offending trajectories: A life-course view of the race-crime relationship , Michael S. Caudy

Mental Health Courts Effectiveness in Reducing Recidivism and Improving Clinical Outcomes: A Meta-Analysis , Brittany Cross

General Strain Theory and Juvenile Delinquency: A Cross-Cultural Study , Wen-Hsu Lin

General Strain Theory, Race, and Delinquency , Jennifer Peck

Developmental Trajectories of Self-Control: Assessing the Stability Hypothesis , James Vance Ray

Explaining the "Female Victim Effect" in Capital Sentencing Decisions: A Case for Sex-Specific Models of Capital Sentencing Research , Tara N. Richards

A Multilevel Model of Police Corruption: Anomie, Decoupling, and Moral Disengagement , Ruth Zschoche

Theses/Dissertations from 2010 2010

The Emotional Guardianship of Foreign-Born and Native-Born Hispanic Youth and Its Effect on Violent Victimization , Amy Sheena Eggers

The Influence of Narcissism and Self-Control on Reactive Aggression , Melissa L. Harrison

Is There an "Innocent Female Victim" Effect in Capital Punishment Sentencing? , Amelia Lane Kirkland

An Analysis of the Influence of Sampling Methods on Estimation of Drug Use Prevalence and Patterns Among Arrestees in the United States: Implications for Research and Policy , Janine Kremling

A Pathway to Child Sex Trafficking in Prostitution: The Impact of Strain and Risk-Inflating Responses , Joan A. Reid

Victimization Among Individuals With Low Self-Control: Effects on Fear Versus Perceived Risk of Crime , Casey Williams

Theses/Dissertations from 2009 2009

Domestic Violence Within Law Enforcement Families: The Link Between Traditional Police Subculture and Domestic Violence Among Police , Lindsey Blumenstein

Rape Attitudes and Beliefs: A Replication Study , Rhissa Emily Briones

Reel Images: Representations of Adult Male Prisons by the Film Industry , Melissa E. Fenwick

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• Published: 23 June 2023

The relationship between criminology and criminal law: implications for developing Chinese criminology

• Honglan Shuai 1 &
• Jianhong Liu 2  

Humanities and Social Sciences Communications volume  10 , Article number:  350 ( 2023 ) Cite this article

5469 Accesses

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• Criminology

During the last four decades, Chinese criminology has grown steadily but modestly. One consensus is the lack of a clear understanding of the relationship between criminology and criminal law. This paper attempts to provide a critical review of the relationship between the two disciplines by first tracing the historical development of criminology in both China and Western countries. It then clarifies the distinctions and overlaps between criminology and criminal law and explains how this relationship has influenced the growth of criminology in China. It concludes by proposing implications for developing criminology in China, particularly discussing potential collaborations that could be forged between criminology and criminal law and how such partnerships can benefit both fields in China.

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Introduction

Over the last four decades, criminology in China has evolved. However, a vast body of literature argued that its expansion has been relatively slow (Cao and Hebenton, 2018 ; Cao et al., 2014 ; He and Zhuo, 2016 ; Hebenton and Jou, 2010 ; Liu, 2021 ; Triplett, 2018 ). One problem is the lack of clarity about the link between criminology and criminal law. Contemporary scholarship in criminology and criminal law has grown into a vast field. Their overlaps and differences have created significant uncertainty about the relationship between the two. In China, many consider criminology a part of criminal law, while others consider it a social science field. As a result of this ambiguity, scholars in each field are largely unacquainted with the other’s subject matter.

Notwithstanding this ambiguity, this paper argues that progress in one field can benefit greatly from knowledge generated in another. Before providing concrete recommendations to strengthen the collaboration between and growth of Chinese criminology and criminal law, we start by revisiting the historical trajectory of Chinese criminology. We then proceed to provide a thorough analysis of the activities of the two fields before launching into explicating the intricate relationship between them. We do so by examining the relationship between criminology and criminal law both in China and Western democracies, summarising the significant influence of criminology on the development of criminal law with examples from the West and demonstrating the limited development of Chinese criminology. Relying on both the historical developmental paths and contemporary overlaps and distinctions between the two fields in the West and China, this paper concludes by providing three recommendations for the growth and development of criminology in China.

Relationship between criminology and criminal law in the West

The two ideas of “punishment” (criminal law) and “crime” (criminology) shared the exact intellectual genesis. The development of the former could be traced to Beccaria’s seminal work On Crimes and Punishments in the 18th century, which, as one part of the classical school, was also the origin of criminology (Walters and Bradley, 2019 ). However, during the subsequent century, human behaviour became a branch of natural science that could be researched using scientific approaches (see Mannheim, 1972 ; Wright, 2010 ). Under this influence, the positivist school gradually displaced the classical school of criminology. Modern criminology, as a scientific discipline, arose against this backdrop. What started as one unity under Beccaria’s paradigm of studying the causes and reactions to crime has evolved into two distinct developmental paths—criminology and criminal law.

The rise and development of classical and positivist criminology schools reveal the overlap and differences between criminology and criminal law in the West. On the one hand, criminology and criminal law are inextricably linked. First, they have connections in origin. By emphasising the rule of law and individual dignity, Beccaria, a noteworthy representative of the classical school of criminology, is known as the father of modern criminal law (Hostettler, 2011 ). The classical school of criminology is regarded as laying the groundwork for criminal law today. Second, both disciplines are involved in the study of crime. Criminal law regulates crimes that seriously danger society and should be punished according to the criminal code. These crimes are also the research subjects of criminology. In addition, some deviant behaviours that have minor danger to society or have not been provided in the criminal code may be explored in criminological research. Third, these two disciplines have ideals and values in common. Criminal law aims to realise the rule of law by identifying and punishing criminal and criminal behaviour. Criminology, based on the observation of crime phenomenon, explores the regularity of crime, particularly causes of crime, to prevent and control crime. They both serve to achieve crime control, maintain social order and protect public security. Fourth, as criminology and criminal law evolved, studies on topics in one discipline touched upon those in the other. For example, criminologists have been studying domestic violence, which criminal laws often did not address during the early era. However, as society develops and criminal law improves, domestic violence is criminalised and becomes an important topic discussed by scholars in criminal law.

On the other hand, criminology is distinguished from criminal law in perspectives like orientation, research methods, procedure, and so on. Criminal law concentrates on the legal norms of crime and the idea of legal dogmatic through applying interpretative, logical and inference methods. In contrast, criminology studies individual criminals or offenders using scientific or empirical methods (qualitative and quantitative research methods), such as surveys, interviews, experiments, content analysis and so on (Laufer, 2017 ; Mannheim, 1972 ). Procedurally, criminology is active; researchers actively discover social problems, observe crime phenomena, analyse data, draw conclusions, and make suggestions to governments or policymakers. However, criminal law procedure is passive: it cannot be initiated until a crime is reported, a criminal is arrested, or a criminal lawsuit is filed. For example, criminal law might not deal with minor theft if victims do not report it, while criminologists should still research it through a victimisation survey or report. Essentially, criminal law is a discipline focusing on criminals’ responsibilities and punishments, while criminology studies the nature and causes of crime and crime prevention at individual and social levels. Criminal law academics see criminals and non-criminals as equal. In contrast, criminologists see distinctions between criminals and non-criminals and argue that criminals should be treated rather than punished, given that crime is a disease (White et al., 2017 ).

The connection and distinctions between criminology and criminal law have aided the enormous advancement of both disciplines, as each may benefit significantly from the knowledge created in the other. As an example, this paper will look at the significant impact of criminology on criminal law in the West.

Great influence of criminology on criminal law in Western societies

The field of criminology, along with the broader academic trend of interdisciplinary growth and application of empirical research approaches, has dramatically influenced the development of criminal law in Western countries.

Criminological contributions towards theoretical innovation in criminal law

For many years, criminology has been regarded as an interdisciplinary science or an integrated discipline encompassing sociology, psychology, biology, economics, political science, etc. The scientific paradigms, interpretation tools and methodologies utilised in other social science disciplines constitute the bedrock for conducting research in criminological studies. In contrast, as a normative discipline, criminal law tends to rely on explanatory, logical and reasoning methods as its primary research methods; it concludes conviction and sentencing within the scope of existing legal norms or regulations (Zheng and Yang, 2014 ). Criminology has inspired researchers in criminal law to look at their field from a more scientific and objective perspective. For example, from a criminological perspective, American law professor Herbert Leslie Packer (1925–72) proposed two criminal justice systems models: the crime control and due process models (Packer, 1964 ). The former emphasises protecting victims’ rights and maintaining social stability through repressing criminal behaviours with as few restrictions on the authorities’ power of fact-finding as possible; the latter aims to protect defendants’ rights by restricting administrative power and requires police and prosecutors to observe the principle of presumption of innocence when investigating, examining, and interrogating suspects or defendants (Packer, 1964 ).

Application of empirical methods in criminal law

As a scientific discipline, criminology is mainly realised through empirical research methods. However, the general wisdom in criminal law is that punishment is a philosophical issue, not an empirical one (Von Hirsch, 1976 ). Despite this, empirical research is not new in criminal law (Ho and Kramer, 2013 ), and criminal justice academics have long benefited from social scientific research on crime causes and crime rates, or, put, from criminological research (Weisberg, 2013 ).

Since the 1900s, empirical research methods have been applied in dealing with crimes (Kritzer, 2009 ). Many European countries and nearly half of US states routinely publish statistics on crime and criminal cases (Goebel, 1912 ; MacDonald, 1910 ). As an essential forerunner of the legal realist movement, American legal scholar Roscoe Pound ( 1910 ) emphasised the significance of the social sciences in law in his well-known publication “Law in Books and Law in Action”. In addition, the American Institute of Criminal Law and Criminology was established in 1909 to advance the scientific study of crime, criminal law, and procedure (Rundell, 1912 ). During this period, empirical legal researchers focused on studying criminal justice systems, such as comparing cases with private attorneys and paid public defenders (Wood, 1916 ) and examining the behaviour of magistrates in misdemeanour trials (Everson, 1919 ).

During the 1920s and 1930s, the focus shifted to crime surveys. One notable example was the Cleveland Crime Survey, which included prosecution, police administration, criminal courts, and corrections (Pound et al., 1922 ). It is believed that most empirical legal work during this period was exclusively carried out by scholars in the United States (Kritzer, 2009 ). Starting in the mid-1960s, the law and society movement (Friedman, 1986 ) and the law and economics movement thrived, promoting the broader use of empirical methods among legal scholars (Kalven and Zeisel, 1966 ). Footnote 1 Empirical legal studies (ELS) developed more influentially around 2000 (Weisberg, 2013 ). The Journal of Empirical Legal Studies (JELS) and the Society for Empirical Legal Studies (SELS) were founded in 2004, and the first annual Conference on Empirical Legal Studies (CELS) was held in 2006.

Transformed idea of punishment in criminal law

The rehabilitation idea of criminology has deeply influenced the punishment idea of criminal law. Criminal law scholars commonly regard punishment as efforts based on revenge and deterrence, with their justification being retribution or retributive justice. In comparison, criminologists are more inclined to advocate consequentialism, a forward-looking rational approach to achieve rehabilitation or neutralisation (Koppel et al., 2018 ). Over time, the rehabilitation idea of criminology has gradually been adopted by the legal systems of Western countries. For example, the European Convention on Human Rights provides clear and detailed laws and regulations regarding rehabilitation measures, such as safeguarding and regulating the use and disposal of any criminal records (Ovey, 2014 ). The Rehabilitation of Offenders Act 1974 (c.53) passed by the British Parliament is an example. In addition, the United States Code has emphasised that “imprisonment is not an appropriate means of promoting correction and rehabilitation.” Footnote 2 Furthermore, Massachusetts’ juvenile justice system has successfully applied rehabilitation instead of punishment (Macallair, 1993 ). All the above legal provisions demonstrate the spirit of humanitarianism and rehabilitation within criminal legal systems.

Also, most criminal law scholars hold the view that there is no significant difference between criminals and non-criminals, while criminologists posit a distinction between criminals and non-criminals (White et al., 2017 ). Thus, another topic concerning punishment is ensuring fair treatment for criminals who commit similar crimes. When modern criminal law emerged, minors and adults, or first offenders and recidivists, were treated equally and subjected to the same penalties (Richards, 2011 ). For example, no separate category of juvenile offender could be found in Western legal systems before the mid-19th century, and in Australia, six-year-old children were incarcerated in prisons (Cunneen and White, 2011 ). However, this ideal of absolute equality in criminal law was criticised because the ultimate result was inequality (Li, 2010 ). In criminological research, offenders have been studied according to gender, age, occupation, education, and other demographic characteristics. Criminologists have researched specific subjects, like juvenile delinquency (see Agnew, 2001 ; Shaw and McKay, 1942 ), white-collar crime (see Nelken, 1994 ; Sutherland, 1945 ), and so on, based on those subjects’ distinctive features. Thus, the equality idea of traditional criminal law has been dramatically influenced by criminology. For example, most countries now have specific procedures for treating juveniles in their legal systems, such as juvenile detention centres and courts, and matters involving children are commonly treated as civil rather than criminal cases (Richards, 2011 ). Therefore, criminological theories provide a reference for the more scientific and equal provisioning of criminal law.

Establishment of criminal policies and criminal legislation

Another influence of criminology on criminal law can be understood from the criminal policy perspective. The term criminal policy (German: Kriminalpolitik) was coined by the German legal scholar von Feuerbach (1775–1833) in his 1801 Textbook of Criminal Law Generally Applied in Germany, describing how governments established crime prevention policies through scientific methods. In 1898, another legal scholar and criminologist, Franz von Liszt (1851–1919), further proposed that goal-oriented social policy was the best and the most effective criminal policy (Gallo and Kim, 2016 ). Both von Feuerbach and von Liszt emphasised the significant role of scientific methods in criminal policy research and that of criminal policy in legislation. The research methods applied by criminal policy researchers are similar to those commonly used in the social sciences for programme evaluation (Babbie, 2015 ), given that criminal policy comprises a broad convergence of criminal law, criminology, criminal sociology, criminal psychology, and political science.

As suggested by Zaffaroni and Oliveira ( 2013 , p. 331), criminal policy is not only considered “a science of observation” (criminology) but also “the art of organising the fight against crime” (criminal law and criminal justice). To accurately explain responses to crime, criminal policy researchers should pay attention to the police and judicial statistics to verify the effects of law implementations (Zaffaroni and Oliveira, 2013 ). This observation does not constitute criminal policy per se but calls attention to the absence of legitimate criminal policy. According to Hans-Heinrich and Weigend ( 1996 ), recent fundamental advances in criminal policy can be attributed to criminology. Also, as art, criminal policy is created to drive society toward resisting crime by employing specific means to achieve previously established objectives (Ancel, 1981 ). It prepares effective strategies for reacting to crime, laying the foundation for criminal law and criminal justice (Zaffaroni and Oliveira, 2013 ). This paper will take the American “get tough” criminal policy as an example.

After the Civil Rights Movement in the 1960s, urban race riots in the United States led to sharp increases in the rate of violent crime. In 1970, the violent crime rate was about 364 per 100,000, compared with 161 per 100,000 in 1960 (Latzer, 2016 ). Attempts to rehabilitate criminals and use indeterminate sentencing during such times with rising crime rates proved ineffective (Martinson et al., 1974 ). Then, the political orientation began to shift. The Republicans called for a toppling of the soft policy favouring offenders’ rights over victims’ rights and advocated “enforcing law and order” and “fighting violence on the streets” (Gest, 2003 , p. 5). Thus, the get-tough criminal policy was established, marking a policy shift from rehabilitation orientation to punishment orientation (Mears, 2010 ). Correspondingly, the Supreme Court began favouring punishing offenders more severely (Goodstein and Hepburn, 1985 ). For instance, victims were protected in rape cases instead of being blamed.

Effective criminal justice (by criminal justice evaluation research)

Criminological research has played an essential role in evaluating the deterrence effect, which almost all criminal law systems in the world regard as their “primary and essential postulate” (Morris, 1966 , p. 631). As early as 1959, scholars suggested conducting controlled experiments in law to make criminal justice policy less discriminatory and less influenced by factors like race, sex, class, etc. (Zeisel et al., 1959 ). This suggestion later pushed Chief Justice Burger’s Advisory Committee on Experimentation in the Law to legalise controlled experiments in criminal law (Federal Judicial Centre, 1981 ). However, numerous obstacles, such as ethical objections and lack of funding, led to slow progress in this area in the United States and United Kingdom (Farrington, 1983 ) until the early 1960s, when controlled experiments thrived in a few correctional agencies and private justice research centres (see, for example, Empey and Erickson, 1972 ; Empey and Lubeck, 1971 ; Keve, 1976 ). A famous experiment testing Release on Recognizance (ROR) as an alternative to money bail contributed to ROR finally being adopted by legislatures across the United States and several other countries (Sherman, 1992 ).

Since the 1980s, interest groups have called attention to the under-enforcement of laws against some violent crimes, such as domestic violence, and advocated increasing the severity of criminal justice responses. On May 27, 1984, the US National Institute of Justice announced that arrest was the most effective response to misdemeanour domestic violence, based on the results of a randomised clinical trial conducted with the Minneapolis Police Department, where arrest had been the most common police policy for those cases for two years (Sherman, 1992 ; Sherman and Cohn, 1989 ). Nevertheless, this policy was criticised for its minimal use of “science, caution, and delay” (Sherman, 1992 , p. 3) and experiments in six more cities (Atlanta, Charlotte, Colorado Springs, Metro-Dade [Miami], Omaha, and Milwaukee) were conducted later (Sherman, 1992 ). It was suggested that criminology had never achieved such an impact on criminal law until this Minneapolis case (Sherman and Cohn, 1989 ). In conclusion, criminology can empirically evaluate whether implementing criminal law is effective, strongly influencing the practices and policies of the corresponding authority.

These various influences from the field of criminology do not exist independently but have combined to promote the reform and progress of criminal law in Western countries.

Historical trajectory of criminology in China and its relationship with criminal law

Criminology and criminal law in China have a more complicated relationship than in the West. The unclear boundaries between these two largely impede the expansion of Chinese criminology. Accurate knowledge of this relationship requires a thorough review of the historical evolution of China’s criminology.

Traditional criminological thinking in China

It is believed that, rather than being entirely imported from the West, Chinese criminology has native roots (Cao et al., 2014 ; Hebenton and Jou, 2010 ), which Chinese criminologists have greatly neglected. During the traditional Chinese period, many philosophers investigated the crime phenomenon. They put forward numerous illuminating arguments about its causation, which, while not systematic enough to be theories, coincide with some influential criminological mindsets of the modern era (Cao et al., 2014 ). For example, Confucius (551–479 BC), the founder of the Confucian school, said that crime resulted from personal traits and social factors like rulers’ misconduct Footnote 3 and poverty (Confucius, 1999 ). Mencius (372–289 BC), a follower of Confucius, stated that humans were born with good morals and should be educated to maintain their goodness and prevent them from committing offences. He noted the significant link between the economy and crime, emphasising that people were more prone to lose their “goodness” if they did not have “a certain livelihood” (Mencius, 1995 , p. 351). Footnote 4 Xunzi (313–238 BC), another notable Confucian scholar, inherited and further expanded Confucius and Mencius’s ideas, claiming that everyone was born wicked and should be schooled to contain their evil traits (Cao et al., 2014 ). For Xunzi, this evil nature was the internal, but not the exclusive, cause of crime. External political, economic, or environmental factors could trigger an offence (Xunzi, 1999 ). Footnote 5 Unlike these Confucian thinkers, the Chinese Legalist school considered the utilitarian personality and rational choice factors affecting whether people committed crimes, which is remarkably consistent with the classical school of Western criminology founded by Beccaria and Bentham (Cao, 2004 ; Cao and Jou, 2007 ). Generally, “it is not an exaggeration to say that one can find some precursors of almost all contemporary criminological theories in Chinese classics” (Cao et al., 2014 , p. 12).

Despite their differing insights into crime, these Chinese classics, to some extent, explained crime aetiology and proposed implications for governance-oriented crime prevention. The Chinese government employed these classic criminological ideas to address various factors triggering crime conceptually and embedded these ideas into different criminal policies. Thus, criminological ideas were integrated into the criminal legal system in traditional China. These indigenous roots of criminological thinking then developed alongside the criminal justice and penal systems through different dynasties, providing a firm foundation for the later development of Chinese criminology.

Development of criminology in modern China

In modern China, criminology has developed as an independent field through four periods: the 1900s to 1949 [influenced by the West], 1949 to the late 1970s [stagnation stage], the early 1980s to the late 20th century [rapid development] (Zhao and Lan, 1998 ), and the beginning of the 21st century to the present [increasing attention to the criminology paradigm].

The 1900s to 1949

Since the 1900s, Chinese liberal elites have advocated the “social sciences” as an alternative conceptual toolbox (Freedman, 1962 , p. 106), mainly by introducing various Western scientific disciplines. As a scientific discipline, criminology arose in China primarily through translating and interpreting Western criminological classics. Criminology scholars at this time mainly conveyed their personal opinions on Western ideologies rather than conducting empirical research, except for a few sociology-trained scholars like Yan and Liu (Liu, 1946 ; Yan, 1934 ). Both carried out empirical studies on crime within Chinese contexts, focusing on the impact of social and economic inequality on crime. At the same time, criminology courses grew and were adopted by many law schools and legal departments in China. A significant portion of criminological publications written by Chinese criminologists took the form of lecture notes (Zhao and Lan, 1998 ).

1949 to the late 1970s

In the early days after the People’s Republic of China was established in 1949, many criminological studies appeared due to the intense class struggle and prosecution of counter-revolutionary crimes. Criminology was not yet acknowledged as an independent discipline but was included in mainstream criminal fields such as criminal law, prison law and crime investigation (Cao et al., 2014 ; Zhao and Lan, 1998 ). After the mid-1950s, under the influence of leftist ideology, legal nihilism and the former Soviet Union’s negative attitude towards criminology and sociology, the Chinese government believed the socialist system could eliminate crime and paid no attention to criminology. From 1966 to 1976, criminology and all other legal disciplines stagnated due to the rampant trend of ultra-leftism and the interference and destruction of the Cultural Revolution. It is suggested that criminology had no place in China within 30 years of the founding of the People’s Republic (Kang, 1999 ; Zhao and Lan, 1998 ).

The 1980s to the late 20th century

Chinese criminology resurfaced after the end of the Cultural Revolution in the late 1970s. Given the dramatically rising crime rate, especially the youth delinquency rate, which would account for more than 60 per cent of total crime after 1980 (Bakken, 2005 ), the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China (CPC) released the “Report on the CPC’s Attention to the Resolution of Youth Delinquency” in 1979, requesting that social science research departments and political and legal departments focus attention on the causes and regulation of juvenile delinquency (Kang, 1999 ; Zhao and Lan, 1998 ). Relevant scholars and judicial practitioners, therefore, comprehensively employed a variety of disciplines as well as scientific and technological tools to address this issue within Chinese contexts. Criminology in China has since proliferated, with numerous publications on the subject and increasing numbers of scholars and organisations in the field (for example, the establishment of the Chinese Society of Criminology in 1992 was a landmark) (Cao et al., 2014 ; Kang, 1999 ; Zhao and Lan, 1998 ). Also, various political and legal colleges began training master’s and doctoral students in criminology, laying a good foundation for the further development of criminology in China.

Although criminology in China developed rapidly during this period, it was not yet viewed as an independent discipline. Some considered it a branch of sociology (Comparative Criminology Editing Group, 1992 ; Hao, 1996 ), but most leading scholars regarded it as part of criminal law or criminal science (Chen, 1999 ; Chu, 1997 ). The fundamental justification for this was the influential idea of criminal science integration ( xing shi yi ti hua ) proposed by Chu Huaizhi (1997). Chu’s idea continued to be influential in the 21st century when the development of Chinese criminology reached a new stage.

