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Crisis management, global challenges, and sustainable development from an Asian perspective

• Published: 30 May 2020
• Volume 19 , pages 271–276, ( 2020 )

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• Yipeng Liu 1 , 2 &
• Fabian Jintae Froese 3  

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Research on crisis management has accumulated a vast body of knowledge that has assisted us with comprehending complex business and management phenomena. Yet, the existing studies have not paid sufficient attention to global challenges and sustainable development. We join the current conversation being conducted from the global challenges perspective of crisis management by suggesting that investigating global challenges and sustainable development can advance our collective understanding of crisis management in important ways. This article has three general objectives. First, we show that crisis management has been a long-standing issue in business and management research and provide an overview of the puzzles that informed and motivated this focussed issue. Second, we highlight the key insights and contributions made by the papers included in this focussed issue by reviewing their theoretical underpinnings, methodological approaches, and findings. Finally, we invite scholars to join the debate in order to move this important crisis management research agenda forward by tackling global challenges with the goal of achieving sustainable development.

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Crisis management from a multi-level and multidisciplinary perspective

The 2020 COVID-19 global health crisis, the 2008 global financial crisis, the 1997 Asian financial crisis, and the list could go on. Nothing seems to be certain but death and crises. Accordingly, crisis management has been a long-standing issue in business management and organisational studies (Bundy et al. 2017 ). Over the past three decades, the three crises mentioned above have had major impacts on economic development and business evolution in Asia. The 1997 Asian financial crisis affected a wide region in East Asia and Southeast Asia and subsequently triggered fears of a worldwide economic meltdown. The 2008 financial crisis originating in Wall Street had a substantial and detrimental impact on the global economy, including Asian countries. In 2020, the unfolding of the COVID-19 global health crisis has been significantly reshaping business and management practices in Asian countries and beyond. Thus, understanding, managing, and intervening crisis is a critical challenge for all stakeholders involved. In order to capture the nuances of crisis management and organisational response, it can be useful to view crisis management from a multi-level and multidisciplinary perspective, including the individual, organisational, and institutional levels.

At the individual level, personal traits and emotional reactions can determine the extent of a crisis’ effects. CEO empathy may help employees in making sense and finding meaning when faced by a crisis (König et al. 2020 ). The individual strategies adopted in coping with crises can be significantly influenced by cultural characteristics (Liu 2020 ), for instance, the influence of Confucianism prevailing in many Asian countries (Froese 2013 ; Xing et al. 2020 ). At the organisational level, organisational resources and capabilities can substantially determine whether organisations can survive dealing with a major crisis. Organisational learning and capability building are essential for organisations to learn, reflect upon, and accumulate lessons and experiences useful to handle the next crisis (Rerup 2009 ). In light of economic growth, rapid development, and previous crisis experience in Asian countries, organisational capabilities and crisis-handling abilities have been tediously honed and have remarkably improved over time. Asian countries have dealt with the COVID-19 global health crisis dramatically better than many of their Western counterparts, largely due to the experience accumulated during the 2003 SARS outbreak (Liu et al. 2020 ). At the institutional level, the varieties of Asian capitalism (Witt and Redding 2013 ) and institutional development can help the institutional infrastructure to be more resilient in absorbing any unprecedented but forthcoming crisis. Increasingly, cultivating appropriate crisis-coping strategies and building resilience is essential for individuals, organisations, and society to thrive in an age of uncertainties (Liu et al. 2019 ). Specifically, the juxtaposition of resilience research with crisis management (Williams et al. 2017 ) may offer revealing insights suited to solidify and improve business and management practices in Asian countries and beyond.

Global challenges and sustainable development

In today’s uncertain world, global challenges are becoming ever more complex and sophisticated, and necessitate a multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary approach. We believe that management research can and should make useful contributions to understanding and tackling global grand challenges (George et al. 2016 ) by addressing important questions (Tihanyi 2020 ). The United Nations envisaged 17 Sustainable Development Goals aimed at facilitating the achievement of sustainable development for mankind. For example, addressing sustainability challenges requires a collaborative approach in leveraging the power of entrepreneurship (Sarasvathy and Ramesh 2019 ). In the domain of international business, scholars urgently call for research to tackle ‘big questions’ and address ‘grand challenges’ in global business (Buckley et al. 2017 ). In a similar vein, we urge scholars in Asian contexts to step up and address the pressing global challenges faced by individuals, organisations, and society with good potential and value propositions suited to contribute novel insights in regard to both business practice and theoretical development.

A wide range of global challenges and associated research topics can be addressed in Asian contexts. Entrepreneurship and innovation activities are proactive and dynamic in Asia. The fast changing entrepreneurship landscape found in China and India continues to shape contemporary business and management practices and the future of both Asia and the world (Khanna 2008 ; Wu and Si 2018 ). Not only commercial entrepreneurship, but also hybrid entrepreneurship—including social, environmental, and institutional entrepreneurship—are taking place in Asian contexts in shaping the organisations and societies in which we live. Researching important challenges in Asian contexts may help to reveal novel business and management practices: for example, the reasons that, against expectations, caused Western internet digital giants to fail in the Chinese markets (Li 2019 ), and the implications for innovation management for foreign companies operating in Asian contexts (Froese et al. 2019 ). As for the promotion and development of a greener economy, Asian countries, such as China, tend to deliver substance, rather than symbolic gestures, in reporting and implementing CSR initiatives (Marquis and Qian 2014 ). Furthermore, achieving sustainable development requires collaboration and partnerships that cross disciplinary boundaries. The importance of and interest elicited by Asian contexts notwithstanding, we believe that synergy can be generated and should be captured when scholars actively draw connections between Western and Eastern perspectives in management research (Filatotchev et al. 2020 ; Xing and Liu 2015 ) and theory development (Rhee 2010 ) for crisis management in particular, and for management and organisation theories in general.

A brief introduction to the papers in this focussed issue

In this section, we will introduce the six papers in this focussed issue, which zoom in on different aspects of crisis management. We discuss the papers’ theoretical underpinnings, methodological approaches, findings, and overall contributions to the study of crisis management, global challenges, and sustainable development. While the first four papers deal with the COVID-19 crisis, the remaining two centre on corporate crises in different contexts.

In the first paper, Liu et al. ( 2020 ) examine the business and economic implications of COVID-19 from an Asian perspective, focussing on the cases of China, South Korea, and Singapore. The authors take a novel approach by drawing from the theoretical underpinnings of entrepreneurship, agility, and resilience, which enables them to link the global health crisis to business and government responses. The novelty of the paper lies in the fact that it shows the impact COVID-19 is having on economies and businesses, the support provided by governments to businesses and societies, and the implications for global supply chain disruptions.

Following this seminal paper, three others delve deeper into the various business implications of COVID-19, covering human resource management, corporate governance, and supply chain management in different Asian contexts. Haak-Saheem ( 2020 ) discusses the consequences for talent management of the COVID-19 crisis by drawing from the case of Dubai, as the country’s workforce is heavily reliant on expatriates. Yoshikawa and Chua ( 2020 ) explore the growing momentum of shareholder activism in Japan and articulate its relationship with the COVID-19 global health crisis, as well as the direction it could take post-COVID-19. Gao and Ren ( 2020 ) discuss the challenges to and opportunities for global value chains and the extent to which the current dependency on Asian countries may be reshaped in light of COVID-19 from the Australian and New Zealand perspectives.

In the fifth paper, Yang and Rhee ( 2020 ) show how public reactions to corporate bad deeds can influence CSR disclosure speed. By using a sample of 1023 boycott events targeting 93 firms in Korea between 2006 and 2016, the study contributes to the CSR literature by identifying the positive correlation between boycotts and CSR disclosure speed. Furthermore, the study shows that such correlation is moderated by business environment, suggesting that CSR disclosure is a risk-reduction mechanism against boycotts. Thus, the study highlights important contingencies and boundary conditions in examining CSR disclosure speed specifically, and the role played by sustainable development in crisis management in general.

In the sixth article, Lee and Zhong ( 2020 ) examine the way firms respond when their alliance partners misbehave. This study contributes to the broader crisis management literature by identifying the nuanced correlations that exist between responses to alliance partners’ misbehaviours and firm performance as a function of the type of response strategy adopted. The paper’s empirical setting includes Chinese equity-based alliances from 2001 to 2013, with a total sample of 457 instances of misbehaviour. The results show that identity accommodation is associated with higher firm performance, while event defence is associated with lower firm performance. An important contribution made by the paper is in showing that the event-based view of alliance dynamics sheds new light on the ways in which firms manage uncertainty from partners and their effectiveness.

Collectively, these six papers effectively illustrate the wide scope of the topics of crisis management, global challenges, and sustainable development by including the COVID-19 global health crisis, talent management, shareholder activism, global value chain (in)dependence, CSR disclosure, and responses to alliance partners’ misbehaviours. In conclusion, understanding the multifaceted aspects of crisis management through the global challenge and sustainable development perspectives can help us better understand and predict the antecedents, outcomes, and contingencies related to crisis management at multiple levels. We invite other scholars to join the debate to move forward this important and interesting research agenda.

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Liu, Y., Froese, F.J. Crisis management, global challenges, and sustainable development from an Asian perspective. Asian Bus Manage 19 , 271–276 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41291-020-00124-0

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Published : 30 May 2020

Issue Date : July 2020

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1057/s41291-020-00124-0

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Crisis management process for project-based organizations

International Journal of Managing Projects in Business

ISSN : 1753-8378

Article publication date: 30 May 2023

Issue publication date: 18 December 2023

The purpose of this paper is to study the crisis management process for project-based organizations (PBOs) by developing a comprehensive model and propositions.

Design/methodology/approach

This paper is based on a conceptual study. A literature review is considered a primary source for studying contemporary research, including 171 publications in total, which embody qualitative, quantitative, conceptual and theoretical studies. For data analysis, content analysis is used, which is comprised of descriptive and thematic analysis.

This study identifies five imperative elements of crisis management for PBOs which include (1) sense-making (information gathering and crisis interpretation), (2) decision-making (accurate and timely decision), (3) response (reactive response), (4) outcome (success/failure) and (5) learning. Based on these findings, this study proposes an integrative model of the interplay between sense-making, decision-making, response, outcome and learning. Furthermore, the findings lead to propositions for each of the elements. The paper contributes to the literature on dynamic capability theory.

Originality/value

This paper explores the crisis management process for PBOs. The proposed model deepens the understanding of the practices and processes of project-based crisis management.

• Crisis management

Sense-making

Decision-making, project-based organizations.

Iftikhar, R. , Majeed, M. and Drouin, N. (2023), "Crisis management process for project-based organizations", International Journal of Managing Projects in Business , Vol. 16 No. 8, pp. 100-125. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJMPB-10-2020-0306

Emerald Publishing Limited

Copyright © 2023, Rehab Iftikhar, Mehwish Majeed and Nathalie Drouin

Published by Emerald Publishing Limited. This article is published under the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY 4.0) licence. Anyone may reproduce, distribute, translate and create derivative works of this article (for both commercial and non-commercial purposes), subject to full attribution to the original publication and authors. The full terms of this licence may be seen at http://creativecommons.org/licences/by/4.0/legalcode

Introduction

The research on crises started to develop in the 1960s and 1970s, particularly in the fields of psychology, sociology and disaster response ( Jaques, 2009 ). It is generally accepted that a crisis is an unexpected event for which there are no contingency plans in place ( Hermann, 1963 ). Some of the major characteristics of a crisis are that it is an unforeseen, immeasurable, unknown and unplanned event ( Seeger, 2002 ; Oh et al. , 2013 ). A crisis is considered as “a low-probability, high impact event” ( Pearson and Clair, 1998 , as cited in Wilding and Paraskevas, 2006 ; Oh et al. , 2013 ; Iftikhar and Müller, 2019 ). Typically, a crisis is seen as a negative phenomenon, an event that threatens the organization ( Valackiene, 2011 ). In addition, crises can degrade organizational performance ( Scott, 1987 ); project-based organizations (PBOs) are no exception to this. Any organization, including PBOs in both the private and public sectors, does not want to fail and cannot afford poor performance ( Zeyanalian et al. , 2013 ). Despite the significance of crises for PBOs, surprisingly little research has been carried out so far ( Loosemore, 2000 ; Loosemore and Teo, 2000 ). Given the lack of research and the importance of the topic ( Hällgren and Wilson, 2008 ), it is clearly important to study how PBOs manage crises.

