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Secondary research: definition, methods, & examples.

19 min read This ultimate guide to secondary research helps you understand changes in market trends, customers buying patterns and your competition using existing data sources.

In situations where you’re not involved in the data gathering process ( primary research ), you have to rely on existing information and data to arrive at specific research conclusions or outcomes. This approach is known as secondary research.

In this article, we’re going to explain what secondary research is, how it works, and share some examples of it in practice.

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What is secondary research?

Secondary research, also known as desk research, is a research method that involves compiling existing data sourced from a variety of channels . This includes internal sources (e.g.in-house research) or, more commonly, external sources (such as government statistics, organizational bodies, and the internet).

Secondary research comes in several formats, such as published datasets, reports, and survey responses , and can also be sourced from websites, libraries, and museums.

The information is usually free — or available at a limited access cost — and gathered using surveys , telephone interviews, observation, face-to-face interviews, and more.

When using secondary research, researchers collect, verify, analyze and incorporate it to help them confirm research goals for the research period.

As well as the above, it can be used to review previous research into an area of interest. Researchers can look for patterns across data spanning several years and identify trends — or use it to verify early hypothesis statements and establish whether it’s worth continuing research into a prospective area.

How to conduct secondary research

There are five key steps to conducting secondary research effectively and efficiently:

1.    Identify and define the research topic

First, understand what you will be researching and define the topic by thinking about the research questions you want to be answered.

Ask yourself: What is the point of conducting this research? Then, ask: What do we want to achieve?

This may indicate an exploratory reason (why something happened) or confirm a hypothesis. The answers may indicate ideas that need primary or secondary research (or a combination) to investigate them.

2.    Find research and existing data sources

If secondary research is needed, think about where you might find the information. This helps you narrow down your secondary sources to those that help you answer your questions. What keywords do you need to use?

Which organizations are closely working on this topic already? Are there any competitors that you need to be aware of?

Create a list of the data sources, information, and people that could help you with your work.

3.    Begin searching and collecting the existing data

Now that you have the list of data sources, start accessing the data and collect the information into an organized system. This may mean you start setting up research journal accounts or making telephone calls to book meetings with third-party research teams to verify the details around data results.

As you search and access information, remember to check the data’s date, the credibility of the source, the relevance of the material to your research topic, and the methodology used by the third-party researchers. Start small and as you gain results, investigate further in the areas that help your research’s aims.

4.    Combine the data and compare the results

When you have your data in one place, you need to understand, filter, order, and combine it intelligently. Data may come in different formats where some data could be unusable, while other information may need to be deleted.

After this, you can start to look at different data sets to see what they tell you. You may find that you need to compare the same datasets over different periods for changes over time or compare different datasets to notice overlaps or trends. Ask yourself: What does this data mean to my research? Does it help or hinder my research?

5.    Analyze your data and explore further

In this last stage of the process, look at the information you have and ask yourself if this answers your original questions for your research. Are there any gaps? Do you understand the information you’ve found? If you feel there is more to cover, repeat the steps and delve deeper into the topic so that you can get all the information you need.

If secondary research can’t provide these answers, consider supplementing your results with data gained from primary research. As you explore further, add to your knowledge and update your findings. This will help you present clear, credible information.

Primary vs secondary research

Unlike secondary research, primary research involves creating data first-hand by directly working with interviewees, target users, or a target market. Primary research focuses on the method for carrying out research, asking questions, and collecting data using approaches such as:

• Interviews (panel, face-to-face or over the phone)
• Questionnaires or surveys
• Focus groups

Using these methods, researchers can get in-depth, targeted responses to questions, making results more accurate and specific to their research goals. However, it does take time to do and administer.

Unlike primary research, secondary research uses existing data, which also includes published results from primary research. Researchers summarize the existing research and use the results to support their research goals.

Both primary and secondary research have their places. Primary research can support the findings found through secondary research (and fill knowledge gaps), while secondary research can be a starting point for further primary research. Because of this, these research methods are often combined for optimal research results that are accurate at both the micro and macro level.

Sources of Secondary Research

There are two types of secondary research sources: internal and external. Internal data refers to in-house data that can be gathered from the researcher’s organization. External data refers to data published outside of and not owned by the researcher’s organization.

Internal data

Internal data is a good first port of call for insights and knowledge, as you may already have relevant information stored in your systems. Because you own this information — and it won’t be available to other researchers — it can give you a competitive edge . Examples of internal data include:

• Database information on sales history and business goal conversions
• Information from website applications and mobile site data
• Customer-generated data on product and service efficiency and use
• Previous research results or supplemental research areas
• Previous campaign results

External data

External data is useful when you: 1) need information on a new topic, 2) want to fill in gaps in your knowledge, or 3) want data that breaks down a population or market for trend and pattern analysis. Examples of external data include:

• Government, non-government agencies, and trade body statistics
• Company reports and research
• Competitor research
• Public library collections
• Textbooks and research journals
• Media stories in newspapers
• Online journals and research sites

Three examples of secondary research methods in action

How and why might you conduct secondary research? Let’s look at a few examples:

1.    Collecting factual information from the internet on a specific topic or market

There are plenty of sites that hold data for people to view and use in their research. For example, Google Scholar, ResearchGate, or Wiley Online Library all provide previous research on a particular topic. Researchers can create free accounts and use the search facilities to look into a topic by keyword, before following the instructions to download or export results for further analysis.

This can be useful for exploring a new market that your organization wants to consider entering. For instance, by viewing the U.S Census Bureau demographic data for that area, you can see what the demographics of your target audience are , and create compelling marketing campaigns accordingly.

2.    Finding out the views of your target audience on a particular topic

If you’re interested in seeing the historical views on a particular topic, for example, attitudes to women’s rights in the US, you can turn to secondary sources.

Textbooks, news articles, reviews, and journal entries can all provide qualitative reports and interviews covering how people discussed women’s rights. There may be multimedia elements like video or documented posters of propaganda showing biased language usage.

By gathering this information, synthesizing it, and evaluating the language, who created it and when it was shared, you can create a timeline of how a topic was discussed over time.

3.    When you want to know the latest thinking on a topic

Educational institutions, such as schools and colleges, create a lot of research-based reports on younger audiences or their academic specialisms. Dissertations from students also can be submitted to research journals, making these places useful places to see the latest insights from a new generation of academics.

Information can be requested — and sometimes academic institutions may want to collaborate and conduct research on your behalf. This can provide key primary data in areas that you want to research, as well as secondary data sources for your research.

Advantages of secondary research

There are several benefits of using secondary research, which we’ve outlined below:

• Easily and readily available data – There is an abundance of readily accessible data sources that have been pre-collected for use, in person at local libraries and online using the internet. This data is usually sorted by filters or can be exported into spreadsheet format, meaning that little technical expertise is needed to access and use the data.
• Faster research speeds – Since the data is already published and in the public arena, you don’t need to collect this information through primary research. This can make the research easier to do and faster, as you can get started with the data quickly.
• Low financial and time costs – Most secondary data sources can be accessed for free or at a small cost to the researcher, so the overall research costs are kept low. In addition, by saving on preliminary research, the time costs for the researcher are kept down as well.
• Secondary data can drive additional research actions – The insights gained can support future research activities (like conducting a follow-up survey or specifying future detailed research topics) or help add value to these activities.
• Secondary data can be useful pre-research insights – Secondary source data can provide pre-research insights and information on effects that can help resolve whether research should be conducted. It can also help highlight knowledge gaps, so subsequent research can consider this.
• Ability to scale up results – Secondary sources can include large datasets (like Census data results across several states) so research results can be scaled up quickly using large secondary data sources.

Disadvantages of secondary research

The disadvantages of secondary research are worth considering in advance of conducting research :

• Secondary research data can be out of date – Secondary sources can be updated regularly, but if you’re exploring the data between two updates, the data can be out of date. Researchers will need to consider whether the data available provides the right research coverage dates, so that insights are accurate and timely, or if the data needs to be updated. Also, fast-moving markets may find secondary data expires very quickly.
• Secondary research needs to be verified and interpreted – Where there’s a lot of data from one source, a researcher needs to review and analyze it. The data may need to be verified against other data sets or your hypotheses for accuracy and to ensure you’re using the right data for your research.
• The researcher has had no control over the secondary research – As the researcher has not been involved in the secondary research, invalid data can affect the results. It’s therefore vital that the methodology and controls are closely reviewed so that the data is collected in a systematic and error-free way.
• Secondary research data is not exclusive – As data sets are commonly available, there is no exclusivity and many researchers can use the same data. This can be problematic where researchers want to have exclusive rights over the research results and risk duplication of research in the future.

When do we conduct secondary research?

Now that you know the basics of secondary research, when do researchers normally conduct secondary research?

It’s often used at the beginning of research, when the researcher is trying to understand the current landscape . In addition, if the research area is new to the researcher, it can form crucial background context to help them understand what information exists already. This can plug knowledge gaps, supplement the researcher’s own learning or add to the research.

Secondary research can also be used in conjunction with primary research. Secondary research can become the formative research that helps pinpoint where further primary research is needed to find out specific information. It can also support or verify the findings from primary research.

You can use secondary research where high levels of control aren’t needed by the researcher, but a lot of knowledge on a topic is required from different angles.

Secondary research should not be used in place of primary research as both are very different and are used for various circumstances.

Questions to ask before conducting secondary research

Before you start your secondary research, ask yourself these questions:

• Is there similar internal data that we have created for a similar area in the past?

If your organization has past research, it’s best to review this work before starting a new project. The older work may provide you with the answers, and give you a starting dataset and context of how your organization approached the research before. However, be mindful that the work is probably out of date and view it with that note in mind. Read through and look for where this helps your research goals or where more work is needed.

• What am I trying to achieve with this research?

When you have clear goals, and understand what you need to achieve, you can look for the perfect type of secondary or primary research to support the aims. Different secondary research data will provide you with different information – for example, looking at news stories to tell you a breakdown of your market’s buying patterns won’t be as useful as internal or external data e-commerce and sales data sources.