The 21st century

The 21st century has witnessed a paradigm shift in criminology in China and the rest of the world. Internationally, criminological researchers have begun to pay attention to non-Western criminology, realising that Western criminological theories are not always supported in non-Western contexts (Wang et al., 2002 ; Zhang et al., 2007 ). Asian criminology has been deemed one of “the latest projects that seek to decolonise criminology from its Westerncentric bias”, with Jianhong Liu as its “most vocal advocate” (Moosavi, 2019 , pp. 257–258). In 2009, Liu proposed the Asian criminology paradigm as distinguished from the Western criminology paradigm, requiring that scholars “fully consider the diversity of Asia, particularly encouraging the in-depth study of particular Asian contexts, traditions, and theoretical or practice models, as well as topics that are particularly Asian” (Liu, 2009 , p. 8). The advancement of Asian criminology, to a certain extent, has promoted the progress of Chinese criminology, given that China has been a prominent region for Asian criminology research.

Simultaneously, in China, criminology scholars are keeping up with the international pace and putting forward a Chinese criminology paradigm (Li, 2005 ; Zhang, 2001 ; Zhang and Shan, 2005 ), emphasising the inheritance of traditional Chinese criminology ideas, the transformation from traditional speculation to empirical research, and the eventual creation of Chinese-style criminology. Although this innovation has not produced a systematic toolbox of theory and methodology like Asian criminology, it does mark that Chinese criminology has evolved into an independent field with Chinese characteristics rather than focusing on introducing, importing, and verifying Western criminology.

Regrettably, despite these vast breakthroughs, Chinese criminology still has not achieved official recognition as an independent academic discipline, retaining third-level or lower-level status in Chinese universities (as a subfield of criminal law or public security) since a decision by the National Planning Committee of Higher Education in the 1980s (Jin, 2007 ; Liu, 2019 ; Triplett, 2018 ; Zhang, 2007 ). To date, except for some political and law schools and police academies, many law schools paid no attention to criminology courses.

Criminology vs. criminal law: inextricably linked with no clear boundary

The trajectory of criminology in China reveals the unique relationship between Chinese criminology and criminal law: they are inextricably linked with no clear boundary. In traditional China, many criminological ideas were embedded in governance-oriented policies to deal with crime. After the introduction of Western criminology to modern China, more research was conducted on crime in the Chinese context, but criminology was still shackled to criminal law. Rather than using empirical sociological approaches, researchers were accustomed to employing criminal law thinking and methodologies to study crime problems. It was not until the 21st century that Chinese researchers began to realise the importance of the criminology paradigm, which has not yet led to independent disciplinary status. Criminology in China is still considered part of the discipline of criminal law.

Two reasons explain this. First, Chinese criminology was objectively born out of the historical traces of criminal law (Zhang, 2007 ). This idea was further strengthened by the criminal integration put forward in the late 1980s (Chu, 1997 ) and the idea proposed in the 21st century that criminology, criminal law, criminal policy, criminal procedure law and other criminal disciplines together constitute a substantial criminal discipline community (Wang and Zhao, 2007 ). These have influenced the discipline construction of Chinese criminology. Second, academic rationality has not yet relieved a long-standing stubborn bias toward criminal law research (Zhang, 2007 ). In China’s law schools, where the discipline of law is dominant, there is a collective attitude that criminology should be included in criminal law instead of being established independently (Pi, 2004 ).

Generally, the relationship between criminology and criminal law in China notably differs from that in the West, where criminology and criminal law grew into essential and independent disciplines with clear boundaries. In China, criminology has been a subfield of criminal law since the early 20th century. This subordination has inevitably led to the slow development of Chinese criminology.

Limited development of criminology in China

Although criminology in contemporary China has made significant advances (Hebenton and Jou, 2010 ; Triplett, 2018 ), its development remains slow compared to that in English-speaking countries. Cao and Hebenton ( 2018 , p. 2) summarised the growth of Chinese criminology as “continued expansion but still at a slower pace”. Several primary limitations explain the slow pace.

Limited theoretical and empirical research

Over the past 40 years, the number of criminological research papers published annually in China has increased but remained limited. From 1987 to 2009, 147 published empirical criminology articles were identified in China, with an annual average of six publications, about 60 per cent appearing after 2007 (Zhang and Lin, 2010 ). From 2007 to 2016, the total number of criminological research papers in China fluctuated by around 156 per year, based on the CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure) database, and no significant growing trend was seen (Liu et al., 2017 ). From 2017 to 2021, China’s criminology research entered a stable development phase. According to the CNKI database, the overall number of Chinese criminology papers in 2021 is estimated to be 2011, which is almost the same as that in 2017 (2441), 2018 (2130), 2019 (2084) and 2020 (2061) (Zhang and Xing, 2022 ). The good news is that the number of high-quality papers, that is, those published in Peking University Core (Chinese Core collection of Peking University) and CSSCI (Chinese Social Sciences Citation Index) journals, Footnote 6 has increased, indicating that Chinese criminology has developed in-depth and achieved certain breakthroughs (Zhang and Xing, 2022 ). Despite this, there remains a large gap between criminology publications in China and those in the English-speaking world during the same period (Liu, 2021 ; Zhang and Xing, 2022 ), which might be owing to the long-standing limitations of criminological theoretical and empirical research in China.

With the further in-depth study of Chinese criminology, more Chinese scholars have become interested in Western criminological theories and committed to their localisation. However, with little knowledge of mature Western criminological theories and the latest research progress, they often propose arguments or hypotheses that have been extensively criticised or proved insignificant or copy the theories without localised verification (Liu, 2021 ). In addition, empirical studies have been lacking in China (Yao, 2021 ) due to several factors (Yan, 2007 ; Zhang and Lin, 2010 ). First, criminological researchers’ lack of statistical and evaluation training limits their capacity; this may result from the course setting of Chinese criminology, which will be discussed later. Second, access to data is often a significant obstacle to empirical research. Official primary source data are sometimes unreliable and insufficient for definitive empirical research. Although criminology research centres in China have contributed many data, they always focus on specific issues. It remains challenging for investigators to initiate criminological research to get alternative and complementary indicators (Cao et al., 2014 ; Liu and Yu, 2010 ). Third, although Chinese scholars have recognised the significance of the criminological paradigm, they have not yet fully grasped the theory or method (Zhang and Xing, 2022 ). They still have a long way to go to conduct scientific theoretical and empirical research and establish new criminological theories within Chinese contexts or a Chinese criminological paradigm (Liu, 2021 ).

Limited support from all tiers of society

In addition to the weaknesses of criminological research in China, external support is also lacking for Chinese criminology. Cao, Sun and Hebenton ( 2014 , p. 342) state that “gaining access and official support is central for any kind of collaborative endeavour.” In a unitary one-party socialist republic like China, crime is still a sensitive issue, and the government controls organisational development and access to research funding and data (Cao et al., 2014 ; Mei and Wang, 2007 ). The foundation for gaining such support is officially recognised as an academic discipline, which Chinese criminology has not achieved due to its linkage with criminal law. As a result, Chinese criminology obtains less support from diverse sectors of society, including official departments (research funds), academic platforms (organisations and journals), higher education institutions (setting of courses) and so on.

Research funds

In China, research funding is available at various levels of society, from the national to the private sector. Key projects are mainly managed by governmental organisations such as the Ministry of Education, the National Natural Science Foundation of China, the National Planning Office of Philosophy and Social Science and the Ministry of Justice. However, no criminology projects can be found within the catalogue of those supported by the National Social Science Fund of China (NSSFC), the Ministry of Education’s Humanities and Social Sciences Fund, or the National Rule of Law and Legal Theoretical Research (Liu, 2021 ). Provincial and municipal government departments fund local higher educational institutions’ researchers, scientists, and academics. Still, criminology is rarely seen on those discipline lists. Chinese colleges and universities in the lower-level sector offer a range of grants to their faculty. However, they refer to the subject catalogue of the up-level departments when deciding on the discipline list. As a result, young scholars who have finished their criminology education and are committed to contributing to Chinese criminology usually obtain sparse support and opportunities after acquiring positions in higher education institutions. One way to improve the situation might be to turn to funding provided by professional research centres, such as the Crime Research Centre of Peking University, established in 1987, and the Criminology Research Centre of the Tianjin Academy of Social Sciences, established in 1992. However, research centres provide less funding than the state government and provincial and municipal government departments.

Academic platform support

In addition to the lack of research funds, academic platform support is also lacking for Chinese criminology. Although professional organisations in criminology have been established since the late 20th century, most are government-approved organisations. For example, the Chinese Society of Criminology’s president is also a member of the Central Committee of the CPC, and its costs are paid by the National Prosecutors’ College (Cao, 2012 ; Triplett, 2018 ). These organisations are often influenced by political factors when conducting relevant research. High-quality academic journals are another type of academic platform required for developing criminology. A few professional criminology journals are published in China, such as Crime and Correction , Chinese Criminology Review , Footnote 7 China Prison Journal, Issues on Juvenile Crimes and Delinquency , Juvenile Delinquency Prevention Research , etc. However, they are not CSSCI or Peking University Core journals. To date, the Journal of the People’s Public Security University of China (Social Sciences Edition) is the only journal in the Peking University Core collection and CSSCI Extended journals that include a crime research column, and this column has been selected as a famous column by China’s Ministry of Education (Liu, 2021 ; Zhang and Xing, 2022 ).

Setting of criminology courses

In addition to financial and platform support, teaching criminology in Chinese higher education institutions is indispensable for popularising criminology knowledge and cultivating criminology talents. However, the current setting of criminology courses is somewhat inappropriate. On the one hand, existing university courses on criminology have been cut (Kang, 2012 ), possibly because there are few full-time teaching and research personnel in the field or because of the view “that criminology … produces no direct economic benefits and therefore is unlikely to attract any financial support from businesses or government” (Liu and Jiang, 2011 , p. 494). On the other hand, criminology courses are disregarded by most colleges and universities in China. Only the People’s Public Security University of China has established a criminology college and incorporated criminology into the first-level discipline system of public security (Ren, 2019 ).

Limited market for the products

Academia generally acknowledges the considerable role of government. It should be noted, however, that the market usually influences government decisions and actions. Therefore, this paper will examine the Chinese criminology market in depth. Theoretically, many bodies have strongly demanded criminology talents and products, such as the government, which administers crime prevention and control; security technology enterprises that safeguard individuals and groups; individuals concerned with personal protection, etc. Nevertheless, human resource departments of Chinese government institutions, enterprises and social organisations rarely include the major of criminology in their recruitment (Liu, 2021 ). Even political and legal personnel practising in the field (more than two million) have no rigid demand for criminology knowledge (Zhang and Xing, 2022 ).

Besides criminological talent, criminological products are seriously neglected in China (Liu, 2021 ). The reason might be that quite a range of crime countermeasures are not based on random sampling and scientific analysis, leading to so-called unreliable conclusions . Also, there is a lack of adequate scientific evaluation of the implementation effects of most crime prevention projects. Chinese policymakers, thus, have not paid much attention to criminology research or criminologists’ views, despite the normative shift in academic scholars’ understanding of the value of social science and statistics (Cao et al., 2014 ; Zhang and Lin, 2010 ). Furthermore, traditional criminological knowledge is less applicable with the emergence of new crimes in professional fields such as telecommunication, cyber, corporate, and other crimes with certain technical thresholds. All these factors have weakened the practical value of criminology products, making the criminology market an urgent problem that needs to be solved to develop Chinese criminology further.

In general, the unique relationship between Chinese criminology and criminal law, mainly the unclear borders between them, can largely explain the limited development of Chinese criminology. This provides some inspiration for the future development of Chinese criminology.

Implications for developing Chinese criminology

Based on the previous exposition of the relationship between Chinese criminology and criminal law and the limited development of Chinese criminology, this paper puts forward several implications for the development of Chinese criminology, including strengthening both disciplinary distinction and academic collaboration between criminology and criminal law in China and paying more attention to the cultivation of Western analytical thinking and empirical approaches.

Strengthening disciplinary distinction

The development of Chinese criminology is both an academic and a political issue. Scholars, practitioners, and policymakers must actively participate in negotiations and manoeuvres inside and outside institutions to direct the research from the top down (Bourdieu, 1988 ; Zhou, 2019 ). Unlike China, the West developed this discipline from the bottom up over time (Zhou, 2019 ). This difference in disciplinary development modes reveals that the development of Chinese criminology requires official top-down promotion, especially official recognition of independent disciplinary status.

Criminology has proven its independent disciplinary value in that its research subjects and theoretical systems are distinct from other disciplines, especially criminal law. It plays an irreplaceable role in identifying the causes of crime, preventing crime, and maintaining social stability. However, the field’s growth trajectories, social cognition, and talent cultivation differ between Chinese and Western criminology. Therefore, scholars have suggested that Chinese criminology should be active in an independent capacity at the forefront of the legal discipline system (Jin, 2007 ; Zhang, 2007 ), just as criminal law has been in China.

The formal establishment of Interdiscipline in China also provides an opportunity for Chinese criminology, given that criminology is fundamentally interdisciplinary. On December 30, 2020, the China Academic Degrees Committee of the State Council and the Ministry of Education issued the “Notice on Establishing the Category of ‘interdiscipline’ and the First-level Disciplines of ‘Integrated Circuit Science and Engineering’ and ‘National Security’”. Footnote 8 Before that, the National Natural Science Foundation of China established the Department of Interdisciplinary Science (see https://www.nsfc.gov.cn ). Then in September 2022, the fifth edition of the Professional Catalogue of Graduate Education Disciplines was published, which newly established seven interdisciplinary subjects and will be implemented in 2023. Footnote 9 These reforms aimed to establish a new interdisciplinary training mechanism and promote cultivating high-quality composite talents. The category of interdiscipline is now an option in project declarations, especially for provincial and municipal projects. Many colleges and universities have established interdisciplinary disciplines according to the need for talent development. For example, the China University of Political Science and Law has set up Criminal Psychology as an interdisciplinary subject. It is expected that criminology can be found as an independent or interdisciplinary discipline in higher education institutions.

Strengthening academic collaboration

In addition to the disciplinary distinction, academic collaboration is an essential and feasible route to promoting criminology and criminal law in modern China. Marvin Wolfgang raised the idea of collaboration between criminal law and criminology in 1974. He emphasised the intersection of criminology and criminal law with the concept of “disciplinary mix” in his publication “The Social Scientist in Court.” He argued that criminologists could be employed as expert witnesses in court, while criminal justice doctrines could be used to guide criminology research (Wolfgang, 1974). Agreeing with Wolfgang’s concept, Chinese scholars put forward several theories on disciplinary integration, such as the theory of criminal science integration raised by Chu Huaizhi ( 1997 ) and the theory of multidimensional criminal law raised by Liu Renwen ( 2003 ). They state that considering criminology is essential when understanding the knowledge and promoting the development of criminal law. This integration has produced Legal Sociology (or “law and society”), an interdisciplinary field within legal research. It reflects the integration of criminal law and criminology discipline. Given the much tardier development of criminology in China, academic collaboration appears to be more urgent. Scholars in criminal law need to acknowledge the outstanding contribution of criminology to the development of criminal law. At the same time, criminologists should also absorb valuable criminal law knowledge to promote criminology’s innovation and progress.

Significant role of Chinese criminology in criminal law

A shift in attitudes towards criminology has appeared among Chinese criminal law scholars. The prominent criminal law scholar Zhang Mingkai ( 2021a ) has recognised the critical role of criminological research in formulating criminal policy, improving criminal legislation and reforming the penalty system. He stated that criminal law could not exclude any knowledge and methods that assisted in achieving its goals and proposed an equal emphasis on factual science (criminology) and normative science (criminal law) (Zhang, 2021b ). Furthermore, scholars in the fields of criminal law and criminal procedure law have acknowledged metaphysical approaches as outdated (Bai, 2009 ; Chu, 1987 ; Zhao, 2005 ) and started to employ empirical techniques for legal research (Zhang, 2016 ), though most of the research carried out has been more like decoration than rigorous empirical research, given that the researchers were not professionally trained and criminal law was more involved with values than measurable indicators (Liu, 2007 ; Weisberg, 2013 ). Recently, opinions and arguments of various parties have been collected before criminal law amendments and judicial interpretations are issued. Among them, those of criminology scholars and researchers are deemed indispensable.

Additionally, Chinese criminology has proven its significant role in criminal law from different perspectives. From the legislation perspective, criminological research has helped guide criminal legislation and legal amendments in China, especially regarding criminalisation (or decriminalisation) and penalisation (or depenalisation), through evaluating the social effects of policy implementation. Specifically, 2011 saw pickpocketing, burglary and stealing with a lethal weapon being adopted as new types of theft crime by the Amendment (VIII) to the Criminal Law of the PRC (hereinafter “the Amendment VIII”) Footnote 10 (Article 39 of the Amendment VIII). It was criminological research that finally triggered the criminalisation of these behaviours. Revision and amendment to the Chinese criminal provisions involving the amount also required the statistical results of relevant criminological research as reference. As reported by Lu and Liu ( 2017 ), in China, theft cannot be filed as a crime until the amount in question meets the requirement, which is 300–600 yuan under the 1991 Notice, 500–2000 yuan under the 1997 Judicial Interpretation and 1000–3000 yuan under the 2013 Judicial Interpretation. From the punishment perspective, Chinese criminal law mandates different punishments for different offenders, consistent with criminological thinking regarding offender treatment. Footnote 11 For instance, based on the restorative justice theory advanced by the illustrious Australian criminologist John Braithwaite ( 1989 ; 2002 ), China established a juvenile delinquency protection system, a community correction system (Article 269 of the 2018 Chinese Criminal Procedure Law) and a criminal reconciliation system (Articles 288, 289, 290 of the 2018 Chinese Criminal Procedure Law). Footnote 12

From the theory perspective, two criminological theories are applied for crime prevention, especially on some specific crime types. One is the “situational crime prevention” theory, which stresses that a motivated offender, a suitable target, and the absence of a capable guardian must simultaneously occur in a crime (Cornish and Clarke, 2003 ; Smith and Clarke, 2012 ). It is imperative for crime prevention in China, which has taken many measures to prevent favourable situations or opportunities that facilitate the creation of criminal motives, such as criminal objectives (e.g., children, women, the disabled), means (e.g., the use of the internet), weapons (e.g., ammunition, firearms, explosives) and so on. The other is the “broken window” theory, which focuses on the physical and social environment of the community (Wilson and Kelling, 1982 ). According to this theory, a community with a disordered climate (e.g., graffiti walls, dirty roads) signals the offender that the community is not monitored, and crime could be committed there. Therefore, more and more Chinese cities and communities are required to maintain a clean and ordered physical environment, which will increase community coherence and contribute to crime prevention. Generally, growth in criminology has provided opportunities for reform and development of criminal law in China (Yuan, 2017 ).

Significant contribution of criminal law to the advancement of criminology in China

Criminal law has also undoubtedly contributed to the advancement of criminology in China. As Triplett argued, realising the full potential of Chinese criminology partially depends on progress in other areas, such as the Chinese rule of law itself (Triplett, 2018 ). For any research activity, meeting social demands and demonstrating research value are as essential as satisfying intellectual knowledge (Zheng and Yang, 2014 ). The successful development of criminal law in China has offered many new topics for criminology. For example, Bai ( 2001 ; 2003 ) believed that rules (principles) behind criminal law provisions were difficult to see but did exist. Therefore, he explored to what extent the weight of crimes explained the severity of penalties by sorting, quantifying, and analysing more than 400 crimes under Chinese criminal law, recognised as an empirical study of criminal norms (Bai, 2001 ; Bai, 2003 ). Attempts to examine criminal law from a criminological perspective and study the content of legal norms using empirical research methods will inevitably result in corresponding interdisciplinary results—more specifically, the progress of criminology. Therefore, collaboration is particularly essential for promoting the development of both fields. The story of criminology is inseparable from the support of criminal law while also driving progress and innovation in criminal law.

Facilitating the collaboration of criminal law and criminology through the interdisciplinary or transdisciplinary approach

Collaborative working between two or more disciplines often requires specific methods to synthesise broad perspectives, knowledge, and skills in an academic activity. The methods are usually acknowledged as interdisciplinary or transdisciplinary approaches, through which researchers can answer questions or address problems that are too complex or too big to be fully understood by a single discipline or profession (Klein and Newell, 1997 ). The interdisciplinary approach can be categorised as method crossing, theoretical introducing, problem pulling, and culture blending based on different perspectives. The first two approaches often combine methods or theories from diverse disciplines or transplants methods or theories from one field to another. The inter-influence between criminology and criminal law in China mentioned in the previous parts demonstrated the employment of these two approaches. Thus, this part focuses on the problem-pull approach, which might be the most effective approach for facilitating collaboration between disciplines, considering the other approaches involves narrowly, usually involving one aspect.

The problem-pull approach or perspective involves an interdisciplinary synthesis process centred on significant problems that emerge from reality. It has been applied in increasing multidisciplinary studies and has attracted much attention in China. For example, on April 06, 2023, the National Office for Philosophy and Social Sciences in China released the 2023 NSSFC Project Application Guide. Compared to the previous guides that provided topics within every single discipline, it added selected synthesis topics for the first time. Footnote 13 It encourages applicants to conduct interdisciplinary research, focusing on major theoretical and practical issues related to the overall development of the party and the country and the critical fundamental theoretical and frontier academic issues associated with the construction of philosophy and social sciences with Chinese characteristics. For example, one of the synthesis topics is “Research on the Modernisation of National Security System and Capabilities”, which involves the post-event governance of criminal law and the pre-event prevention of criminology. It proves that China has officially offered opportunities for interdisciplinary research, such as between criminology and criminal law, from the perspective of more significant issues.

As the fourth approach, cultural blending refers to the mutual penetration and integration of the cultural backgrounds on which different disciplines rely. On this task, the interaction between criminology and criminal law involves cultural conflicts between the West and China since criminology in China is introduced earlier primarily from the West. How to address the cultural conflicts and achieve the cultural blending between these two disciplines is another task that requires another paper to handle.

Cultivating western analytical thinking based on Chinese native roots

Strengthening the disciplinary distinction and academic collaboration between criminology and criminal law is recommended based on the different characteristics of their relationship in the West and China. However, Western experiences, especially the Western analytical thinking mode, should not be ignored in promoting Chinese criminology.

The thriving Chinese approach to crime has always regarded it as a normative or good governance issue that requires applying holistic thinking. In contrast, the Western approach considers the study of crime a scientific enterprise whose main features are analytical thinking and empirical research methods (Nisbett et al., 2001 ). Footnote 14 Differences between holistic and analytic thinking inevitably lead to different ways of reasoning about crime in China and the West. Specifically, rulers and scholars in China have been accustomed to interpreting crime causality from a relational and dynamic perspective, considering the combined effects of various changing factors. They believe specific issues should be addressed through specific analyses and that different principles apply to different people and circumstances. Thus, no general rules or patterns for addressing crime can be derived. However, Westerners tend to regard crime as having general or universal rules or patterns that can be used empirically to explain cause and effect. These rules or patterns do not change and apply to all contexts. Most other potentially relevant factors can be excluded as intervention or control variables. Therefore, modern criminology has been established as a scientific discipline in the West, comprising prominent theories and methods conducive to crime studies.

To a certain extent, the Chinese thinking mode has resulted in a lack of mature criminological theories and empirical research methods, which has hindered the establishment of scientific criminology in China. Thus, the further advancement of Chinese criminology requires official recognition of independent disciplinary status and cultivation of the Western analytical thinking mode based on China’s native roots.

Chinese criminology has grown slowly due to its complicated relationship with criminal law. Unlike in Western countries where criminology and criminal law are closely related but also distinguished, in China, criminology and criminal law have been closely related for decades with no clear disciplinary boundaries. Chinese criminology has not yet achieved officially recognised independent disciplinary status. Given the breadth and prosperity of Chinese criminal law, modern China must develop the criminology discipline. The possible implications include paying more attention to disciplinary distinction and academic collaboration between criminology and criminal law, and cultivating Western analytical thinking in China. The development of criminology in the pursuit of rehabilitative justice will offset the consequences resulting from extensive criminal law aiming at punishment, ultimately promoting the dual goals of “control of crime” and “rule of law” in modern China.