As mentioned above, crises in project settings are rarely discussed ( Hällgren and Wilson, 2011 ). A more neutral term of risk is used interchangeably with crisis ( Meyer et al. , 2002 ; Geraldi et al. , 2010 ; Iftikhar and Müller, 2019 ). Risk is “identifiable” ( Sicotte and Bourgault, 2008 , p. 468), involving foreseen and known events, which can be managed, but no one knows when they will occur ( Knight, 1921 ; Meyer et al. , 2002 ). Risk contains the property of the known-unknown, which means it is identifiable, but it is not possible to find out if exactly it will occur. Risk is measurable, predictable and manageable ( Knight, 1921 ). However, a crisis is an unforeseen, unmeasurable and unpredictable event ( Seeger, 2002 ). Crisis is commonly described as an unanticipated, surprising and ambiguous event posing a significant threat, leaving only a short decision time ( Hermann, 1963 ; Pearson and Clair, 1998 ). According to Iftikhar and Müller (2019) , risk is a potential future event, characterized by a certain probability of occurrence and, if it occurs, leading to negative consequences. Unlike crises, contingencies can be planned for risks, whereas a crisis is a threat with a high level of uncertainty with no contingency plan. This difference places emphasis on crisis management as crisis contains an element of surprise and required prompt decision-making.

Crisis management is a systematic process (step-wise approach) by which an organization attempts to effectively identify potential crises that an organization may encounter and plan how to manage them in such a way as to minimize the effects of the crisis ( Pearson and Clair, 1998 ; Gonzalez-Herrero and Smith, 2010 ; Ulmer et al. , 2017 ). The objective of crisis management is to avoid or minimize the negative impact of a crisis on an organization and its objectives ( Gonzalez-Herrero and Smith, 2010 ). It is an attempt to avoid or manage crisis events ( Pearson and Clair, 1998 ) that disturb the entire organization and concern the survival and durability of an organization. There are different crisis management approaches involved in the process, such as preparing, identifying and planning to respond to and resolve the crisis ( Ponis and Koronis, 2012 ). Coombs (1999) suggests a crisis management model which is based on prevention (detecting warning signals and taking action to mitigate the crisis), preparation (developing a crisis plan), response (trying to return to normal routines) and revision (determining what was done right). However, the common attributes of crisis management are the identification of crisis types and sources; responses to crises; and recovery from damage ( Ponis and Koronis, 2012 ). Researchers are of the view that the crisis management process should be divided into different stages. For instance, Mitroff et al. (1987) , Pearson and Mitroff (1993) and Mitroff (1994) proposed five phases of crisis management: signal detection (detecting early warning signals and then preparing for the crisis), preparation (trying to reduce the potential harm of a known crisis including developing crisis teams, training and exercises), damage containment (intended to limit the effects of the crisis, restraining parts of the organization or environment), recovery (fixing the damage caused by the crisis, trying to go back to normal business operation as soon as possible), followed by learning (the organization should examine what happened before, during and after the crisis and then identify the lessons that have been learned).

Although the research on crisis management is gaining popularity, it is, however, limited to traditional organizations ( Valackiene, 2011 ) by particularly focusing on exogenous phenomena, such as antecedents, management and consequences of crisis ( Simard and Laberge, 2018 ; Wang and Pitsis, 2020 ) while ignoring PBOs. The need for crisis management in PBOs is more substantial than in traditional organizations, and PBOs are an especially interesting context for crises given that most of their undertakings are unique and difficult to plan in advance ( Loosemore, 2000 ; Geraldi et al. , 2010 ). PBOs are different from conventional organizations since they are temporarily formed to perform unique and complex tasks ( Sydow et al. , 2004 ; Turner, 2006 ). According to Lundin and Söderholm (1995) , there are four attributes that make temporary organizations different from permanent ones: (1) time (temporary organizations have a built-in time dimension that contains the starting and ending time periods); (2) task (the reason for establishing of the temporary organization; the task is unique and complex, so the task seems to be more relevant to project team despite being members of permanent organizations); (3) team (temporary organizations rely on teams in which interdependent sets of people work together, and these teams are groups of individual, not organizational entities); and (4) transition (temporary organizations consider transition something important and useful, e.g. to overcome inertia, which is inherent in most of the permanent organizations). Permanent organizations have more naturally defined goals (rather than tasks), survival (rather than time), a working organization (rather than teams) and production processes, and continual development (rather than transition) ( Lundin and Söderholm, 1995 ). PBOs are temporary organizations and coexist with permanent organizations ( Kutsch and Hall, 2005 ).

Several studies have highlighted the dire need to investigate crisis management in the context of PBOs ( Pourbabaei et al. , 2015 ; Simard and Laberge, 2018 ), but the field of crisis management is very vast and still in its infancy because there is not a standardized process for crisis management ( Shrivastava, 1994 ; Hussain, 2019 ). Moreover, PBOs are different from permanent organizations. So far, little is known about crisis management in PBOs. It is necessary to develop a core framework which directs the crisis management process in PBOs. As a result, there is a need to further study crisis management in the context of PBOs. Keeping in view the scarcity of research, this conceptual study bridges the aforementioned gaps by developing a comprehensive model of the crisis management process and propositions for PBOs, which will advance the knowledge of crisis management in the project management field. In doing so we make several contributions. First, we clarify the process of crisis management for PBOs. Despite an increase in scholarly attention (e.g. Pearson and Clair, 1998 ; Ponis and Koronis, 2012 ), there is not generally accepted theoretical or conceptual delineation of crisis management for PBOs. We felt our contribution could be the development of a framework that could help researchers and practitioners in different fields to reflect on their research and to provide guidance from the developed crisis management model. Second, scholars and practitioners have a clear understanding of the factors that contribute to crisis management for PBOs, this will enhance their understanding of crisis and prepare them for crisis management. Third, we explore processes such as sense-making and decision-making, response and learning through which crisis is managed. Finally, we extend dynamic capability theory, in which we considered crisis management as a capability to perform a task. The organization uses its crisis management capabilities to identify crises and to minimize their impact on performance as well as learn from the outcome, i.e. the success or failure of the crisis management process which will refine and enhance further the crisis management process.

Literature review

PBOs have received increasing attention as an emerging organizational form ( Hobday, 2000 ). PBOs first became famous in the late 1990s. PBOs are found in a wide range of industries ( Thiry and Deguire, 2007 ). These include consulting and professional services (e.g. accounting, advertising, architectural design, law, management consulting and public relations), cultural industries (e.g. fashion, theatre, film-making, video games, advertisement and publishing), high technology (e.g. software, computer hardware, multimedia, aerospace, ICT and IT) and complex products and systems (e.g. construction, shipbuilding, transportation, telecommunications, oil and gas, defense, infrastructure, pharmaceutical, biotech, semi-conductors, automotive and electric equipment) ( Midler, 1995 ; Hobday, 2000 ; Berggren et al. , 2001 ; Ebers and Powell, 2007 ). Organizations that work predominantly or entirely performed in projects are commonly referred to as PBOs ( DeFillipi and Arthur, 1998 ).

A project is “a temporary endeavor undertaken to create a unique product or service” ( PMI, 2004 , p. 4). A comprehensive definition of the project is a temporary organization in which human, material and financial resources are organized in a novel way to undertake a unique and transient endeavor to achieve an objective conforming to specific requirements (have defined start and end dates and funding limits), managing the inherent uncertainty and need for integration in order to deliver beneficial objectives of change ( Toor and Ogunlana, 2010 ; Yang et al. , 2011 ). Generally, projects as temporary systems refer to groups comprising a mix of different specialist competences, which have to achieve a certain goal or carry out a specific task within limits set as to costs and time ( Sydow et al. , 2004 ).

There are several definitions of crisis, but we choose the most widely cited and well-recognized definition, proposed by Pearson and Clair, which is also cited by other contemporary researchers (such as Wilding and Paraskevas, 2006 ; Oh et al. , 2013 ; Iftikhar and Müller, 2019 ). Pearson and Clair view crisis as “a low-probability, high impact event that threatens the viability of the organization [in our case, it is a project-based organization] and is characterized by ambiguity of cause, effect, and means of resolution, as well as by a belief that decisions must be made swiftly” (1998, p. 60). The most recent study ( Williams et al. , 2017) defines a crisis as a low-probability, unanticipated, high-impact event that, which is aligned with Pearson and Clair's perspective of crisis.

The definition highlights crisis as (1) a major, unpredictable event that is likely to interfere with normal business operations and has the potential to threaten survival, (2) a rare event which includes an element of surprise and (3) being characterized by time pressures, requiring a quick decision and response to minimize its impact ( Bonn and Rundle-Thiele, 2007 ; Yang et al. , 2022 ). Examining the above definition, there are a few characteristics. First, a crisis is an unplanned event that has the potential of dismantling the internal and external structure of an organization. A crisis may affect not only the employees and other members internal to the organization but also key stakeholders external to the organization. Second, a crisis may occur in any organization (small, medium or large and national or international) and in any industry ( Coleman, 2004 ; Keeffe and Darling, 2008 ). Finally, a crisis may affect the legitimacy of an organization ( Ray, 1999 ).

Several studies have found that crises may have positive as well as negative consequences ( Darling, 1994 ; Veil, 2011 ). In that respect, crises can present critical challenges to organizations, both externally and internally, and there is no guarantee that high-performing organizations will continue to perform well in times of crisis ( Lin et al. , 2006 ; Hällgren and Wilson, 2008 ). According to Wang and Pitsis (2020) , crisis is an unexpected event that threatens the security of PBOs, which makes it an especially interesting context of crises as the PBOs undertakings are unique and difficult to plan in advance ( Loosemore, 2000 ; Geraldi et al. , 2010 ). At the same time, prior research indicates that crisis management is crucial to the operations of any PBO, and that these organizations must develop capabilities to maintain a steady state of operations as well as the ability to respond to crises ( Söderlund and Tell, 2009 ). Effective crisis management requires knowing the particular nature of each crisis and what caused it, how to make prompt decisions and respond to it ( Najafbagy, 2011 ). However, different researchers have come up with different strategies to minimize the negative consequences of the crisis. For instance, Alkharabsheh et al. (2014) suggest the development of an “early warning system” that can help project managers in surviving a crisis with minimal loss. Patil et al. (2016) emphasized on transparent communication and reporting during a crisis and recommended team members to develop and strictly follow rules for minimizing the crisis.

Despite, the abundance of crisis management strategies, there is limited literature available on the crisis management framework. The existing studies on crisis management have devised strategies which can only be implemented to megaprojects ( Wang and Pitsis, 2020 ; Iftikhar et al. , 2021 ; Wang, 2022 ) and specific industries, such as housing projects ( Patil et al. , 2016 ), infrastructure project ( Van Os et al. , 2015 ) and software projects ( Sangaiah et al. , 2018 ). Moreover, contemporary research gives importance to crisis, but we find that the integrated crisis management process model is not developed for PBOs which can provide guidance to PBOs in crisis situations. There is a need to develop an integrated framework for crisis management that can be applied to project-based settings ( Bundy et al. , 2017 ; Williams et al. , 2017 ). Keeping in view these important research gaps, the current study aims to develop a comprehensive conceptual crisis management framework that can be used by PBOs to manage the crisis.