• How credible will my research be?

If you are looking for credibility, you want to consider how accurate the research results will need to be, and if you can sacrifice credibility for speed by using secondary sources to get you started. Bear in mind which sources you choose — low-credibility data sites, like political party websites that are highly biased to favor their own party, would skew your results.

• What is the date of the secondary research?

When you’re looking to conduct research, you want the results to be as useful as possible , so using data that is 10 years old won’t be as accurate as using data that was created a year ago. Since a lot can change in a few years, note the date of your research and look for earlier data sets that can tell you a more recent picture of results. One caveat to this is using data collected over a long-term period for comparisons with earlier periods, which can tell you about the rate and direction of change.

• Can the data sources be verified? Does the information you have check out?

If you can’t verify the data by looking at the research methodology, speaking to the original team or cross-checking the facts with other research, it could be hard to be sure that the data is accurate. Think about whether you can use another source, or if it’s worth doing some supplementary primary research to replicate and verify results to help with this issue.

We created a front-to-back guide on conducting market research, The ultimate guide to conducting market research , so you can understand the research journey with confidence.

In it, you’ll learn more about:

• What effective market research looks like
• The use cases for market research
• The most important steps to conducting market research
• And how to take action on your research findings

Download the free guide for a clearer view on secondary research and other key research types for your business.

Related resources

Market intelligence 10 min read, marketing insights 11 min read, ethnographic research 11 min read, qualitative vs quantitative research 13 min read, qualitative research questions 11 min read, qualitative research design 12 min read, primary vs secondary research 14 min read, request demo.

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Primary Sources: A Research Guide

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Primary Sources

Texts of laws and other original documents.

Newspaper reports, by reporters who witnessed an event or who quote people who did.

Speeches, diaries, letters and interviews - what the people involved said or wrote.

Original research.

Datasets, survey data, such as census or economic statistics.

Photographs, video, or audio that capture an event.

Secondary Sources

Secondary Sources are one step removed from primary sources, though they often quote or otherwise use primary sources. They can cover the same topic, but add a layer of interpretation and analysis. Secondary sources can include:

Most books about a topic.

Analysis or interpretation of data.

Scholarly or other articles about a topic, especially by people not directly involved.

Documentaries (though they often include photos or video portions that can be considered primary sources).

When is a Primary Source a Secondary Source?

Whether something is a primary or secondary source often depends upon the topic and its use.

A biology textbook would be considered a secondary source if in the field of biology, since it describes and interprets the science but makes no original contribution to it.

On the other hand, if the topic is science education and the history of textbooks, textbooks could be used a primary sources to look at how they have changed over time.

Examples of Primary and Secondary Sources

Adapted from Bowling Green State University, Library User Education, Primary vs. Secondary Sources .

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Secondary Sources in Research

Other Academics' Observations on Primary Sources

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• An Introduction to Punctuation
• Ph.D., Rhetoric and English, University of Georgia
• M.A., Modern English and American Literature, University of Leicester
• B.A., English, State University of New York

In contrast to primary sources in  research  activities, secondary sources consist of information that has been gathered and often interpreted by other researchers and recorded in books, articles, and other publications. 

In her "Handbook of Research Methods , "  Natalie L. Sproull points out that secondary sources "are not necessarily worse than primary sources and can be quite valuable. A secondary source may include more information about more aspects of the event than did a primary source ."

Most often though, secondary sources act as a way to keep up with or discuss progress in a field of study, wherein a writer may use another's observations on a topic to summarize his or her own viewpoints on the matter to progress the discourse further.

The Difference Between Primary and Secondary Data

In the hierarchy of the relevance of the evidence to an argument, primary sources like original documents and first-hand accounts of events provide the strongest support to any given claim. By contrast, secondary sources provide a type of back-up to their primary counterparts.

To help explain this difference, Ruth Finnegan distinguishes primary sources as forming the "basic and original material for providing the researcher's raw evidence" in her 2006 article "Using Documents." Secondary sources, while still highly useful, are written by someone else after an event or about a document and can therefore only serve the purpose of furthering an argument if the source has credibility in the field.

Some, therefore, argue that secondary data is neither better nor worse than primary sources—it's simply different. Scot Ober discusses this concept in "Fundamentals of Contemporary Business Communication," saying "the source of the data is not as important as its quality and its relevance for your particular purpose."

Advantages and Disadvantages of Secondary Data

Secondary sources also provide advantages unique from primary sources, but Ober posits that the major ones are economic saying that "using secondary data is less costly and time-consuming than collecting primary data."

Still, secondary sources can also provide hindsight to historical events, providing the context and missing pieces of narratives by relating each event to others happening nearby at the same time. In terms of evaluations of documents and texts, secondary sources offer unique perspectives like historians have on the impact of bills such as the Magna Carta and the Bill of Rights in the U.S. Constitution.

However, Ober warns researchers that secondary sources also come with their fair share of disadvantages including quality and scarcity of sufficient secondary data, going so far as to say "never use any data before you have evaluated its appropriateness for the intended purpose."

A researcher must, therefore, vet the qualifications of the secondary source as it relates to the topic—for instance, a plumber writing an article about grammar may not be the most credible resource, whereas an English teacher would be more qualified to comment on the subject.

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• Primary and Secondary Sources in History
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• Writing a History Book Review

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Finding, Reading & Evaluating Scholarly Sources

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Introduction: What are Scholarly Sources?

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Types of Scholarly Articles

Primary and secondary sources.

• Finding Scholarly / Peer Reviewed Articles
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• Evaluating Scholarly Sources
• Evaluating the Science

Scholarly sources can include books. Scholarly books tend to share the following characteristics:

• Written by a scholar, or researcher, or expert in the field
• Uses discipline specific terminology, methodology, theory
• Advances research or contributes to a discipline of study
• May be a monograph or edited compilation of contributions from multiple scholars
• Published by a university, scholarly association, or professional association

Most of the time however, when we talk about scholarly sources, we refer to periodicals, called scholarly journals.

Articles published in scholarly journals are typically peer-reviewed , but not always. Scholarly journals often publish different types of articles , including:

• recent original research or experimentation,
• theoretical discussions,
• articles that critically review already published work,
• and sometimes book reviews and letters to the editor.

Most library databases identify whether or not the sources are scholarly or peer-reviewed publications, so look for that information when you do searches. For more information on finding scholarly sources, see the " Finding Scholarly Peer Reviewed Sources " tab.

This short video from Cornell University provides a helpful introduction to identifying a scholarly article. 

In academic publishing, the goal of peer review is to assess the quality of articles submitted for publication. Before an article is accepted for publication in a peer-reviewed journal, it must undergo the following process:

• The author of the article must submit it to the journal. The journal editor then forwards the article to experts in the field. Because the reviewers specialize in the same scholarly area as the author, they are considered the author’s peers (hence “peer review”).
• These reviewers are charged with carefully evaluating the quality of the submitted manuscript.
• The peer reviewers check the manuscript for accuracy and assess the validity of the research methodology and procedures.
• If appropriate, they suggest revisions. If they find the article lacking in scholarly validity and rigor, they reject it.

Because a peer-reviewed journal will not publish articles that fail to meet the standards established for a given discipline, peer-reviewed articles that are accepted for publication typically exemplify the best research practices in a field.

Here's a short video that explains peer review:

The following are the types of articles typically published in scholarly journals: 

An empirical research article reports the results of a study that uses data derived from actual observation or experimentation. Empirical research articles are examples of primary research.

Detailed account of clinically important cases of common and rare conditions.

Summarizes the findings of others studies or experiments; attempts to identify trends or draw broader conclusions. Scholarly in nature but not a primary source or research article, however its reference to other articles will include primary sources or research articles.

There are several types of  Review Articles.

• Narrative: a literature review that describes and discusses the state of the science of a specific topic or theme.
• Systematic :  a comprehensive review of all relevant studies on a particular topic/question. The systematic review is created by following an explicit methodology for identifying/selecting the studies to include and evaluating their results.
• Meta-analysis : the statistical procedure for combining data from multiple studies. This is usually, but not always, presented with a systematic review.

Letters of Communication

Short descriptions of important latest study or research findings which are usually considered urgent for immediate publication. Examples: breakthroughs regarding cures or treatments for previously incurable conditions, or cure for a particular outbreak of disease, like for example swine flu.

Theoretical

Containing or referring to a set of abstract principles related to a specific field of knowledge; characteristically it does not contain original empirical research or present experimental data, although it is scholarly.

Describes technique, work flow, management or human resources issue.

Professional Communication

 Most scholarly journals publish articles that pertain to the workings of the profession but are not 'scholarly' in nature. For example: Book reviews and letters to the editor

Scholarly books and articles may be primary or secondary sources.  Both primary and secondary sources can be useful to you in your research, but it's helpful to be able to distinguish which is which. The following are some quick ways to determine if the source you've found is a primary source or a secondary source.

Primary Sources

• Describe original research, or original analysis of someone else's data
• Articles and papers by the researcher(s) presenting data and research findings
• Describe methodology and findings
• Statistics or datasets

Secondary Sources

• Discuss research done by others
• News, magazine articles, books, and review articles explaining, analyzing, or commenting on research
• Published AFTER primary sources (“second”)
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Page Contents

Recognizing secondary sources, find secondary sources, finding bibliographies.

• What is a Primary Source?
• Exploring the Special Collections at Harvard
• Citing Sources & Organizing Research
• Recognizing Secondary Sources
• Finding Secondary Sources

Secondary sources were created by someone who did not experience first-hand or participate in the events or conditions you’re researching. For a historical research project, secondary sources are generally scholarly books and articles.

A secondary source interprets and analyzes primary sources. These sources are one or more steps removed from the event. Secondary sources may contain pictures, quotes or graphics of primary sources.