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孔子在《论语·子张》中说到: “其身正, 不令而行。其身不正, 虽令不从。” “When a ruler” s personal conduct is correct, his government is effective without giving orders. If his personal conduct is not correct, even he may give orders, but they will not be followed”.

孟子在《梁惠王上》中指出:“若民, 则无恒产, 因无恒心。苟无恒心, 放辟邪侈, 无不为己。及陷于罪, 然后从而刑之, 是罔民也。” “If they have not a certain livelihood, they have not a fixed heart. And if they have not a fixed heart, there is nothing which they will not do in the way of self-abandonment, of moral deflection, of depravity, and of wild license. When they have thus been involved in crime, to follow them up and punish them:—this is to entrap the people”.

荀子在《荀子·劝学》中指出:“邪秽在身, 怨之所构。施薪若一, 火就燥也; 平地若一, 火就湿也。” “Evil and filthy things exist within themselves and constitute resentment. If you add firewood, the fire will be more vigorous; if you add earth, the fire will be extinguished”.

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• National defense in the US.
• National defense in the UK.
• Sexual harassment : the role of activism, ways of responding, prevention and prosecution.
• Substance abuse : military.
• Criminology and criminal justice jobs: a full list.

🌶️ Hot Criminal Justice Topics

• The history of modern police.
• Different types of prison systems.
• Is situational crime prevention effective?
• How to prevent wrongful convictions.
• Challenges faced by crime victims.
• The advantages of community corrections.
• How do ethics influence criminal justice?
• Disadvantages of felony disenfranchisement.
• Does correctional system in the USA really work?
• Possible problems of prisoner reentry process.

💂 116 Criminal Justice Research Topics & Questions

Here are some of the most typical and interesting criminal justice issues to dazzle your professor.

• Prison system : the main problems and the hidden pitfalls.
• The question of gender: why are there more men who receive capital punishment than women?
• Kidnapping and ransom: common features, motifs, behavior patterns.
• Crime prevention : key principles.
• Firing a gun: what helps professionals understand whether it was deliberate or happened by accident?
• Cybercrime : the legal perspective.
• Internet vigilantism: revenge leaks.
• Hate crime on the Internet: revenge leaks, trolling, defamation.
• Crime and justice in mass media .
• Parental abduction laws.
• Sex offender registry: pros and cons.
• The deterrence theory and the theory of rational choice : are they relevant in the modern world?
• Sexual assault in schools and workplaces.
• Jury selection: how is it performed?
• Experimental criminology: the latest innovations.

• Wildlife crime: areas of prevalence, ways of prevention.
• Felony disenfranchisement laws: when do they apply?
• The relation between organized crime and corruption .
• Victim services: what help can a victim of a crime get?
• Prison rape and violence: the psychological aspect, ways of prevention.
• Juvenile recidivism : what are the risk groups?
• Forensic science : role and functions in modern criminal justice.
• Shoplifting: how to prevent theft?
• Witness Protection Program: who is eligible and how to protect them.
• Date rape : what are the ways for the victims to seek legal assistance?
• Substance abuse and crime: correlation or causation?
• Identity theft: dangers and consequences in the modern world.
• Online predators: what laws can be introduced to protect kids? Real-life examples.
• Civil and criminal cases: how to differentiate?
• Domestic abuse victims: what laws protect them?
• Elder abuse : what can be done to prevent it?
• The strain theory : the unachievable American dream.
• Concepts of law enforcement: pursuing criminal justice .
• Ethics and criminal justice: the unethical sides of law enforcement.
• The top problems to be solved by law enforcement today.
• Information sharing technology: how has it helped in the fight against terrorism ?
• Terrorism in perspective: characteristics, causes, control .
• Serial killers : types.
• Drug use and youth arrests.
• Aggressive behavior : how does it correlate with criminal tendencies?
• Community corrections : are they effective?
• Sentencing: how does it take place?
• Punishment types and the established terms.
• Unwarranted arrest: when is it acceptable?
• Human trafficking in the modern world.
• Human trafficking: current state and counteracts .
• The role of technology in modern forensics .
• Similarities and differences between homicide , murder, and manslaughter.
• Types of offenders: classification.
• Effects of gun control measures in the United States .
• The role of crime mapping in modern criminal justice.
• Male crimes vs female crimes: are they different?
• Prisons : the problems of bad living conditions.
• Victimization : causes and ways of prevention.
• Victimology and traditional justice system alternatives .
• Rape victims: what are their rights?
• Problem-solving courts: what underlying problems do they address?
• Mandatory sentencing and the three-strike rule.
• Have “three-strikes” laws been effective and should they be continued?
• Criminal courts : what can be learned from their history?
• Hate crimes : what motivates people to commit them?
• Youth gangs: what is their danger?
• Fieldwork: how is it done in criminology?
• Distributive justice : its place in criminal justice.
• Capital punishment : what can be learned from history?
• Humanities and justice in Britain during 18th century .
• Abolition of capital punishment .
• Criminals and prisoners’ rights .
• Crime prevention programs and criminal rehabilitation .
• Campus crime: what laws and precautions are there against it?
• Criminal trial process: how does it go?
• Crimes committed on a religious basis: how are they punished?
• The code of ethics in the Texas department of criminal justice .
• Comparison between Florida and Maryland’s legislative frameworks .
• Fraud in the scientific field: how can copyright protect the discoveries of researchers?
• Prosecution laws: how are they applied in practice?
• The classification of crime systems.
• Cyberbullying and cyberstalking: what can parents do to protect their children?
• Forgery cases in educational institutions, offices, and governmental organizations.
• Drug courts : how do they work?

Controversial Topics in Criminal Justice

Want your work to be unconventional? Consider choosing one of the controversial topics. You will need to present a number of opposite points of view. Of course, it’s acceptable to choose and promote an opinion that you think stands the best. Just make sure to provide a thorough analysis of all of the viewpoints.

You can also stay impartial and let the reader make up their own mind on the subject. If you decide to support one of the viewpoints, your decision should be objective. Back it up with plenty of evidence, too. Here are some examples of controversial topics that you can explore.

• Reform vs. punishment: which one offers more benefits?
• Restorative justice model : is it the best criminal justice tool?
• The war on drugs : does it really solve the drug problem?
• Criminal insanity: is it a reason enough for exemption from liability?
• Juvenile justice system : should it be eliminated?
• Drug testing on the school ground.
• Police brutality in the United States .
• How to better gun control ? 
• Why Gun Control Laws Should be Scrapped .
• Pornography: is it a type of sexual violence?
• Whether death penalty can be applied fairly?
• Jack the Ripper: who was he?
• The modern justice system: is it racist?
• A false accusation: how can one protect themselves from it?
• Concealed weapons: what are the criminal codes of various states?
• Race and crime: is there a correlation?
• Registering sex offenders: should this information be in public records?
• Juvenile delinquency and bad parenting: is there a relation?
• Assessing juveniles for psychopathy or conduct disorder .
• Should all new employees be checked for a criminal background ?
• Are delinquency cases higher among immigrant children?
• Restrictive housing: can it help decongest prisons?
• Homegrown crimes: is there an effective program against them?
• Prostitution: the controversy around legalization .
• Eyewitness testimony : is it really helpful in an investigation?
• Youthful offenders in boot camps: is this strategy effective?
• Predictive policing : is it effective?
• Selective incapacitation: is it an effective policy for reducing crime?
• Social class and crime: is there a relation?
• Death penalty: is it effective in crime deterrence?
• Extradition law: is it fair?
• Devious interrogations: is deceit acceptable during investigations?
• Supermax prisons: are they effective or just cruel?
• Zero tolerance: is it the best policy for crime reduction?
• Marijuana decriminalization: pros and cons.
• Marijuana legalization in the US .

Now that you have looked through the full list of topics, choose wisely. Remember that sometimes it’s best to avoid sensitive topics. Other times, a clever choice of a topic will win you extra points. It doesn’t depend on just the tastes of your professor, of course. You should also take into account how much relevant information there is on the subject. Anyway, the choice of the topic of your research is up to you. Try to find the latest materials and conduct an in-depth analysis of them. Don’t forget to draw a satisfactory conclusion. Writing may take a lot of your time and energy, so plan ahead. Remember to stay hydrated and good luck!

Now, after we looked through the topic collections on criminology and criminal justice, it is time to turn to the specifics in each of the fields. First, let’s talk more extensively about criminology. If you are training to be a criminologist, you will study some things more deeply. They include the behavior patterns of criminals, their backgrounds, and the latest sociological trends in crime.

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In the field of criminology, the specialties are numerous. That’s why it’s difficult to pinpoint one career that represents a typical member of the profession. It all depends on the background of a criminologist, their education, and experience.

A criminologist may have a number of responsibilities at their position. For example, they might be called forth to investigate a crime scene. Participation in autopsies is unpleasant yet necessary. Interrogation of suspects and subsequent criminal profiling is another essential duty.

Some professionals work solely in research. Others consult government agencies or private security companies. Courts and law firms also cooperate with criminologists. Their job is to provide expert opinion in criminal proceedings. Some of them work in the prison systems in order to oversee the rehabilitation of the convicted.

Regardless of the career specialty , most criminologists are working on profiling and data collection. A criminologist is another word for an analyst. They collect, study, and analyze data on crimes. After conducting the analysis, they provide recommendations and actionable information.

A criminologist seeks to find out the identity of the person who committed the crime. The time point of a crime is also important, as well as the reason for it. There are several areas covered by the analysis of a criminologist. The psychological behavior of the criminal or criminals is closely studied. The socio-economic indicators are taken into account. There are also, of course, the environmental factors that may have facilitated the crime.

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Some high-profile cases require a criminologist to correspond with media and PR managers extensively. Sometimes criminologists write articles and even books about their findings. However, it should be noted that the daily routine of a professional in the field is not so glamorous. Most criminologists do their work alone, without the attention of the public.

The research a criminologist accumulates during their work is extensive. It doesn’t just sit there in a folder on their desk, of course. The collected statistics are used for developing active criminal profiles that are shared with law enforcement agencies. It helps to understand criminal behavior better and to predict it. That’s why a criminologist’s work must be precise and accurate for it to be practical and useful. Also, criminology professionals must have a good grasp of math and statistics.

Thinking of a career in criminology? You will need to, at the very least, graduate from college. There, you’ll master mathematics, statistics, and, of course, criminology. An associate’s degree may get you an entry-level position. But the minimum entry-level requirement is usually the bachelor’s degree. The best positions, though, are left for the professionals with a master’s degree or a PhD.

Just having a degree is not enough. To succeed as a criminologist, you will require all your intelligence, commitment, and the skill of analyzing intricate situations. An aspiration to better the society will go a long way. You will need to exercise your creative, written, and verbal communication skills, too. An analytical mind will land you at an advantage.

Criminology: Research Areas

Times change and the world of crime never ceases to adapt. The nature of criminal transgression is evolving, and so do the ways of prosecution. Criminal detection, investigation, and prevention are constantly advancing. Criminology studies aim to improve the practices implemented in the field.

There are six unified, coordinated, and interrelated areas of expertise. Within each, the professionals are busy turning their mastery into knowledge and action.

The first research area is the newest worry of criminology – cybercrime. The impact of this type of crime is escalating with every passing day. That’s why it’s crucial for the law enforcement professionals to keep up to date with the evolving technology. Cybercrime research is exploring the growing threat of its subject at all levels of society. Cybercrime may impact people on both personal and governmental levels. Cybercrime research investigates the motivation and methodology behind the offenses and finds new ways to react.

The second research area is counter fraud. Crimes that fall under this category include fraud and corruption. The questions that counter fraud research deals with are many. How widely a crime is spread, what method is best to fight it, and the optimal courses of action to protect people and organizations.

The third research area is that of forensics. The contemporary face of justice has been changed by forensic science beyond recognition. Nowadays, it’s much harder for criminals to conceal their activity due to evolved technologies. The research in forensics is utilizing science in the identification of the crime and in its reconstruction. It employs such techniques as DNA recovery, fingerprinting, and forensic interviewing.

What is forensic interviewing? It helps find new ways to gather quality information from witnesses and crime scenes. It also works on developing protocols that ensure the protection of this human data and its correct interpretation by police.

The fourth research area is policing. Police service is facing a lot of pressing issues nowadays due to budget cuts. At the same time, police officers still need to learn, and there are also individual factors that may influence their work.

The fifth research area is penology. It’s tasked with exploring the role of punishment in the criminal justice system. Does punishment aid the rehabilitation of perpetrators, and to what extent? The answer will help link theory to practice and thus shape how criminal justice practitioners work.

The sixth research area is that of missing persons. Before a person goes missing, they may display a certain pattern of behavior. The study of missing persons helps to identify it. The results will determine the handling of such cases.

Now that we know what criminology is, it’s time to talk about criminal justice.

While criminology focuses on the analysis of crime, criminal justice concentrates on societal systems. Its primary concern is with the criminal behavior of the perpetrators. For example, in the USA, there are three branches of the criminal justice system. They are police (aka law enforcement), courts, and corrections. These branches all work together to punish and prevent unlawful behavior. If you take up a career in criminal justice, expect to work in one of these fields.

The most well-known branch of criminal justice is law enforcement. The police force is at the forefront of defense against crime and misdemeanor. They stand against the criminal element in many ways. For instance, they patrol the streets, investigate crimes, and detain suspects. It’s not just the police officers who take these responsibilities upon themselves. There are also US Marshals, ICE, FBI Agents, DEA, and border patrol. Only after the arrest has been made, the perpetrator enters the court system.

The court system is less visible to the public, but still crucial to the criminal justice system. Its main purpose is to determine the suspect’s innocence or guilt. You can work as an attorney, lawyer, bailiff, judge, or another professional of the field. In the court, if you are a suspect, you are innocent until proven guilty. You are also entitled to a fair trial. However, if they do find you guilty, you will receive a sentence. Your punishment will be the job of the corrections system.

The courts determine the nature of the punishment, and the corrections system enforces it. There are three elements of the corrections system: incarceration, probation, and parole. They either punish or rehabilitate the convicts. Want to uptake a career in corrections? You may work as, including, but not limited to: a parole officer, a prison warden, a probation officer, and a guard.

📈 Criminal Justice: Research Areas

The research areas in criminal justice are similar, if not identical, to those of criminology. After all, those are two very closely related fields. The one difference is that criminal justice research has more practical than theoretical applications. But it’s fair to say that theory is the building blocks that practice bases itself on. One is impossible without the other unless the result you want is complete chaos.

So, the question is – what topic to choose for the research paper? Remember that the world of criminal justice is constantly changing. Choosing a subject for research in criminal justice, consider a relevant topic. There are many pressing issues in the field. Exploring them will undoubtedly win you points from your professor. Just make sure to choose a direction that will give you the opportunity to show off both your knowledge and your analytical skills.

Not sure that your original research direction will be appreciated? Then choose one of the standard topics. Something that is widely discussed in the media. And, of course, make sure that you are truly interested in the subject. Otherwise, your disinterest will translate into your writing, which may negatively affect the overall impression. Also, it’s just more enjoyable to work on something that resonates with you.

What can you do with your research paper? Literally anything. Explore the background of the issue. Make predictions. Compare the different takes on the matter. Maybe there are some fresh new discoveries that have been made recently. What does science say about that?

Also, remember to backup all your arguments with quotes and examples from real life. The Internet is the best library and research ground a student could hope for. The main idea of the paper, aka the thesis, must be proven by enough factual material. Otherwise, it’s best to change your research direction.

And, of course, don’t put it all off till the last minute. Make a plan and stick to it. Consistency and clever distribution of effort will take you a long way. Good luck!

🤔 Criminal Justice Research FAQs

Criminological and criminal justice research are the scientific studies of the causes and consequences, extent and control, nature, management, and prevention of criminal behavior, both on the social and individual levels.

Criminal justice and criminology are sciences that analyze the occurrence and explore the ways of prevention of illegal acts. Any conducted personal research and investigation should be supported by the implemented analytical methods from academic works that describe the given subject.

There are six interrelated areas of criminology research:

• Cybercrime research makes law enforcement professionals keep up to date with the evolving technology.
• Counter fraud research investigates cases of fraud and corruption.
• Forensics research utilizes science: DNA recovery, fingerprinting, and forensic interviewing.
• Research in policing investigates individual factors that may influence the work of police officers.
• Penology explores the role of punishment in the criminal justice system.
• The study of missing persons helps to identify patterns of victims’ behavior.

There are seven research methods in criminology:

• Quantitative research methods measure criminological and criminal justice reality by assigning numerical values to concepts to find patterns of correlation, cause and effect.
• Survey research collects information from a number of persons via their responses to questions.
• Experimental research assesses cause and effect in two comparison groups.
• Cross-sectional research studies one group at one point in time.
• Longitudinal research studies the same group over a period of time.
• Time-series designs study the same group at successive points in time.
• Meta-analysis employs quantitative analysis of findings from multiple studies.

The basis of criminological theory is criminological research. It influences the development of social policies and defines criminal justice practice.

Criminological research doesn’t just enable law students to develop analytical and presentational skills. The works of criminal justice professionals, scholars, and government policymakers dictate the way law enforcement operates. The newest ideas born out of research identify corrections and crime prevention, too.

Here is a step-by-step instruction on how to write a criminal justice research paper:

• Choose a topic
• Read the materials and take notes
• Come up with a thesis
• Create an outline for your work
• Draft the body
• Start with a cover page, an abstract, and an intro
• List the methods you used, and the results you got
• Include a discussion
• Sum it up with a conclusion
• Don’t forget a literature review and appendices
• Revise, proofread, and edit

The most common types of methodologies in criminal justice research include:

• Observation of participants.
• Surveys and interviews.
• Observation of focus groups.
• Conducting experiments.
• Analysis of secondary data and archival study.
• Mixed (a combination of the above methods).

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• The Differences Between Criminal Justice and Criminology: Which Degree Is Right for You? (Concordia St. Paul)
• Corporate Crime: Britannica
• The Development of Delinquency: NAP
• Databases for Research & Education: Gale
• A CS Research Topic Generator: Purdue University
• A Introduction To The Federal Court System: US Department of Justice
• Criminal Justice Research Topics: Broward College
• Research Topics in Criminology: Cambridge Institute of Criminology
• CRIMINOLOGY: University of Portsmouth
• Research: Department of Criminology & Criminal Justice, University of Maryland
• Criminal Justice: RAND
• Research Methods in Criminal Justice: Penn State University Libraries
• Research: School of Criminology and Criminal Justice, Arizona State University
• Criminology – Research Guide: Getting started (Penn Libraries)
• Criminology Research Papers: Academia
• The History & Development of the U.S. Criminal Justice System: Study.com
• CRIMINAL JUSTICE & CRIMINOLOGY: Marshall University
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Criminology Research Paper

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Introduction

Criminology and measuring crime, time and space, social class, criminology and explaining crime, criminology and preventing crime.

• Bibliography

Criminology is the scientific study of crime as a social phenomena. Edwin Sutherland (1947) noted in an early analysis that criminology investigates the processes of producing laws, breaking laws, and responding to the breaking of laws.

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These processes are three aspects of a somewhat unified sequence of interactions. Certain acts which are regarded as undesirable are defined by the political society as crimes. In spite of this definition, some people persist in the behavior and thus commit crimes; the political society reacts by punishment or other treatment or by prevention. This sequence of interactions is the object-matter of criminology. (P. 1)

Consequently, criminology can be split into three subfields: the study of lawmaking, the study of lawbreaking, and the study of responses to lawbreaking. Because lawmaking and responses to lawbreaking are discussed in other research papers, we shall concentrate on the second branch, lawbreaking.

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Regarding crime, sociologists have investigated numerous avenues of inquiry. They have endeavored to identify crime patterns, i.e., the manner in which criminal conduct is spread over time, place, and social structure. They have attempted to explain crime by identifying the factors that not only distinguish criminals from noncriminals but also account for its occurrence. In addition, they have investigated how crime might be averted. We shall discuss each of these inquiries in turn. Prior to discussing the distribution of crime, however, we must analyze its measurement.

How do we know what we know? is a fundamental question of any intellectual field. The empirical nature of criminology necessitates the use of the scientific method to observe and record crime. To quantify the nature and scope of crime phenomena, researchers employ a range of methodologies. The majority of criminologists’ scientific approaches are quantitative, aiming to count the number and kind of crimes and their connections. Researchers utilize two key types of quantitative data: secondary data derived from official sources and primary data derived from self-reports of criminal activity and victimization.

Official statistics extracted from police records are the most important source of information used to measure the nature and scope of crime. The Federal Bureau of Investigation has sponsored a statewide endeavor to develop a statistical description of crime in the United States since 1930. Today, more than 17,000 police agencies engage annually in the Uniform Crime Report data collecting and reporting program (UCR). The UCR provides information regarding crimes that are known to law enforcement and offenses that have been cleared by law enforcement, typically through arrest. Criminologists sometimes utilize UCR data to calculate a crime rate based on offenses reported to the police or arrests made by the police. A crime rate is superior to a crime count since the rate takes population into account. For example, UCR data for 2003 in the United States indicate a total of 16,503 homicides known to police, a fairly high amount.

However, given the magnitude of the nation’s population—nearly 280 million people—the murder rate in 2003 was among the lowest in the preceding four decades, at 5.7 murders per 100,000 people (Federal Bureau of Investigation 2004). The UCR provides crime statistics broken down by area, community type, and locality. Information identifying the age, color, and gender of criminals is restricted to crimes that have been cleared by police and for which an arrest has been made.

Until recently, the UCR classed major offenses as “Index” or Part I offenses, and less serious offenses as Part II offenses. Index crimes include the following eight offenses: murder and non-negligent manslaughter, forceful rape, robbery, serious assault, burglary, larceny-theft, auto theft, and arson. Traditionally, criminologists, politicians, and the media have depended on index crime data to follow changes in major crime through time and geography. Index data are a composite that conceal substantial variances in the frequency of each infraction. For instance, larceny-theft accounts for more than 60 percent of all Part I offenses (Federal Bureau of Investigation 2004). Consequently, fluctuations in more severe crimes, like as murder and rape, may be obscured by the vast volume of property crimes, such as larceny. Researchers in the field of criminal justice are aware of this and often separate index crimes into two categories: violent crimes and property crimes.

The FBI is now implementing the National Incident Based Reporting System, a new data collection tool (NIBRS). The NIBRS is intended to build upon the UCR by providing police with more information about criminal events, including the nature of the crimes and the characteristics of the perpetrators. This strategy is novel in two ways. First, the NIBRS analyzes occurrences as its core analytical unit. Second, it extends on the UCR by providing more information regarding the nature and types of individual offenses in each crime episode, such as the victim(s) and offender(s) involved, the type and amount of property stolen, and the characteristics of those arrested.

Even though the UCR and NIBRS include a wealth of information, official records pose a number of challenges. A huge portion of every crime gets unreported to the police, which is perhaps the most serious issue. Unreported crimes are referred to as “dark figures” since their nature and scope are unknown. Another problem of official records is that they are compiled, documented, and reported by non-researchers, making them secondary data. According to Thorsten Sellin (1931), each layer of administration in the gathering of official crime data raises the possibility of distortion, bias, or inaccuracy, hence diminishing the data’s usefulness. The data collected from police records have also been challenged for being political artifacts that reflect the operational logics and goals of law enforcement agencies. In addition, the UCR data collecting rules apply a judgment rule known as the hierarchy rule of classification, which sacrifices data regarding criminal episodes involving many crimes. Frequently, when a crime is committed, multiple laws are broken. However, the hierarchy rule dictates that only the most serious offense is reported to the FBI. The rule produces systematic downward bias in UCR data. A final shortcoming is that government records provide inadequate information about the correlates of crime, such as the relationship between victims and offenders, the racial and sexual mix of offenders and victims, and the drug use of offenders. The NIBRS aims to improve official records in light of the last two concerns, notably the hierarchy rule and the limited correlations between crime.