Dynamic capability theory

This paper considers the theoretical lens of dynamic capability theory. Dynamic capabilities theory examines how organizations integrate, build and reconfigure their internal and external organization-specific competencies into new competencies that match their turbulent environment, which enables organizations to effectively respond to changes in dynamic environments ( Teece et al. , 1997 ). Davies et al. (2016) study that to achieve organizational dynamic capabilities, flexibility and adaptability are required to handle crises. According to Killen and Hunt (2010) , dynamic capability consists of people, structures and processes that are continually monitored and adjusted to meet the changing requirements of the dynamic environment. Although, studies on crisis management have recently adopted insights from dynamic capability theory ( Mayr et al. , 2022 ; Sahebalzamani et al. , 2023 ); however, research on crisis management in PBO's under the lens of dynamic capability theory is still lacking. Since PBO's are different from traditional organizations, the nature of the crisis, its sources and solutions may also vary for PBOs. Relying on dynamic capability theory, this study aims to explore the crisis management process for PBO's. The PBO uses its crisis management capabilities to identify crisis and minimize their impact on performance ( Helfat et al. , 2007 ). In the suggested crisis management process model, we considered crisis as a turbulent environment containing external and internal crises and PBOs integrate, build and reconfigure their sense-making, decision-making, response and learning competencies, particularly for crisis management.

A systematic literature review synthesizes the existing body of knowledge and creates new knowledge ( Tranfield et al. , 2003 ). We implement a systematic literature review in three steps, as illustrated in Figure 1 .

The first step includes searching for articles using electronic databases (EBSCO Business Source Complete, Google Scholar and ISI Web of Science). The search rule employed in the title/abstract/keyword (T/A/K) field of the selected databases was (“crisis, “crisis management,” “project,” and “project-based organizations”) and (“sense-making”, “information gathering”, “crisis interpretation”, “decision-making”, “response” and “learning”). We also deployed a snowball approach by tracing the references in the articles found to incorporate the most imperative research work. This revealed 365 articles, all published between 1963 and 2022. Manual screening of each article's publication source and abstract was then conducted according to the following predefined inclusion criteria: articles must be (1) written in English; (2) published in peer-reviewed journals, books or book chapters and conference papers; and (3) published in high-ranking journals. Book reviews and editorials were eliminated, and only peer-reviewed papers were considered in this research. This led to the inclusion of articles published in journals such as the Academy of Management Journal ( AMJ ), Academy of Management Executive (AME), Academy of Management Review ( AMR ), Administrative Science Quarterly ( ASQ ), Journal of Management Studies ( JMS ), Management Learning (ML), Organization Science ( OS ), Business Ethics Quarterly , the International Journal of Project Management (IJPM), Project Management Journal (PMJ) , International Journal of Managing Projects in Business and Journal of Contingencies and Crisis Management. To these, we added two of the leading practitioner-oriented journals, namely, the California Management Review ( CMR ) and Harvard Business Review ( HBR ).

The literature was selected for review based on its relevance to the topic under study. So far that reason in the next step, we excluded irrelevant papers by reading their titles, abstracts and keywords. The abstract was read if the title did not explicitly exclude the relevancy of the article. However, the abstract did not always provide enough information to decide whether the article included relevant information or not. In that case, the first author decides whether an article was useful by going through the introduction section. To avoid unnecessarily excluding other relevant studies published in lower ranking journals, the abstract was reviewed, and if it met the required standards, these articles were also considered for review. This stage yielded a total of 171 publications. We incorporated both empirical (qualitative and quantitative), conceptual and theoretical studies in the review. Moreover, the literature review also includes textbooks/reports relevant to our study.

The next step is to analyze those publications, the technique of content analysis is employed to “classify large amounts of text into an efficient number of categories that represent similar meanings” ( Hsieh and Shannon, 2005 , p. 1278). This content analysis comprises two parts: descriptive and thematic. The descriptive analysis was achieved by providing a description of the studies gathered in the data extraction form. The thematic analysis was done by analyzing the studies and defining the different themes presented in each study. As discussed by Tranfield et al. (2003) , it is essential to connect themes across the diverse core contributions and highlight any connections. The process creates an overview of the main findings and generates a solid basis to identify research gaps ( Tranfield et al. , 2003 ). The following sections detail and analyze each of the identified themes.

Findings: conceptual framework: crisis management process model – a multidimensional perspective

In Figure 2 , we provide a comprehensive model of the crisis management process for PBOs. We begin our presentation of the model by discussing the importance of sense-making, followed by decision-making, response, outcome and learning. Sense-making is about developing an understanding of crisis ( Weick et al. , 2005 ). This is considered the first step in our model as once a crisis strike, it is of utmost important to understand the crisis. Once an understanding of crisis is developed through sense-making, the next crucial step is to make decisions. A crisis needs rapid and right decision-making in order to minimize its impact as described by Pearson and Clair (1998) . Decision-making is a process of selecting the best option ( Anderson, 1983 ). The next step is to apply the decision by taking appropriate actions. According to Brunsson (1982) , actions are supposed to be initiated by rational decision procedures. The response is actually an implementation of the best option derived from decision-making process. It leads to outcome which could be success and failure ( Bundy and Pfarrer, 2015 ). The outcome which could be either success or failure, leads to organizational learning ( Haunschild and Sullivan, 2002 ; Baum and Dahlin, 2007 ).

Prior studies have considered how sense-making unfolds in a crisis in a wide range of contexts, including the Bhopal accident ( Weick, 2010 ), the Mann Gulch fire ( Weick, 1993 ), etc., which are illustrations of life-threatening events ( Iftikhar et al. , 2021 ). It does not take fire or a life-threatening event to precipitate a crisis, but it also includes normal accidents ( Kornberger et al ., 2019 ), which is the focus of this study. Much of the work examines sense-making in a single high-reliability organization (such as firefighting and aircraft carrier flight decks) ( Maitlis, 2005 ; Rudolph et al. , 2009 ; Clark and Geppert, 2011 ; Cornelissen, 2012 ; Monin et al. , 2013 ). In addition, prior research considered decisions as a result of a sense-making process ( Weick, 1995 ; Musca et al. , 2014 ). Decision-making is integral to the management of projects ( Stingl and Geraldi, 2017 ) and at time of crisis, it is extremely important.

We explored the role of response for crises; a response is an action which could alter the environment under consideration ( Porac et al. , 1989 ). The literature talks about proactive and reactive responses to abrupt events ( Barber and Warn, 2005 ). In addition, following the response, the outcome is either success or failure. There is a learning process whereby an organization acquires new information ( Miner and Robinson, 1994 ), and this helps to improve its prospects in environments ( Cyert and March, 1963 ; Sommer et al. , 2016 ).

The term “sense-making” is introduced by Karl Weick and simply means “the making of sense.” It refers to how we structure the unknown to be able to act in it ( Weick, 1995 , p. 4). Sense-making is the process through which people work to understand issues or events that are novel, ambiguous, confusing or in some other way violate expectations. Sense-making is triggered by cues such as issues, events or situations, for which the meaning is ambiguous and the outcome is uncertain ( Meyer, 1982 ), and where events, issues and actions are somehow surprising and confusing ( Weick, 1993 , 1995 ; Maitlis, 2005 ). According to Cornelissen (2012 , p. 118), “Sense-making refers to processes of meaning construction whereby people interpret events and issues within and outside of their organizations that are somehow surprising, complex, or confusing to them”.

Sense-making involves a few steps. The foremost step is sensing the problem. A problem is perceived when a discrepancy or gap occurs between the existing state (perceived reality, initial state) and the desired state (goal, standard of how things should be in the terminal state). Sensing a discrepancy between the existing and desired state is the first step in the process. When a situation feels “different,” it is experienced as a situation of discrepancy ( Orlikowski and Gash, 1994 ), breakdown ( Patriotta, 2003 ), surprise ( Louis, 1980 ), disconfirmation ( Weick and Sutcliffe, 2001 ), opportunity ( Dutton, 1993 ) or interruption ( Mandler, 1984 ). There are three main “sense-making moves” or key processes: scanning/information seeking, interpreting/creating interpretations and responding/taking action. These are all important aspects of the more general notion of sense-making ( Daft and Weick, 1984 ; Milliken, 1990 ; Gioia and Chittipeddi, 1991 ; Weber and Glynn, 2006 ; Rudolph et al. , 2009 ). According to Weick et al. (2005) , sense-making is about how something comes to be an event for organizational members. Second, sense-making is about the question: What does an event mean? In the context of everyday life, when people confront something unintelligible and ask, “What's the story here?” they then ask, “Now what should I do?” ( Weick et al. , 2005 ). We believe that information seeking, and the interpretation of the situation are the two pillars of the sense-making process; however, response is a separate dimension.

Information gathering

Dealing with uncertainty requires information from the environment ( Braybrooke, 1964 ). Information gathering is defined as the process of monitoring the environment and providing environmental data to managers ( Daft and Weick, 1984 ). Information can come from external or internal, and personal or impersonal sources ( Aguilar, 1967 ; Keegan, 1974 ). In external sources, managers have direct contact with information outside the organization and search the external environment to identify important events or issues ( Daft and Weick, 1984 ; Milliken, 1990 ). Internal sources pertain to information collected and provided to managers by other people in the organization through internal channels). Personal sources involve direct contact with other individuals, whereas impersonal sources are written documents such as newspapers and magazines or reports from the organization's information system ( Daft and Weick, 1984 ). As per Iftikhar et al . (2022a) , these information-gathering sources are equally relevant for PBOs. On the one hand, hazardous and rapidly unfolding situations are difficult to comprehend, so people want to gather more information to determine the most appropriate action. On the other hand, the demands of the situation often require them to take action with incomplete information, since in a crisis, there is pressure (and sometimes immense pressure) to make sense of the world quickly ( Maitlis, 2005 ) and the pressure built-ups in the temporary setting of PBOs. According to Ajmal et al. (2010) , PBOs suffer adversely when they do not have proper information systems in place, affecting their knowledge management activities.

Of course, all of the information received is not necessarily relevant. Accessing the right information at the right time can also be problematic. One of the problems with information gathering is information overload. Information overload means having more information than one can acquire, process, store or retrieve ( Brennan, 2011 ). In their comprehensive review of the literature on information overload, Eppler and Mengis (2004 , p. 326) offered the following description: “Information overload occurs when the supply exceeds the capacity, and a diminished decision quality are the result.” Overload often leads to stress, inefficiency and mistakes that can result in poor decisions, bad analysis and/or miscommunication ( Eppler and Mengis, 2004 ). Therefore, we need quality information, which means the right information at the right time in the right amount.

Rich information gathering (internal and external) will positively impact the accuracy of PBOs' decision-making.

Rich information gathering (internal and external) will negatively impact the timeliness of PBOs' decision-making.

Decision quality depends upon three factors: (a) the quality of information inputs into the decision process (it depends on the ability of the system to effectively absorb information flows, thus preventing overloads and reducing noise in communication channels. Noise depends upon the distance between units in the organization); (b) the fidelity of objective articulation and tradeoff evaluation (input: cognitive abilities and group think; output: quality decisions); and (c) the cognitive abilities of the decision group (the abilities of the decision unit to interpret information, generate options creatively, calculate and make choices between alternative courses of action) ( Smart and Vertinsky, 1977 ).

Crisis interpretation

Interpretation is the process of translating events and developing shared understanding, but it occurs before action ( Daft and Weick, 1984 ). We consider crisis as “a low-probability, high impact event” ( Pearson and Clair, 1998 , p. 60). Crisis interpretation defines where the crisis lies and what the sources and characteristics of the crisis are, meaning whether the crisis lies internally or externally, the reason for the crisis and whether the crisis is technical, economic or social in nature ( Iftikhar et al. , 2022a ). In this paper, we draw on the classic work of Mitroff et al. (1987 , 1988) and Shrivastava and Mitroff (1987) to develop a typology, where crises are categorized into four types relying on a framework consisting of two dimensions. First, the internal-external dimension determines the source of factors that result in a crisis, which can be the failure of an internal organization system or a failure in the organization's external environment. Second, the technical-social dimension involves the characteristics of factors that cause a crisis; these include technical and/or economic failures or issues associated with human, organizational or social concerns. Following Mitroff et al. 's (1987) and Shrivastava and Mitroff's (1987) typologies of crises, we derived Table 1 .