Some types of secondary source include:  Textbooks; journal articles; histories; criticisms; commentaries; encyclopedias 

Examples of secondary sources include:

• A scholarly article about water and bathing in Mexico City, 1850-1920
• A book about the psychological effects of WWI
• A 2019 U.S. government document examining the work of African Americans at two Manhattan Project sites
• An NPR piece on race and vaccine skepticism

For a historical research project, secondary sources are usually scholarly books and articles, but as you can see from this list there are other possibilties.

History of Science, Technology and Medicine (Harvard Login)  (1975- ) is an index of books, book chapters, and journal articles. Some social sciences material is included. 

• HSTM is an amalgamation of four separate indexes with four different subject term systems; study the results of keyword searches to be sure that you know the proper subject terms for your topic in each of the, possibly four, relevant component databases. For example, the Wellcome Bibliography uses "Contraception" but the Isis Current Bibliography uses "Birth control".
• If you want to limit the coverage of your sources to a particular era, put one of these terms in a search box:  Antiquity or Ancient - “Greek and Roman” - “Middle Ages” or medieval - 13th  century - 14th century - 15 th  century - 16 th  century - 17th century - 18th century - 19th century - 20th century
• More detailed information about the use of this complex database.

ISISCB Bibliographic Resources in the History of Science, Technology and Medicine  indexes the Isis Current Bibliography.  Search results extend back to 1970.  It also offers a browse of the  Isis Cumulative Bibliographies  (1913-1975).  Search ISISCB Explore

PubMed (Harvard Login for full text access)  (1947- ) is the National Library of Medicine's index to biomedical journal articles.

• To limit to historical sources, attach the phrase (in"") "historical article" to your search. Example: "Psychology, clinical" and "historical article".
• Be sure to look for MeSH (Medical Subject Headings) on pertinent records by scrolling down past the abstracts. (Not all records in PubMed have MeSH terms.) Subject headings can help you get to more relevant records and/or can be helpful keyword suggestions.

America: History and Life (Harvard login)  is the primary bibliographic reference to the history of the United States and Canada from prehistory to the present.

Historical Abstracts (Harvard Login)  is a reference guide to the history of the world from 1450 to the present (excluding the United States and Canada, which are covered in America: History and Life, above).

• Both allow coverage date limitations as well as publication date limitations, Can usually use LC terms, not always 

Bibliography of British and Irish History (Harvard Login)  provides bibliographic data on historical writing dealing with the British Isles, and with the British empire and commonwealth, during all periods for which written documentation is available - from 55BC to the present.

• At the link above, choose BBIH from the top row of options.

The Forest History Society Research Portal  offers over 45,000 citations to published items on environmental history, over 30,000 photographs, and other material.

Web of Science Citation Indexes (Harvard Login)  (for historical articles1956- ) includes articles in all areas of science. You can use the Cited Reference Search in Web of Science to find secondary source articles that cite a specified secondary or primary source article or book. More information .

Library Guide to the History of Science Your guide to the History of Science at Harvard. It has more extensive lists of resources and tools than this introductory guide does.

There may already be a detailed list of sources, a bibliography, for your topic. Bibliographies don't always come at the end of a paper- many are independent works of their own, full of recommended sources on any given topic.

For example:

• Microbes and Minie Balls: An Annotated Bibliography of Civil War Medicine (Print Only) , by F. R. Freemon. Rutherford: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1993, 253 pp.                          
• Annotated Bibliography on Medical Research in the South Pacific (Harvard login for HathiTrust full text), by Norman-Taylor, William, South Pacific Commission, 1963. 371pp.

Look for specialized subject bibliographies: search, e.g., <"science and state" AND China AND bibliography>   in HOLLIS  and WorldCat (advanced search). Note:The word Bibliography must be searched as a Subject keyword.

If you find an older article or book in a bibliography, you can use the Cited Reference Search in Web of Science to find more recent articles by seeing who has cited it.   If you have a bibliography of primary sources, then the Web of Science can be used to find secondary sources that cite a specified primary source. See Searching the Citation Indexes (Web of Science) .

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What are primary and secondary sources?

As you are conducting public health, medical, or nursing research, you will rely on both primary and secondary data sources. It is important to recognize the literature type that you are consulting. 

Consider Relationship : 

When delineating between primary and secondary literature, consider the relationship of the principal investigator to the data that is being reported. For example, if a team of researchers conducts a clinical trial on the effectiveness of a new medication, they have had a direct role in generating a hypothesis, running the study, collecting data, and then producing a publication from their clinical work. This example represents a primary study because the researchers have a direct, tangible role in the data generation and collection process. Once this example study’s findings are published, if another researcher were to use the data collection by the initial investigators for their own research, this would represent a secondary research study. 

Read Critically: 

When determining a source's primary or secondary status, it is important to remain vigilant during your reading. The lists below are a suggested starting point. For example, a book might contain primary research results, in addition to secondary data. Likewise, researchers conducting a clinical trial commonly use secondary data to generate a hypothesis, but then generate their own primary data during their study. When reading a clinical trial, data presented in the "literature review" component is secondary, the researchers' findings are primary. 

Primary Sources

Primary sources provide data from a specific research study. Primary studies require a principal investigator or investigative team, often require grant funding, and are associated with a “hands-on” research experience. Primary research studies and their associated data prove real-time insights into a specific research question. 

Examples of primary sources include: 

Pilot  or Prospective studies 

Cohort studies 

Survey research  

Case studies  

Lab notebooks or field notes

Clinical trials , phases I-VI

Randomized clinical trials (RCTs)

Dissertations 

Secondary Sources

Secondary sources use data collected from government organizations, and will also include publications that examine, review, or analyze data collected by someone else. Because secondary sources rely on data collected by someone else, an outside entity, at an earlier time, secondary studies rely on past, not current data.

Examples of secondary sources include : 

• Systematic reviews and meta-analysis 
• Newsletters and professional news sources 
• Clinical practice guidelines 
• Clinical care notes 
• Patient education materials and printouts
• Government  or legal Information 
• Monographs and books , including textbooks
• Entries in nursing or medical encyclopedias 
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2.4: Primary, Secondary and Tertiary Sources

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Teaching & Learning and University Libraries

Another information category is called publication mode and has to do with whether the information is:

• Firsthand information (information in its original form, not translated or published in another form).
• Secondhand information (a restatement, analysis, or interpretation of original information).
• Thirdhand information (a summary or repackaging of original information, often based on secondary information that has been published).

The three labels for information sources in this category are, respectively, primary sources, secondary sources, and tertiary sources . Here are examples to illustrate the first- handedness, second-handedness, and third-handedness of information:

When you make distinctions between primary, secondary, and tertiary sources, you are relating the information itself to the context in which it was created. Understanding that relationship is an important skill that you’ll need in college, as well as in the workplace. Noting the relationship between creation and context helps us understand the “big picture” in which information operates and helps us figure out which information we can depend on. That’s a big part of thinking critically, a major benefit of actually becoming an educated person.

As a reminder, recall one of the frames of the Framework for Information Literacy is Authority is Constructed and Contextual . Information does not occur in a vacuum, but within a context that impacts its meaning. Part of that context will be how you as an information consumer will process the different facets in which that information exists. So, with this in mind, recognize that primary sources as defined below are not cut and dried, nor black or white. For example, to a historian, an image or a representation of a piece of sculpture might be considered a primary source for the purposes of historical analysis; however, to a sculpture or an archaeologist, anything short of the physical piece of sculpture itself would not be considered a primary source. So, in this case, the “context” to consider is how the source of information itself is perceived by a particular discipline (history vs. sculpture or archaeology). More on this below when we consider the “format” of a source.

Primary Sources – Because it is in its original form, the information in primary sources has reached us from its creators without going through any filter. We get it firsthand. Here are some examples that are often used as primary sources:

• Any literary work, including novels, plays, and poems.
• Breaking news (first formal documentation of event–remember the Information Cycle).
• Advertisements.
• Music and dance performances.
• Eyewitness accounts, including photographs and recorded interviews.
• Blog entries that are autobiographical.
• Scholarly blogs that provide data or are highly theoretical, even though they contain no autobiography.
• Artifacts such as tools, clothing, or other objects.
• Original documents such as tax returns, marriage licenses, and transcripts of trials.
• Websites, although many are secondary.
• Correspondence, including email.
• Records of organizations and government agencies.
• Journal articles that report original research for the first time (at least the parts about the new research, plus their data).

Secondary Source – These sources are sources about the sources, such as analysis or interpretation of the original information, the primary source. Thus, the information comes to us secondhand, or through at least one filter. Here are some examples that are often used as secondary sources:

• Nonfiction books and magazine articles except autobiography.
• An article or website that critiques a novel, play, painting, or piece of music.
• An article or web site that synthesizes expert opinion and several eyewitness accounts for a new understanding of an event.
• The literature review portion of a scholarly journal article.

Tertiary Source – These sources further repackage the original information because they index, condense, or summarize the original.

Typically, by the time tertiary sources are developed, there have been many secondary sources prepared on their subjects, and you can think of tertiary sources as information that comes to us “third-hand,” that is, pre -processed. Tertiary sources are usually publications that you are not intended to read from cover to cover but to dip in and out of for the information you need. You can think of them as a good place for background information to start your research but a bad place to end up. Here are some examples that are often used as tertiary sources, which are also considered “reference sources” in the library world:

• Dictionaries.
• Guide books, like the MLA Handbook
• Survey articles.
• Bibliographies.
• Encyclopedias, including Wikipedia.
• Most textbooks, including the one you are now reading.

Tertiary sources are usually not acceptable as cited sources in college research projects because they are so far removed from firsthand information. That’s why most professors don’t want you to use Wikipedia as a citable source: the information in Wikipedia is far from original information. Other people have considered it, decided what they think about it, rearranged it, and summarized it–all of which is actually what your professors want you , not another author, to do with information in your research projects.

The Details Are Tricky — A few things about primary or secondary sources might surprise you:

• Sources have the potential of becoming primary rather than always exist as primary sources.