In large part as a result of concerns about the veracity of official data, academics have invented alternative ways for gathering data on crime. The majority of them are self-report questionnaires. The benefit of survey approach is that researchers directly obtain primary data from individuals in criminal activity. This gives researchers greater control over data collecting and facilitates testing of hypotheses. Typically, self-report questionnaires are available in two formats. One form requires people to disclose their own criminal behavior. The second sort of survey questions individuals about their victimization experiences.

A self-report survey of offending asks a sample of persons if and how frequently they have committed any of a variety of offenses during a certain time period. Thornberry and Krohn (2000) attribute the emergence of self-report methodology to Sutherland’s (1940) observation that respectable middle-class individuals are likely to commit crimes but are unlikely to be recorded in police files. Porterfield’s 1946 work was the first to utilize the self-report method in studies of criminal and delinquent conduct, maybe prompted by Sutherland’s observation. His work established the usefulness of self-reports for criminal and delinquent studies. Short and Nye’s (1958) research is primarily responsible for establishing self-reports as a methodological cornerstone of criminology. Throughout the years, criminologists have devoted significant efforts to enhancing the self-report method by creating strategies that increase the validity and reliability of self-reported crime and delinquency (Hindelang, Hirschi, and Weis 1981).

Self-report investigations of criminal behavior can be distinguished by their substantive focus and sample design. Using schools as sampling points is a frequent method for surveying teenagers. Monitoring the Future, an annual study addressing drug use undertaken with a nationally representative sample of 8th, 10th, and 12th graders, is one of the most renowned instances (Johnston, O’Malley, and Bachman, 1996). Other methods of surveying criminal or delinquent behavior include random samples of the broader population. Nationwide Youth Survey (NYS) is one of the most comprehensive national assessments of delinquency (Elliott 1983). The New York State uses a national probability sampling design to survey approximately 1,700 11- to 17-year-olds about their involvement in delinquency as well as a number of attitudinal and experiential issues. Similar to numerous other self-report surveys, the NYS supplies criminologists with data for addressing etiological questions. In addition, New York State utilizes a panel design, allowing researchers to track children through adulthood.

The other sort of self-report questionnaire is the victimization questionnaire. In this study, researchers ask a sample of individuals if and how frequently they had been victims of specific criminal crimes during a specific time period. The most well-known victimization survey is the 1973 National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS). This is a twice-yearly, national household survey. In contrast to self-report surveys of offending, which were motivated by the empirical restrictions associated with the police focus on crimes of the lower classes, the NCVS was motivated by the failure of individuals to report crimes to the police. Each year, around 85,000 families and more than 150,000 responders participate, giving the most accurate estimate of real crime in the United States. Unlike the UCR, the NCVS includes information about crimes committed against individuals, regardless of whether the crimes were reported to authorities. Questions address crimes suffered by individuals and their home, whether the offenses were reported to police, as well as victim, household, and perpetrator characteristics in personal crimes. In addition, respondents are asked about their perspectives on the criminal justice system and their motivations for reporting or not reporting crimes. Generally speaking, victimization surveys are limited to the more common and readily identifiable memories. Although it appears that respondents are generally accurate when reporting their experiences as offenders and victims, there is evidence that underreporting is a danger to the validity of self-report studies of both offending (Hindelang et al., 1981) and victimization (Hindelang et al., 1981). (Murphy and Dodge 1981). As a result of embarrassment or a desire to protect their privacy, some respondents may choose not to discuss their criminal past. In addition, respondents do not always recall the infractions they committed or those committed against them, and they may recall offenses as being more recent or more remote than they actually were.

Crime statistics are crucial to the criminological endeavour. They contribute to the establishment of the fundamental social facts of crime, which comprise the objects of explanation and give evidence for the evaluation of explanations. Unfortunately, crime figures are among the most unreliable and challenging of any social phenomenon statistics. It is impossible to correctly estimate the level of crime in any specific location or time period. As stated previously, many crimes go unreported, while others are identified but not reported to police or researchers, and yet others are reported but not legally documented. Thus, any record of crimes can at most be regarded an index of the actual crimes committed. This fact has prompted both caution regarding crime data sources and more research to validate and enhance empiricism in the sector. Comparing the “behavior” of crime indexes across several data sources is a popular solution. Figure 1 displays how victimization data compare to government figures since 1973. Although it is a violation of individuals and property. They dismiss crimes done on behalf of corporations, such as deceptive advertising and price-fixing, as well as “victimless” crimes, such as drug usage and gambling.

     Figure 1

Both types of self-report surveys offer advantages over official crime statistics and are an essential source of crime data. They have access to a wide range of violations, ranging from significant crimes to minor infractions that are unlikely to be reported to police. In addition, by measuring the personal and societal traits of offenders and/or victims, they can supply a wealth of information for evaluating crime theories. Both sorts of self-reports are subject to the same constraints inherent to the self-report method. The fundamental limitations of self-report surveys stem from the size of the sample and the precision of assessment. A survey’s sample size is determined by guaranteeing representative participation and obtaining cooperation throughout the survey questionnaire. Both data sources produce indices that react similarly (growing and declining) across this time frame.

Criminology and Patterns of Crime

Criminologists document crime patterns in order to comprehend the nature and scope of crime. While the general public views many crimes as random acts, criminological research demonstrates that crime is not dispersed randomly among individuals or groups. The focus of criminological research on crime patterns is the relationship between criminal conduct and dimensions of time, place, and social structure. Crime tends to be a “intrastatus” activity, which is a crucial understanding in tracking criminal tendencies. In a significant number of crimes, the statuses used to identify offenders also describe the victims. Criminology has paid considerable attention to a number of contextual and structural factors that explain the fundamental crime patterns. These include the spatial and temporal distribution of crime, as well as the age, gender, race, and social status of the participants.

Criminologists have always been fascinated by the social factors that influence criminal behavior. Social context is characterized by the temporal and spatial characteristics that are connected with criminal behavior. At least three time metrics have been of interest to criminologists: annual patterns, seasonal patterns, and daily patterns. According to historical studies of crime in the United States, significant crime grew in the decades preceding the American Civil Conflict and continued to rise after the war. From roughly 1880 until the 1930s, reported crime generally declined, with the exception of the years before and during World War I. Since then, major crime has generally increased modestly, with a sharper rise commencing in the late 1960s (Gurr 1981). It reached its highest point in 1981 and again in 1991, but then plummeted in the middle and late 1990s and has been slowly dropping ever since (see Figure 2).

     Figure 2

In addition to annual shifts, which reflect historical oscillations, criminologists have identified additional units of time in which crime fluctuates. For instance, crimes tend to increase towards the beginning of the month, when most people receive their paychecks. Most crimes occur over the summer, when youths are out of school and people spend extended periods of time outside and away from their homes. Murders are more likely to occur in the evening, when more people are at leisure, whereas domestic burglaries are more likely to occur during the day, when more people are at work or school and less able to monitor their houses.

Additionally, criminologists have attempted to document the spatial patterns of crime. Researchers have found that the rate of severe crime tends to increase as the population of a community grows. In general, urban areas have a greater crime rate than their suburban and rural counterparts. Consistently, victimization and self-report statistics indicate that crime is concentrated in major metropolitan areas (Sutherland, Cressey, and Luckenbill 1992:176–78). In the United States, however, the extent to which the urban crime rate exceeds the rural crime rate fluctuates over time. As improved communication and transportation have diminished the disparities between urban and rural areas, there is reason to believe that the disparities in crime rates have also decreased, with rural and suburban crime rates increasing more rapidly than urban crime rates. In local communities, crime is typically concentrated in areas characterized by social disadvantage. High-crime neighborhoods typically have higher-than-average percentages of poverty, rental and abandoned properties, single-parent households, and population mobility, all of which impede the organization of the community to prevent crime.

Youth engage in criminal activities. Researchers have found that age is the most accurate predictor of criminal behavior. The correlation between age and criminality is nonlinear. Criminal activity grows with age into adolescence, reaches its peak in late adolescence or early adulthood, and then drops rather rapidly with age before declining more slowly until death. Some have argued (Gottfredson and Hirschi, 1986) that the association between age and crime is constant, regardless of sex, race, and socioeconomic status, as well as across time and space (see Figure 3).

     Figure 3

Criminologists use the term “distance” to characterize the cessation of criminal action as age increases beyond the peak offending ages of late adolescence or early adulthood (Laub and Sampson 1993). Although the majority of offenders “age out” of crime by early adulthood, a small proportion continue to commit crimes throughout their lives. This observation has spurred attention in the significance of age in differentiating between various sorts of offenders. Research on the effects of age at first offense and the trajectory of crime over the life cycle reveals the existence of several types of criminal careers that vary in terms of commencement, duration, and intensity. Individuals who engage in criminal activity at a young age and those who have contact with the judicial system at a younger age are more likely to become chronic offenders or “life-course persisters.” Laub and Sampson (1993) shown that even among first-time and chronic offenders, recidivism can be avoided. According to research in this field, the most prevalent type of criminal career is “adolescent limited,” meaning that criminal behavior is typically confined to adolescence and early adulthood, after which desistance occurs swiftly.

Men have a higher crime rate than women. Frequently, comparisons of sex-specific criminal conduct are given as a frequency or rate ratio of male to female offenses. Although the disparity in the sex ratio of offenders varies by kind of offense, it is largest for more serious offenses. In the United States, the ratio of male to female murder arrests in any given year is approximately eight male arrests to one female arrest. In contrast, the ratio of male to female arrests for theft, one of the least serious offenses, is two males for every female. Self-report data suggest that males are more likely to be involved in criminal activity than females, however these data tend to reveal less disparity in the sex ratio of criminal offending than official data, particularly for less severe offences (Triplett and Myers 1995). Some criminologists claim that the disparity between arrest statistics and self-reports is due to the chivalrous stance taken by criminal justice officials when ladies are the target of law enforcement (Steffensmeier 1993).

The official statistics portray an arresting picture of criminal behavior by race. African Americans are significantly more likely than whites to be arrested, despite the fact that whites account for the vast bulk of arrests. African Americans are responsible for over 40 percent of arrests for major violent crimes and over 25 percent of arrests for significant property offenses, although constituting just 13 percent of the United States’ population (Federal Bureau of Investigation 2004). In contrast, Whites are arrested disproportionately for specific Part II offenses, such as alcohol and driving under the influence offenses. The racial discrepancy in arrests for serious crimes has decreased in recent years, but African Americans have a considerably greater chance of arrest than whites (see Figure 4).

     Figure 4

Some criminologists have proposed that racial prejudice in criminal justice may account for a significant portion of the reported racial discrepancy in official statistics (Tonry 1995). Others have argued that the judicial system and its agents are reasonably objective when processing defendants, implying that racial disparities in official crime figures reflect true racial inequalities in criminal behavior (Wilbanks 1987). Using self-report and victimization data, criminologists have attempted to settle this disagreement by examining race-specific involvement in criminal conduct. Self-report studies of delinquency among African American and white kids imply that racial disparities are significantly smaller than indicated by arrest statistics (Elliott and Ageton 1980).

Criminologists have long assumed a negative link between social class and crime: people at the bottom of the social hierarchy are more likely to be involved in criminal activity than those at the top. According to official statistics, lower-class status correlates with more criminal activity. Those convicted of a crime and sentenced to prison are more likely to be indigent, unemployed, or underemployed.

In spite of this evidence, criminologists have contended that the association between class and crime is less certain than indicated by official statistics. Sutherland was the first criminologist to examine the relationship between class and crime (1940). He noticed that white-collar crimes, or crimes perpetrated by respectable and high-status individuals in the course of their employment, are prevalent while being typically overlooked in official crime statistics. Sutherland’s discovery has led to numerous criticisms of people who believe a negative association between socioeconomic status and criminal behavior.

Conclusions regarding the relationship between class and crime may reflect the information source used. Self-report studies indicate that adolescents from all socioeconomic levels engage in delinquent behavior (Tittle, Villamez, and Smith 1978). However, these studies have been critiqued for failing to precisely define class status and for conflating delinquency with serious criminality (Braithwaite, 1979). (Farnworth,Thornberry, Krohn, and Lizotte 1994).

In conclusion, criminologists have committed significant effort in documenting crime patterns. These patterns are useful for evaluating and planning social responses to crime by policymakers. Correlating crime across dimensions of social context (time and geography) and social structure (age, sex, race, and social class) yields empirical facts that theory must explain.

Throughout the past two centuries, numerous criminology schools have flourished. A school of criminology is a body of thinking that combines a theory of crime causation with control methods required by the theory. In Europe during the eighteenth century, Cesare Beccaria and Jeremy Bentham established the classical school as one of the first criminology schools. According to the classical school, crime is a reasonable technique of maximizing one’s self-interest. Individuals are perceived as hedonistic, seeking pleasure and avoiding pain, and rational, calculating the pleasures and pains of possible behaviors and selecting those that promise the most pleasure with the least pain. Individuals will opt to commit a crime if they determine that it delivers the most joy and the least pain relative to other actions. To control crime, the state need merely persuade individuals that committing a crime would result in more pain than pleasure, which can be achieved by raising the severity of punishments. When individuals discover that criminal behavior is less enjoyable, they will pursue more fulfilling activities. During the nineteenth century, the positive school of criminology emerged largely due to the contributions of Cesare Lombroso and his followers. The positive school, which is grounded in the physical sciences, views crime as the result of personal faults or diseases. It asserts that the physical constitution influences behavior and that flaws in biological structure or processes result in criminal conduct. The positive school maintains that punishment is ineffective in reducing crime because criminals do not weigh the pleasures and pains of different actions and choose the one that maximizes pleasure. Instead, it asserts that the only rational approach to controlling crime is to identify and influence its causes. Given that crime is the result of a human defect or disorder, it follows that the most effective method of crime control is to treat the defect or condition in question. This school fell out of favor at the beginning of the twentieth century as the sociological school, which views crime as a product of the social environment, gained popularity. Over the course of the twentieth century, the sociological school has matured and grown to dominate scientific efforts to explain crime.

The sociological school predominantly emerged in the United States. Sociologists have conducted the majority of systematic studies of crime and criminals since the late nineteenth century, when criminology was recognized as a topic of study by the expanding sociology departments of universities. A 1901 survey found that criminology and penology were among the first courses taught under the label of sociology in American colleges (Tolman 1902–1903), and the first issue of the American Journal of Sociology included papers and book reviews on criminology. At the same time, though, American sociologists were impressed by a number of the positive school’s claims. Not until approximately 1915, after the publication of Charles Goring’s The English Convict (1913), was a strong environmentalist perspective developed. This pattern likely caused John Gillin (1914) to make his observation,

The longer the study of crime has continued in this country, the greater has grown the number of causes of crime which may be described as social. This is the aspect in the development of American criminology which has given to that study in this country the title of “The American School.” (P. 53)

The core thesis of the sociological school is that criminal behavior is the outcome of the same conditions and processes as other forms of social behavior. There are two types of analyses of these factors and processes in relation to crime. First, criminologists have attempted to establish a link between variances in crime rates and differences in social organization. Several socioeconomic circumstances, including social and economic inequality, political and economic ideology, and culture and normative conflict, have been studied in relation to differences in the crime rates of societies and units of society. In an early sociological study, Clifford Shaw (1929) utilized the Chicago School’s ecological method, which strongly drew on Durkheim’s analogy of society as an organism, to comprehend the metropolitan distribution of delinquency. He noticed that delinquency was concentrated in specific regions of the city and attributed this to social disarray. He viewed delinquency as a pathology endemic to urban slums, not the individuals who resided there. These regions had high mobility, heterogeneity, and conflict, factors that fostered social disorganization, a condition in which traditional means of social control are ineffective and individuals are free to engage in criminal conduct. In particular, Robert Merton’s (1938) anomie theory was significantly influenced by Durkheim’s functionalist concepts regarding the causes and implications of change in social solidarity. In a seminal remark, Albert Cohen (1955) asserted that differences in the access of social classes to legitimate means of obtaining success correlate with differences in their rates of delinquency. In American society, lower-class children are encouraged to seek the same goals as middle-class children and are evaluated using the same criteria. However, they lack the cultural and economic capital required to effectively compete with children from middle-class families. As a result, many children from disadvantaged backgrounds suffer failure, and in response, they may develop and participate in delinquent subcultures. These two arguments—that high rates of crime can be explained in terms of a breakdown of social organization and that high rates can be explained in terms of a conflict between culturally induced aspirations and structurally limited opportunities—have figured prominently in much macro-level contemporary theory.

Second, criminologists have worked to uncover the mechanisms that lead to the criminalization of persons. In general, their investigations link criminality to socialization differences. One view, advanced by Travis Hirschi (1969) under the umbrella of control theory, holds that criminality is the outcome of a breakdown in socialization. According to this perspective, criminal behavior is a manifestation of inherent instincts. When a person’s connection to society is weak, it is doubtful that he or she will absorb the values and conventions of society or be attentive to the needs and desires of others. The individual lacks control and is therefore free to participate in criminal activity. Edwin Sutherland (1947) and Ronald Akers (1998) expand the notion that criminality results from social learning. According to this viewpoint, criminal behavior is not a manifestation of inherent instincts. Rather, a person learns to engage in illegal behavior similarly to how they learn to engage in noncriminal behavior. The content of education, not the method itself, determines whether a person becomes a criminal. These arguments, namely, that criminality results from a breakdown in socialization and that criminality is a product of socialization, continue to dominate micro-level thinking about crime.

In recent decades, criminologists have pursued alternative methods of analysis. In the 1960s and 1970s, some criminologists began to rethink the key assumptions and themes that had been used to organize criminology. They noticed that criminality is not an inherent quality of a given conduct and that the breach of a criminal statute does not invariably result in the capture and punishment of the offender. Instead, an act is criminal because legislators have made it so, and those who violate the law are selectively captured and punished (Becker 1963). This moves the focus from the criminal to the mechanisms of defining and responding to disruptive behavior (Quinney 1964; Turk 1969). Consequently, criminologists have increasingly focused on patterns of selective law enforcement, asking what types of offenses and offenders are most likely to be treated as crimes and criminals and why? In the course of demystifying the legal system, criminologists also considered the consequences of being labeled and treated as a criminal, arguing that stigmatization reduces a person’s legitimate opportunities for success and alters his or her identity, thereby promoting chronic criminality (Kitsuse 1962; Lemert 1972:62–92).

Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, a number of criminologists attempted to develop comprehensive theories of crime. Traditionally, criminologists have evaluated hypotheses by pitting at least two against one another in a “theory competition” (Akers and Sellers 2004:267). Recognizing that there is nothing to be gained from such rivalry, criminologists have increasingly sought to develop more effective explanatory models by combining aspects of two or more distinct theories of crime. John Braithwaite (1989) incorporated elements of control theory, social learning theory, and labeling theory into his theory of reintegrative shaming, and Charles Tittle (1995) incorporated elements of control theory, social learning theory, strain theory, and Marxist theory into his control balance theory of deviance. Despite the significance of integration initiatives, caution must be exercised in this endeavor. As Akers (1989:24) correctly highlighted, if ideas are combined without respect for their incompatibilities, “theoretical mush” can arise.

Over the years, three crime prevention strategies have been utilized: punitive, defensive, and interventionist. Punitive tactics are predicated on the premise that criminality and crime rates can be lowered by instilling in individuals a strong fear of being penalized for committing crimes. It is believed that inflicting great suffering on criminals both reforms those who are punished (specific deterrence) and discourages others from committing crimes (general deterrence). Much of the legislation that aims to significantly reduce crime is merely an effort to improve the severity or certainty of punishment (Beckett and Sasson 2004). Methods of defense are based on the premise that crime can be decreased by making it difficult for individuals to commit crimes. These solutions include lighting streets, securing doors, and putting valuables in safes (Felson 2002:144–64). The confinement of criminals inside bars so that they cannot victimize strangers is another example of defensive measures. The premise of interventionist tactics is that punishment and defense are insufficient. Rather, it is assumed that criminality and crime rates can be efficiently lowered by identifying and altering the factors that produce them. Methods based on the premise that offenders lack basic interpersonal skills aim to develop their competence in empathy, problem solving, impulse control, and anger management, whereas methods based on the premise that offenders have learned criminal behavior aim to teach them lawful forms of behavior (Cullen 2002). Generally speaking, interventionist tactics think that high crime rates are a result of economic, political, and social organization and that it is folly to leave this structure intact and try to reduce crime rates by punishing or defending against criminals produced by it. Instead, the objective is to reform the economic, political, or social system in order to lower crime rates (Currie 1998).

There is substantial evidence that intervention is or may be the most effective method of reducing crime (Cullen 2002; MacKenzie 2000). As more is discovered about crime, interventionist approaches will have a stronger foundation. If consistently followed, these regulations would safeguard society against crime in three ways.

First, they would ensure the segregation of those whose recurrent involvement in major crime has shown their threat. Although segregation would not change these criminals, it will safeguard society by incapacitating them and demonstrating disapproval of significant lawbreaking. Currently, we are unable to dramatically alter the societal conditions that produce some chronic offenders or their behavior. We can only protect ourselves against this small group of dangerous individuals.

Second, interventionist policies would integrate into law-abiding society a greater number of citizens, including the majority of those who have committed a crime but have not proven to be dangerous. It is generally accepted that social control is derived from the benefits of lawful behavior rather than direct fear of punishment. The effective deterrent is not the dread of legal penalties per se, but rather the fear of status loss (Grasmick and Bursik 1990). However, fear is not what stops criminal action. Rather, a law-abiding citizen is someone who believes that certain actions, such as stealing from a neighbor or attacking a coworker, are inconceivable. In order for crime prevention strategies to be effective, more people must have a stake in adhering to the rules that prohibit criminal behavior.

Thirdly, interventionist policies would identify the social circumstances from which criminal activity is most likely to emanate and make it possible to abolish those circumstances. Instead of eliminating the economic, political, and social attitudes, conditions, and injustices that cause crime, political leaders have decided to rely on fear of punishment (Currie 1998). Punishment appears to be less expensive, but this is not the case. In addition, the emphasis on punishment detracts from the necessity of creating the environment required for household tranquility. If attitudes of shared respect for certain values could be fostered, punitive legislation relating to these values would be unneeded. If, for instance, all members of a community had an equal stake in the concept of private property, it would no longer be necessary to coerce individuals into upholding property rights.

In short, crime would be decreased by absorbing those criminals who can be absorbed, isolating those who cannot be absorbed for defense, and reducing the conditions that are most conducive to crime and hence necessitate the need to absorb some criminals and isolate others. As much as punishment would, the vigorous execution of such rules would demonstrate society disapproval of criminal behavior. Rather than punishment, approval and disapproval of criminals deter crime among the majority of citizens, including the majority of the poor and disadvantaged, from whom the vast majority of criminals originate.

Our knowledge of crime is elementary. Certainly, we have a sense of how crime is distributed along a variety of structural, temporal, and spatial dimensions; we have a sense of the principal variables that affect the occurrence of crime and development of criminality, as well as the general ways in which these variables operate to produce crime and criminality; and we have a sense of the types of methods that appear to be effective in controlling crime. However, more effort must be done before a solid comprehension of crime can be attained.