Cell 1 represents failures in internal social processes and systems. These crises are most often caused by operator or managerial errors, intentional harm by saboteurs, faulty control systems, unhealthy working conditions or the failure of decision-making systems. The miscommunication of vital safety information, unsafe decisions or deliberate harm may result from these failures ( Shrivastava and Mitroff, 1987 ). In 1986, the Space Shuttle Challenger exploded 74 s after takeoff, killing all six crew members and one civilian passenger. This tragedy was a crisis for the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). The explosion was caused by the failure of the solid rocket booster that powered the shuttle. The launch took place at an extremely low air temperature, which caused the seals of the booster to lose their elasticity and malfunction. The problem was in the design of booster seals ( Shrivastava et al. , 1988 ; Vaughan, 1996 ).

Cell 2 represents technical and economic failures in internal organizational systems. These are caused by failures in the core technology of firms. Crises in this cell are triggered by major industrial accidents, such as Bhopal, Three Mile Island or Chernobyl. Defects in plant equipment, design or supplies are the primary cause of these crises. For example, a reactor meltdown at a nuclear power plant in Chernobyl caused the deaths of about 30 people. Hundreds of thousands of those living in the vicinity of the plant were severely irradiated ( Shrivastava and Mitroff, 1987 ; Liberatore, 2013 ).

Cell 3 represents failures in the social environment of corporations. These crises occur when agents or institutions in the social environment react adversely to the corporation. Incidents of sabotage, terrorism or off-site product tampering or misuse are examples of such failures ( Shrivastava and Mitroff, 1987 ). For example, in 1982, dozens of Tylenol capsules were found to be contaminated with cyanide. Eight people who ingested these capsules died immediately. This created a nationwide public health scandal and a crisis for Johnson & Johnson, who had manufactured the capsules. The full cost of withdrawing products from shelves and switching from the production of capsules to other forms of medication exceeded $500 million ( Shrivastava and Mitroff, 1987 ; Mitroff et al. , 1988 ; Olaniran et al. , 2012 ).

Cell 4 displays crises primarily related to technological and economic failures in the firm's environment, which cause crises within the organization. Examples might include hostile takeover attempts prompted by the restructuring of industries, drastic currency rate changes and other macroeconomic occurrences or attacks by corporate raiders. In 1985, for instance, cheese contaminated with poisonous bacteria was sold in California, which killed 84 people, creating a major public health crisis that affected the entire state. The victims' relatives sued the manufacturer for billions of dollars, forcing it into a hostile takeover ( Shrivastava and Mitroff, 1987 ).

Crises are characterized by low probability/high consequence events that threaten the most fundamental goals of an organization. Because of their low probability, these events defy interpretations and impose severe demands on sense-making. It is crucial to give meaning to crises in order to make appropriate decisions. According to studies done on the causes of real-life crises that took place in PBOs such as defense and healthcare; in formal, the majority of the crises took place due to the misinterpretation of the whole situation ( Fisher et al. , 2003 ); in the latter, a misinterpretation of information led to the death of a patient ( Albrecht et al. , 2004 ). Both these studies highlight the serious consequences of poor interpretations of crises. A crisis is an unknown situation that brings with it a lot of questions with no obvious answers, thus, creating the challenge of interpreting the situation properly ( Williams et al. , 2017 ). Those organizations which fail to interpret crises end up facing serious losses ( Li et al. , 2018 ). People who fail to interpret a crisis efficiently and effectively end up indulging in irrational decision-making ( Leung and Law, 2016 ). Decision-making is shaped by the quality of information sharing and information processing during and after a crisis ( Uitdewilligen and Waller, 2018 ).

Crisis interpretation is likely to lead to accurate and timely PBOs' decision-making.

During a crisis, decision-making is critical to make accurate and timely decisions ( Loosemore, 1998 ). The consequences of a crisis are high, as it is a low-probability, high-severity event; however, its impact can be reduced by rapid and accurate decision-making ( Mallak and Kurstedt, 1997 ; Kahn et al. , 2013 ). Good decisions must be made quickly, despite the uncertainty, time pressure and high stakes associated with a crisis ( Pearson and Clair, 1998 ). As Sawle (1991) said of the importance of decisions in a crisis, “the worst decision is no decision, and the second worst decision is a late one”. It is critical to integrate crises in decision-making process. The objective is to make the right decisions and execute them effectively. Decision-making is complex and at times of crisis, it is more complicated ( Wilson, 2013 ), as a crisis is an unexpected, unusual and abnormal event ( Lacombe, 2002 ). The core elements that define a crisis – ambiguity, urgency and high stakes – are also severe constraints on the ability of individuals to make decisions effectively ( Pearson and Clair, 1998 ).

Decision-making in crises is characterized by a high level of uncertainty, urgency to act, a narrowing of options and high-stakes implications for organizational survival. At the time of crisis, the challenge for any organization is to make decisions quickly and accurately ( Bonn and Rundle-Thiele, 2007 ) as individuals make decisions based on their perceptions ( Wang and Pitsis, 2020 ). In a crisis, one must secure a high-quality decision-making process. A decision process consists of the articulation of objectives, the generation of alternate courses of action, an appraisal of their feasibility, an evaluation of the consequences of the given alternatives, and a choice of the alternative which contributes most to the attainment of organizational objectives ( Smart and Vertinsky, 1977 ). In conventional terms, the task of making a decision can be decomposed into five subtasks: (1) identifying the relevant goals; (2) searching for alternative courses of action; (3) predicting the consequences of following each alternative; (4) evaluating each alternative in terms of its consequences for goal achievement; and (5) selecting the best alternative for achieving the goal ( Anderson, 1983 ).

Timely and accurate PBOs' decisions will lead to an appropriate crisis response.

Response is a capacity where people feel they can do something about the crisis ( Weick, 1988 ). Organizations increasingly face crises, yet little is known about how they develop their responses to unexpected events that enable their work to continue. According to Wang and Pitsis (2020) , the agreement of key stakeholders on response strategies is critical to resolving a crisis. One of the characteristics of a crisis is that it contains an element of surprise. A surprise is a break in expectations that arises from situations that are not anticipated or do not proceed as planned ( Cunha et al. , 2006 ) and encompasses any element within an organization that is unexpected and draws attention away from the standard progression of the work. Crises can occur in various ways. They can be generated by events and by processes. It is impossible for people to know in advance the form a crisis will take, what its source will be or which members it might involve.

Crises are turning points in organizations. The crisis situation will determine the appropriate action. People often do not know what the “appropriate action” is until they take some action and see what happens. Thus, actions determine the situation. Once a person becomes committed to an action, he/she then builds an explanation that justifies that action ( Weick, 1988 ). There are two ways to respond to the crisis, namely, firefighting and fire lighting. Fire fighter style is reactive behavior, where the focus is on tackling immediate problems. Fire lighter style is proactive behavior, able to explain the big picture, anticipate events and even prevent problems ( Barber and Warn, 2005 ). It is almost impossible for people to know in advance the form a crisis might take, what its source will be or which stakeholders it might involve. Since a crisis is a low probability and high-impact event, it is not possible to plan contingencies for it, hence only a reactive response can be taken.

A reactive response will lead either to success or failure outcomes for PBOs and for their projects.

It is important to determine the appropriate action. It is our contention that actions play a central role in the genesis of crises and therefore need to be understood if we are to manage crises ( Weick, 1988 ).

Outcomes (success/failure)

According to Pearson and Clair (1998) , any crisis process results in relative degrees of success and failure. The novelty, magnitude and frequency of decisions, actions and interactions demanded by a crisis suggest that no organization will respond in a manner that is completely effective or completely ineffective. Much of the literature treats organizational consequences in the event of a crisis as though alternative outcomes were dichotomous: the organization either failed ( Turner, 1976 ; Vaughan, 1990 ; Weick, 1993 ) or succeeded (e.g.  Roberts, 1989 ) in managing any particular crisis incident. Pearson and Clair (1998) proposed that “an organizational crisis will lead to both success and failure outcomes for the organization and its stakeholders” (1998, p. 68). However, it is not the crisis itself but its management which will lead to success or failure as an outcome for the organization. If a crisis is efficiently managed it will lead to success; in contrast, if the crisis is poorly managed, it will lead to failure. Researchers of organizational crises have examined a variety of factors that contribute to crisis management successes and failures. However, we suggest a subprocess for the crisis management process.

Crisis management outcomes (success/ failure) will lead to PBOs' learning.

Organizational learning is not simply the sum of individual learning ( Hedberg, 1981 ); rather, it is the process whereby knowledge is created, distributed across the organization, communicated among organization members and integrated into the strategy and management of the organization ( Duncan and Weiss, 1978 ). Organizational learning occurs when an organization institutionalizes new routines or acquires new information ( Miner and Robinson, 1994 ). Organizational learning helps organizations to enhance their practices and to improve their prospects in dynamic and competitive environments ( Cyert and March, 1963 ; Argote, 2011 ).

Learning can occur at several different levels (such as at the individual, project, firm or industry levels) and often as an unintended by-product of the project activity ( DeFillipi and Arthur, 2002 ). Project-based learning practices are a subset of organizational learning practices ( Keegan and Turner, 2001 ). Learning in PBOs most commonly refers to the process of making newly created project-level learning available to the organization as a whole by sharing, transferring, retaining and using it ( DeFillipi and Arthur, 1998 ; Prencipe and Tell, 2001 ; Scarbrough et al. , 2004 ; Argote and Ophir, 2005 ). However, previous research has emphasized the difficulties that organizations face when they attempt to capture the learning gained through projects and transfer it to their wider organizations (e.g. Middleton, 1967 ; Keegan and Turner, 2001 ). There is a risk that the experience gained is lost when the project finishes, the team dissolves and its members move on to other projects or are reabsorbed into the organization. Unless lessons learned are communicated, and experience gained on one project is transmitted to subsequent projects, there is also a risk that the same mistakes are repeated ( Middleton, 1967 ; Iftikhar and Wiewiora, 2022 ). “Lessons learned” is a popular term; however, it is often only lip service paid to the idea of learning from experience ( Smith and Elliot, 2007 ). As Williams et al. (2012) have stated, there are many lessons identified, but not very many learned.

To date, the study of crisis management has focused on crisis causality, prevention, response and turnaround, with limited consideration given to organizational learning from crisis ( Elliott and Smith, 2006 ). Organizations tend to engage in major changes mainly after they have been confronted with crises ( Miller and Friesen, 1984 ; Tushman and Anderson, 1986 ). Learning from crises involves understanding the causes of the crises, as well as identifying ways of preventing similar rare events from recurring and understanding what took place in the right or wrong direction ( Rerup, 2009 ; Locatelli and Mancini, 2010 ). Learning must focus on the ability to create resilience to cope with unforeseen high-impact events. It only becomes meaningful when lessons are put into practice; they have to be translated and used to make sense of new situations and enacted in order to manage an unfolding scenario ( Elliott and Macpherson, 2010 ). Project members can learn from their own crisis management experiences as well as others involved in the process. Moreover, learning from crises can improve future projects and future stages of current projects ( Iftikhar et al. , 2022b ).

Learning from crisis management outcomes (success/ failure) alleviate PBOs and their projects.

Despite an increase in the frequency of crises, the research on crisis management, particularly in the context of PBOs, is still in its initial stages. More specifically, there is a lack of a comprehensive crisis management model that can be applied to PBOs. Keeping in view this research gap, the current study presented a crisis management framework with special attention to PBOs. The novel insights this study has brought by proposing a crisis management framework which identified the importance and association of sense-making, timely decision-making and quick responses to crises and interplay among each other for the effectiveness of crisis management.

Theoretical implications

The current study adds to the literature on crisis management, particularly in the context of PBOs. This study has conceptualized a framework for crisis management, which consists of all those important factors that are underexplored. This study advances research on crisis management by proposing a comprehensive model for crisis management. The paper considers the theoretical lens of dynamic capability theory. The dynamic capability theory focuses on the processes used in organizations to integrate, build and reconfigure their internal and external resources and competencies to compete in dynamic environments ( Teece et al. , 1997 ; Killen and Hunt, 2010 ). An organization has dynamic capabilities when it can integrate, build and reconfigure its internal and external organization-specific capabilities in response to its changing environment. In our study, we considered sense-making, decision-making, response and learning as PBOs capabilities for handling changing environment of crisis. This study validates the dynamic capability theory in the context of crisis management and PBOs.