It’s easy to think that it is the format of primary sources that makes them primary. But that’s not all that matters. When you see lists like the one above of sources that are often used as primary sources, it’s wise to remember that the ones listed are not automatically already primary sources. Firsthand sources get that designation only when researchers actually find their information relevant and use it.

For instance: Here is an illustration of the frame, Authority is Constructed and Contextual. Records that could be relevant to those studying government are created every day by federal, state, county, and city governments as they operate. But until the raw data are actually used by a researcher, they cannot be considered primary sources. How this data is used is what gives these sources the designation, and authority, as primary sources.

Another example that references the frame, Authority is Constructed and Contextual : A diary about his flying missions kept by an American helicopter pilot in the Vietnam War is not a primary source until, say, a researcher uses it in her study of how the war was carried out. But it will never be a primary source for a researcher studying the U.S. public’s reaction to the war because it does not contain information relevant to that study.

• Primary sources, even eyewitness accounts, are not necessarily accurate. Their accuracy has to be evaluated, just like that of all sources.
• Something that is usually considered a secondary source can be considered a primary source, depending on the research project and the context in which something is used .

Here is another example where the context of the use of the source dictates whether or not the source is primary or secondary. For instance, movie reviews are usually considered secondary sources. But if your research project is about the effect movie reviews have on ticket sales, the movie reviews you study would become primary sources.

• Deciding whether to consider a journal article a primary or a secondary source can be complicated for at least two reasons.

First, scholarly journal articles that report new research for the first time are usually based on data. So some disciplines consider the data to be the primary source, and the journal article that describes and analyzes them is considered a secondary source.

However, particularly in the sciences, the original researcher might find it difficult or impossible (he or she might not be allowed) to share the data. So sometimes you have nothing more firsthand than the journal article, which argues for calling it the relevant primary source because it’s the closest thing that exists to the data.

Second, even scholarly journal articles that announce new research for the first time usually contain more than data. They also typically contain secondary source elements, such as a literature review, bibliography, and sections on data analysis and interpretation. So they can actually be a mix of primary and secondary elements. Even so, in some disciplines, a journal article that announces new research findings for the first time is considered to be, as a whole, a primary source for the researchers using it.

ACTIVITY: Under What Circumstances?

Instructions: Look at each of the sources listed below and think of circumstances under which each could become a primary source. (There are probably many potential circumstances for each.) So just imagine you are a researcher with projects that would make each item firsthand information that is relevant to your work. What kind of project would make each of the following sources relevant firsthand information? Our answers are at the bottom of the page, but remember that there are many more–including the ones you think of that we didn’t!

• Fallingwater, a Pennsylvania home designed and constructed by Frank Lloyd Wright in the 1930s.
• Poet W.H. Auden’s elegy for Y.S. Yeats.
• An arrowhead made by (Florida) Seminole Native Americans but found at Flint Ridge outside Columbus, Ohio.
• E-mail between the U.S. ambassador to the United Nations, Nikki Haley, and her staff about North Korea.
• A marriage license.

Despite their fluidity, what primary sources usually offer is too good not to consider using because:

• They are original. This unfiltered, firsthand information is not available anywhere else.
• Their creator was a type of person unlike others in your research project, and you want to include that perspective.
• Their creator was present at an event and shares an eyewitness account.
• They are objects that existed at the particular time of the project you are studying.

Particularly in humanities courses, your professor may require you to use a certain number of primary sources for your project. In other courses, particularly in the sciences, you may be required to use only primary sources.

What is considered primary and secondary sources can vary from discipline to discipline. If you are required to use primary sources for your research project, before getting too deep into your project, check with your professor to make sure he or she agrees with your choices. After all, it’s your professor who will be grading your project. A librarian, too, can verify your choices. Just remember to take a copy of your assignment with you when you ask, because the librarian will want to see the original assignment. After all, that’s a primary source!

POSSIBLE AnswerS TO ACTIVITY: Under What Circumstances?

• You are doing a study of the entrances Wright designed for homes, which were smaller than other architects of the time typically designed entrances.
• Your research project is about the Auden-Yeats relationship.
• Your research project is about trade among 19th century Native Americans east of the Mississippi River.
• Your research project is on how Ambassador Haley conveyed a decision about North Korea to her staff.
• You are writing about the life of a person who claimed to have married several times, and you need more than her statements about when those marriages took place and to whom.

Evidence Based Practice

• 1. Ask: PICO(T) Question
• 2. Align: Levels of Evidence
• 3a. Acquire: Resource Types
• 3b. Acquire: Searching
• 4. Appraise

Primary vs. Secondary Sources

• Qualitative and Quantitative Sources
• Managing References

Sources are considered primary, secondary, or tertiary depending on the originality of the information presented and their proximity or how close they are to the source of information. This distinction can differ between subjects and disciplines.

In the sciences, research findings may be communicated informally between researchers through email, presented at conferences (primary source), and then, possibly, published as a journal article or technical report (primary source). Once published, the information may be commented on by other researchers (secondary sources), and/or professionally indexed in a database (secondary sources). Later the information may be summarized into an encyclopedic or reference book format (tertiary sources). Source

Primary Sources

A primary source in science is a document or record that reports on a study, experiment, trial or research project. Primary sources are usually written by the person(s) who did the research, conducted the study, or ran the experiment, and include hypothesis, methodology, and results.

Primary Sources include:

• Pilot/prospective studies
• Cohort studies
• Survey research
• Case studies
• Lab notebooks
• Clinical trials and randomized clinical trials/RCTs
• Dissertations

Secondary Sources

Secondary sources list, summarize, compare, and evaluate primary information and studies so as to draw conclusions on or present current state of knowledge in a discipline or subject. Sources may include a bibliography which may direct you back to the primary research reported in the article.

Secondary Sources include:

• reviews, systematic reviews, meta-analysis
• newsletters and professional news sources
• practice guidelines & standards
• clinical care notes
• patient education Information
• government & legal Information
• entries in nursing or medical encyclopedias Source

More on Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis

Systematic reviews – Systematic reviews are best for answering single questions (eg, the effectiveness of tight glucose control on microvascular complications of diabetes). They are more scientifically structured than traditional reviews, being explicit about how the authors attempted to find all relevant articles, judge the scientific quality of each study, and weigh evidence from multiple studies with conflicting results. These reviews pay particular attention to including all strong research, whether or not it has been published, to avoid publication bias (positive studies are preferentially published). Source

Meta-analysis -- Meta-analysis, which is commonly included in systematic reviews, is a statistical method that quantitatively combines the results from different studies. It can be used to provide an overall estimate of the net benefit or harm of an intervention, even when these effects may not have been apparent in the individual studies [ 9 ]. Meta-analysis can also provide an overall quantitative estimate of other parameters such as diagnostic accuracy, incidence, or prevalence. Source

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Evaluating Resources: Primary & Secondary Sources

Primary v. secondary sources.

A question to ask yourself when trying to identify primary or secondary sources is:

Did the person writing the thing do the thing?

While this may sound odd, the best indicator that something is a primary source is if the author of the piece actually DID the work that led to the creation of the resource.

These are some other things to consider with primary and secondary sources.

• Primary and secondary sources can be different publication types. Articles can be primary or secondary, just as books can be.
• Primary and secondary sources are not related to peer review in any way. Peer-reviewed articles can be either primary or secondary sources.
• There is no perfect database limiter for primary or secondary, either. There are no check boxes like there are with with peer review.
• Primary and secondary sources don't self identify as such. Nowhere in a primary source will it say, "this is a primary source." You need to evaluate the resource to figure it out.

Primary sources

In primary source documents, the person writing the piece actually did the research, or witnessed the event, or created something entirely new. These are some examples of primary sources:

• An author completes original research and then writes about it.
• An author writes about his or her experience of an event.
• An author creates an original theory or philosophy, and then writes about it.
• An author writes an original novel.

Secondary sources

Secondary sources evaluate or analyze what others have done or witnessed or created. The authors didn't go out and do it, they just analyzed it or wrote about it. These are some examples of secondary sources:

• Authors gather together a lot of primary research studies and then analyze them.  
• An author chooses a topic, finds a lot of articles on that topic, and writes about the topic based on other authors' research.  
• An author analyzes an original creative work.

Identifying primary & secondary sources

When looking at a resource to determine whether it is primary or secondary, words that describe the action of the author can be helpful. For example,  words like these can indicate actual research carried out:

• experimented
• investigated

In secondary resources, since the focus is on analyzing or discussion of a primary source, you would look for words that describe the action of the author indicating that this is an analysis or discussion, such as:

• reported on

You will need to examine the abstract and/or the article to determine if the resource is primary or secondary. While the words above can help indicate the type of resource, this is not a cut and dried process where if you see a particular word, that means the resource is always primary.

Locating a findings section in an article doesn't mean the source is either primary or secondary. Check to see whether the authors did the research themselves, or whether they analyzed research done by others.

Primary source example

For example, in the article, "School counselors' strategies for social justice change: A grounded theory of what works in the real world," these are some of the key elements from the abstract that indicate that it is a primary, research article:

• qualitative study
• grounded theory methodology
• explore the strategies that 16 school counselors
• Findings included seven overarching themes

The primary source authors actually talked to 16 school counselors, using grounded methodology, to come up with their findings based on the research that the authors actually did. Here, the authors did the research themselves and then reported on it.

Singh, A. A., Urbano, A., Haston, M., & McMahon, E. (2010). School counselors' strategies for social justice change: A grounded theory of what works in the real world. Professional School Counseling , 13 (3), 135-145. https://doi.org/10.5330/PSC.n.2010-13.135

• Abstract of School counselors' strategies for social justice change: A grounded theory of what works in the real world (PDF)

Secondary source example

This is an example of an article that is a secondary source, with some of the key elements highlighted:

In the article abstract, "Advocacy for health equity: A synthesis review," these are some of the key elements that indicate it is a secondary source article:

• aim of this review is to synthesize the evidence in the academic and gray literature
• systematic review of the academic literature and a fixed-length systematic search of the gray literature
• anaylzed our findings
• synthesized our findings
• made a critical appraisal of the literature
• brings together for the first time evidence from the academic and the gray literature and provides a building block for efforts to advocate for health equity

What makes the secondary source secondary is that the authors used other authors' research, analyzing and synthesizing the information to come up with their conclusions, or findings.