When we consider criminology in the twenty-first century, we observe that the field is evolving in multiple directions. There are persistent efforts to develop and enhance the methodological tools for documenting crime, testing theories of crime, and evaluating initiatives to combat crime. There are also ongoing efforts to create integrated theories of crime, theories that incorporate not just sociological, but also biological and psychological, factors. Integrated theory is advancing criminology down a path that may eventually identify it as an interdisciplinary field of study as opposed to a sociological specialty. These two streams, one methodological and one theoretical, will become more linked. The analytical state of the art, for instance, enables a broader and more rigorous range of theory-testing initiatives, which promotes the development of theory. Lastly, there are ongoing initiatives to employ criminological knowledge to improve social welfare by reducing rates of first and repeat offenses in a manner that is fair to offenders, victims, and the broader community. These trends are not exclusive to the criminological enterprise. In fact, they reflect sociological tendencies in which sociologists attempt to refine methods, develop unified theories, and apply research to educate public policy and enrich community life.

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• Triplett, Ruth and Laura B. Myers. 1995. “Evaluating Contextual Patterns of Delinquency: Gender-Based Differences.” Justice Quarterly 12:59–84.
• Turk, Austin T. 1969. Criminality and the Legal Order. Chicago, IL: Rand McNally.
• Wilbanks, William. 1987. The Myth of a Racist Criminal Justice System. Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole.
• Crime and Criminology Research Paper
• Criminology of Place Research Paper
• Identification in Life Course Criminology Research Paper
• Longitudinal Studies in Criminology Research Paper

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428 Criminology Research Topics & Questions for Students

As you might already know, criminology is the study of crime. To be more precise, criminology studies crime as a social trend, including its origin, various manifestations, and its impact on society.

Criminology research influences how the police work, how society treats criminals, and how the community maintains law and order. In this article, you’ll find top criminology research topics for your inspiration. We’ll also look into the main criminology theories and research methods and explain the difference between criminology and criminal justice.

🔝 Top-10 Criminology Research Topics

🔤 what is criminology.

• 🔎 Criminology Research Methods
• 📝 Research Topics for Assignments

🦹‍♂️ Crime Research Topics

• 🚔 Topics in Law Enforcement
• 🕵️ Criminal Investigation Topics

⚖️ Criminal Law Research Topics

• 🔒 Topics to Research in Crime Prevention

🧑‍⚖️ Criminal Justice Research Topics

• 🆚 Criminology Vs Criminal Justice

❓ Criminology Topics: FAQ

🔗 references.

• Criminology as a science: criminology theories.
• The importance of eyewitness evidence.
• The issue of racial bias in the investigation.
• Crime propaganda on social media.
• The leading causes of college violence.
• The benefits of private prisons.
• The debate around gun control.
• The analysis of power abuse among police officers.
• Drunk driving and how to prevent it.
• The importance of forensic psychology in the investigation.

Criminology is the study of crime and criminal behavior, supported by the principles of sociology and other sciences, including economics, statistics, and psychology.

Criminologists study a variety of related areas, including:

• Characteristics of people who commit crimes.
• Reasons behind committing different crimes.
• Impact of crime on individuals and communities.
• Measures for preventing crimes.

Criminology Theories

Criminology theories have appeared as an attempt to answer the question, “What is criminal behavior, and what causes it?” The answer to this question affects how society responds to and prevents crime. Proposing new theories and testing existing ones is essential for criminologists to continue working toward understanding the causes of criminal behavior.

Let’s consider the most relevant criminology theories.

🔎 Research Methods Used in Criminology

There are many research methods used within criminology. Usually, they are divided into two groups: primary and secondary research methods.

Primary Research Methods in Criminology

Primary research in criminology is any type of research that you collect yourself rather than based on secondary sources, such as articles or books. Examples of primary research methods in criminology include the following:

• Surveys and questionnaires. Survey research collects information from individuals through their responses to questions. It is considered one of the most widely used research tools in criminology.
• Experiments. For experiments , researchers take large samples of people who might become or have already been involved in crimes as victims or offenders. Then, they divide these samples into two groups, each receiving a different treatment.
• Interviews. An interview requires participants to answer a set of open-ended questions, often on sensitive topics, such as victimization or criminal behaviors. This method allows criminologists to gain more valuable insights into the research topic.
• Focus groups. A focus group is a small number of demographically similar people gathered to discuss a particular crime-related topic. This method allows criminologists to analyze people’s views, attitudes, and perceptions concerning crime.
• Observations. Observations involve a researcher studying groups or individuals in their natural setting without interfering. It is a common research method within the social learning theory.

Secondary Criminology Research Methods

Secondary research methods use information that was collected by someone else so that you can analyze it and identify the trends. Here are the two leading types of secondary research in criminology:

• Secondary analysis of data. A secondary analysis occurs when a researcher uses data collected by other researchers. You can obtain secondary data from surveys, official crime statistics, or official records.
• Literature review. A literature review involves reading, analyzing, evaluating, and summarizing literature about a specific criminology topic. It helps scholars identify research gaps and problems that need to be addressed.

📝 Criminology Research Topics for Assignments

To write an outstanding research paper on criminology, choose a topic that will spark your interest. Below you’ll find excellent criminology topic ideas for college students.

Criminology Research Paper Topics

• Criminology theory and its main elements.
• Criminology discipline and theories .
• American crime trends and criminological theories.
• The significance of criminological studies in the US.
• Criminology: legal rights afforded to the accused .
• The impact of violence and crime on the tourism industry.
• How did US crime rates change over the last 20 years?
• Classical and positivist schools of criminology .
• Should abortion be treated as a crime?
• Official and unofficial instruments within the criminal investigation.
• Criminology: femininity and the upsurge of ladettes .
• Criminal rehabilitation programs and their significance.
• Shoplifting and how to prevent it.
• Emerging technologies in criminology .
• The effects of illegal immigrants on crime rates.
• Drug trafficking by organized crime groups.
• Criminology and victimology: victim stereotypes in criminal justice .
• Can genetics lead to crime?
• The procedures of crime scene investigation.
• Labeling theory and critical criminology: sociological research .
• Hate crimes in modern society.
• The phenomenon of white-collar crime and its causes.
• How to prevent crimes in the workplace?
• Criminology: the social control theory .
• Stereotypes that surround serial killers and their crimes.
• The comparison of organized crime in New York and Chicago.
• Prevention strategies for small business crimes.
• Criminology: four types of evidence .
• Relations between crime, justice, and the media.

Criminology Research Proposal Topics

• How to prevent intellectual property crimes in cyberspace?
• Identity theft and cybercrime in modern society.
• Contemporary theories in criminology .
• The problem of racial profiling in the US.
• How has criminology contributed to the study of terrorism ?
• Possible solutions to the issue of street harassment .
• Postmodern criminology: the violence of the language .
• Gender bias in the investigation: pink-collar criminals.
• The phenomenon of digital terrorism and how to prevent it.
• How do immigration services help fight against terrorism?
• Green criminology: environmental harm in the Niger Delta .
• How has marijuana legalization influenced crime rates?
• Tools for collecting and analyzing crime evidence.
• How does international law manage war crimes ?
• The due process: criminology .
• What are victimless crimes ?
• The relation between crime rates and poverty.
• National system for missing and unidentified persons.
• Three case briefs in criminology .
• The impact of mental illness on criminal behavior.
• The effectiveness of rehabilitation programs in reducing crime rates.
• The use of AI technology in crime prevention and investigation.
• Sexual assault: criminology .
• The role of media coverage in public perception of crime.
• The impact of community policing on reducing crime rates.
• The impact of mass shootings on gun control laws.
• The impact of automation technology on criminology .

Criminology Thesis Topics

• The role of juvenile justice in preventing future criminal behavior.
• Feminism and criminology in the modern justice system .
• The effectiveness of mandatory minimum sentencing in the US.
• Drug laws : fighting crime or fueling it?
• Police brutality : a systemic problem in criminal justice.
• Criminology: USA Patriot Act overview .
• The impact of hate crimes on marginalized communities.
• How does organized crime affect the global economy?
• The significance of DNA evidence for criminal investigations.
• Use of statistics in criminal justice and criminology .
• The ethics of plea bargaining in criminal cases.
• Mental illness and criminal behavior: breaking the stigma.
• The impact of social media on cyberbullying and harassment.
• Robert Merton’s strain theory in criminology .
• Causes and consequences of police corruption .
• The role of restorative justice in repairing harm caused by crime.
• The effectiveness of treatment programs in reducing drug-related crimes.
• Hernando Washington case: criminology .
• The negative effects of human trafficking on global communities.
• The role of forensic science in crimes investigation.
• The effectiveness of community-based alternatives to imprisonment.
• Integrity as a key value: criminology and war .
• The relationship between poverty, education, and crime rates.
• Cybercrime : the dark side of the digital age.
• Hate crimes: motivations and impact on modern society.
• Feminist perspectives’ contribution to criminology .
• The impact of incarceration on families and communities.

Criminology Research Questions for Dissertation

• Can criminal profiling accurately predict offender behavior?
• How do hate crimes affect individuals and communities?
• How were the US Constitution and the Bill of Rights influenced by the classical school of criminology ?
• What are the psychological effects of cyberbullying on victims?
• What factors contribute to domestic violence , and how can it be prevented?
• How have organized crime groups evolved over time?
• How is statistics used in criminology and criminal justice ?
• Is the death penalty an effective crime deterrent?
• What motivates individuals to engage in white-collar crime?
• What are the consequences of police corruption for society?
• What is variance analysis in criminal justice and criminology ?
• How does drug addiction contribute to criminal behavior?
• How does gender influence criminal behavior and justice outcomes?
• What drives individuals to commit mass shootings?
• What is the broken window theory in criminology ?
• What are the biggest challenges facing criminal justice reform efforts?
• How do urban gangs perpetuate violence and criminal activity?
• How do criminal law and procedures protect individual rights and liberties?
• What is the impact of corporate fraud ?
• What challenges do individuals with mental health issues face in the criminal justice system?
• How can society combat human trafficking and exploitation?
• What measures can be taken to enhance cybersecurity and protect against cybercrime?
• What is the aboriginal crisis from a criminology perspective ?
• How can victimology help us better understand the experience of crime victims?
• What are effective crime prevention strategies for different types of crime?
• What is legal insanity in criminology ?
• How does environmental crime impact communities and the environment?
• How is the peace-making model applied in criminology ?

A significant part of criminology research is dedicated to various types of crimes and their reasons. Consider our crime topic ideas that will spark instant interest in your readers:

• The psychological impact of kidnapping on victims and their families.
• The racialization of crime and cultural panic .
• The ethical considerations surrounding ransom payments in kidnapping cases.
• The effect of burglary on small businesses and their ability to recover.
• The impact of race, ethnicity, and socioeconomic status on homicide rates and patterns.
• Shoplifting: a crime of convenience .
• The effectiveness of different types of anti-theft devices in preventing motor vehicle theft.
• The role of forensic science in investigating arson cases, including the use of accelerant detection dogs.
• The concept of natural legal crime .
• The psychological profiles of white-collar criminals and their motivations.
• The psychological effects of burglary on victims and their sense of security.
• The concept of juvenile crime .
• The role of social media in facilitating and preventing kidnappings.
• The use of forensic evidence in homicide investigations and the challenges of prosecuting homicide cases.
• Sex crime recidivism rates.
• Illegal immigrantion and its effects on crime .
• The effectiveness of international efforts to combat money laundering .
• The efficacy of community watch programs in reducing burglary rates.
• The role of corporate culture in facilitating or preventing white-collar crime.
• Crimes in America: the 9/11/01 terrorist attacks .
• Technology in motor vehicle theft: GPS tracking and remote disabling systems.
• Human trafficking and the exploitation of vulnerable populations.
• Crime and criminals: general characteristics .
• The ethical and moral implications of capital punishment as a response to homicide.
• The effectiveness of fire prevention and education programs in reducing instances of arson.
• US gun control measures and crime rates reduction .
• The use of cryptocurrency in money laundering and illegal activities.
• White-collar crime and the abuse of power in corporate and financial settings.
• Cargo crimes and threats: government accountability office .
• The rise of cyberstalking and its impact on victims’ mental health.
• The effects of pollution on communities and the legal response to environmental crimes.
• Cyber-bullying and cyber-stalking as crimes .
• The effects of society’s reaction to crime.
• The use of technology in financial fraud schemes .
• Crimes against property and their characteristics .
• The intersection of racism and hate crimes against Asian Americans.
• The impact of deforestation on indigenous communities and wildlife.
• Crime types and their harm to society .
• The prevalence of domestic violence and the legal response to it.
• The exploitation of child labor in the fashion industry .
• Race and crime among minorities in the US .
• The ethical implications of using artificial intelligence in law enforcement.
• The psychological effects of hate crimes on victims and their communities.
• How does local television news viewing relate to fear of crime ?
• The evolution of cybercrime and its most common types.
• Parental responsibility for children’s crimes.
• The sex crime: influence of childhood experiences .
• Prostitution : a victimless crime.
• Sociology and media representation of crime.
• The profile of a crime victim .
• A theory of gendered criminology: women’s crime.

🚔 Research Topics in Law Enforcement

Another exciting area within criminology to investigate is law enforcement and police jobs. Have a look at the list of burning and controversial topics we came up with:

• The impact of community policing on crime rates and public trust.
• Law enforcement: online crimes and social media .
• Do body-worn cameras reduce police misconduct?
• The effects of implicit bias on the police use of force.
• Law enforcement cameras as an invasion of privacy .
• The impact of police militarization on community relations.
• Why is mental health training essential for police officers in crisis situations?
• Law enforcement officers’ attitudes regarding body-worn cameras .
• The role of police in addressing hate crimes and bias incidents.
• The effectiveness of community-based alternatives to traditional policing.
• Organizational changes in law enforcement agencies .
• The efficacy of police-community partnership in addressing gang violence.
• The impact of police officer diversity on community relations and trust.
• Local, state, and federal law enforcement in the US .
• The role of police in addressing cybercrime and online harassment.
• The effects of police body language and nonverbal cues on public perceptions.
• Cumulative career traumatic stress in law enforcement .
• Social media and its role in shaping public perceptions of police behavior.
• The role of police discretion in enforcing drug laws and addressing addiction.
• Mindfulness practice in law enforcement .
• The effectiveness of hot spot policing in reducing crime rates.
• Organizational culture in the police department.
• Stress in law enforcement officers and available programs .
• The role of police leadership in promoting ethical behavior and accountability.
• The effectiveness of community-based justice programs for juvenile offenders.
• Law enforcement in colonial America .
• Police-community partnerships for addressing domestic violence.
• The role of police in addressing human trafficking and exploitation.
• Misrepresentation of law enforcement by media .
• School safety and the police.
• How does stress affect the performance of law enforcement officers?
• The law enforcement: verbal communication as the best form of interaction .
• The significance of federal and state law enforcement mechanisms.
• The adverse effects of toxic leadership in quality law enforcement.
• Balance between effective law enforcement and personal liberty .
• The importance of discipline in public services.
• The connection between police salary and rates of police brutality.
• Role of police agencies in law enforcement .
• Police investigative questioning and techniques.
• The issue of corruption in law enforcement.
• Significance of computer forensics to law enforcement .
• Case study: police response to the Ningbo protest.
• Police actions to stop school bullying .
• Law enforcement position in society .
• New technological advances within the police department.
• Do law enforcement cameras violate privacy right?
• Different types of evaluation designs in law enforcement .
• Recognition of women’s right to work as police officers.
• The effectiveness of foot and bike patrols of the streets.
• Firearms types and usage in law enforcement .
• The competencies of international law enforcement authorities.
• Comparison of police brutality statistics for different genders.
• Ethical theories in law enforcement practice .

🕵️ Criminal Investigation Research Topics

The criminal investigation process is another criminology area worth discussing in your research paper. Below you’ll find the most intriguing criminal investigation topics:

• The history and evolution of criminal investigation techniques.
• Crime scene investigation in media and real life .
• The role of forensic science in criminal investigations.
• How does technology impact modern criminal investigations?
• The importance of preserving crime scenes and evidence.
• Crime scene investigation effect in the justice system .
• The ethics of interrogation techniques used in criminal investigations.
• Eyewitness testimony in criminal investigations.
• The role of criminal profiling in solving crimes.
• Organized business crime prosecution and investigation .
• How does media coverage affect criminal investigations?
• The use of informants in criminal investigations.
• The main challenges of investigating white-collar crimes.
• Undercover police investigations in drug-related crimes .
• The role of private investigators in criminal investigations.
• The impact of false confessions on criminal investigations.
• How is DNA evidence collected in criminal investigations?
• Importance of toxicology in crime investigation .
• The role of the FBI in national criminal investigations.
• The use of undercover operations in criminal investigations.
• The main challenges of investigating organized crime.
• Crime level investigation in the United States .
• Witness protection programs in criminal investigations.
• The impact of plea bargaining on criminal investigations.
• Surveillance techniques in criminal investigations.
• Investigating crime with age and mental illnesses factors .
• How are cybercrimes investigated?
• The role of international cooperation in criminal investigations.
• How do racial biases influence criminal investigations?
• Drug trafficking: investigation on Frank Lucas .
• Polygraph tests in criminal investigations.
• The main challenges of investigating terrorism-related crimes.
• Homicide investigations and forensic evidence .
• The role of victim advocacy in criminal investigations.
• Lie detector tests in criminal investigations.
• The role of forensic psychology in the investigation .
• The effects of community involvement on criminal investigations.
• The problem of false accusations in criminal investigations.
• Approaches in criminal investigation .
• The use of forensic accounting in financial crime investigations.
• How does the media shape public perception of criminal investigations?
• Key rulings on the conduct of investigators at the scene of a fire .
• The impact of political pressure on criminal investigations.
• The main challenges of investigating human trafficking.
• The Breonna Taylor case and criminal investigation .
• The role of victim compensation in criminal investigations.
• Behavioral analysis in criminal investigations.
• Procedures within crime scene investigation .
• Crime scene reconstruction in criminal investigations.

Criminology goes hand-in-hand with legal studies. If you’re interested in both areas, you should definitely write a research paper on one of the criminal law research topics:

• The evolution of criminal law in the US .
• Criminal law: stolen valor .
• The difference between criminal and civil law.
• Human trafficking and criminal law.
• Types of criminal offenses and the elements of crime.
• International criminal law and measures .
• The role of the burden of proof in criminal cases.
• Criminal defenses and their validity.
• The insanity defense in criminal law.
• Actus reus in English criminal law .
• The controversies around the death penalty.
• Juvenile delinquency and criminal law.
• Cybercrime and its legal implications.
• Criminal law – is graffiti a crime or not ?
• Domestic violence and criminal law.
• Hate crimes and their legal consequences.
• Restitution for victims in criminal law.
• Civil vs. criminal law and differences between them .
• Forensic evidence and its admissibility in court.
• Sexual assault and criminal law.
• The rights of the accused in criminal cases.
• Regulatory criminal laws in the criminal justice system .
• Receiving immunity for testimony in a criminal law case.
• The legal classification of criminal offenses.
• Self-defense in criminal law cases.
• How Canadian criminal law regulates deviant conduct .
• Sentencing guidelines and their impact on society.
• The use of DNA evidence in criminal cases.
• Eyewitness testimony and its reliability in court.
• Fundamental aspects of Canadian criminal law .
• The role of the media in criminal trials.
• The impact of social inequality on criminal justice outcomes.
• The future of criminal law and its impact on society.
• Criminal law in India and access to justice .
• International criminal law and its enforcement.
• Extradition and its legal implications.
• The impact of globalization on criminal law.
• Juvenile vs. adult criminal law .
• The importance of victim rights in criminal cases.
• Restorative justice and its benefits for society.
• Alternatives to incarceration for non-violent offenders.
• Automatism as a defence in criminal law .
• The role of defense attorneys in criminal trials.
• The role of prosecutors in criminal trials.
• The right to a public trial in a criminal law case.
• Civil and criminal law penalties and differences .
• Car searches in criminal investigations by law enforcement.

🔒 Criminology Topics for Research in Crime Prevention

Researching crime prevention allows you to learn more about the strategies for reducing criminal behavior. Have a look at our outstanding crime prevention topic ideas:

• Understanding and explaining crime prevention.
• Theories that explain criminal activities and criminology .
• The effectiveness of community policing in preventing crime.
• The benefits and drawbacks of crime prevention in the US.
• How can education reduce crime rates?
• Crime prevention programs and criminal rehabilitation .
• Technological innovations and their impact on crime prevention.
• The importance of early childhood interventions in preventing criminal behavior.
• The relationship between poverty and crime prevention strategies.
• Youth crime prevention and needs assessment .
• The use of restorative justice in reducing recidivism.
• The effectiveness of gun control laws in preventing gun-related crimes.
• The impact of social media on crime prevention and awareness.
• Crime prevention program in Australia .
• The use of CCTV cameras in preventing crime.
• Evidence for crime prevention programs in developing countries.
• The role of mental health services in preventing criminal behavior.
• Crime prevention practices: overview .
• The effectiveness of community-based programs in reducing juvenile delinquency.
• The use of environmental design in preventing crime by shaping space and behavior.
• Victim support programs for lowering crime rates.
• Situational and social crime prevention approaches .
• The effectiveness of after-school programs in preventing juvenile offenses.
• Techniques for preventing situational and social crime.
• The impact of citizen participation in crime prevention.
• Computer crime prevention measures .
• The efficacy of community watch programs in preventing neighborhood crimes.
• The use of community centers for preventing gang-related crimes.
• The impact of sentencing policies on crime prevention.
• Biometrics recognition and crime prevention .
• The relationship between video game violence and youth crime .
• Social media and cybercrime prevention.
• The role of social workers in crime prevention.
• Three-strikes law for preventing violent crimes .
• Decreasing crime rates through education and medicine.
• The use of animal-assisted therapy for reducing criminal behavior.
• The effectiveness of aftercare programs in reducing recidivism.
• Capital punishment as ineffective crime deterrence .
• The main strategies for proactive crime prevention.
• The impact of domestic violence prevention programs on crime rates.
• The use of probation and parole in preventing criminal behavior.
• Juvenile weapon crimes and strategies to address .
• The role of faith-based organizations in crime prevention.
• The use of diversion programs in juvenile crime prevention.
• The distinctions between crime prevention and community safety.
• Preventing crime victimization in international students .
• The impact of agriculture and rural development on crime prevention.

Criminal justice might be a challenging research topic, but it is worth the time and effort. Consider our unique topic ideas for your successful research:

• The effectiveness of community policing.
• The use of statistics in criminal justice and criminology .
• Rehabilitation programs offered in prisons and their efficacy.
• The importance of defense attorneys in the criminal justice system.
• The code of ethics in the Texas Department of Criminal Justice .
• The significance of restorative justice programs.
• The impact of mandatory minimum sentencing laws.
• Criminal justice process: felony criminal charge .
• The role of judges in the criminal justice system.
• Probation and parole in the criminal justice system.
• Veterans in the criminal justice system .
• The comparison of prison privatization in the US and UK.
• The main issues women experience in the prison system.
• US terrorism and criminal justice decision-making model .
• The prison system in a democratic society.
• The role of psychologists in the criminal justice system.
• Transgender offenders in the criminal justice system .
• The impact of private prisons on crime rates.
• The effectiveness of victim compensation programs.
• The successes and failures to reform punishment in the criminal justice system .
• Community involvement in the criminal justice system.
• The main challenges of long-term prisoner rehabilitation.
• Technology application in criminal justice .
• The role of victim-offender mediation in the criminal justice system.
• Gender disparity in the criminal justice system.
• Recidivism in criminal justice: the American prison system .
• How does solitary confinement impact people in prisons?
• Legal and ethical issues in international intervention.
• Racial and ethnic disparities in the criminal justice system .
• Do mandatory minimum sentences help or hurt?
• The effects of prison on children of incarcerated individuals.
• Psychopathy in the criminal justice system .
• The importance of mental health professionals in the criminal justice system.
• Techniques for influencing criminal justice system change.
• Non-inclusiveness of the criminal justice system .
• The impact of racial profiling on the criminal justice system.
• The effectiveness of diversion programs for veterans.
• False confessions in the US criminal justice system .
• Racism in the criminal justice system of the US.
• People with disabilities and criminal justice.
• Ethical dilemmas in the criminal justice system .
• Forensic psychology guidelines for criminal justice.
• The impact of technology on jury selection .
• Effective writing and criminal justice .
• The effectiveness of mandatory drug testing for probationers and parolees.
• The effect of wrongful executions on the criminal justice system.
• Discontinuity of care in the criminal justice system .
• The influence of media on criminal justice and community.
• The impact of cybercrime on the global criminal justice system.
• Criminal justice: coerced confessions .
• The role of private prisons in the criminal justice system.
• The effectiveness of diversion programs for people without housing.
• Criminal justice system and the problem of racism .
• What can be learned from the history of criminal courts?
• Comparison between American and British legislative frameworks.
• Criminal justice case: types of sentences, probation, and final decision .
• The overview of the modern justice system.
• The ethical issue of unwarranted arrests.
• Civil liability in criminal justice .
• The risk groups of juvenile recidivism .