Practical implications

This study helps scholars and practitioners to develop a clear understanding of the factors that contribute to crisis management for PBOs. For academics, this contributes to a better understanding of the crisis and its management, which allows for more precise and focused investigations in the future. The results of the study not only add value to the scarce literature on crisis management in PBOs but also offer valuable insights to project managers who can take help from this study. Practitioners such as senior management, project managers and project team members benefit from being in a position to better describe the status of their organization or project and to identify actions appropriate for their particular situation. This includes taking managerial actions to make sense, decisions and responses for intra-organizational projects to manage the crisis. Practitioners' crisis awareness is an invisible force behind the crisis management process that affects their subsequent actions to handle the crisis. Another takeaway from this study is the revelation that crises, despite all their negativity, promote learning in organizations, improving the crisis management process in the future. The conceptual framework proposed in the study acts as a guideline for all those project managers who are either currently facing a crisis or are expected to come across a crisis. The steps proposed in the framework must be used by the project managers as standard operating procedures to minimize the financial and non-financial impact of the crisis. The project managers should be trained to enhance their sense-making and decision-making skills. They should also be taught about the importance of taking a reactive response. Another important insight from this study is the identification of crisis triggers. The project managers should keep an eye on all the factors that can trigger a crisis, so they have the necessary information during a crisis. This study also highlights the importance of learning in crisis. Managers should be bound to submit a report in which they should list down all the lessons they learned from the crisis. They should also be asked to share their opinion regarding the most suitable course of action in a similar situation. This report should be shared with all the employees and made accessible so that managers can take help from it if they face any similar situation in the future.

Limitations and future research

The first limitation of this study is that it is a conceptual study, presenting the crisis management process model and propositions. Although this model allows the identification of crisis and crisis management relationship with sense-making, decision-making, response and learning. This model will improve the field of crisis management. However, it is important to understand whether it works as we suggested, as it has not been tested empirically. Future researchers might test the model by studying it empirically. Another limitation of this study is that it has only highlighted the role of crisis triggers. Future studies might also discuss different factors that might trigger a crisis.

Moreover, this study has not mentioned the decision-making styles needed for crisis management. Future studies may also shed light on the most suitable decision-making style during a crisis. The current study has developed a standardized model that can be applied to PBOs in different industries, which strengthens the study due to generalizability. However, a more customized crisis management model which is specific to a particular industry might prove to be useful as the nature of crisis varies from one industry to the other. Future researchers might propose crisis management models that can be applied to a particular industry.

Stepwise approach for systematic literature review

Crisis management process model for project-based organizations

Different typology of crisis

Source(s): Created by Iftikhar (2023)

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Crisis management research (1985–2020) in the hospitality and tourism industry: A review and research agenda

Associated data.

The global tourism industry has already suffered an enormous loss due to COVID-19 (Coronavirus Disease 2019) in 2020. Crisis management, including disaster management and risk management, has been becoming a hot topic for organisations in the hospitality and tourism industry. This study aims to investigate relevant research domains in the hospitality and tourism industry context. To understand how crisis management practices have been adopted in the industry, the authors reviewed 512 articles including 79 papers on COVID-19, spanning 36 years, between 1985 and 2020. The findings showed that the research focus of crisis management, crisis impact and recovery, as well as risk management, risk perception and disaster management dominated mainstream crisis management research. Look back the past decade (2010 to present), health-related crisis (including COVID-19), social media, political disturbances and terrorism themes are the biggest trends. This paper proposed a new conceptual framework for future research agenda of crisis management in the hospitality and tourism industry. Besides, ten possible further research areas were also suggested in a TCM (theory-context-method) model: the theories of crisis prevention and preparedness, risk communication, crisis management education and training, risk assessment, and crisis events in the contexts of COVID-19, data privacy in hospitality and tourism, political-related crisis events, digital media, and alternative analytical methods and approaches. In addition, specific research questions in these future research areas were also presented in this paper.

1. Introduction

A crisis is defined as ‘an unpredictable event that threatens important expectancies of stakeholders related to health, safety, environmental, and economic issues, which can seriously impact an organisation's performance and generate negative comments' ( Coombs, 2019 , p. 3). Today's hospitality and tourism industry is sensitive to various external and internal challenges and crises ( Fink, 1986 ; Henderson, 2003 ; Laws et al., 2005 ; McKercher & Hui, 2004 ). According to McKercher and Hui (2004 , p.101), crises ‘disrupt the tourism and hospitality industry on a regular basis’. The reduction of tourist arrivals and expenditures due to the crises hits the industry and its related stakeholders; and creates vulnerability. Different service providers (consisting of those pertaining to accommodation, transportation, inbound and outbound tourism, and others) may have to suffer for a short or longer period of time before full recovery. Moreover, pressures from competitors also worsened the situations for certain organisations due to the change in comparative and competitive advantages ( Wut, 2019 ). Only a few studies in crisis management were conducted in the early years, and most of them related to crisis impacts on tourism industry ( Blake & Sinclair, 2003 ). Fortunately, a growing body of crisis management studies in the hospitality and tourism industry has emerged over the past decade.

The scope of crisis management includes crisis prevention, crisis preparedness, crisis response and crisis revision ( Hoise & Smith, 2004 ). Detecting any warning signs is an important task in crisis prevention. Crisis preparedness usually involves forming crisis management teams, formulating crisis preparedness plans and training spokespersons. Organisation response is usually under the spotlight. The mechanism by which we learn from a crisis is a central topic under crisis revision ( Crandall et al., 2014 ). Unfortunately, crisis management received insufficient attention in the hospitality and tourism research for decades ( Pforr & Hosie, 2008 ). This research stream started with natural disaster management, terrorism and disease management ( Laws et al., 2005 ). Recently, information technology has been heavily used in the business and tourism sectors ( Buhalis & Law, 2008 ; Navio-Marco et al., 2018 ). Social media is becoming an emerging research focus that triggers new thoughts on crisis management in the contemporary world ( Zeng & Gerritsen, 2014 ). Data security and privacy over confidential company information and customer personal information are the main concerns. Nowadays, given the global outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic and the economic downturn faced by many countries, crisis management has again attracted organisational and research attention ( Qiu et al., 2020a , b ; Gössling et al., 2020 ).

Crisis management also involves risk management, as crisis happens when risk is not managed properly and effectively. For instance, if tourism providers do not pay attention to risk management may put the lives of the tourists at risk. According to Dorfman and Cather (2013) , risk is the possibility of harm or possible loss. Risk refers to the fluctuation in neutral or negative outcomes that result from an uncertain event on the basis of probability. Risk management is a process in which an organisation identifies and manages its exposures to risk to match its strategic goals. The scope includes goals setting, risk identification, risk measurement, handling of risk and implementation techniques, and effectiveness of monitoring ( Dorfman & Cather, 2013 ).

Crises in extreme scales with catastrophic consequences can be disasters. Disasters normally refer to events that an organisation cannot control, like natural disasters. Possible disaster events include terrorism, floods, hurricanes and earthquakes. The term ‘crisis’ has a broad meaning that includes events involving technical or human mistakes as well as disasters ( Coombs, 2019 ; Faulkner, 2001 ). Thus, crisis management in this study covers both risk management and disaster management.

Several review papers on crisis management and recovery are available. Mair et al. (2016) conducted a review on post-crisis recovery with 64 articles published between 2000 and 2012. A short summary on tourism crisis and disaster was also published ( Aliperti et al., 2019 ). Ritchie and Jiang (2019) reviewed 142 papers on tourism crisis and disaster management; and identified three areas including crisis preparedness and planning; crisis response and recovery; and crisis resolution and reflection. It was found that the papers, including the framework testing, lack conceptual and theoretical foundation, which exhibited unbalanced research themes ( Ritchie & Jiang, 2019 ). A bibliometric study of citation networks was conducted by other researchers but only on the crisis and disaster management topic ( Jiang, Ritchie, & Verreynne, 2019 ). The most recent one was focused on diseases ( Chen, Law, & Zhang, 2020 ). The afore-said review articles followed the traditional classification of the three-stage crisis management model (pre-crisis, crisis event and post-crisis) ( Richardson, 1994 ). A clear research gap exists in the review literature in terms of the kind of crisis management, risk management and disaster management research that has been conducted in the hospitality and tourism fields, especially in the digital era; and such research need becomes significant due to the spread of COVID-19. This current review paper considers risk management and disaster management as part of crisis management. This review scope is much wider than those of past review papers. Furthermore, past literature review emphasised only the research published in top academic journals. Zanfardini et al. (2016) concluded that analyses of literature should not be confined to the highest impact journals because crisis management is an interdisciplinary subject; and the related articles might not necessarily appear only in the top journals. Thus, surveying also the lower impact journals would be useful, and this study would also shed light on those works.

This study aims to systematically examine and evaluate the literature of crisis management in the hospitality and tourism industry. As the research areas emerge, more papers were recorded in the last decade. It is expected that many research papers on topics relating to the COVID-19 crises will be produced shortly in the near future. The major themes and future research opportunities and agenda will be identified after a thematic content analysis of related peer-reviewed journal articles.

This study seeks to address the following questions:

• 1) What are the main themes of the crisis management literature in the hospitality and tourism industry?
• 2) What is the future research agenda regarding the hospitality and tourism industry and crisis management?

2. Methodology

This systematic literature review adopted steps suggested by Liberati et al. (2009) for the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analysis (PRISMA): 1) related articles were identified through databases and other sources, 2) records were obtained after the duplicates were removed, 3) the records were screened, 4) full-text papers were assessed for eligibility and 5) the studies were included in the qualitative synthesis ( Liberati et al., 2009 ).

We targeted our literature search on electronic databases for peer-reviewed journal articles that focused on crisis management in the hospitality and tourism industry and from journals published since 1980. The search included numerous academic platforms consisting of the ABI/Inform, Academic Research Premier (via EBSCO host), Business Source Complete (via EBSCO host), Web of Science and Scopus databases to capture academic journal papers with the captioned topic. This approach was considered suitable for a literature review analysis centred on a subject that has undoubtedly been researched from a multi-disciplinary perspective ( Wut et al., 2021 ). Literature search was organised around eight keywords consisting of ‘tourism’, ‘hospitality’, ‘crisis’, ‘crisis management’, ‘risk’, ‘risk management’, ‘disaster’ and ‘disaster management’. Papers retained for subsequent analyses met the following criteria:

• (i) Published in peer-reviewed journals since 1980;
• (ii) Published in the English language;
• (iii) Involves the field of business, management and accounting;
• (iv) Seeks to study crisis management, including risk management and disaster management, in the tourism and hospitality industry;
• (v) Comprise studies presenting primary or secondary research data published as full length papers or short reports;
• (vi) Removal of duplicate papers from database findings (Same paper generated from different platforms).

In total, 1168 papers were generated from the literature search which involves different combinations of the aforementioned keywords. The earliest article was published in 1985. Overall, the selected articles were published between 1985 and 2020. Figures for 2020 are incomplete and given here for reference only. Authors assessed the full-text papers retrieved for inclusion in this review.