Farrer, L., Marinetti, C., Cavaco, Y. K., & Costongs, C. (2015). Advocacy for health equity: A synthesis review. Milbank Quarterly , 93 (2), 392-437. https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-0009.12112

• Abstract of Advocacy for health equity: A synthesis review (PDF)
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Secondary Research Guide: Definition, Methods, Examples

Apr 3, 2024

8 min. read

The internet has vastly expanded our access to information, allowing us to learn almost anything about everything. But not all market research is created equal , and this secondary research guide explains why.

There are two key ways to do research. One is to test your own ideas, make your own observations, and collect your own data to derive conclusions. The other is to use secondary research — where someone else has done most of the heavy lifting for you. 

Here’s an overview of secondary research and the value it brings to data-driven businesses.

Secondary Research Definition: What Is Secondary Research?

Primary vs Secondary Market Research

What Are Secondary Research Methods?

Advantages of secondary research, disadvantages of secondary research, best practices for secondary research, how to conduct secondary research with meltwater.

Secondary research definition: The process of collecting information from existing sources and data that have already been analyzed by others.

Secondary research (aka desk research or complementary research ) provides a foundation to help you understand a topic, with the goal of building on existing knowledge. They often cover the same information as primary sources, but they add a layer of analysis and explanation to them.

Users can choose from several secondary research types and sources, including:

• Journal articles
• Research papers

With secondary sources, users can draw insights, detect trends , and validate findings to jumpstart their research efforts.

Primary vs. Secondary Market Research

We’ve touched a little on primary research , but it’s essential to understand exactly how primary and secondary research are unique.

Think of primary research as the “thing” itself, and secondary research as the analysis of the “thing,” like these primary and secondary research examples:

• An expert gives an interview (primary research) and a marketer uses that interview to write an article (secondary research).
• A company conducts a consumer satisfaction survey (primary research) and a business analyst uses the survey data to write a market trend report (secondary research).
• A marketing team launches a new advertising campaign across various platforms (primary research) and a marketing research firm, like Meltwater for market research , compiles the campaign performance data to benchmark against industry standards (secondary research).

In other words, primary sources make original contributions to a topic or issue, while secondary sources analyze, synthesize, or interpret primary sources.

Both are necessary when optimizing a business, gaining a competitive edge , improving marketing, or understanding consumer trends that may impact your business.

Secondary research methods focus on analyzing existing data rather than collecting primary data . Common examples of secondary research methods include:

• Literature review . Researchers analyze and synthesize existing literature (e.g., white papers, research papers, articles) to find knowledge gaps and build on current findings.
• Content analysis . Researchers review media sources and published content to find meaningful patterns and trends.
• AI-powered secondary research . Platforms like Meltwater for market research analyze vast amounts of complex data and use AI technologies like natural language processing and machine learning to turn data into contextual insights.

Researchers today have access to more secondary research companies and market research tools and technology than ever before, allowing them to streamline their efforts and improve their findings.

Want to see how Meltwater can complement your secondary market research efforts? Simply fill out the form at the bottom of this post, and we'll be in touch.

Conducting secondary research offers benefits in every job function and use case, from marketing to the C-suite. Here are a few advantages you can expect.

Cost and time efficiency

Using existing research saves you time and money compared to conducting primary research. Secondary data is readily available and easily accessible via libraries, free publications, or the Internet. This is particularly advantageous when you face time constraints or when a project requires a large amount of data and research.

Access to large datasets

Secondary data gives you access to larger data sets and sample sizes compared to what primary methods may produce. Larger sample sizes can improve the statistical power of the study and add more credibility to your findings.

Ability to analyze trends and patterns

Using larger sample sizes, researchers have more opportunities to find and analyze trends and patterns. The more data that supports a trend or pattern, the more trustworthy the trend becomes and the more useful for making decisions. 

Historical context

Using a combination of older and recent data allows researchers to gain historical context about patterns and trends. Learning what’s happened before can help decision-makers gain a better current understanding and improve how they approach a problem or project.

Basis for further research

Ideally, you’ll use secondary research to further other efforts . Secondary sources help to identify knowledge gaps, highlight areas for improvement, or conduct deeper investigations.

Tip: Learn how to use Meltwater as a research tool and how Meltwater uses AI.

Secondary research comes with a few drawbacks, though these aren’t necessarily deal breakers when deciding to use secondary sources.

Reliability concerns

Researchers don’t always know where the data comes from or how it’s collected, which can lead to reliability concerns. They don’t control the initial process, nor do they always know the original purpose for collecting the data, both of which can lead to skewed results.

Potential bias

The original data collectors may have a specific agenda when doing their primary research, which may lead to biased findings. Evaluating the credibility and integrity of secondary data sources can prove difficult.

Outdated information

Secondary sources may contain outdated information, especially when dealing with rapidly evolving trends or fields. Using outdated information can lead to inaccurate conclusions and widen knowledge gaps.

Limitations in customization

Relying on secondary data means being at the mercy of what’s already published. It doesn’t consider your specific use cases, which limits you as to how you can customize and use the data.

A lack of relevance

Secondary research rarely holds all the answers you need, at least from a single source. You typically need multiple secondary sources to piece together a narrative, and even then you might not find the specific information you need.

To make secondary market research your new best friend, you’ll need to think critically about its strengths and find ways to overcome its weaknesses. Let’s review some best practices to use secondary research to its fullest potential.

Identify credible sources for secondary research

To overcome the challenges of bias, accuracy, and reliability, choose secondary sources that have a demonstrated history of excellence . For example, an article published in a medical journal naturally has more credibility than a blog post on a little-known website.

Assess credibility based on peer reviews, author expertise, sampling techniques, publication reputation, and data collection methodologies. Cross-reference the data with other sources to gain a general consensus of truth.

The more credibility “factors” a source has, the more confidently you can rely on it. 

Evaluate the quality and relevance of secondary data

You can gauge the quality of the data by asking simple questions:

• How complete is the data? 
• How old is the data? 
• Is this data relevant to my needs?
• Does the data come from a known, trustworthy source?

It’s best to focus on data that aligns with your research objectives. Knowing the questions you want to answer and the outcomes you want to achieve ahead of time helps you focus only on data that offers meaningful insights.

Document your sources 

If you’re sharing secondary data with others, it’s essential to document your sources to gain others’ trust. They don’t have the benefit of being “in the trenches” with you during your research, and sharing your sources can add credibility to your findings and gain instant buy-in.

Secondary market research offers an efficient, cost-effective way to learn more about a topic or trend, providing a comprehensive understanding of the customer journey . Compared to primary research, users can gain broader insights, analyze trends and patterns, and gain a solid foundation for further exploration by using secondary sources.

Meltwater for market research speeds up the time to value in using secondary research with AI-powered insights, enhancing your understanding of the customer journey. Using natural language processing, machine learning, and trusted data science processes, Meltwater helps you find relevant data and automatically surfaces insights to help you understand its significance. Our solution identifies hidden connections between data points you might not know to look for and spells out what the data means, allowing you to make better decisions based on accurate conclusions. Learn more about Meltwater's power as a secondary research solution when you request a demo by filling out the form below:

Continue Reading

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Top Secondary Market Research Companies | Desk Research Companies

• Secondary Sources
• Getting Started
• Primary Sources
• Background Sources
• Tests & Measures
• Methods & Protocols
• Writing & Citation

Science Librarian

Secondary Sources in Psychology

Secondary sources do not report the findings of individual research studies and often take the form of book chapters, review articles, and commentaries. They may or may not be peer-reviewed and, typically, are not used as evidence to support your research question or hypothesis. Review articles and book chapters are useful for introducing an unfamiliar topic or concept. Examining the references section of secondary resources is a good strategy for finding relevant primary sources.

Finding Reviews Articles

Review publications contain articles that review the research literature already done in a given area. A review article can give you a good up-to-date synthesis of a particular topic and provide you with an extensive bibliography to mine for primary literature. 

In addition to review specific journals, review articles can be found in PubMed, PsycInfo and Scopus. All of these databases allow you to filter to review articles only.

Review Publications in Psychology

• Annual Review of Neuroscience Coverage 1978 - present
• Annual Review of Psychology Coverage 1950 - present. Also available in print - Reed Library Stacks (BF30 .A56 )
• Review of Personality and Social Psychology Coverage 1980 - present. Only available in print - Reed Library Stacks (BF698 .R395 )
• Trends in Cognitive Science Coverage 1997 - present Also available in print - Reed Library Science Periodicals (Shelved by title )
• Trends in Neurosciences Coverage 1978 - present. Also available in print Reed Library Periodicals (Shelved by title )

Finding Books

Use the  library catalog  to search for print books and ebooks from Reed's collection. You can also search the print holdings of other local libraries (via Summit).

Ebook Collections

• PubMed Bookshelf A great collection of online text (esp. genetics, cell & microbiology) that are completely searchable.
• Springer Books Online Comprised of over 50,000 Springer e-books published from 2005 to date in the sciences, social sciences, and humanities. All of the books are accessible via the library catalog or directly from the Springer platform.

Browsing the Stacks: Call Numbers

Reed College used the Library of Congress (LC) Classification system to arrange the books in the stacks. Psychology books are found in many different parts of the collection. Below are some suggested areas for browsing the stacks.

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• Last Updated: Jan 8, 2024 12:00 PM
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Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary Sources

Search catalog, what are the differences.