🆚 Difference between Criminology and Criminal Justice

Students often confuse criminology with criminal justice because both areas study crime and criminal behavior. Understanding their main differences is essential before conducting research in any of these areas.

Is Criminology a Science?

Criminology can be considered as a science because it uses the scientific method. The scientific method involves five steps: stating the problem, forming the hypothesis, collecting the data, interpreting these data, and drawing conclusions. Within criminology, scientists use standard research methods, such as surveys, experiments, interviews, etc.

What Does Criminology Study?

Criminology studies crime, including its causes, methods of prevention, and responses from law enforcement. It relies on other non-legal studies, such as sociology, psychology, and statistics, to examine the characteristics of people who commit crimes and the effects of criminality on individuals and society.

What Are the Principal Areas of Criminology Research?

Four significant criminology areas include:

• The history of criminology . This area focuses on criminology founders and theories of crime and punishment development.
• Theory of crime causation . This aspect explores if a criminal’s behavior is determined by their social environment.
• Typologies of crime . This field describes different types of crimes and the reasons for committing them.
• Crime prevention efforts . This area studies crime measures that can curb crimes before they occur.

What Are the Principal Types of Research Methods in Criminology?

Criminology uses quantitative (analyzing measurements and statistics) and qualitative (analyzing non-numerical data) research methods to gain valuable insights. The most common scientific methods in criminology are surveys, experiments, secondary data analysis, interviews, historical/comparative research, and ethnography.

• Criminology and Criminal Justice: Pick a Topic | Marquette University
• Criminology Questions & Topics | David H. Kessel
• Topics | Ghent University
• Emergent Issues in Crime & Justice | University of Maryland
• Qualitative Research in Criminal Justice | University of North Texas
• Criminology, Law & Society | UCI Libraries
• What the Data Says (and Doesn’t Say) about Crime in the United States | Pew Research Center
• Types of Criminal Offenses | Justia
• Criminal Justice and Criminology Theses | East Tennessee State University
• Research Overview | The University of Alabama
• Criminology Research | University of Portsmouth
• Research | Arizona State University
• Research Themes | University of Surrey, Centre for Criminology
• Advanced Criminology & Criminal Justice Research Guide | Mardigian Library
• Criminology – Research Guide: Getting Started | PennLibraries
• Law and Criminology | University of Plymouth
• Topics for a Criminology Research Paper | Classroom
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Criminal Justice

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Criminology research methods.

This section provides an overview of various research methods used in criminology and criminal justice. It covers a range of approaches from quantitative research methods such as crime classification systems, crime reports and statistics, citation and content analysis, crime mapping, and experimental criminology, to qualitative methods such as edge ethnography and fieldwork in criminology. Additionally, we explore two particular programs for monitoring drug abuse among arrestees, namely, the Drug Abuse Warning Network (DAWN) and Arrestee Drug Abuse Monitoring (ADAM). Finally, the article highlights the importance of criminal justice program evaluation in shaping policy decisions. Overall, this overview demonstrates the significance of a multidisciplinary approach to criminology research, and the need to combine both qualitative and quantitative research methods to gain a comprehensive understanding of crime and its causes.

I. Introduction

• Brief overview of criminology research methods • Importance of understanding different research methods in criminology

II. Drug Abuse Warning Network (DAWN) and Arrestee Drug Abuse Monitoring (ADAM)

• Definition and purpose of DAWN and ADAM • Methodology and data collection process • Significance of DAWN and ADAM data in criminology research

III. Crime Classification Systems: NCVS, NIBRS, and UCR

• Overview and purpose of each system • Differences between the systems • Advantages and limitations of each system

IV. Crime Reports and Statistics

• Sources of crime data and statistics • Limitations of crime data and statistics • Use of crime data and statistics in criminology research

V. Citation and Content Analysis

• Definition and purpose of citation and content analysis • Methodology and data collection process • Applications of citation and content analysis in criminology research

VI. Crime Mapping

• Definition and purpose of crime mapping • Methodology and data collection process • Applications of crime mapping in criminology research

VII. Edge Ethnography

• Definition and purpose of edge ethnography • Methodology and data collection process • Applications of edge ethnography in criminology research

VIII. Experimental Criminology

• Definition and purpose of experimental criminology • Methodology and data collection process • Applications of experimental criminology in criminology research

IX. Fieldwork in Criminology

• Definition and purpose of fieldwork in criminology • Methodology and data collection process • Applications of fieldwork in criminology research

X. Criminal Justice Program Evaluation

• Definition and purpose of criminal justice program evaluation • Methodology and data collection process • Applications of criminal justice program evaluation in criminology research

XI. Quantitative Criminology

• Definition and purpose of quantitative criminology • Methodology and data collection process • Applications of quantitative criminology in criminology research

XII. Conclusion

• Importance of understanding different research methods in criminology • Future directions for criminology research methods

Criminology research methods are crucial for understanding the causes and patterns of crime, as well as developing effective strategies for prevention and intervention. There are various methods used in criminological research, each with its own strengths and limitations. Understanding the different research methods is essential for conducting high-quality research that can inform policies and practices aimed at reducing crime and promoting public safety. This overview provides an overview of some of the most commonly used criminology research methods, including the Drug Abuse Warning Network (DAWN) and Arrestee Drug Abuse Monitoring (ADAM), crime classification systems such as the National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS), National Incident-Based Reporting System (NIBRS), and Uniform Crime Reporting (UCR), crime reports and statistics, citation and content analysis, crime mapping, edge ethnography, experimental criminology, fieldwork in criminology, and quantitative criminology. The survey highlights the importance of understanding these methods and their applications in criminology research.

The Drug Abuse Warning Network (DAWN) and Arrestee Drug Abuse Monitoring (ADAM) are two important research methods used in criminology to collect data on drug use and abuse among the population.

DAWN is a national public health surveillance system that tracks drug-related emergency department visits and deaths in the United States. The system collects data on drug-related medical emergencies and deaths from a variety of sources, including hospitals, medical examiners, and coroners. The purpose of DAWN is to provide information on drug use trends and the impact of drug use on public health and safety.

ADAM, on the other hand, is a research program that collects data on drug use and drug-related criminal activity among individuals who have been arrested and booked into jail. The program is designed to provide information on the prevalence of drug use and abuse among individuals involved in the criminal justice system.

Both DAWN and ADAM use similar methodology and data collection processes. Data is collected through interviews with individuals who have been involved in drug-related incidents, and through the analysis of drug-related data collected from medical and criminal justice records.

The significance of DAWN and ADAM data in criminology research is twofold. First, the data provides valuable information on drug use trends and patterns, which can inform the development of drug prevention and treatment programs. Second, the data can be used to understand the relationship between drug use and criminal behavior, and to inform criminal justice policies related to drug offenses.

Overall, the use of DAWN and ADAM in criminology research has contributed significantly to our understanding of drug use and abuse among the population, and has helped inform public health and criminal justice policies related to drug offenses.

The classification of crimes is an essential component of criminology research. The three main crime classification systems used in the United States are the National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS), the National Incident-Based Reporting System (NIBRS), and the Uniform Crime Reporting (UCR) Program.

The NCVS is a victimization survey that collects data on the frequency and nature of crimes that are not reported to law enforcement. The survey is conducted by the Bureau of Justice Statistics and includes a sample of households and individuals. The NCVS provides valuable insights into crime victimization patterns and trends.

The NIBRS, on the other hand, is a more detailed crime reporting system that provides a comprehensive view of crime incidents. It captures more data than the UCR, including information on the victim, offender, and the circumstances surrounding the crime. The NIBRS is being adopted by law enforcement agencies across the country and is expected to replace the UCR as the primary crime reporting system.

The UCR is the longest-running and most widely used crime reporting system in the United States. It collects data on seven index crimes, including murder, rape, robbery, aggravated assault, burglary, larceny-theft, and motor vehicle theft. The UCR provides an overview of crime trends and patterns at the national, state, and local levels.

Each system has its advantages and limitations. For example, the NCVS provides valuable information on crime victimization that is not captured by the UCR or NIBRS. The NIBRS provides more detailed information on crimes than the UCR but requires more resources to implement. The UCR is widely used and provides long-term trends but does not capture detailed information on each crime incident.

Understanding the differences and similarities between these classification systems is important for criminology research and policy development.

Crime reports and statistics are essential sources of data for criminology research. Law enforcement agencies, criminal justice systems, and government agencies collect and analyze crime data to develop policies and strategies to reduce crime rates. However, crime data and statistics have several limitations that researchers should consider when interpreting and using them in research.

One limitation of crime data and statistics is that they rely on the accuracy and completeness of reported crimes. Not all crimes are reported to law enforcement, and those that are reported may not be accurately recorded. Additionally, the police may have biases in their reporting practices, which can affect the accuracy of the data.

Another limitation of crime data and statistics is that they do not always provide a complete picture of crime. For example, crime data may not capture crimes that occur in private places or are committed by people who are not typically considered criminals, such as white-collar criminals.

Despite these limitations, crime data and statistics are still valuable sources of information for criminology research. They can help researchers identify patterns and trends in crime rates and understand the factors that contribute to criminal behavior. Crime data can also be used to evaluate the effectiveness of criminal justice policies and programs.

Researchers should be cautious when using crime data and statistics in their research and acknowledge the limitations of these sources. They should also consider using multiple sources of data to triangulate their findings and develop a more comprehensive understanding of crime trends and patterns.

Citation and content analysis are research methods that are increasingly used in criminology. Citation analysis involves the systematic examination of citations in published works to determine patterns of authorship, influence, and intellectual relationships within a given field. Content analysis, on the other hand, involves the systematic examination of written or visual material to identify patterns or themes in the content.

In criminology research, citation and content analysis can be used to study a wide range of topics, including the evolution of criminological theories, the impact of specific research studies, and the representation of crime and justice issues in the media. These methods can also be used to identify gaps in the literature and to develop new research questions.

The methodology for citation analysis involves gathering data on citations from published works, including books, articles, and other sources. This data is then analyzed to determine patterns in the citations, such as which works are cited most frequently and by whom. Content analysis involves the systematic examination of written or visual material, such as news articles or social media posts, to identify patterns or themes in the content. This process may involve coding the content based on specific categories or themes, or using machine learning algorithms to identify patterns in the data.

Citation and content analysis are important tools in criminology research because they provide a way to examine the influence of research and ideas over time, as well as the representation of crime and justice issues in the media. However, these methods also have limitations, such as the potential for bias in the selection of sources or the coding of content.

Overall, citation and content analysis are valuable research methods in criminology that can provide insights into the evolution of criminological theories, the impact of specific research studies, and the representation of crime and justice issues in the media.

Crime mapping is a criminology research method that visualizes the spatial distribution of crime incidents. Crime mapping involves the use of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and other digital mapping tools to display crime data. The purpose of crime mapping is to provide researchers and law enforcement agencies with a better understanding of the spatial patterns of criminal activity in a given area.

Methodology and data collection process for crime mapping involve the collection of crime data and the use of GIS software to display the data in a visual format. Crime data can be collected from a variety of sources, such as police reports, victim surveys, and self-report surveys. Once the data is collected, it is geocoded, or assigned a geographic location, using a global positioning system (GPS) or address information.

The applications of crime mapping in criminology research are numerous. Crime mapping can be used to identify crime hotspots, or areas with a high concentration of criminal activity, which can help law enforcement agencies allocate resources more effectively. Crime mapping can also be used to identify crime patterns and trends over time, which can help researchers and law enforcement agencies develop strategies to prevent crime. Additionally, crime mapping can be used to evaluate the effectiveness of crime prevention and intervention strategies.

In conclusion, crime mapping is a valuable criminology research method that can provide researchers and law enforcement agencies with important insights into the spatial patterns of criminal activity. By using GIS and other digital mapping tools, crime mapping can help researchers and law enforcement agencies develop effective crime prevention and intervention strategies.

Edge ethnography is a criminology research method that focuses on studying the behaviors and social interactions of people on the fringes of society. It is often used to explore deviant or criminal behaviors in subcultures and marginalized groups. Edge ethnography involves immersive fieldwork, where the researcher actively participates in the activities of the group being studied to gain a deeper understanding of their values, beliefs, and practices.

The data collection process in edge ethnography involves participant observation, in-depth interviews, and document analysis. The researcher spends a considerable amount of time in the field to gain the trust and respect of the group members and to observe their behaviors and social interactions in a naturalistic setting. The researcher may also collect artifacts, such as photos and videos, to provide additional insights into the group’s activities.

Edge ethnography has many applications in criminology research. It can be used to explore the social and cultural contexts of criminal behaviors, as well as the experiences of marginalized groups in the criminal justice system. It can also be used to identify emerging trends and subcultures that may be associated with criminal activities.

However, edge ethnography also has limitations. It can be time-consuming and resource-intensive, requiring the researcher to spend a considerable amount of time in the field. It may also raise ethical concerns, particularly if the researcher is studying criminal activities or subcultures that engage in illegal behaviors. Therefore, it is important for researchers to carefully consider the ethical implications of their research and to take steps to protect the privacy and safety of their subjects.

Experimental criminology refers to the use of scientific experimentation to test theories related to crime and deviance. The goal is to isolate the effects of specific factors on criminal behavior by manipulating one variable while holding others constant. Experimental criminology can involve lab experiments, field experiments, and quasi-experiments.

The methodology involves randomly assigning participants to different groups, manipulating the independent variable, and measuring the dependent variable. The data collected can be both quantitative and qualitative.

Experimental criminology has been used to test a variety of theories related to crime, including deterrence theory, social learning theory, and strain theory. It has also been used to evaluate the effectiveness of criminal justice interventions, such as drug treatment programs and community policing initiatives.

Despite the potential benefits of experimental criminology, there are limitations to its use. For example, it can be difficult to generalize the findings of a lab experiment to real-world situations, and ethical concerns may arise when manipulating variables related to criminal behavior. However, experimental criminology remains a valuable tool in the criminology research arsenal.

Fieldwork is an integral part of criminology research that involves researchers immersing themselves in the settings they are studying to gather firsthand information about the social and cultural dynamics of the phenomenon being studied. Fieldwork in criminology can be conducted through various methods such as participant observation, ethnography, case studies, and interviews.

The purpose of fieldwork in criminology is to gain a deeper understanding of the social and cultural factors that contribute to criminal behavior, victimization, and the criminal justice system. Fieldwork also provides insights into the lived experiences of those involved in the criminal justice system and how they perceive and experience law enforcement, punishment, and rehabilitation.

The methodology and data collection process in fieldwork in criminology involve a range of activities, including developing research questions, selecting research sites, building relationships with research participants, conducting observations and interviews, collecting data, and analyzing data. Researchers may also use various tools such as field notes, audio and video recordings, photographs, and maps to document their observations and experiences.

Fieldwork in criminology has various applications, including exploring the social and cultural dynamics of crime and criminal justice, evaluating criminal justice programs and policies, and understanding the experiences of victims, offenders, and criminal justice professionals. Fieldwork is particularly useful in gaining insights into the perspectives and experiences of marginalized and vulnerable populations, such as those living in poverty, incarcerated individuals, and communities that experience high rates of crime.

Overall, fieldwork in criminology is a valuable research method that provides rich and detailed information about the social and cultural dynamics of crime, victimization, and the criminal justice system. It allows researchers to gain insights into the experiences and perspectives of those involved in the criminal justice system and provides opportunities to evaluate and improve criminal justice policies and programs.

Criminal justice program evaluation refers to the systematic assessment of programs and policies implemented within the criminal justice system to determine their effectiveness in achieving their intended goals. The evaluation process involves collecting and analyzing data to assess the program’s impact, cost-effectiveness, and efficiency. Program evaluation is an essential tool for policymakers and practitioners to make informed decisions about criminal justice policies and programs.

The methodology used in program evaluation varies depending on the program or policy being evaluated. However, the process typically involves identifying the program’s goals and objectives, determining the program’s theory of change, identifying the target population, developing measures to evaluate the program, collecting and analyzing data, and reporting the findings.

Criminal justice program evaluation can be used to assess a wide range of programs, including correctional programs, law enforcement initiatives, and community-based programs. Evaluation findings can be used to determine the effectiveness of the program in reducing recidivism, improving public safety, or achieving other goals.

In recent years, criminal justice program evaluation has gained increasing attention as policymakers and practitioners seek evidence-based solutions to address the challenges facing the criminal justice system. The use of program evaluation has been instrumental in identifying effective interventions and programs, as well as those that are ineffective or even counterproductive.

Overall, criminal justice program evaluation is a critical tool for improving the effectiveness of criminal justice policies and programs. By providing policymakers and practitioners with evidence-based information, program evaluation can help to ensure that resources are used efficiently and effectively to promote public safety and reduce crime.

Quantitative criminology is a research method that involves the use of statistical data and techniques to analyze and understand crime patterns and behavior. It focuses on measuring and analyzing crime trends and patterns, identifying risk factors, and evaluating the effectiveness of crime prevention and intervention programs.

Quantitative criminology involves the use of numerical data to understand crime and its correlates. The purpose of this research method is to test theories and hypotheses about the causes and consequences of crime, identify patterns and trends, and evaluate the effectiveness of criminal justice policies and programs.

Quantitative criminology uses a variety of research methods and data collection techniques, including surveys, experiments, observations, and secondary data analysis. Researchers use statistical analysis to identify patterns, trends, and relationships among variables, such as crime rates, demographic characteristics, and socioeconomic factors.

Quantitative criminology has been used to study a wide range of topics, including the relationship between crime and social inequality, the effectiveness of community policing programs, and the impact of incarceration on recidivism. It has also been used to develop and test theories of crime, such as social disorganization theory and strain theory.

Quantitative criminology has contributed significantly to our understanding of crime and criminal behavior. It has provided valuable insights into the causes and consequences of crime and helped to inform the development of effective crime prevention and intervention programs.

The study of criminology is a complex field that requires a variety of research methods to understand and analyze the causes and patterns of crime. This article has provided an overview of several important criminology research methods, including the Drug Abuse Warning Network (DAWN) and Arrestee Drug Abuse Monitoring (ADAM), crime classification systems such as NCVS, NIBRS, and UCR, crime reports and statistics, citation and content analysis, crime mapping, edge ethnography, experimental criminology, fieldwork, and criminal justice program evaluation. Each research method has its unique strengths and limitations, making it important for criminologists to choose the appropriate method for their research question.

As the field of criminology continues to evolve, it is important for researchers to consider new and innovative research methods. Future directions in criminology research may include advances in technology, such as the use of big data analytics and machine learning algorithms, as well as an increased emphasis on interdisciplinary collaborations between criminologists and experts in fields such as psychology, sociology, and public health.

Overall, the study of criminology requires a diverse range of research methods to fully understand the complex nature of crime and its causes. By utilizing these methods and continuing to explore new avenues for research, criminologists can make important contributions to our understanding of crime and help inform policies and interventions aimed at reducing crime and promoting public safety.

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PRIMARY RESEARCH PAPERS 

These primary criminology research papers are written by some of the most up and coming criminologists in their fields. It should be noted that although these criminology papers are not anonymously peer reviewed, like those in our articles section of the journal, primary research papers are reviewed and edited by the General Editor and members of the Editorial Board to ensure they meet the high standards of the Internet Journal of Criminology.

To download the articles please click on the the title of the articles below.

Dr. Charles Scott’s Role as an Expert Witness in the Nikolas Cruz Sentencing Trial                   by Professor Dina Lenore Cirigliano

On Valentine’s Day of the year 2018, a nineteen-year-old man by the name of Nikolas Cruz entered his alma mater, the Marjory Stoneman Douglas High School, located in the Miami suburb of Parkland, Florida. With “an AR-15-style semiautomatic rifle” (Laughland, et at, 2018) in hand, Cruz gunned down thirty-four people and traumatizing all within the building. Authorities stated that Cruz was equipped with three-hundred-thirty rounds of ammo when he crossed the threshold of the school and had carved swastikas onto the magazines. At the end of his rampage, seventeen were wounded and seventeen were deceased on account of this mass murderer’s actions. 

Richard von Krafft-Ebing’s Psychopathia Sexualis & Jacob Appel’s The Mask of Sanity                      By Professor Dina Lenore Cirigliano

In the year 1886, a medical doctor who was “recognized as an authority on deviant sexual behavior and its medico-legal aspects” (Kupferschmidt, 1987) published Psychopathia Sexualis. This expert was Richard von Krafft-Ebbing, a University of Heidelberg graduate who practiced psychiatry within asylums across Germany. One-hundred-thirty-one years later in the year 2017, a Bronx-born lawyer/bioethicist/physician who specializes in emergency psychiatry published Mask of Sanity. This professional is Jacob Appel, professor of psychiatry and medical education at the Mount Sinai School of Medicine in New York. While Krafft-Ebing’s Psychopathia Sexualis is a German-printed, non-fictional piece classified as a medico-legal reference, and Appel’s Mask of Sanity is an American novel of the fiction genre, both pieces are scribed by authorities in their field and both publications address individuals who suffer from pervasive mental disorders steeped in criminality. 

Are Non-Scientists Qualified To Be Blood Spatter Analysis Professionals?

By Dina Cirigliano, Plaza College, Forest Hills, New York

While blood spatter analysis has indeed developed and expanded with the passage of time, there have been notable setbacks in the field as of late. These setbacks come in the form of questionable credentials of those permitted to offer expert testimony regarding blood spatter in courts of law. Particularly in the last half decade, blood spatter analysis has come under the inspection of some watchful eyes, as the qualifications of supposed experts are more and more often being viewed as subpar. The purpose of this paper is to establish whether or not non-medical doctor and non-scientific researcher blood spatter analysis professionals deserve the scrutiny they have been facing for the past five years.

Advances in Forensic Science: Deoxyribonucleic Acid Breakthroughs in the Last Five Years

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) has come a long way since its discovery by Swiss chemist, Dr. Friedrich Miescher, in the year 1869. It has subsequently been recognized as presenting in three-dimensional, double helix form, has been utilized to exonerate the accused but not-guilty, and has been applied as irrefutable scientific evidence to convict offenders in criminal court, regardless of their lack of admission of guilt. Scientific discovery is a continuum of knowledge to be acquired with each passing year, especially within the field of genetics. The purpose of this paper is to explore what the last five years of DNA research has brought forth.

From 1860 Miescher to 1986 Jeffreys: A Times Past View of Forensic DNA Analysis    

B y Dina Lenore Ciriligiano, Plaza College, Forest Hills, New York

The purpose of this piece is to highlight the major events throughout the short history of DNA, specifically 1) the first discovery of its existence, 2) Watson and Crick’s discovery of its three-dimensional double helix form and more, 3) Dr. Alec Jeffreys’ and the first conviction in a criminal case using DNA as scientific evidence, and 4) the recognition of identical twin DNA and the doubt it brings forth. 