The titles, abstracts and full texts of the papers were reviewed and examined ( Wut et al., 2021 ). Two coders were involved in the process to avoid subjective bias judgement from a single coder ( Neuendorf, 2002 ). Discussions between coders were arranged to resolve the discrepancy ( Krippendorff, 2013 ). After initial screening, 534 papers meeting the above criteria were selected. A subsequent step involved checking if the research questions of this study can be answered through analysing the papers in the database. A total of 22 papers were dropped as they could not answer one of the research questions. The final analysis involved 512 papers for subsequent descriptive analyses in various aspects like the number of authors, the first author's nationality and study locations. Papers involving more than one study location were classified under Global. Attention was paid to the themes of journals under the category of tourism, hospitality and others as business-related journals. Publications that covered both tourism and hospitality were classified under hospitality. We also identified the key topics of each article. These items were used for statistical analysis to identify longitudinal trends of research themes. The papers were categorised under various hospitality and tourism industry sectors, including tour operators/travel agencies, hotels, airlines, restaurants and ocean cruising industry. They were then assigned to one of the six crisis types: political events, terrorism, health issues, financial crisis, natural disasters and human errors. The research foci of the articles were subsequently ascertained and summarised. The identification process was completed by content analysis for which an inductive approach was adopted. If any doubt regarding classification emerged for a particular paper, a new category was devised for that paper to minimise ambiguity ( Eisenhardt, 1989 ). When more than one topic was discussed in a paper (for example, crisis prevention and crisis preparedness), the paper was classified under the category of crisis management (multiple topics). Thus, 10 specific research topics were obtained for a general crisis management area: crisis management (multiple topics), crisis impact, crisis recovery, crisis resilience, crisis communication, crisis response, crisis event (description), crisis preparedness, crisis prevention and crisis management (organisational) learning. Four research topics were identified for a general risk management area: risk management (multiple topics), risk perception, risk assessment and risk communication. Finally, three research topics were found for a general disaster management area: disaster management (multiple topics), disaster event (description) and disaster recovery. COVID-19 was categorised as a separate topic, as the related articles covered the areas in both crisis and risk management.

3. Findings

3.1. journals, authors and study locations.

The results indicated that 308 (60.2%) of the papers came from 10 journals; and 204 papers were come from other journals. Among these 10 journals, Tourism Management published 85 papers; Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing published 44 papers, International Journal of Hospitality Management had 34 papers and Current Issues in Tourism had 33 papers. Annuals of Tourism Research published 26 papers, and Journal of Travel Research secured 25 papers. The publications were highly ranked according to the Scimago Journal and Country Ranking (SRJ). In the last decade, all these journals except for the Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing published more papers than before ( Table 1 ). Furthermore, other high ranking journals were included in the ‘Others’ category, including the Journal of Vacation Marketing with two papers. One paper appeared in the Public Relation Review, a top Journal in the field of public relations. Another paper was from the Journal of World Business, a first quarter journal according to the SRJ. Three other papers appeared in Asia Pacific Business Review, a second quarter journal according to the SRJ. Thus, crisis management has been considered a hot research topic by the scholars and high ranking academic journals in the hospitality and tourism field.

List of tourism and hospitality journals (N = 512).

As a whole, tourism-focused journals were comparatively favoured (286 papers) to hospitality (74 papers) or other (152 papers) journals on the crisis management topic and related research objectives. Among the tourism-focused journals, Tourism Management has been the dominant outlet. The number of papers increased by three times over the last decade. Among the hospitality journals, International Journal of Hospitality Management (34 papers) has been the most popular.

Regarding authorship, two authors collaboration (157 papers, 30.7%) has been found to be the most common occurrence in these papers. Three-person authorship was also highly adopted (143 papers, 27.9%), followed by single authorship for 129 papers (25.2%). Note that a total of 60 papers had four authors (11.7%), five authors (14 papers, 2.7%), six authors (7 papers, 1.4%), seven authors (1 paper, 0.2%), and eight authors (2 papers, 0.4%). Collaborations among authors are common. The most productive first authors in this field were Joan C. Henderson (9 papers), Bingjie Liu (9 papers), Bruce Prideaux (7 papers) and Brent W. Ritchie (6 papers). The most productive second authors were Lori Pennington-Gray (13 papers), Brent W. Ritchie (9 papers), Mehmet Altinay, Susanne Becken and Hany Kim (4 papers). Henderson comes from Nanyang Technological University and had publications in the early years (from 1999 to 2004). Liu is from the University of Florida. Most of her publications were related to bed bugs and were rather recent (from 2015 to 2016).

Location was studied for the first authors of the papers. The first authors tend to be most interested in the study topics relating to crisis management and may have secured fair level of research experience in this area. Europe (157 papers, 30.7%) had the greatest number of interested scholars who appeared as the first authors. This figure was followed by Asia (132 papers, 25.8%) and Oceania (110 papers, 21.5%). In Europe, the United Kingdom (59 papers) had the most interested scholars in this area. The first authors from Asia were mainly from Mainland China (29 papers), Israel, Singapore, Japan and Taiwan. The other first authors were from Australia (101 papers) and United States (88 papers) ( Table 2 is a short version of this list. An extended version is in the Appendix).

Location of first author (N = 512).

In terms of the research context, Asia was the most studied region (152 papers, 29.7%), followed by Global (109 papers, 21.3%), and then Europe (101 papers, 19.7%). Several disasters occurred in Asia, including the Japan earthquakes in 2011, the Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) outbreak in 2003 and the Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami in 2004. Many papers took a global or multiple countries approach (109 papers, 21.3%). First authors also tend to conduct research in his or her place-of-residence or nearby locations ( Table 3 ).

Study location (N = 512).

An increasing trend emerged throughout the 36 years study period, as shown in Fig. 1 . The number of articles in 2020 is listed for reference and some articles could not be presented due to availability issues. All papers, whether from tourism-focused journals, hospitality journals or journals in the other fields, generally displayed an upward trend ( Fig. 2 ). Almost all top ten English-language academic journals in the tourism and hospitality field witnessed an increasing trend, except for the Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing which experienced a downward trend ( Fig. 3 ). The three periods were identified in the X-axis and spans 36 years. The first period from 1985 to 1996 reflects the start of the discussion about crisis management. Only six papers were published for 12 years. The second period of 1997–2008 involved 115 papers. During this period, most of the papers were published in the Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing and in Tourism Management. The last period of 2009 to present involved 389 papers. Most of the papers were published in Tourism Management. At this period, as many as 63 papers were published in Tourism Management. The number of papers published in Tourism Management is almost the sum of the numbers of the first runner up, and second runner up. ( Table 1 ).

Studies related to crisis management in the tourism and hospitality literature (1985–2020).

Numbers of tourism and hospitality publications in English on crisis management.

Top Ten Journals on crisis management.

3.2. Types of crises in the hospitality and tourism industry

The 512 papers revealed that five business sectors within the hospitality and tourism industry, an outcome which mirrored the findings of Wut et al. (2021) who performed a systematic review on corporate social responsibility research in the hospitality and tourism industry. The most commonly investigated industry sectors comprised tour operators/travel agencies, hotel operators, airlines, restaurants and ocean cruising sectors. Their crises types are summarised below for illustration purposes ( Table 4 ):

Typology of crisis types in hospitality and tourism industry (Source: authors).

Crisis types were previously organised under the three categories of natural disasters, technical error accidents and human error accidents, depending on the level of organisational responsibility. Limited organisational responsibility is clearly involved for natural disasters because those events are usually beyond operational control ( Coombs, 2019 ). Only reactive strategies can be developed to minimise loss. A low level of organisational responsibility occurs on technical error accidents as the organisation can hardly do much about technical errors. However, organisations should bear the main responsibility for preventable crises as they involve human errors ( Coombs, 2019 ). Natural disasters are the most common type, and the other two are mainly related to complaints on social media.

3.3. Methodological design of previous research

Almost half of the studies adopted quantitative research methods (215 studies, 42%). Approximately 34% of the papers relied on qualitative research methods (174 studies). Only 24 studies (4.7%) integrated both qualitative and quantitative research methods. And there also appeared 99 conceptual papers. In terms of research design, exploratory design (qualitative) dominated (159 studies, 31.1%). Most researchers used in-depth interview and focus group in exploratory design. This research design is followed by adopting primary data from surveys (139 studies, 27.1%) and using secondary data and databases (74 studies, 14.5%). For the statistical and analytical methods of research, the main method was identified for each paper. Most qualitative studies relied on case studies (85 studies, 16.6%) and content analysis (81 studies, 15.8%). Descriptive analysis (54 studies, 10.5%) and regression analysis (40 studies, 7.8%) were primarily used in the quantitative studies. When appeared more than one method of analysis was utilised (for example, both descriptive and regression analysis), only the most complex method was counted (in this case, regression analysis) ( Table 5 ).

Analysis by research methodology (N = 512).

3.4. Traditional Research focus

The research themes in the literature were organised in such manner: Papers with a specific topic of crisis management, risk management or disaster management were grouped under the category carrying the name of the focal topic, such as crisis impact, crisis recovery and risk perception. Papers on crisis management in general ( Beirman, 2001 ) or focusing on crisis management in relation to other topics, for example, brand management ( Balakrishnan, 2011 ), or those on more than one topic of crisis management such as crisis preparedness and organisational learning ( Anderson, 2006 ) were all included under a category named “Crisis management/with multiple topics”. Similar logic was applied to the “Risk management/with multiple topics” category, which included papers embracing risk management in general ( Angel et al., 2018 ) or multiple topics regarding risk identification, the influential factors and related risk management practices ( Chen, 2013 ). This logic was further applied to the “Disaster management/with multiple topics” category. Another category refers to COVID-19, which has been a hot topic since last year. All the COVID-19 papers that concerned about crisis and/or crisis management were put under this separate category. Such arrangement could help summarise the focuses and trends of COVID-19 research and facilitate the researchers who may have continuing interests to explore further in future years. Lastly, the remaining papers hardly put into previous categories were put under the category of others. As a result of adopting the above rationale in papers classification, among the reviewed studies, 16% (82 papers) were related to crisis management/with multiple topics and 15.4% (79 papers) related to COVID-19. These two primary categories were found in terms of the number of papers collected ( Table 6 ). Risk management/with multiple topics is the second runner-up with 13.7% (70 papers). Risk perception was found with 44 papers (8.6%). Crisis impacts involved 32 studies (6.3%), and crisis recovery was examined in 31 studies (6.1%). Further, fairly sufficient, 21 papers focused on crisis resilience (4.1%), 18 papers investigated crisis communication (3.5%) and 15 papers examined crisis response (2.9%). Disaster management/with multiple topics was studied by 20 papers (3.9%), and disaster recovery was investigated in 16 papers (3.1%). The areas worthy of significant note have collected even less than 10 papers in the study period, inclusive of crisis preparedness and prevention, learning, risk assessment and communication ( Table 6 ).

Crisis management research focus (N = 512).

The most explored research foci in the study period included crisis management/with multiple topics, risk management/with multiple topics, and disaster management (event). Crisis impact and crisis recovery, as well as risk perception also involved more than 30 papers respectively, that can represent the traditional focus of crisis management research at the theoretical level. The COVID-19 theme has more than 70 papers published (N = 79) in 2020, which surprisingly made it as one of the top ranking research themes in the summary. Its discussion will be presented in the next section involving the emerging research themes over the last decade (2010 to present).

3.4.1. Crisis management/with multiple topics

Crisis management has attracted academic attention for the entire study period. Anticipating crises and responding to them accordingly is crucial ( Henderson, 1999a ). A crisis or disaster management framework based on the model by Fink (1986) was proposed. Six elements of responses were suggested: precursors, mobilisation, action, recovery, reconstruction and re-assessment, and review. Risk assessment and disaster contingency plans were provided ( Faulkner, 2001 ). The crisis management framework of Ritchie (2004) follows the prescriptive model Richardson (1994) applied on the tourism industry: pre-crisis; crisis event and post crisis. This ‘one size fits all’ approach might cater to all sudden events ( Speakman & Sharpley, 2012 ).

By contrast, chaos theory assumes a random, complex and dynamic situation. That theory was used to explain the Mexican H1N1 crisis. Companies in the tourism industry operate in a relatively stable situation but are subject to unexpected attacks. The trigger case in Mexico is an outbreak of the H1N1 disease ( Coles, 2004 ; Speakman & Sharpley, 2012 ).

Co-management's characteristics ‘have been identified in the literature: (1) pluralism, (2) communication/negotiation, (3) transactive decision-making, (4) social learning, and (5) shared action/commitment’ ( Pennington-Gray et al., 2014a , 3). That management refers to combining resources from various stakeholders in the community for crisis management ( Pennington-Gray et al., 2014a ).