Sources of information or evidence are often categorized as primary, secondary, or tertiary material. These classifications are based on the originality of the material and the proximity of the source or origin. This informs the reader as to whether the author is reporting information that is first hand or is conveying the experiences and opinions of others which is considered second hand. Determining if a source is primary, secondary or tertiary can be tricky. Below you will find a description of the three categories of information and examples to help you make a determination.

Primary Sources

These sources are records of events or evidence as they are first described or actually happened without any interpretation or commentary. It is information that is shown for the first time or original materials on which other research is based.  Primary sources display original thinking, report on new discoveries, or share fresh information.

Secondary Sources

These sources offer an analysis or restatement of primary sources. They often try to describe or explain primary sources. They tend to be works which summarize, interpret, reorganize, or otherwise provide an added value to a primary source.

Tertiary Sources

These are sources that index, abstract, organize, compile, or digest other sources. Some reference materials and textbooks are considered tertiary sources when their chief purpose is to list, summarize or simply repackage ideas or other information. Tertiary sources are usually not credited to a particular author.

Communication Studies *: Secondary Sources

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In general, secondary sources are accounts written after the fact with the benefit of hindsight. They are interpretations and evaluations of primary sources. Secondary sources are not evidence per se, but rather, commentary on and discussion of evidence.

All contect from  please refer to the sub-tab under The Literature Review created by Dr. Robert Larabee.

Value of Secondary Sources

To do research, you must cite to research. Primary sources do not represent research per se, but only the artifacts from which most research is derived. Therefore, the majority of sources in a literature review are secondary sources that present research findings, analysis, and the evaluation of other researcher's works.

Reviewing secondary source material can be of value in improving your overall research paper because secondary sources facilitate the communication of what is known, the level of uncertainty in what is known, and what further information is needed from research. It is important to note, however, that secondary sources are not the subject of your analysis. Instead, they represent various opinions, interpretations, and arguments about the research problem you are investigating--opinions, interpretations, and arguments with which you may either agree or disagree with as part of your own analysis of the literature.

Examples of secondary sources you could review as part of your overall study include:     * Bibliographies (also considered tertiary);     * Biographical works;     * Books, other than fiction and autobiography;     * Commentaries, criticisms;     * Dictionaries, Encyclopedias (also considered tertiary);     * Histories;     * Journal articles (depending on the disciple can be primary);     * Magazine and newspaper articles (this distinction varies by discipline);     * Textbooks (also considered tertiary);     * Web site (also considered primary).

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• Last Updated: Feb 23, 2024 2:44 PM
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How to Analyse Secondary Data for a Dissertation

Secondary data refers to data that has already been collected by another researcher. For researchers (and students!) with limited time and resources, secondary data, whether qualitative or quantitative can be a highly viable source of data.  In addition, with the advances in technology and access to peer reviewed journals and studies provided by the internet, it is increasingly popular as a form of data collection.  The question that frequently arises amongst students however, is: how is secondary data best analysed?

The process of data analysis in secondary research

Secondary analysis (i.e., the use of existing data) is a systematic methodological approach that has some clear steps that need to be followed for the process to be effective.  In simple terms there are three steps:

• Step One: Development of Research Questions
• Step Two: Identification of dataset
• Step Three: Evaluation of the dataset.

Let’s look at each of these in more detail:

Step One: Development of research questions

Using secondary data means you need to apply theoretical knowledge and conceptual skills to be able to use the dataset to answer research questions.  Clearly therefore, the first step is thus to clearly define and develop your research questions so that you know the areas of interest that you need to explore for location of the most appropriate secondary data.

Step Two: Identification of Dataset

This stage should start with identification, through investigation, of what is currently known in the subject area and where there are gaps, and thus what data is available to address these gaps.  Sources can be academic from prior studies that have used quantitative or qualitative data, and which can then be gathered together and collated to produce a new secondary dataset.  In addition, other more informal or “grey” literature can also be incorporated, including consumer report, commercial studies or similar.  One of the values of using secondary research is that original survey works often do not use all the data collected which means this unused information can be applied to different settings or perspectives.

Key point: Effective use of secondary data means identifying how the data can be used to deliver meaningful and relevant answers to the research questions.  In other words that the data used is a good fit for the study and research questions.

Step Three: Evaluation of the dataset for effectiveness/fit

A good tip is to use a reflective approach for data evaluation.  In other words, for each piece of secondary data to be utilised, it is sensible to identify the purpose of the work, the credentials of the authors (i.e., credibility, what data is provided in the original work and how long ago it was collected).  In addition, the methods used and the level of consistency that exists compared to other works. This is important because understanding the primary method of data collection will impact on the overall evaluation and analysis when it is used as secondary source. In essence, if there is no understanding of the coding used in qualitative data analysis to identify key themes then there will be a mismatch with interpretations when the data is used for secondary purposes.  Furthermore, having multiple sources which draw similar conclusions ensures a higher level of validity than relying on only one or two secondary sources.

A useful framework provides a flow chart of decision making, as shown in the figure below.

Following this process ensures that only those that are most appropriate for your research questions are included in the final dataset, but also demonstrates to your readers that you have been thorough in identifying the right works to use.

Writing up the Analysis

Once you have your dataset, writing up the analysis will depend on the process used.  If the data is qualitative in nature, then you should follow the following process.

Pre-Planning

• Read and re-read all sources, identifying initial observations, correlations, and relationships between themes and how they apply to your research questions.
• Once initial themes are identified, it is sensible to explore further and identify sub-themes which lead on from the core themes and correlations in the dataset, which encourages identification of new insights and contributes to the originality of your own work.

Structure of the Analysis Presentation

Introduction.

The introduction should commence with an overview of all your sources. It is good practice to present these in a table, listed chronologically so that your work has an orderly and consistent flow. The introduction should also incorporate a brief (2-3 sentences) overview of the key outcomes and results identified.

The body text for secondary data, irrespective of whether quantitative or qualitative data is used, should be broken up into sub-sections for each argument or theme presented. In the case of qualitative data, depending on whether content, narrative or discourse analysis is used, this means presenting the key papers in the area, their conclusions and how these answer, or not, your research questions. Each source should be clearly cited and referenced at the end of the work. In the case of qualitative data, any figures or tables should be reproduced with the correct citations to their original source. In both cases, it is good practice to give a main heading of a key theme, with sub-headings for each of the sub themes identified in the analysis.

Do not use direct quotes from secondary data unless they are:

• properly referenced, and
• are key to underlining a point or conclusion that you have drawn from the data.

All results sections, regardless of whether primary or secondary data has been used should refer back to the research questions and prior works. This is because, regardless of whether the results back up or contradict previous research, including previous works shows a wider level of reading and understanding of the topic being researched and gives a greater depth to your own work.

Summary of results

The summary of the results section of a secondary data dissertation should deliver a summing up of key findings, and if appropriate a conceptual framework that clearly illustrates the findings of the work. This shows that you have understood your secondary data, how it has answered your research questions, and furthermore that your interpretation has led to some firm outcomes.

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Information Literacy & Library Research: . . . Primary & Secondary Sources

• Table of Contents
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• Source Types
• Keyword Basics
• Research: A Journey in Small Steps
• Keywords and Boolean Logic
• Using Databases
• How to Find Books and eBooks
• Popular vs Scholarly
• "Search the Library" through the EBSCO Discovery Service
• Applying the CRAAP Test to Sources
• Citing with MLA 9
• Information Synthesis
• How to Critically Read Academic Articles
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Primary and Secondary Sources

Section Two A: Research Topics - Information Sources - Primary and secondary Sources

Primary sources generally serve as foundation material for a subject area. Primary sources allow researchers to analyze data or objects for themselves in order to come up with alternate theories and opinions.

Primary sources can be speeches, letters, interviews, news programs, official records, novels, art, music, and scholarly journal articles reporting NEW research findings.

A secondary source is any source about an event, period, or issue in history that was produced after that event, period, or issue has passed. The most commonly assigned secondary source in college writing is a scholarly monograph - a volume about a specific subject in the past, written by an expert. Articles in scholarly journals, which are similar to monographs, but on a smaller, more focused scale are also common secondary sources.

Scholarly monographs and articles are very useful sources. Written by experts, they come with a certain built-in "credibility"; articles are often peer-reviewed, meaning that they have been judged worthy of publication by other experts in the field prior to going into print. Similarly, books and monographs go through elaborate pre-publication editing processes to ensure a minimum of factual errors.

• Last Updated: May 3, 2024 2:15 PM
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Home » Secondary Data – Types, Methods and Examples

Secondary Data – Types, Methods and Examples

Table of Contents

Secondary Data

Definition:

Secondary data refers to information that has been collected, processed, and published by someone else, rather than the researcher gathering the data firsthand. This can include data from sources such as government publications, academic journals, market research reports, and other existing datasets.

Secondary Data Types

Types of secondary data are as follows:

• Published data: Published data refers to data that has been published in books, magazines, newspapers, and other print media. Examples include statistical reports, market research reports, and scholarly articles.
• Government data: Government data refers to data collected by government agencies and departments. This can include data on demographics, economic trends, crime rates, and health statistics.
• Commercial data: Commercial data is data collected by businesses for their own purposes. This can include sales data, customer feedback, and market research data.
• Academic data: Academic data refers to data collected by researchers for academic purposes. This can include data from experiments, surveys, and observational studies.
• Online data: Online data refers to data that is available on the internet. This can include social media posts, website analytics, and online customer reviews.
• Organizational data: Organizational data is data collected by businesses or organizations for their own purposes. This can include data on employee performance, financial records, and customer satisfaction.
• Historical data : Historical data refers to data that was collected in the past and is still available for research purposes. This can include census data, historical documents, and archival records.
• International data: International data refers to data collected from other countries for research purposes. This can include data on international trade, health statistics, and demographic trends.
• Public data : Public data refers to data that is available to the general public. This can include data from government agencies, non-profit organizations, and other sources.
• Private data: Private data refers to data that is not available to the general public. This can include confidential business data, personal medical records, and financial data.
• Big data: Big data refers to large, complex datasets that are difficult to manage and analyze using traditional data processing methods. This can include social media data, sensor data, and other types of data generated by digital devices.