From Galton to the First Repository: Fingerprint Analysis During the Pre-AFIS Period By Dina Cirigliano, Plaza College, Forest Hills, New York

At the present time, fingerprints are utilized to confirm or refute an individual’s identity within the confines of criminal justice systems throughout the world. Today, fingerprints are used to identify individuals who were present at crime scenes even after fleeing, to link one crime scene to another by comparing prints from both locations, often connecting them to the very same individual, to differentiate inmates housed in correctional facilities, to track the criminal record of repeat offenders, and to even ;put a name to the face of many a John and Jane Doe in the custody of the Office of the Chief Medical Examiner (OCME). All of this comparing, tracking, differentiating, and linking is done with advanced computer technologies whose system houses an infinite repository of fingerprints and identities the individuals to whom each print belongs. However, this high-tech database known as the Automated Fingerprint Identification System (AFIS) did not come into existence until the year 1980 (Crime Scene Forensics, 2018).  Prior to that, anything regarding fingerprint analysis and sharing was done the old-fashioned way. The purpose of this paper is to highlight the establishment of fingerprint usage during the pre-AFIS period, specifically 1) Sir Francis Galton’s concepts of minutiae, 2) Sir Edward Henry’s pattern classification, 3) the William West conundrum, 4) the Thomas Jennings case, and 5) the growth of the Federal Bureau of Investigation’s fingerprint repository.

The Last Five Years In Blood Spatter

By Professor Dina L. Cirigliano / Plaza College / Forest Hills, New York

Blood spatter analysis by forensic science experts began one-hundred-twenty-eight years ago and is therefore, by no means, a new specialization. The maturity of this concentration of forensic science has increased over time. That is quite evident with the professionals’ ability to establish categories of blood spatter as passive stains (droplets, flows, and pools), transfer stains (wipes, swipes, footprints, shoeprints, handprints, glove prints, and body drag marks), and impact stains (cast-off and arterial gush), their ability to identify the bloodshed event (sharp-force injury, blunt-force injury, or gunshot injury), their ability to determine the trajectory of a projectile, their ability to establish the locations and positions of victims and offenders, their ability to bring forth chemiluminescence with a mere spray of aerosol Luminol, and their ability to to recreate crime scenes by utilizing simulation software. While blood spatter analysis has indeed developed and expanded with the passage of time, there have been notable setbacks in the field as of late. These setbacks come in the form of questionable credentials of those permitted to offer expert testimony regarding blood spatter in courts of law. Particularly in the last half decade, blood spatter analysis has come under the inspection of some watchful eyes, as the qualifications of supposed experts are more and more often being viewed as subpar. The purpose of this paper is to establish whether or not non-medical doctor and non-scientific researcher blood spatter analysis professionals deserve the scrutiny they have been facing for the past five years.

Innovations in Forensic Fingerprint Analysis Over the Last Half-Decade By Dina Cirigliano, Plaza College, Forest Hills, New York

The study of fingerprints has come a long way from its meagre beginnings in 1892, when Galton introduced the world’s first fingerprint analysis publication. So much had happened in the field since then that by the year 1980, the database known as the Automated Fingerprint Identification System (AFIS) was not only founded, but up and running, so that print sharing between law enforcement agencies could occur seamlessly. Today, forty-three years after the establishment of AFIS, fingerprint research is still at the forefront of forensic scientists’ focus. The purpose of this piece is to highlight advances in fingerprint science in the last five years, particularly 1) how and when fingerprints develop on the bulbs of human fingers, 2) the role of INTERPOL in fighting international crime, 3) the recognition of irregularly rare fingerprints, and 4) the ability to estimate the sex of an offender or victim based on the ridge density of the fingerprints left behind at the crime scene.

Blood Spatter: The History of Analysis

Blood spatter analysis is, at the present time, a well-established subcategory within the field of forensic science. In today’s world of innovative technologies and highly-sophisticated equipment, attorneys can rely on the testimony of blood spatter experts in the form of forensic scientists, to make or break their cases. However, this was not always so. Blood splatter analysis was not always in existence, let alone as evolved as it is at the current time. The purpose of this piece is to highlight the major milestones throughout blood splatter analysis’ historical timeline, specifically 1) its origin with Dr. Eduard Piotrowski, 2) its breakthrough into the American legal system as accepted scientific proof presented during trial, 3) its popularity among researchers enacting the establishment of the International Association of Bloodstain Pattern Analysts, 4) its introduction of Fred Carter’s blood simulation software, and 5) its use of detection Luminol to reveal weaponry used along with the locations of the victim and offender.

EXAMINING AN ECCENTRIC NECROPHILE

By Dina Lenore Cirigliano. Plaza College.

As far back as historical documentation goes, necrophilia has always been a macabre constant. In earlier times, Herodotus (who lived from 484 BC - 425 BC), documented in his record writings that bodies of remarkably stunning women were no longer embalmed immediately after their deaths in Ancient Egypt, to deter a repetition of a situation where it was exposed that an embalmer had intercourse with the corpse of a freshly deceased woman. Hundreds of years later, the Babylonian Talmud (3rd–5th centuries AD), records a chosen maiden killing herself to avoid marrying King Herod of Judea, as she had no desire to be with him. It continues to state that following her suicide, the king had her corpse conserved in thick honey for seven years so that he may have sex with her body at a later date. Later still, Gilles de Rais, a knight, lord, leader in the French army, and companion-in-arms to Joan of Arc, was “noted to have sexually violated the dead bodies of his victims”  until his death in October 1440. Continuing onward in time, notable criminologist Herschel Prins, proved that up until the 19th century, if an engaged woman in passed away in Central Europe prior to her marriage, the male betrothed to her may copulate with her body. Again, necrophilia has plagued every era throughout history and will continue to do so throughout the future, as paraphilias are neither preventable nor curable. They are, in fact, “innate, driven by some complex interactions between androgenization of the brain and neurohormonal changes”.  

EVOLUTION OF AUTHORIZED DEATH DEVICES: PROGRESSION OF SANCTIONED KILLING MACHINES, TRENDS THEY YIELD, AND WHAT THESE DRIFTS INDICATE ABOUT THE NLAC LASER AS THE FUTURE OF CAPITAL PUNISHMENT IMPLEMENTATION  

By Dina Lenore Cirigliano, Plaza College

This article illustrates the progression in the sophistication of death devices with regard to both materials utilized and apparatus design, from times in ancient history through modern days. The article will illustrate the fact that when examining the development of death penalty constituents and contraptions, as the means by which the convicted are condemned to death become increasingly technologically savvy, they also become decreasingly gruesome and less time-consumingly torturous. With the passage of time and the rise of innovative methods of execution comes a change from primitive, bloody, lengthy agony to state-of-the-art, minimally-gory, swift humaneness. This alteration shows a definite surge in moral and ethical responsibility. If this trend is to continue, the questions for corrections professionals are as follows: 

1.    What will the capital punishment device of the future be?   2.    In what ways will the future death apparatus continue the ongoing movement toward innovative technology, morality, ethics, and humaneness and away from bloody displays and drawn-out suffering?  

THE EXPERIENCE AND TREATMENT OF WOMEN PRISONERS AS VICTIMS OF VIOLENCE

By  Rezia Begum,  Loughborough University

This research was undertaken for my PhD thesis. The aim of the research was to gain access to women’s prison in the UK in order to undertake qualitative research into two specific issues: women prisoners’ experience of domestic violence; and what treatment or management programmes are in place to deal with this issue, both whilst women are in prison and upon their release. 

‘It’s Life But Not As We Know It’.  An Impact Study Looking At Youth Offending Practitioners Interactions With Their Service Users By Antony Peter Gadsby, Nottingham Trent Universtity, UK

In recent years, studies that aim to understand the experiences of youth justice practice have tended to focus on the practice as a whole using quantitative methods and statistics to explain the trends in offending behaviours rather that the impact this has on the practitioners themselves (Burnett & Appleton, 2004). There has also been a tendency to concentrate solely on the offending behaviour rather than the individual’s behaviour, which is portrayed mainly in negative ways, resulting in even less emphasis on the impacts and implications for practitioner and client relationship. For this very reason, a single participant case study utilising Interpretive Phenomenological Analysis, aimed to look into the experience of a practitioner within a youth offending team, to understand the psychological impacts both positive and negative that may occur, in work related situations. The study’s main aim was to extract rich idiographic data, in order to give the researcher a clear and richer understanding of their experiences and coping mechanisms needed to efficiently manage their daily activities. The participant Trevor (pseudonym) was a white male with extensive experience working with young people, also with a youth working background. A youth offending office such as the one in the study was a very busy environment, and unexpected events occurred frequently from the initial observations during part 1 of the interview. Due to the nature of the work, the interview with Trevor had to be conducted in 2 parts to facilitate the study. There was a main theme in the interview, whereby time constraints and adhering to procedures affected the way relationships were built up. Other emerging themes from the semi-structured interview reflected on a reactive practice, whereby immediate action was required, uncertainty in daily planning of duties, resulting in what Trevor described as ‘fire fighting’. However, where policies and procedures are in place, in inter- agency organisations such as youth offending teams, the mix of historical, professional and cultural traditions (Eadie & Canton, 2002) may unfortunately do little to alter these working practices for the foreseeable future, but measures may be introduced to ease these working practices.

Field Observations of Australian Private Investigators Conducting Fraud Investigations

By Michael King, Brisbane North Institute of Technical and Further Education, Australia

It has been over a decade since the last study was conducted investigating the nature and role of the private investigation profession. To fill this gap, this study uses semi-structured interviews and field observation of private investigators working within the metropolitan area of Brisbane, Queensland, Australia to obtain data to further this field. This study focuses on the investigative methods used by private investigators to conduct their investigations and examines the ethical and legal issues arising from their work. Despite some advances in training and licensing, the industry is still prone to investigators adopting questionable ethical practices such as deception to solve cases. The objective of this paper is to provide a greater insight into this little understood profession. 

Police interviewing of criminal suspects: A historical perspective

By Karl Roberts, Macquarie University, Australia

This paper provides an historical overview of the development of police suspect interviewing. The paper highlights how different approaches developed based upon the prevailing needs of the time, from early approaches involving torture and threats, simple question and answer approaches, through to methods incorporating knowledge from the behavioural sciences such as persuasive interviewing. The paper highlights some of the problems associated with these approaches in particular risks of unreliable information and potential miscarriages of justice and discusses more recent ethically oriented interview approaches developed to minimise some of these risks. The paper stresses the importance of sensitivity to the rights and needs of suspects even when carrying out interviews under pressured conditions. 

Youth Offenders and Functional Literacy By Edward Thomas, Middlesex University, UK

One of the key findings of the Department of Communities and Local Government’s Report into the 2011 riots found that a significant causal issue amongst those persons convicted of criminal offences during the riots of August 2011, was their lack of ‘Functional Literacy’. This article looks at longitudinal study of convicted youth offenders from 1995 and 2006. It sets out to establish that there has been sufficient academic writing from Rutter (1975) to Goodman & Ruggeiro (2010) coupled with the findings of successive Government Reports, including The Moser Report 1999, that have gone virtually unheeded by Governments of all political persuasions. These findings have been left to gather dust during periods of financial growth as well as recession for over more than thirty years. Why should the Department of Communities and Local Government’s Report fare any better? 

Portsmouth Community Safety Survey 2012

By Nick Sandford-Smith & Tom Ellis, Institute of Criminal Justice Studies, Portsmouth University, UK

This is a summary report of the key findings from the 5th Portsmouth Community Safety Survey (PCSS). Previous surveys were carried out in 2001, 2004, 2007and 2009 by Ipsos MORI. This 2012 survey has been carried out by second year research students in the Institute of Criminal Justice Studies (ICJS). It was designed to gather opinions from Portsmouth residents on: quality of life; perceptions and experience of crime and anti-social behaviour; and fear of crime in relation to particular areas of Portsmouth. This summary report was commissioned by Portsmouth City Council to inform the Safer Portsmouth Partnership Strategic Assessment (SPPSA) and the Safer Portsmouth Partnership Plan (SPPP). Both of these documents identify the community safety priorities for the partner agencies involved and provide the evidence on which the allocation of relevant resources and the commissioning of associated services within Portsmouth are based. 

Sentenced to Work: From Retribution to Rehabilitation

By Keith Price, Anthony Pierson and Susan Coleman, all at West Texas A&M University, USA.

Inmate work has been an important feature of prison systems in the United States from the colonial period until today (Fox, 1972), and work has been seen as a method to accomplish several correctional objectives (Hawkins, 1976). Prison labor was initiated for disciplinary reasons and retribution in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, extended and expanded for financial profit with the development of the industrial prison in the nineteenth, and maintained for its alleged therapeutic and educational value as a part of rehabilitation in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries (Conley, 2001).  

In Pursuit of the Beast: 

Undergraduate Attitudes Towards Sex Offenders and Implications for Society, Rehabilitation and British Psychology Education By Craig A. Harper, University of Lincoln, UK

Positive attitudes toward sex offenders can lead to favourable treatment outcomes and with psychology students being among the most likely graduates to move into offender rehabilitation, it is important to investigate the attitudes of this group. Students from British psychology and non-psychology courses read vignettes depicting an adult and a juvenile committing a contact sexual offence on a child, and completed modified versions of the attitudes towards sex offenders [ATS] questionnaire. The adult offender was viewed significantly more punitively than the juvenile offender, but no significant differences were found between subgroups of participants. It was concluded that undergraduate psychology degrees do not go far enough to address some of the stigmatised views held by the general population towards sex offenders. Implications for media reporting, recidivism and psychology education are discussed.  

Criminal Attitudes of Ex-Prisoners: The Role of Personality, Criminal Friends and Recidivism  By Daniel Boduszek, University of Ulster and Dublin Business School, Christopher G. McLaughlin, University of Ulster and Philip E. Hyland, University of Ulster and Dublin Business School, Ireland

Previous research suggests that those who enter prison with a low level of criminal attitudes tend to acquire more deviant attitudes during their sentence due to persistent contact with criminal others, and moreover, presence of criminal personality may be sufficient to develop criminal attitudes. The aim of this paper is to determine which of the independent variables: age, education level, marital status, number of children, location, recidivism, association with criminal friends, and personality traits could be used to explain why ex-prisoners hold criminal attitudes.

Policing in the Pacific: Why the Wontok Sysytem of the Solomons Encourages Corruption

By Jason Paul Sargent, JP. SJP. B Policing. Grad Dip Psych. FSA. MAIPIO, Kathleen Lumley College & Adelaide University, Australia

Jason Sargent spent 4 months serving in the Solomon Islands in 2003 as part of the (RAMSI) Royal Assistance Mission to the Solomon Islands, when he was a uniformed member of the Australian Federal Police in the Protective Service section. This paper will examine how policing in the Solomon Islands will always face the reality of corruption due to the tribal system known as the Wontok system of family association and protection.

Multi-ethnic Comparisons of the Predictors of Delinquency Among Urban Adolescents

By Tia E. Kim, Ph.D., The Pennsylvania State University, USA and Michiko Otsuki-Clutter, Ph.D., University of South Florida, USA

The purpose of the present study was to examine the roles of parental and peer influences on adolescent delinquency in a multiethnic sample of European American, Asian American, and Latino youth. The study utilized survey data on parental monitoring, peer delinquency, and delinquency on 187 high school students (10-12th grade). Overall, we found that when controlling for ethnicity and other demographic variables, both parental monitoring and peer delinquency independently predicted participants’ delinquency. In addition, peer delinquency functioned as a mediator between parental monitoring and delinquency. Findings from our study also show that correlates of delinquency differ among European American, Asian American, and Latino adolescents. Our findings suggest that prevention and intervention programs should acknowledge ethnic differences and should gauge whether steps can be taken to tailor programming to specific ethnic grou

A Global Crime: Why Transnational Sex Trafficking Networks are Succeeding in the 21st Century

By Peter Mameli, Associate Professor, Department of Public Management, John Jay College of Criminal Justice, U.S.A.

This article explores the relationship between increasing environmental complexity born of globalization processes and transnational criminal activity. In particular, the phenomenon of transnational sex trafficking is spotlighted for review. Initially, this review sketches the parameters of the problem and the main actors involved. Next, an analysis of how transnational criminals function examines why changes in organizational form have unleashed operational capabilities that public sector entities in law enforcement are finding difficult to overcome. The study closes suggesting productive paths forward to combat this growing scourge.   

From the USA to the ROK, CSI is Getting Airplay :

An Exploratory Study of the Presence and Popularity of American Criminal Justice Dramas in Northeast Asia 

By Ben Brown, Criminal Justice Department, The University of Texas at Brownsville, U.S.A.

Considerable research has focused on media presentations of crime and the criminal justice system in the United States, but little attention has been afforded to the popularity of American criminal justice dramas in foreign nations. This study utilizes a mixed methodological strategy to examine the availability and viewing of American criminal justice dramas (television programs and movies) in South Korea. An analysis of daily programming on several networks available in South Korea shows that American criminal justice television dramas such as CSI and American movies about crime and justice such as The Fugitive are frequently broadcast. An analysis of data obtained from a survey of South Korean college students shows that more than half the students watched an American criminal justice dramatic television program at least once and that more than one out of ten of the students watched American criminal justice dramatic programs on a regular basis. The implications of the data for future research are discussed.  

The Women of Stormfront: An Examination of White Nationalist Discussion Threads on the Internet

By Tammy Castle, Ph.D, James Madison University and Meagan Chevalier, B.A, George Mason University, USA

Although a plethora of literature exists on hate or extremist group activity, the role of racist women remains an unexplored area. The current study sought to explore one method of communication for racist women, the Internet. The researchers conducted a content analysis on 227 discussion threads provided on one of the oldest extremist websites on the Internet, Stormfront. The purpose of this study was to investigate the content of the discussion threads described as ‘For Stormfront Ladies Only.’ Of primary interest to the researchers was whether the content discussed by women in this ‘White Nationalist’ cyber community supported the assertion by some scholars that the role of women in racist activities is undergoing a transformation and the implications of this study in that regard are discussed.

Criminal Justice Department Chairs' Attitudes Towards Homosexuals and Curricular Issues

By Alexis J. Miller, Ph.D., Associate Professor of Criminal Justice, and Danielle McDonald, Ph.D. Assistant Professor of Criminal Justice, Northern Kentucky University, USA

Criminal justice students have stronger negative attitudes toward homosexuals than do other social science students (Cannon 2005; Miller 2001; & Olivero and Murataya’s 2001). The current research surveys criminal justice department chairs’ attitudes toward homosexuals and the number and nature of courses in their departments that deal with gay and lesbian issues. Results show that male chairs and chairs that are older and white tend to have more negative feelings towards homosexuals. Furthermore, while chairs’ believe that some gay and lesbian issues are also criminal justice issues, courses covering issues facing homosexual in the criminal justice system are lacking.  

Betting Shops and Crime: Is There a Relationship? 

By Professor Mark Griffiths, International Gaming Research Unit, Nottingham Trent University, U

Gambling and its link with criminal activity is an area of growing research interest. Studies from various regions worldwide have suggested an association between criminal activity and easily accessible gambling, yet, despite growth in the commercial gambling industry, relatively little is known about the nature, extent or impact of gambling-related crime. Such information is critical in the current UK climate as some gambling establishments (particularly betting shops) are prevented from getting operating licenses on the basis of police objections that they are likely to become ‘crime hotspots’. Therefore, this paper briefly overviews to what extent betting shops cause, facilitate, or attract crime. It is concluded that only two types of betting shops can realistically be associated with crime arising from problem gamblers who use their premises and with criminal behaviour occurring within or in the immediate environment of the premises itself. Although a few studies have shown associations between gambling and crime there is no empirical evidence showing that gambling venues (including betting shops) cause crime. Most of the empirical evidence concerning the relationship between crime and gambling concerns the criminal consequences of problem gambling (including those ‘addicted’ to gambling). In order to be a cause of crime, betting shops must be both a necessary and sufficient condition for the crimes in question to occur. This paper finds that they are neither.

Public Perceptions of the Police: Effects of Police Investigation and Police Resources

By Andreas Cebulla, Research Director at the National Centre for Social Research and Mike Stephens, Senior Lecturer in Criminology and Social Policy at Loughborough University, UK

Since the 1980s, successive UK governments have sought to increase efficiency in, and effectiveness of, policing through what has been described as “cycles of reform” (Reiner, 2000, p. 204). The reforms typically involved exerting greater central control over regional police forces. Many of the early initiatives met with resistance from within the police and, as a result, were not fully implemented (McLaughlin and Murji, 1995). By the late 1990s and early 2000s, however, more effective and direct control over police performance was finally established. This took the form of a centralisation of police management, which resulted in the introduction of more uniform measures of monitoring police performance, including the regular recording of crime and crime detection rates among police forces. Performance targets were set and the public’s satisfaction with the work of the police in their local area became one of several performance indicators.  Performance targets and measures to generate greater cost efficiency in service provision, however, can have unexpected, sometimes perverse side effects. Two of these are focus of this paper. First, it explores how shifts in the police’s focus on specific types of crime in response to the introduction of performance targets affected the public’s reporting of crime. Second, it asks whether, in the light of efforts to achieve efficiency savings in the police, public spending on police forces has had any bearing on the public’s perception of the quality of local policing.   

Socio-Cultural Determinants of Criminal and Anti-Social Behaviour of Agaba Groups in Calabar Metropolis, Nigeria By Moses U. Ikoh, PhD, Graduate School, University of Calabar, Calabar, Nigeria and Prof. Joseph O. Charles, PhD, Department of Sociology, University of Calabar, Calabar, Nigeria.

This paper explored the involvement and arrest of street boys (popularly called Agaba boys) in 19 criminal and anti-social behaviours. Using the General Strain Theory (GST) to guide discussion, the study administered questionnaires on 80 Agaba members drawn purposively from four groups in Calabar Metropolis. It equally held Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) with group leaders. Chi square statistical tool and multiple regressions were used in analysis. The results revealed differences in the four groups’ involvements in the 19 criminal and anti-social behaviours that were tested. Socio-economic activities found in their residential areas were the major determinants of type of criminal and anti-social activities they specialized in. The study argues that socio-demographic backgrounds that the boys found themselves exerted significant effect on their subsequent behaviours. It suggests the creation of a Public Private Partnership (PPP) initiative that would deliberately create employments which require low and manual skills that could help in taking most of the boys from the streets. 

Perception of Smuggling Among the Yoruba People of Oke-Ogun of South Western Nigeria

By Oladeji, Matthew Olaniyi, Senior Principal Lecturer, The Polytechnic Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria

Smuggling, defined by Nigerian law as criminal, is rampant in Oke-ogun area of Southwestern Nigeria. Consequently, a research project was conducted among the people of the area to determine; how the people perceive smuggling. Also, to see the relationship that exists between the smugglers and the border town dwellers as well as between the smugglers and the law enforcement agents. Furthermore, it was meant to investigate the relationship between the level of education and perception of smuggling by the people of the area. The major instruments used were structured questionnaire, key informant method and in-depth interview. The study established that most residents did not see anything bad in smuggling as they profit from smuggling activities; and most of the services they provide are not without rewards. A positive relationship also exists between levels of education and perception of smuggling among the people of the study area. 

Spinach, Iron and Popeye: Ironic lessons from biochemistry and history on the importance of healthy eating, healthy scepticism and adequate citation  By Dr Mike Sutton, Reader in Criminology, Nottingham Trent University, UK

To inform knowledge in research methods and dissemination ethics for the natural and social sciences, this article reinforces the importance of citation to support all assertions of fact. New findings are presented for the history of biochemistry, nutrition, psychology, medicine, and the social sciences. Bio-chemistry papers and scientific news reports from the 1930’s seriously undermine a long standing truism that in the 1920s and 30s, bio-chemists, nutrition experts, public health policy makers, and E. Segar the creator of the newspaper comic strip Popeye were misled either by a decimal place error in 19th Century published research, or else by erroneous interpretation of 19th Century scientific findings, to exaggerate the iron content of spinach tenfold. Further, the failure to study original sources is evidenced in a multitude of completely erroneous publications claiming that these apocryphal errors caused Segar to choose spinach for Popeye’s super human strength. In fact, Segar chose and promoted spinach for its vitamin A content alone.   