Researchers neglected crisis preparation and organisational learning in the tourism industry ( Clements, 1998 ; Cheung & Law, 2006 ; Anderson, 2006 ). In practice, large companies do have crisis management plans, unlike small business and tourism operators ( Cushnahan, 2004 ; Gruman et al., 2011 ).

3.4.2. Crisis impact

The Asian financial crisis and global economic crisis of 2008/09 affected the tourism industry ( Boukas & Ziakas, 2013 ; Henderson, 1999c ; Jones et al., 2011 ). In these events, people generally lost their spending power. If a host country suffers from a domestic crisis, then it usually attracts more visitors from other countries because of devaluation of the host country's currency ( Khalid et al., 2020 ). The lower demand for local tourism is counter-balanced by the arrival of more international tourists.

Usually, crisis impact could be measured by the drop of the number of inbound or outbound tourists and the spending of visitors ( Jin et al., 2019 ; Khalid et al., 2020 ; Wang, 2009 ). In turn, the impact would be reflected by economic indicators, such as the unemployment rate of the tourism industry ( Blake & Sinclair, 2003 ). People must also be convinced that everything is back to normal before they travel again.

The studies concentrated on sales loss and the drop in customers ( Jones et al., 2011 ; Liu, 2014 ). Financial ratio analysis is more objective but usually cannot capture instant impacts. Few investigations employed stock price to measure the effect of crises. Abnormal returns were a good indicator of the future earnings of a listed company ( Seo et al., 2014 ). Another dimension is the emotional aspect. Anger and outrage are emotional responses from customers. These reactions produce intangible effect on corporations ( Coombs & Holladay, 2010 ).

Aside from the economic impact, environmental and social cultural impacts must also be considered. For instance, the natural environment is vulnerable to disaster risks. Pollution problems could also affect the image of a city such as Beijing ( Tsai et al., 2016 ). From a social cultural perspective, local culture should be protected and revived.

3.4.3. Crisis recovery

The process wherein tourism operators' attempt to return to normal business and achieves good economic performance after a crisis is called crisis recovery ( Coombs, 2019 ). Various crisis recovery approaches were proposed. Restoration of confidence, media role, other stakeholder support and speed of the response are critical success factors for crisis recovery ( de Sausmarez, 2007a ). Analysis of the crisis, audience and place must be conducted before formulating a media strategy. The message source, target audience and the message itself are essential features for designing the media strategy in attempt to repair the image of the place ( Avraham & Ketter, 2017 ). In summary, image recovery is vital ( Ryu et al., 2013 ).

Other than media strategy, turnaround strategies usually entail increasing income and decreasing cost ( Campiranon & Scott, 2014 ). Price discount appears to be a common recovery strategy applied in the hospitality and tourism industry ( Kim et al., 2019 ; Okuyama, 2018 ).

A marketing program is a usual tactic in crisis recovery ( Carlsen & Hughes, 2008 ; Chacko & Marcell, 2008 ; Ladkin et al., 2008 ). Celebrity endorsement was also one of the best ways for implementing recovery marketing plans. Marketing campaigns should be continued after a crisis ( Walters & Mair, 2012 ). Some researchers expressed reservations about marketing programs. They instead prefer a demarketing approach if the place was seriously damaged and remains unsafe for visitors ( Orchiston & Higham, 2016 ).

3.4.4. Risk management/with multiple topics

Risk management is important for business operations ( Bharwani & Mathews, 2012 ). However, different companies may present different levels of risk appetite in terms of their willingness to manage risks ( Zhang, Paraskevas, & Altinay, 2019 ). The main types of business risks include operating risks, strategic risks and financial risks ( Harland et al., 2003 ). Financial risks can be categorised as systematic (common to whole economy) and unsystematic risks (firm-specific) ( Chen, 2013 ). According to Oroian and Gheres (2012) , all internal risks (e.g. organisational risks) and external risks (e.g. nature, competitiveness, economic, political and infrastructure risks) should be considered. Chang et al. (2019) found that financial risks, competing risks and supply chain risks may be classified as high priority by the travel industry.

Given the nature of the industry, hospitality and tourism companies may possibly face more particular environmental risks ( Böhm & Pfister, 2011 ; Cunliffe, 2004 ; Hillman, 2019 ), such as the weather conditions and climate change ( Ballotta et al., 2020 ; Bentley et al., 2010 ; Córdoba Azcárate, 2019 ; de Urioste-Stone, 2016 ; Hopkins & Maclean, 2014 ; Steiger et al., 2019 ; Tang & Jang, 2011 ), which will result in financial risks ( Franzoni & Pelizzari, 2019b ) and other types of business risks for companies.

Regarding risk management and practices, various risk mitigation and reduction strategies have been studied. Loehr (2020) proposed a Tourism Adaptation System for this purpose. Portfolio analysis was adopted for risk reduction and management in the industry ( Minato & Morimoto, 2011 ; Tan et al., 2017 ). The scenario planning approach was also employed by Orchiston (2012) for risk forecasting. Safety and security measures, through security checkpoints, security systems and procedures, are of vital importance in operational strategies ( Daniels et al., 2013 ; Peter et al., 2014 ). However, Rantala and Valkonen (2011) argued that safety issues in the hospitality and tourism industry are complex because of the infrastructure and technology, lack of experiences for customers and employees, and the safety culture in the industry. Vij (2019) examined the views of senior managers in the hospitality industry and highlighted the urgent safety need regarding cyberspace and data privacy. Stakeholder collaboration might be also considered for sharing the responsibility in risk management ( Gstaettner et al., 2019 ). As for the aspect of risk transfer, insurance contracts ( Dayour et al., 2020 ; Franzoni & Pelizzari, 2019a ) is a traditional focus for mitigating the negative impacts through transferring the risks to third parties. Nevertheless, that approach was not a common practice in the industry ( Waikar et al., 2016 ).

3.4.5. Risk perception

This work found that many risk perception-focused studies were conducted in the tourism context. Mass tourists are generally risk adverse in unfamiliar surroundings. The risks related to health, crime, accident, environment and disasters greatly affect the tourists' decision-making ( Carballo et al., 2017 ; George, 2010 ; Hunter-Jones, 2008 ). Some studies categorised those risks into physical, financial, psychological and health risks ( Jalilvand & Samiei, 2012 ; Sohn & Yoon, 2016 ). According to Carballo et al. (2017) , some risks for tourists can be controllable (e.g. illness and sunburn), whereas others are not.

The causes leading to the risk perceptions of tourists included demographic (e.g. age and nationality) and individual trip-related characteristics (e.g. visit purpose and frequency of travel) ( George, 2010 ; Jalilvand & Samiei, 2012 ), past experiences ( Schroeder, Pennington-Gray, Donohoe, & Kiousis, 2013 ), marketing communications ( Lepp et al., 2011 ; Liu-Lastres et al., 2020 ), media effects ( Kapuściński & Richards, 2016 ; Rashid & Robinson, 2010 ), mega-events, such as the FIFA World Cup) ( Lepp & Gibson, 2011 ) or Olympic Games ( Schroeder, Pennington-Gray, Donohoe, & Kiousis, 2013 ), as well as the destination risk management measures ( Toohey et al., 2003 ). Different directions of research or research findings were noted. Rashid and Robinson (2010) believed that the media effects exaggerated the risk perceptions. Kapuściński and Richards (2016) found that the media could either amplify or attenuate risk perceptions. George (2010) and Jalilvand and Samiei (2012) tended to compare the tourists' gender, age and trip-related characteristics for risk perception, but the latter study found more obvious difference among the groups.

Risk perceptions were also found to negatively impact various constructs. However, the dependent variables were overwhelmingly concentrated on destination image ( Chew & Jahari, 2014 ; Lepp et al., 2011 ; Liu-Lastres et al., 2020 ; Sohn & Yoon, 2016 ) and revisit intention ( Chew & Jahari, 2014 ; George, 2010 ; Zhang, Xie, et al., 2020 ). Other outcomes of risk perception, such as tourist hesitation ( Wong & Yeh, 2009 ), destination attitude ( Zhang, Hou, & Li, 2020 ), satisfaction and trust ( Wu et al., 2019 ), emotion ( Yüksel & Yüksel, 2007 ), recommendation to others ( George, 2010 ), decision-making process ( Taher et al., 2015 ) and travel behaviour modification ( Thapa et al., 2013 ), were also investigated.

Note that tourists may be motivated by risk-taking behaviours ( Cater, 2006 ; Chang, 2009 ). These tourists possibly favour novelty and adventurous tourism activities. Examples of risk-taking contexts in the hospitality and tourism industry include gaming ( Chang, 2009 ), mountain climbing ( George, 2010 ; Probstl-Haider et al., 2016 ) and other adventurous activities ( Cater, 2006 ). Pröbstl-Haider et al. (2016) indicated that the risk-taking behaviour may be attributed to the tourists' experience, participation frequency and commitment, their risk perceptions and the individual trade-off of risks.

3.4.6. Disaster management/disaster event (description)

This study consolidated disaster management and disaster event (description) into one generic category for subsequently summary and discussions. Following previous classical literature on disaster management ( Faulkner, 2001 ; Prideaux et al., 2003 ), disasters can be considered as unpredictable or unprecedented crisis situations with great complexity and gravity. Ritchie (2008) summarised the many natural disasters frequently studied in tourism literature as comprising hurricanes, flooding and tsunami, earthquake, biosecurity and diseases (e.g. foot and mouth disease and SARS). Huan et al. (2004) dubbed these incidents as ‘no-escape’ disasters.

As a result of the disasters, tourist fatalities may occur while the destination and business facilities are severely devastated ( Cohen, 2009 ). Different hospitality and tourism sectors may experience remarkably varied challenges ( Henderson, 2007 ). Previous literature also recorded a comparison across disasters for certain destinations ( Prideaux, 2003 ) or for the investigation of disasters across different destinations ( Bhati et al., 2016 ). Many studies focused on business and destination resilience ( Bhaskara et al., 2020 ; Bhati et al., 2016 ; Filimonau & De Coteau, 2020 ; Ghaderi et al., 2015 ; Lew, 2014 ). Hospitality and tourism business normally react without warning, deal with existing staff, reduce salaries over the short-term and consider rebuilding tourist confidence over the long-term ( Henderson, 2005 ). Filimonau and De Coteau (2020) emphasised that the destinations studied fail to react effectively. Ghaderi et al. (2015) found that the primate enterprises lacked knowledge and analysis of disasters to prepare for the future.

Faulkner (2001) presented a tourism disaster management framework that incorporated six stages: pre-event, prodromal, emergency, intermediate, long-term recovery and resolution. He suggested destination marketing and communications, risk assessment, disaster management teaming and disaster contingency plans as examples of management strategies. This seminal model was applied for different disaster case studies ( Faulkner & Vikulov, 2001 ; Miller & Ritchie, 2003 ). Walters and Clulow (2010) examined previous literature and indicated that disaster-recovery marketing may be ineffective for areas affected by disasters. By contrast, Biran et al. (2014) argued that even disaster attributes can possibly motivate certain future tourists.

4. Discussion on emerging research themes from 2010 to present

In Fig. 1 , the Y-axis showcases the number of publications that studied crisis management in the hospitality and tourism industry. The X-axis records the years. Obviously, an increasing trend occurred for the relevant publications over the past 36 years. Five distinct peaks were identified in these publication waves: the years 1999, 2008, 2013, 2017 and 2020. Publishing an academic paper usually takes two to three years from the start of an initial idea. In many cases, researchers can only observe impacts and report their findings several years after a crisis event, for example, during the Asian financial crisis in 1997 and the wars in 1990s (including the Gulf War, 1990–91; Croatian War, 1991–95; Bosnian War, 1992–95 and the Afghan War, 1990–2001). Studies published in 1999 mainly involved the financial crisis and the terrorism at that time. However, the papers recorded in 2008 included the impacts of the 9/11 terrorist attack in 2001. Papers in the year 2013 were mostly related to the financial crisis which dated back to 2007 and 2008. Papers with political topics were published in 2017/18. Many COVID-19 papers were published in 2020. Four major themes emerged in the last decade (year 2010-present), namely the health-related crisis, social media, political disturbance and terrorism crises ( Table 7 ).