Secondary Data Collection Methods

Secondary Data Collection Methods are as follows:

• Published sources: Researchers can gather secondary data from published sources such as books, journals, reports, and newspapers. These sources often provide comprehensive information on a variety of topics.
• Online sources: With the growth of the internet, researchers can now access a vast amount of secondary data online. This includes websites, databases, and online archives.
• Government sources : Government agencies often collect and publish a wide range of secondary data on topics such as demographics, crime rates, and health statistics. Researchers can obtain this data through government websites, publications, or data portals.
• Commercial sources: Businesses often collect and analyze data for marketing research or customer profiling. Researchers can obtain this data through commercial data providers or by purchasing market research reports.
• Academic sources: Researchers can also obtain secondary data from academic sources such as published research studies, academic journals, and dissertations.
• Personal contacts: Researchers can also obtain secondary data from personal contacts, such as experts in a particular field or individuals with specialized knowledge.

Secondary Data Formats

Secondary data can come in various formats depending on the source from which it is obtained. Here are some common formats of secondary data:

• Numeric Data: Numeric data is often in the form of statistics and numerical figures that have been compiled and reported by organizations such as government agencies, research institutions, and commercial enterprises. This can include data such as population figures, GDP, sales figures, and market share.
• Textual Data: Textual data is often in the form of written documents, such as reports, articles, and books. This can include qualitative data such as descriptions, opinions, and narratives.
• Audiovisual Data : Audiovisual data is often in the form of recordings, videos, and photographs. This can include data such as interviews, focus group discussions, and other types of qualitative data.
• Geospatial Data: Geospatial data is often in the form of maps, satellite images, and geographic information systems (GIS) data. This can include data such as demographic information, land use patterns, and transportation networks.
• Transactional Data : Transactional data is often in the form of digital records of financial and business transactions. This can include data such as purchase histories, customer behavior, and financial transactions.
• Social Media Data: Social media data is often in the form of user-generated content from social media platforms such as Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram. This can include data such as user demographics, content trends, and sentiment analysis.

Secondary Data Analysis Methods

Secondary data analysis involves the use of pre-existing data for research purposes. Here are some common methods of secondary data analysis:

• Descriptive Analysis: This method involves describing the characteristics of a dataset, such as the mean, standard deviation, and range of the data. Descriptive analysis can be used to summarize data and provide an overview of trends.
• Inferential Analysis: This method involves making inferences and drawing conclusions about a population based on a sample of data. Inferential analysis can be used to test hypotheses and determine the statistical significance of relationships between variables.
• Content Analysis: This method involves analyzing textual or visual data to identify patterns and themes. Content analysis can be used to study the content of documents, media coverage, and social media posts.
• Time-Series Analysis : This method involves analyzing data over time to identify trends and patterns. Time-series analysis can be used to study economic trends, climate change, and other phenomena that change over time.
• Spatial Analysis : This method involves analyzing data in relation to geographic location. Spatial analysis can be used to study patterns of disease spread, land use patterns, and the effects of environmental factors on health outcomes.
• Meta-Analysis: This method involves combining data from multiple studies to draw conclusions about a particular phenomenon. Meta-analysis can be used to synthesize the results of previous research and provide a more comprehensive understanding of a particular topic.

Secondary Data Gathering Guide

Here are some steps to follow when gathering secondary data:

• Define your research question: Start by defining your research question and identifying the specific information you need to answer it. This will help you identify the type of secondary data you need and where to find it.
• Identify relevant sources: Identify potential sources of secondary data, including published sources, online databases, government sources, and commercial data providers. Consider the reliability and validity of each source.
• Evaluate the quality of the data: Evaluate the quality and reliability of the data you plan to use. Consider the data collection methods, sample size, and potential biases. Make sure the data is relevant to your research question and is suitable for the type of analysis you plan to conduct.
• Collect the data: Collect the relevant data from the identified sources. Use a consistent method to record and organize the data to make analysis easier.
• Validate the data: Validate the data to ensure that it is accurate and reliable. Check for inconsistencies, missing data, and errors. Address any issues before analyzing the data.
• Analyze the data: Analyze the data using appropriate statistical and analytical methods. Use descriptive and inferential statistics to summarize and draw conclusions from the data.
• Interpret the results: Interpret the results of your analysis and draw conclusions based on the data. Make sure your conclusions are supported by the data and are relevant to your research question.
• Communicate the findings : Communicate your findings clearly and concisely. Use appropriate visual aids such as graphs and charts to help explain your results.

Examples of Secondary Data

Here are some examples of secondary data from different fields:

• Healthcare : Hospital records, medical journals, clinical trial data, and disease registries are examples of secondary data sources in healthcare. These sources can provide researchers with information on patient demographics, disease prevalence, and treatment outcomes.
• Marketing : Market research reports, customer surveys, and sales data are examples of secondary data sources in marketing. These sources can provide marketers with information on consumer preferences, market trends, and competitor activity.
• Education : Student test scores, graduation rates, and enrollment statistics are examples of secondary data sources in education. These sources can provide researchers with information on student achievement, teacher effectiveness, and educational disparities.
• Finance : Stock market data, financial statements, and credit reports are examples of secondary data sources in finance. These sources can provide investors with information on market trends, company performance, and creditworthiness.
• Social Science : Government statistics, census data, and survey data are examples of secondary data sources in social science. These sources can provide researchers with information on population demographics, social trends, and political attitudes.
• Environmental Science : Climate data, remote sensing data, and ecological monitoring data are examples of secondary data sources in environmental science. These sources can provide researchers with information on weather patterns, land use, and biodiversity.

Purpose of Secondary Data

The purpose of secondary data is to provide researchers with information that has already been collected by others for other purposes. Secondary data can be used to support research questions, test hypotheses, and answer research objectives. Some of the key purposes of secondary data are:

• To gain a better understanding of the research topic : Secondary data can be used to provide context and background information on a research topic. This can help researchers understand the historical and social context of their research and gain insights into relevant variables and relationships.
• To save time and resources: Collecting new primary data can be time-consuming and expensive. Using existing secondary data sources can save researchers time and resources by providing access to pre-existing data that has already been collected and organized.
• To provide comparative data : Secondary data can be used to compare and contrast findings across different studies or datasets. This can help researchers identify trends, patterns, and relationships that may not have been apparent from individual studies.
• To support triangulation: Triangulation is the process of using multiple sources of data to confirm or refute research findings. Secondary data can be used to support triangulation by providing additional sources of data to support or refute primary research findings.
• To supplement primary data : Secondary data can be used to supplement primary data by providing additional information or insights that were not captured by the primary research. This can help researchers gain a more complete understanding of the research topic and draw more robust conclusions.

When to use Secondary Data

Secondary data can be useful in a variety of research contexts, and there are several situations in which it may be appropriate to use secondary data. Some common situations in which secondary data may be used include:

• When primary data collection is not feasible : Collecting primary data can be time-consuming and expensive, and in some cases, it may not be feasible to collect primary data. In these situations, secondary data can provide valuable insights and information.
• When exploring a new research area : Secondary data can be a useful starting point for researchers who are exploring a new research area. Secondary data can provide context and background information on a research topic, and can help researchers identify key variables and relationships to explore further.
• When comparing and contrasting research findings: Secondary data can be used to compare and contrast findings across different studies or datasets. This can help researchers identify trends, patterns, and relationships that may not have been apparent from individual studies.
• When triangulating research findings: Triangulation is the process of using multiple sources of data to confirm or refute research findings. Secondary data can be used to support triangulation by providing additional sources of data to support or refute primary research findings.
• When validating research findings : Secondary data can be used to validate primary research findings by providing additional sources of data that support or refute the primary findings.

Characteristics of Secondary Data

Secondary data have several characteristics that distinguish them from primary data. Here are some of the key characteristics of secondary data:

• Non-reactive: Secondary data are non-reactive, meaning that they are not collected for the specific purpose of the research study. This means that the researcher has no control over the data collection process, and cannot influence how the data were collected.
• Time-saving: Secondary data are pre-existing, meaning that they have already been collected and organized by someone else. This can save the researcher time and resources, as they do not need to collect the data themselves.
• Wide-ranging : Secondary data sources can provide a wide range of information on a variety of topics. This can be useful for researchers who are exploring a new research area or seeking to compare and contrast research findings.
• Less expensive: Secondary data are generally less expensive than primary data, as they do not require the researcher to incur the costs associated with data collection.
• Potential for bias : Secondary data may be subject to biases that were present in the original data collection process. For example, data may have been collected using a biased sampling method or the data may be incomplete or inaccurate.
• Lack of control: The researcher has no control over the data collection process and cannot ensure that the data were collected using appropriate methods or measures.
• Requires careful evaluation : Secondary data sources must be evaluated carefully to ensure that they are appropriate for the research question and analysis. This includes assessing the quality, reliability, and validity of the data sources.

Advantages of Secondary Data

There are several advantages to using secondary data in research, including:

• Time-saving : Collecting primary data can be time-consuming and expensive. Secondary data can be accessed quickly and easily, which can save researchers time and resources.
• Cost-effective: Secondary data are generally less expensive than primary data, as they do not require the researcher to incur the costs associated with data collection.
• Large sample size : Secondary data sources often have larger sample sizes than primary data sources, which can increase the statistical power of the research.
• Access to historical data : Secondary data sources can provide access to historical data, which can be useful for researchers who are studying trends over time.
• No ethical concerns: Secondary data are already in existence, so there are no ethical concerns related to collecting data from human subjects.
• May be more objective : Secondary data may be more objective than primary data, as the data were not collected for the specific purpose of the research study.