Relationship between Psycho-demographic Factors and Civil Servants’ Attitudes to Corruption in Osun State, Nigeria By Adebayo O. Adejumo, Department of Psychology, University of Ibadan, Nigeria and a member of Nigeria’s National Health Research Ethics Committee

This paper examines the relationship between psycho-demographic factors and attitude to corruption (ATC). The cross-sectional survey included 600 local government civil servants following multi-stage sampling. A 58-item self report validated questionnaire was used for data gathering. There was significant relationship between; personality, fraudulent intent, N-Ach and ATC. Fear of crime had an inverse relationship with ATC, personality was shown to be the most potent predictor of ATC and there was significant relationship between age and ATC. This study provides insight to the role of these psychological factors and age as fundamental to improving public servants’ ATC, especially in Nigeria. Utilisation of these findings could be useful in staff recruitment and reduction of corruption in private and public administration in other settings.   

Male Inmate Perspective on Reducing Recidivism Rates Through Post-Incarceration Resources By Misty Malott and Ali Fromander, Department of Human Development and Family Studies, Univeristy of Wisconsin, USA

Most people who are incarcerated come from the community and ultimately will return to the community (Andress, Wildes, Rechtine, and Moritsugu, 2004). What are some unmet needs post-incarceration that could be addressed to reduce their risk of reoffending? This nonrandom pilot study investigates inmate perspectives regarding perceived access to resources post-incarceration that could reduce their recidivism, by surveying 102 male inmates at three Midwestern jails. It was hypothesized that male inmates would agree that accessible resources, treatment, and/or support services, post-incarceration would help reduce their recidivism. Major findings supported the hypothesis. The survey data was statistically analyzed using frequencies, means, and a reliability analysis. Implications for practitioners and future researchers were addressed.   

Crime and gambling: A brief overview of gambling fraud on the Internet

By Dr. Mark Griffiths (BSc, PhD, PGDipHE, CPsychol), Professor of Gambling Studies and Director of the International Gaming Research Unit at Nottingham Trent University, UK

Although there is an association between crime and gambling there is relatively little information and research on the topic. One area that appears to have become more prevalent over the last five years is that of fraudulent gambling activities on the Internet. This paper briefly outlines how many frauds and scams have moved into technological media such as the Internet and overviews a number of these including: (i) lottery scams, (ii) fake gambling site scams, (iii) betting software scams, (iv) gambling ‘bonus’ scams, (v) ‘twofer’ scams, and (vi) prize scams. It is concluded that gambling fraud on the Internet is a growth area because many gamblers themselves want to get a huge reward from a small outlay (just as the fraudsters do). As long as there are people who are prepared to risk money on chance events, there will be those out there who will want to fraudulently take their money from them. Given the complete lack of empirical data on these fraudulent practices, there is a need for research to be initiated in this newly emerging area of criminological concern.   

A Physicist, a Philosopher and a Politician: What penologists can learn from Einstein, Kant and Churchill 

By Dr. Curtis R. Blakely, Assistant Professor in the Justice Systems Department at Truman State University, and Alice Walkley, Justice Systems major at Truman State University, USA

For the past three decades scholars, politicians and prison officials within the United States have collectively ignored offender rehabilitation as a legitimate penal pursuit. This has stifled the development and use of treatment initiatives. The absence of a treatment objective signifies a state of ideological imbalance. Prison specialization is offered as a potential solution to restore this balance while helping to break the criminogenic cycle. In looking at the feasibility of prison specialization, attention is given to three great thinkers, Albert Einstein, Immanuel Kant, and Winston Churchill. Both Einstein and Kant suggested that creative and innovative thinking can produce immensely rewarding results regardless of the field under consideration. Likewise, Churchill specifically lobbied for the creation of a specialized prison system.   

Bias Motivation in Crime: A Theoretical Examination

By Erica Hutton, Criminal Justice PhD Program, Capella University, USA

This paper assesses the social problem of racially motivated crime that occurs within our communities. Racially motivated crime is also known as bias motivation and this type of offense is personal in nature, pertaining to one’s race, ethnicity or nationality, religion, disability, or sexual orientation. There are various categories of bias that influence an individual to participate in the execution of a hate crime. The Labeling Perspective and the Constructionist Perspective are examined to assess a theoretical interpretation of this complex social problem. There is substantial controversy in regards to what exactly constitutes a hate crime and how this discrimination of one another effects members of our communities, affecting behavior as well as shaping social norms, violations, and deviant behavior correlated to the occurrence of bias acts of criminal activity.   

Cameras in the Courtroom: A Comprehensive Examination

This paper will examine the utilization of cameras within the courtroom and will discuss the historical context of broadcasting court proceedings as well as the current legal regulations pertaining to the use of cameras in and outside of the court. The strengths and weaknesses of utilizing cameras in court are explored. A section is devoted to the discussion of the diverse implications associated with utilizing cameras in court proceedings as well as the precarious influences correlating to the members thereof. An assessment of the behavioral and theoretical perspectives will be considered in regards to the sociological, psychological and criminological aspects of the community, citizens, and members of the criminal justice system.   

Pakistan: Far-Right Islamist Militants and a Resurgence in the Illicit Opiates Trade 

By James Windle, Midlands Centre for Criminology and Criminal Justice, Loughborough University, UK

Between the mid-1970s and late-1990s, Pakistan was a major source of illicit opium and heroin to the global market. By 2001, development and law enforcement activities where successful in creating a business environment in which Pakistani opium poppy farmers could not compete with their Afghan counterparts, resulting in Pakistan being declared ‘opium free’ by the UN Office of Drugs and Crime. Since 2003, there has been a gradual increase in illicit opium production in Pakistan, however, the state has been able to eradicate as much as 77 percent of all crops; this was not the case in 2008, mainly due to the redeployment of resources from counter-narcotics to counter-militancy operations. This paper posits that the current high levels of violent conflict between the state and far-right Islamist militants could act as an impetus to an increase in illicit opium production in Pakistan’s North West Frontier Province and Federally Administered Tribal Areas.   

Family Structure and Juvenile Delinquency: Correctional Centre Betamba, Centre Province of Cameroon 

By Ilongo Fritz Ngale, Institute of Education, National University of Lesotho, Lesotho-Southern Africa

The relationship between family structure and juvenile delinquency was explored in a purposive probability sample of 120 adolescents of the Betamba children’s correctional center using a questionnaire. The use of quantitative statistical analysis revealed the following significant relationships: (1) Juvenile delinquents mostly come from homes in which the parents are married; (2) The moral education of juvenile delinquents is undertaken more by others than their biological parents; (3) Most delinquent children come from the lowest socio-economic stratum of society; (4) About two-thirds of the juvenile delinquents come from homes where 7 persons and above live under the same roof; (5) Most parents of our respondents have low paid jobs which keep them for long periods away from their children. A growing number of parents need additional socio-economic support, development of vital skills of responsible parenting, in order to adequately manage periods of rapid social change and simultaneous multidimensional challenges.   

Moral Remediation, Multi-Systemic Therapy and Effective Interventions for Serious Juvenile Offenders

By David Sortino, Sonoma County Probation Department, Director of the Center for Moral Development, Values and Character Education, USA

Our juvenile hall population is at an all time high, 2.2 million inmates at an average cost of about $35,000 per inmate (OJJDP, 2006). In fact, we lead the world in incarcerated juvenile offenders and the juvenile system is fast becoming a breeding ground for adult prisons. In Washington State alone, 73% of adult inmates served time in a juvenile detention facility (OJJDP, 2005). This paper describes how a “Moral Remediation” program could be employed as an adjunct to the most successful intervention programs as defined by a recent study in the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention Bulletin (April, 2000). The Bulletin defined 200 intervention programs and the methods they used to lower the recidivism rates of serious juvenile offenders in non-institutionalized and institutionalized facilities. 

Identity Crisis? Negotiating Blackness in the British Police Service: a Regional Perspective 

By Barbara Perry, University of Ontario Institute of Technology, USA and Catherine John-Baptiste, Nottingham Trent University, UK

Our paper will address preliminary findings from a pilot study in which we will interview a sample of black police personnel from Nottingham, UK. Our goal in this project is to uncover the mechanisms by which police officers as well as other police staff negotiate their black identities in the context of their roles within law enforcement – an entity that clearly been historically characterized by systemic racism.   

How Prolific Thieves Sell Stolen Goods 

By Mike Sutton, Nottingham Trent University, UK

Aiming to reduce acquisitive crimes and associated offending, Nottinghamshire Constabulary is considering adopting the Market Reduction Approach (MRA) to tackle stolen goods markets in order to reduce theft. As a first step, this report provides a review of findings from a study of local stolen goods markets in Nottingham and Mansfield. The study examined the ways that local stolen goods markets operate and their influence upon local theft levels and criminal careers. Funding for the study was provided by Nottinghamshire County Council’s Communities Department. The findings in this report come from in-depth interviews conducted in the summer of 2006 with 20 offenders under supervision by Mansfield and Nottingham’s prolific offender units. Some interviewees admitted that they were active offenders. Others were making a concerted effort to remain out of trouble. Most had recently completed a spell in custody.   

Differences at the Border: Views of Crime, Criminals, Punishment, and Treatment Among Canadian and U.S. College Students  By Eric G. Lambert, Kasey A. Tucker and David N. Baker, University of Toldeo, USA

Crime is universal; views about crime and how to control it vary widely in different cultural and political climates. This study examined cross-cultural views of crime, criminals, punishment and treatment for offenders. Specifically, this study compared Canadian and U.S. college students and their perceptions of these issues to determine whether cultural differences exist and to what degree. Both the independent t-test and ordered ordinal regression indicated that U.S. students tended to be more punitive than their Canadian counterparts on a majority of the indicators. This attitude may be due to the fact that U.S. students were more likely to perceive a higher crime rate.  

Handling Stolen Goods: Findings from the 2003 Offending Crime and Justice Survey 

By Mike Sutton, Nottingham Trent University, England, Sarah Hodgkinson, Leicester University, England and Mike Levi, Cardiff University, Wales

This paper presents findings from a systematic analysis of stolen goods markets, based upon scholarly research and criminological theory, with a toolkit for implementing Sutton’s MRA. The MRA has been implemented in several UK police forces including Kent, Thames Valley, The Metropolitan Police. Derbyshire, Manchester and West Mercia. Other forces use MRA techniques, while Nottinghamshire and Cheshire currently seek to build it into routine policing. Independent academic evaluators, commissioned by the Home Office to evaluate the MRA in 3 police force areas: Kent; Greater Manchester and West Mercia, found MRA theory to be sound, referring positively to police using this report as ‘The Sutton Bible’. This Primary Research Paper presents important analysis.   

Counter-Terrorism and Democracy Transition in Russia

By Anna Tabolina, Far Eastern State University, Vladivostok, Russian Federation

The purpose of this essay is to open up East and West dialogues by critically discussing the measures that Russia is undertaking in order to tackle terrorism and to discuss how this impacts upon the provision of security in a nation recently undergoing such relatively rapid change.  

Targeted Intervention Effects on Antisocial Behaviour

By Dr Boaz Shulruf, Faculty of Education, University of Auckland, New Zealand

The current study reports on an evaluation of a school-based intervention aimed at altering at-risk primary students’ self-perception and social awareness as an avenue to mainstream citizenship rather than delinquency and criminal activity. Fourteen students participated in a pilot intervention programme operated once weekly over four months. Programme activities were focused on raising awareness of antisocial behaviours and awareness of personal life quality. The evaluation applied a mixed-methods approach using both quantitative and qualitative data. Evidence for improvement in children’s self-perception was identified as well as effective methods facilitating such changes. Implications of the findings for further intervention programmes and evaluations are discussed.  

The relationship between community attitudes and recent racial vilification laws in Victoria Australia: A comparison of a legal and extra-legal classification model. By Kristine Muraca and Terence P Bartholomew, School of Applied Sciences, Forensic Psychology Program, School of Psychology, Deakin University, Melbourne, Australia

This study assessed the level of consistency between the elements prescribed in Victoria, Australia’s Racial and Religious Tolerance Act (2001) and the criteria utilised by a sample of the general population in that state. A random sample of 197 adult Victorians was asked to provide their opinions about a hypothetical vignette where seemingly racist comments were made. Based on existing research and theory, it was anticipated that participants’ classifications of conduct as racial vilification would be better predicted by factors not included in the legislation, than legislatively-defined considerations. Results indicate that the legal model, which included the elements of ‘incitement’ and ‘basis of race’, was a significant predictor of classifications of racial vilification. However, the proposed ‘extra-legal’ model, which included ‘race of the target’, ‘race of the perpetrator’, ‘intention’, and ‘perceived seriousness’, also emerged as a significant predictor of respondent classifications. Although the legal model did in fact emerge as a more effective predictor, a hybrid model including the legally prescribed elements as well as ‘perceived seriousness’ had the greatest predictive ability. It is concluded that the public, as potential jurors, show a preference for grounded ‘act-based’ factors when determining whether a behaviour constitutes racial vilification or not, and that the tenets of Victoria’s Racial and Religious Tolerance Act (2001) largely reflect these intuitive criteria.   

The Effect of Initial Meeting Context and Video-Mediation on Jury Perceptions of an Eyewitness 

By Chris Fullwood, Amy Marie Judd, and Mandy Finn, School of Applied Sciences, University of Wolverhampton, UK

Video-mediated testimony in the courtroom has become more widespread since introduced as a method to aid vulnerable witnesses. Despite many benefits, research indicates that individuals are perceived more negatively over video links in comparison to face-to-face contact. Studies have also shown that an initial face-to-face meeting can improve subsequent person perceptions across video. The current study compared participant perceptions of an eyewitness in three conditions: face-to-face testimony, video testimony and video testimony with an initial face-to-face introduction. Results suggest that although impressions of the eyewitness were more negative when the testimony was given via video (compared with face-to-face), this did not impact upon the jury’s decision to convict the accused. Furthermore, the initial face-to-face meeting did not significantly improve the jury’s perceptions of the eyewitness. Video-mediated impressions may be more negative due to social distance and the attenuation of visual cues.  

“If They Are Dead, Tell Us!” A Criminological Study of the “Disappearances” in Kashmir 

By Teresa Crew, Postgraduate Student, University of Wales, Bangor

Cradled in the lap of majestic mountains of the Himalayas, Kashmir is one of the most beautiful places on earth. This paradise is now hell for many Kashmiris due to the prolonged war between India and Pakistan since the end of the British Empire and subsequent partition of the Indian Subcontinent. This paper focuses on the enforced disappearances in Kashmir. The aim of this study is to further develop the study into the victims of State harm. In order to do this, Kauzlarich et al's 'Victimology of State Crime' is utilised, and their general propositions of State crime are tested with reference to the disappeared in Kashmir. This study holds with Kauzlarich et al's assertion that State crime victimology is a different phenomenon from that of street crime as victims are doubly victimised by the state - once during the actual harm inflicted and then again by the criminal justice process. Whilst the majority of Kauzlarich's propositions were consistent with the situation in Kashmir, the concept of secondary victimisation was underdeveloped throughout the original Kauzlarich et al paper. This concept, in relation to Kashmir, is developed in this paper. 

The Public Discourse on Corruption in Greece

By Effi Lambropoulou, Panteion University of Social and Political Sciences, Greece.

Perceptions of corruption have significant impact on a country’s awareness of the issue and thereby on the success of any prevention measures. This paper provides a brief overview and summary of preliminary findings from an on-going study funded by the European Commission to examine issues of corruption in 8 EU countries. The study examines the perceptions of political and administrative decision-makers in the various countries, of the representatives of various institutions and authorities, as well as of citizens and media in the European societies. Overall, the project attempts to investigate the difference between institutionalised prevention policies, how they are perceived in daily practice and how effective they are.  

Honour-Related Violence (HRV) in Scotland: A Cross- And Multi-Agency Intervention Involvement Survey.  by Dr. Roxanne Khan, University of Central Lancashire, UK

This paper documents the results of a small-scale pilot study, which represents the first step towards further research in this overlooked area of violence against women and represents a first step towards responding to widespread calls for multi-disciplinary research to be conducted in this area. ‘Honour’ killings and ‘honour’ related violence is a neglected area in criminology. Such killings and acts of violence are assaults committed against women both by female and male family or community members, for what is considered ‘immoral behaviour,’ that might include women choosing their own marriage partner, allegations of premarital or extramarital sex, being a victim of sexual abuse or rape and even talking innocently with a man who is not a relative. This paper highlights the lack of provision for females facing this specific type of family violence and problems faced by agencies who attempt to help them. This Primary Research Paper provides insights that will remind/inform readers that because this form of violence is shrouded by notions of ‘honour’, there are girls and women living in the UK who are outwardly living calmly in what are effectively dangerous and violent family- and community-governed environments.  

Are Reality TV Crime Shows Continuing to Perpetuate Crime Myths?

By Elizabeth Monk-Turner, Homer Martinez, Jason Holbrook & Nathan Harvey, Department of Sociology and Criminal Justice, Old Dominion University, USA

This article examines the portrayal of gender and race in the USA reality television program COPS. Fifty one police officers apprehending sixty perpetrators were content analyzed into four categories including race (of both officer and perpetrator), gender (of both officer and perpetrator), US Uniform Crime Report (UCR) type offense (type I or type II), as well as the specific type of crime depicted. The vast majority of police officers shown on COPS were white male (92%) and the majority of offenders were nonwhite males (62%). Black men were most likely to be shown engaging in a crime of burglary or theft or crimes involving drugs. Hispanic men were most likely to be involved in UCR Part I offenses; however, they were in a distinct minority on these episodes. On the other hand, the most likely scenario for white offenders is to be shown committing an alcohol related offense or causing, or being part of, a domestic disturbance. Few white women were included on the show. One was a police officer and among the other five, one was looking for a lost child and the others were picked up for a variety of relatively minor violations (driving under the influence, drug possession, stolen bike, animal disturbance). No minority women were shown on COPS during this period of evaluation - as either an officer or perpetrator of a crime. The authors argue that media images depicted in COPS are at odds with UCR official crime statistics and reinforce stereotypes and myths about the nature of crime in the United States.  

Culture, Violence and Rape Adjudication: Reflections on the Zuma Rape Trial and Judgment 

B y Sarah H. Krieg, Ph.D. fellow, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Germany

This paper offers contextualised reflections on the role of cultural arguments during the rape trial of South Africa's former Deputy President, Jacob Gedleyihlekisa Zuma. In conjunction with an analysis of International and South African Law on violence against women, it establishes and applies a gender and culture sensitive framework with which rape adjudication and other criminal law judgments can be examined.  

Anti-social Behaviour: Concerns of Minority and Marginalised Londoners 

B y Andrew Millie, Lecturer in Criminology and Social Policy, Loughborough University

In the UK there is currently a lot of political and media attention on what has become known as anti-social behaviour (ASB). Concerns about ASB appear to be higher in deprived and/or urban areas. In particular, people living in London are more likely to suffer from ASB. There is undoubtedly real ASB in London; however, this article argues that people will have different expectations of urban living and use of public spaces, resulting in contested notions or tolerances of what is acceptable or anti-social behaviour. This has implications for people’s acceptance of difference or ‘otherness’. With this in mind, evidence is drawn from 10 focus groups with minority and marginalised Londoners. The article argues that our beliefs and expectations of urban living need to be challenged as this is what urban living is all about. Similarly, we should take on board the focus group participants’ assertion that all can be anti-social - rather than focusing on certain groups that ‘don’t fit in’ and entrenching their social exclusion.   

Police Administrators in Indiana: A Descriptive Study of Attitudes, Perceptions, and Stressors 

By Billy Long, Ph.D., Indiana University Southeast, and Officer Courtney Yerington, Owensboro Police Department.

Surveys were sent to 308 police chiefs and sheriffs in Indiana in the USA - resulting in 229 being returned for a response rate of 74%. The survey device measured six areas of policing: 1) demographics of police executives; 2) departmental characteristics; 3) stressors (external); 4) stressors (internal/work-related); 5) police executive attitudes toward the current use of police resources; and 6) police executive perceptions of the efficacy of current police strategies and tactics. Results showed that Indiana police departments and sheriff’s offices are mostly small departments with little turnover and are rarely accredited by the Commission on Accreditation for Law Enforcement Agencies (CALEA). Civilian Review Boards and Early Warning Systems are rarely used to address police misconduct. Indiana departments are overwhelmingly white and male and attempts to increase diversity have failed. Police executive stressors were highest in the area of perceiving courts as too lenient, the criminal justice system as ineffective and media reports about police as overly hostile. Similarly, they indicate significant sources of stress in the areas of financial resources for the department, poor equipment, and dealing with complaints about their officers. Chiefs and sheriffs indicate strong support for the use of police resources for tracking sex offenders and enforcing drug laws. Problem areas were identified in that police executives are not familiar with research on policing. These misunderstandings result in stress on the part of police executives. Areas of misunderstanding include the effectiveness of random patrol and enforcing anti-marijuana laws. Policy implications are discussed.   

Race, Diversity and Criminal Justice in Canada: A view from the UK 

By David Denney, Department of Health and Social Care, Royal Holloway, University of London, UK, Tom Ellis, Institute of Criminal Justice Studies, University of Portsmouth, UK, and Ravinder Barn, Department of Health and Social Care, Royal Holloway, University of London, UK

This article examines the way in which those employed in the Canadian criminal justice system perceive race and diversity, and how such perceptions could affect professional practice. By drawing on research carried out under the Canadian High Commission Institutional Research Program, the paper has a number of purposes. Firstly, to explore the possibility that disparities in the outcomes of courtroom proceedings could be related to the perceptions and practices of those who play a key part in the sentencing process. Secondly, to examine the nature of current anti-racist criminal justice practices in one province of Canada. Thirdly, the paper also makes recommendations for the development of future antiracist training. Finally, the paper discusses the implications of the findings with respect to developments in the British criminal justice system.   

Black and Asian Police Officers and Support Staff: Prejudice, Identity, Agency and Social Cohesion

By Mike Sutton, Nottingham Trent University, Barbara Perry, University of Ontario Institute of Technology, Catherine John-Baptiste, Nottingham Trent University and Glen Williams, National Black Police Association

This primary research paper presents a review of research that finds that the British Government’s new social cohesion agenda does hold promise for racial and ethnic prejudice reduction – but that social cohesion policies and practice must include at their core policies to reduce institutional racism in British police services. Analysis of the literature reveals that considerably more research is required to examine the precise nature and dynamics of institutional racism within the police services. There is a need to understand how racism against Black and minority ethnic (BME) police employees, and police racism against BME communities, influences social cohesion. That this is important, given the British government’s current social cohesion policy agenda, is patently clear. Considerably more research is about to be undertaken in this area by the authors of this paper and the results will be published in the academic press, disseminated at conferences and presented in training programmes. 

Reasons for Supporting and Opposing Capital Punishment in the USA: A Preliminary Study 

By Eric G. Lambert, and Alan Clarke (both at Utah Valley State College) and Janet Lambert

The death penalty is a controversial subject in our society. Research has explored why people support or oppose capital punishment. Most the literature to date looks at the reasons provided one at a time. In this study, a multivariate analysis was conducted to see which reasons best explain the observed variation of support and opposition for capital punishment. It was found that emotional retribution, emotional opposition, morality, and law and order, were the only reasons which had statistically significant effects on the degree of death penalty support among college students at a Midwestern university. Other variables, such as fear of crime, religious measures, other punishment ideologies, and personal characteristics (which earlier studies found statistically significant using bivariate analysis) were not statistically significant in this study. The results suggest the need for greater attention to and more study of death penalty attitudes using multivariate analysis.  

Just Deserts: University Students' Inclination to Nullify the Law 

By Morris Jenkins and Bradene Moore, both at University of Toledo, USA  Professors Jenkins and Moore present findings from a groundbreaking small-scale exploratory study of circumstances that might influence juror’s decisions not to follow the law in their determination of a trial verdict.

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