Limitations of Secondary Data

While there are many advantages to using secondary data in research, there are also some limitations that should be considered. Some of the main limitations of secondary data include:

• Lack of control over data quality : Researchers do not have control over the data collection process, which means they cannot ensure the accuracy or completeness of the data.
• Limited availability: Secondary data may not be available for the specific research question or study design.
• Lack of information on sampling and data collection methods: Researchers may not have access to information on the sampling and data collection methods used to gather the secondary data. This can make it difficult to evaluate the quality of the data.
• Data may not be up-to-date: Secondary data may not be up-to-date or relevant to the current research question.
• Data may be incomplete or inaccurate : Secondary data may be incomplete or inaccurate due to missing or incorrect data points, data entry errors, or other factors.
• Biases in data collection: The data may have been collected using biased sampling or data collection methods, which can limit the validity of the data.
• Lack of control over variables: Researchers have limited control over the variables that were measured in the original data collection process, which can limit the ability to draw conclusions about causality.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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Meditation: a simple, fast way to reduce stress.

Meditation can wipe away the day's stress, bringing with it inner peace. See how you can easily learn to practice meditation whenever you need it most.

If stress has you anxious, tense and worried, you might try meditation. Spending even a few minutes in meditation can help restore your calm and inner peace.

Anyone can practice meditation. It's simple and doesn't cost much. And you don't need any special equipment.

You can practice meditation wherever you are. You can meditate when you're out for a walk, riding the bus, waiting at the doctor's office or even in the middle of a business meeting.

Understanding meditation

Meditation has been around for thousands of years. Early meditation was meant to help deepen understanding of the sacred and mystical forces of life. These days, meditation is most often used to relax and lower stress.

Meditation is a type of mind-body complementary medicine. Meditation can help you relax deeply and calm your mind.

During meditation, you focus on one thing. You get rid of the stream of thoughts that may be crowding your mind and causing stress. This process can lead to better physical and emotional well-being.

Benefits of meditation

Meditation can give you a sense of calm, peace and balance that can benefit your emotional well-being and your overall health. You also can use it to relax and cope with stress by focusing on something that calms you. Meditation can help you learn to stay centered and keep inner peace.

These benefits don't end when your meditation session ends. Meditation can help take you more calmly through your day. And meditation may help you manage symptoms of some medical conditions.

Meditation and emotional and physical well-being

When you meditate, you may clear away the information overload that builds up every day and contributes to your stress.

The emotional and physical benefits of meditation can include:

• Giving you a new way to look at things that cause stress.
• Building skills to manage your stress.
• Making you more self-aware.
• Focusing on the present.
• Reducing negative feelings.
• Helping you be more creative.
• Helping you be more patient.
• Lowering resting heart rate.
• Lowering resting blood pressure.
• Helping you sleep better.

Meditation and illness

Meditation also might help if you have a medical condition. This is most often true if you have a condition that stress makes worse.

A lot of research shows that meditation is good for health. But some experts believe there's not enough research to prove that meditation helps.

With that in mind, some research suggests that meditation may help people manage symptoms of conditions such as:

• Chronic pain.
• Depression.
• Heart disease.
• High blood pressure.
• Irritable bowel syndrome.
• Sleep problems.
• Tension headaches.

Be sure to talk to your healthcare professional about the pros and cons of using meditation if you have any of these or other health conditions. Sometimes, meditation might worsen symptoms linked to some mental health conditions.

Meditation doesn't replace medical treatment. But it may help to add it to other treatments.

Types of meditation

Meditation is an umbrella term for the many ways to get to a relaxed state. There are many types of meditation and ways to relax that use parts of meditation. All share the same goal of gaining inner peace.

Ways to meditate can include:

Guided meditation. This is sometimes called guided imagery or visualization. With this method of meditation, you form mental images of places or things that help you relax.

You try to use as many senses as you can. These include things you can smell, see, hear and feel. You may be led through this process by a guide or teacher.

• Mantra meditation. In this type of meditation, you repeat a calming word, thought or phrase to keep out unwanted thoughts.

Mindfulness meditation. This type of meditation is based on being mindful. This means being more aware of the present.

In mindfulness meditation, you focus on one thing, such as the flow of your breath. You can notice your thoughts and feelings. But let them pass without judging them.

• Qigong. This practice most often combines meditation, relaxation, movement and breathing exercises to restore and maintain balance. Qigong (CHEE-gung) is part of Chinese medicine.
• Tai chi. This is a form of gentle Chinese martial arts training. In tai chi (TIE-CHEE), you do a series of postures or movements in a slow, graceful way. And you do deep breathing with the movements.
• Yoga. You do a series of postures with controlled breathing. This helps give you a more flexible body and a calm mind. To do the poses, you need to balance and focus. That helps you to focus less on your busy day and more on the moment.

Parts of meditation

Each type of meditation may include certain features to help you meditate. These may vary depending on whose guidance you follow or who's teaching a class. Some of the most common features in meditation include:

Focused attention. Focusing your attention is one of the most important elements of meditation.

Focusing your attention is what helps free your mind from the many things that cause stress and worry. You can focus your attention on things such as a certain object, an image, a mantra or even your breathing.

• Relaxed breathing. This technique involves deep, even-paced breathing using the muscle between your chest and your belly, called the diaphragm muscle, to expand your lungs. The purpose is to slow your breathing, take in more oxygen, and reduce the use of shoulder, neck and upper chest muscles while breathing so that you breathe better.

A quiet setting. If you're a beginner, meditation may be easier if you're in a quiet spot. Aim to have fewer things that can distract you, including no television, computers or cellphones.

As you get more skilled at meditation, you may be able to do it anywhere. This includes high-stress places, such as a traffic jam, a stressful work meeting or a long line at the grocery store. This is when you can get the most out of meditation.

• A comfortable position. You can practice meditation whether you're sitting, lying down, walking, or in other positions or activities. Just try to be comfortable so that you can get the most out of your meditation. Aim to keep good posture during meditation.
• Open attitude. Let thoughts pass through your mind without judging them.

Everyday ways to practice meditation

Don't let the thought of meditating the "right" way add to your stress. If you choose to, you can attend special meditation centers or group classes led by trained instructors. But you also can practice meditation easily on your own. There are apps to use too.

And you can make meditation as formal or informal as you like. Some people build meditation into their daily routine. For example, they may start and end each day with an hour of meditation. But all you really need is a few minutes a day for meditation.

Here are some ways you can practice meditation on your own, whenever you choose:

Breathe deeply. This is good for beginners because breathing is a natural function.

Focus all your attention on your breathing. Feel your breath and listen to it as you inhale and exhale through your nostrils. Breathe deeply and slowly. When your mind wanders, gently return your focus to your breathing.

Scan your body. When using this technique, focus attention on each part of your body. Become aware of how your body feels. That might be pain, tension, warmth or relaxation.

Mix body scanning with breathing exercises and think about breathing heat or relaxation into and out of the parts of your body.

• Repeat a mantra. You can create your own mantra. It can be religious or not. Examples of religious mantras include the Jesus Prayer in the Christian tradition, the holy name of God in Judaism, or the om mantra of Hinduism, Buddhism and other Eastern religions.

Walk and meditate. Meditating while walking is a good and healthy way to relax. You can use this technique anywhere you're walking, such as in a forest, on a city sidewalk or at the mall.

When you use this method, slow your walking pace so that you can focus on each movement of your legs or feet. Don't focus on where you're going. Focus on your legs and feet. Repeat action words in your mind such as "lifting," "moving" and "placing" as you lift each foot, move your leg forward and place your foot on the ground. Focus on the sights, sounds and smells around you.

Pray. Prayer is the best known and most widely used type of meditation. Spoken and written prayers are found in most faith traditions.

You can pray using your own words or read prayers written by others. Check the self-help section of your local bookstore for examples. Talk with your rabbi, priest, pastor or other spiritual leader about possible resources.

Read and reflect. Many people report that they benefit from reading poems or sacred texts and taking a few moments to think about their meaning.

You also can listen to sacred music, spoken words, or any music that relaxes or inspires you. You may want to write your thoughts in a journal or discuss them with a friend or spiritual leader.

• Focus your love and kindness. In this type of meditation, you think of others with feelings of love, compassion and kindness. This can help increase how connected you feel to others.

Building your meditation skills

Don't judge how you meditate. That can increase your stress. Meditation takes practice.

It's common for your mind to wander during meditation, no matter how long you've been practicing meditation. If you're meditating to calm your mind and your mind wanders, slowly return to what you're focusing on.

Try out ways to meditate to find out what types of meditation work best for you and what you enjoy doing. Adapt meditation to your needs as you go. Remember, there's no right way or wrong way to meditate. What matters is that meditation helps you reduce your stress and feel better overall.

Related information

• Relaxation techniques: Try these steps to lower stress - Related information Relaxation techniques: Try these steps to lower stress
• Stress relievers: Tips to tame stress - Related information Stress relievers: Tips to tame stress
• Video: Need to relax? Take a break for meditation - Related information Video: Need to relax? Take a break for meditation

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• Meditation: In depth. National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health. https://nccih.nih.gov/health/meditation/overview.htm. Accessed Dec. 23, 2021.
• Mindfulness meditation: A research-proven way to reduce stress. American Psychological Association. https://www.apa.org/topics/mindfulness/meditation. Accessed Dec. 23, 2021.
• AskMayoExpert. Meditation. Mayo Clinic. 2021.
• Papadakis MA, et al., eds. Meditation. In: Current Medical Diagnosis & Treatment 2022. 61st ed. McGraw Hill; 2022. https://accessmedicine.mhmedical.com. Accessed Dec. 23, 2021.
• Hilton L, et al. Mindfulness meditation for chronic pain: Systematic review and meta-analysis. Annals of Behavioral Medicine. 2017; doi:10.1007/s12160-016-9844-2.
• Seaward BL. Meditation. In: Essentials of Managing Stress. 5th ed. Jones & Bartlett Learning; 2021.
• Seaward BL. Managing Stress: Principles and Strategies for Health and Well-Being. 9th ed. Burlington, Mass.: Jones & Bartlett Learning; 2018.

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