Research areas for crisis management studies in last decade (Year 2010 to Present).

4.1. Health-related crisis (including COVID-19)

The 2006 Avian Flu, Year, and the 2003 SARS, the 2001 Foot and Mouth disease are notable health-related crisis events that impacted the hospitality and tourism industry ( Baxter & Bowen, 2004 ; Chien & Law, 2003 ; Page et al., 2006 ; Tew et al., 2008 ). Further, 284,00 deaths were recorded in the 2009 Swine flu. Tourism loss was US$2.8 billion ( Rassy & Smith, 2013 ). Recent case of health-related crisis event is the Ebola outbreak in 2014 and 2015. The outbreak affected the Africa tourism industry by 5% revenue reduction in year 2015 ( Novelli et al., 2018 ). Lyme disease was studied from the perspective of tourism management ( Donohoe et al., 2015 ). The impact of Zika outbreak for 2016 in Latin America and the Caribbean caused losses of US$3.5 billion in tourism industry; and no vaccine is available ( World Bank, 2016 ). In the same year, the global outbreak of Dengue fever led to even severe economic impact of US$8.9 billion ( Shepard et al., 2016 ). The recent global outbreak of COVID-19 in 2020 is undeniably a vastly emerging research focus. An overview of health-related events has been presented by Hall et al. (2020) .

Large number of papers in COVID-19 has been published within a short period of time. Most of the papers tended to study the impacts of COVID-19 in hospitality and tourism industry ( Bulin & Tenie, 2020 ; Jaipuria et al., 2020 ; Knight et al., 2020 ; Qiu et al., 2020a , b ; Seraphin, 2020 ; Uğur & Akbıyık, 2020 ), some of which focused on particularly the hotel industry ( Bajrami et al., 2020 ; Vo-Thanh et al., 2020 ). Besides, some provided directions for recovery ( Yeh, 2020 ). For instance, using a private dining room or table could be one of the solutions in restaurant industry ( Kim & Lee, 2020 ). Resilience is another topic of discussion ( Butler, 2020 ). Rittichainuwat et al. (2020) found that the Thai hospitality, bleisure (business and leisure) and international standard venues are key factors for resilience of the exhibition industry. For tourism industry, travel after pandemic is arguably associated with protection motivation and pandemic travel fear ( Zheng et al., 2021 ).. Research topics could be about perceived risk and tourist decision making ( Matiza, 2020 ). In terms of the research methodologies in this research theme, most of the papers appeared to be conceptual papers ( Baum & Hai, 2020 ; Bausch et al., 2020 ; Haywood, 2020 ; Li et al., 2020 ; Zenker & Kock, 2020 ). A few qualitative studies used in-depth interview ( Awan et al., 2020 ; Loi et al., 2020 ) while some others adopted case studies ( Breier et al., 2021 ; Neuburger & Egger, 2020 ). Quantitatively, some relied on online survey ( Karl et al., 2020 ) or telephone survey ( Pappas & Glyptou, 2021 ) due to pandemic constraints.

Without effective crisis management in this regard, the entire hospitality and tourism industry could hardly recover by rebuilding tourists and guests' confidence who suffer from health-related crises, with no exception of COVID-19. According to Coombs (2019) , there are four stages in crisis management: crisis prevention, crisis preparation, crisis response and crisis recovery. The purpose of crisis prevention is to detect warning signals and to stop any possible negative events. Certain disasters cannot be prevented even for early preparation. Crisis management plan needs to list out every step we need to follow when crisis happens. A team can be organised beforehand to carry out some rehearsals regularly. Immediate, transparent and consistency are the basics in preparing crisis response. In post crisis period, people need to learn from the past, including the mistakes made. Business continuity plan guides us to recover from crisis quickly ( Coombs, 2019 ; Fung et al., 2020 ). These should be the basics of lessons for effective crisis management derived from the different health-related crisis events in history and the COVID-19 outbreak as well. All stakeholders should consolidate their knowledge and experiences to better prepare for the future.

4.2. Social media theme

Over the past decade, companies in the hospitality and tourism industry have greater attention to the use of social media in practice. Social media can distribute news over distances within a short period of time. That media could co-ordinate with different stakeholders in crisis events ( Antony & Jacob, 2019 ; Maia & Mariam, 2018 ). Meanwhile, a wide range of stakeholders (i.e. individual customers, governmental bodies, activist groups, rescue teams, consumers' bodies, mass media and others) can take part in management through social media ( Sigala, 2012 ). Zeng and Gerritsen (2014) summarised the social media research in tourism and highlighted clearly (p.34) that ‘giving its mobility and facility for instant interaction, social media can be expected to play a more important role in tourism destination management, particularly in crisis management … ’ Sigala (2012) further revealed that social media can be utilised throughout the different stages of crisis management involving mitigation, preparedness, response and recovery. For example, Schroeder and Pennington-Gray (2015) studied the effect of social media in crisis communications. Travellers may possibly refer to feedback from social media in search of related information when a crisis occurs. Instead of discussing crisis impacts on tourism sectors in Hong Kong, researchers attempted to focus on the crisis communication through social media which affects social media users' subsequent attitude ( Luo & Zhai, 2017 ). Social media can also be used in the revision stage to develop resilience and adaptability. Moreover, social media has employed in fundraising events and in creating emotional support after crisis ( Coombs, 2019 ).

4.3. Political disturbances theme

The past decade witnessed a few examples of political disturbances or social movements ( Monterrubio, 2017 ). In Thailand, Cohen (2010) examined the sources of airport occupation. The occupation was a social movement opposed to the Thailand government. The movement changed the safety destination perception of Thailand and affected the tourism industry in the long term ( Cohen, 2010 ). In Hong Kong, the ‘yellow vest’ movement occurred on November 17, 2008. Protesters decided to continue to protest every Saturday. That situation might generate an unsafe image for incoming tourists ( Derr, 2020 ). A political event called Occupy Central in 2014 and 2015 in Hong Kong also requested for the election of a Chief executive. ‘Central’ is a place in Hong Kong that encompasses many important business and government offices. Another social movement involved Hong Kong's anti-extradition law amendment bill in 2019. These occurrences strongly impact the peaceful image of Hong Kong.

4.4. Terrorism theme

Unquestionably, the hospitality and tourism industry is vulnerable to terrorism. Tourists might possibly switch to other travel destinations because of perceived terrorist threats to their intended destination ( Sönmez et al., 1999 ; Walters et al., 2019 ). Terrorism has become a popular theme of research since 2001, when the terrorist attack of historic significance occurred on 11 September in the U.S. ( Evans & Elphick, 2005 ; O'Connor et al., 2008 ; Taylor, 2006 ; Yu et al., 2005 ). |Another example involves the targeting of Bali tourists by Al Qaeda in 2002 ( Xu & Grunewald, 2009 ).

Some terrorism-related studies from past decade focused on the hotel industry. One research indicated that terrorism affects the brand image of a local hotel if an attack from terrorists occurs on the destination. Thus, protecting the brand equity is an effective strategy ( Balakrishnan, 2011 ). Another paper compared the impacts of 9/11 on hotel room demand to those during the financial crisis of 2008 ( Kubickova et al., 2019 ). Stahura et al. (2012) emphasised that crisis management planning is essential when the industry confronts potential crisis from terrorist attacks.

5. Research opportunities

Following a systematic analysis of traditional research focuses over the 36 years and emerging research themes over the last decade, a new conceptual framework was presented in Fig. 4 to highlight the proposed future research directions of crisis management in the hospitality and tourism industry. Further research areas were identified using a TCM (Theory-Context-Method) model ( Paul et al., 2017 ) presented in three layers.

Conceptual framework for future research of crisis management in hospitality and tourism industry.

The outer layer related to the crisis management at the theory level. Traditional research foci at the theoretical level appear to include crisis management/with multiple topics, crisis impact, crisis recovery, risk management/with multiple topics and risk perception and disaster management. Unfortunately, little attention has been paid to crisis management education and training, a feature which was rather regarded as the most effective method of crisis management in the long run for the tourism industry ( Henderson, 1999a ). The literature review also entailed relatively less academic attention to crisis prevention and preparedness, risk assessment and risk communication. In the second inner layer, proposed contexts of crisis management research were presented. The health-related crisis events including COVID-19, data privacy, digital media, political-related crisis events as well as other less explored contexts are suggested for the future research of crisis management in the hospitality and tourism industry. It should be noted further that the health-related, data privacy and political-related crisis events are also related to the digital media area. This situation indicates that the transmission of crisis information is rather faster than ever before through digital media, so that management of various crises should be examined in this era of digital media. Meanwhile, the less explored industry sectors and contexts should be studied. The core and the inner layer suggest adopting new analytical research methods for designing various research and analysing related data. The following will detail the proposed future research areas and identify specific research questions for the benefit of future researchers ( Table 8 ).

100 specific future research questions in the ten future areas.

5.1. Theory development

Fink (1986) 's four stage model is influential in crisis management studies. His four-stage model was applied in diseases (1) prodromal, hints of potential crisis; (2) breakout; (3) chronic, the effect of crisis persists; (4) resolution, some clear signals the crisis is no longer a concern ( Fink, 1986 ). The other influential model is from Mitroff (1994) . His five stages model turns Fink's descriptive model to prescriptive approach. Crisis management efforts was divided into five phases: signal detection, prevention, damage containment, recovery and organisational learning ( Mitroff, 1994 ). Faulkner (2001) made a good comparison of the models. In fact, previous research have also indicated the cycling loop of crisis management ( Xu & Grunewald, 2009 ). For instance, Pursiainen (2018) explicitly explained the crisis management circle with some suggested procedural steps (prevention, preparedness, response, recovery, learning, risk assessment). This further provides the solid theoretical foundation for Fig. 4 that the proposed future research areas at theoretical level stay at different cycling stages in crisis management: from crisis prevention and preparedness to risk communication to crisis management education & training, and then to risk assessment, which has been also considered to pave the way for the next round of crisis prevention and preparedness.

5.1.1. Crisis prevention and preparedness

Papers on crisis preparedness (9 papers) and crisis prevention (7 papers) are notable fewer. In fact, preventing the crisis from happening is the best crisis management strategy. Crisis preparedness takes up most of a crisis manager's time ( Coombs, 2019 ; Pforr & Hosie, 2008 ). The recovery and experiences of crisis handling of one time can be translated into the crisis preparedness and precaution measures for the potential next time. The awareness and recognition of possible crises by managers and staff can be strategically important throughout the learning process and crisis management cycle ( Xu & Grunewald, 2009 ).

5.1.2. Risk communication

Compared to the risk management (68 papers) and risk perception (41 papers) categories, prior literature records only one paper ( Heimtun & Lovelock, 2017 ) which focused on ‘risk communications.’ Risk communication is indeed important in the hospitality and tourism industry. An uncertainty always exists because of the weather or some other uncontrollable factors. Risk communication is important when they promote tourism products to prospective customers ( Heimtun & Lovelock, 2017 ). It also relates to legal issues. For example, travel companies and tour organisers should explicitly explain to potential tourists the types of risks involved and tourists (risk bearers) could also express their concerns and fears about the risks in the process of their decision making. The outcomes of risk communication are expected to enhance customers' risk awareness and help them take personal proactive actions. The appropriate overestimation of risk can be also effective for helping consumers make decisions while avoiding possible legal risks ( Coombs & Holladay, 2010 ).

5.1.3. Crisis management education and training

Special attention should also be given to crisis management education and training in hospitality and tourism-related programmes. In the ever-increasingly diversified and changing market, hospitality and tourism companies have an urgent need of specialists and professionals in crisis management for their sustainable and healthy business development. Graduates equipped with relevant knowledge and working experiences will be highly needed by the industry. The presence of an experienced leader and crisis team consisting of qualified staff can be strategically significant in the different stages of crisis management in the tourism industry ( Ritchie, 2004 ). Surprisingly, scare research exists in this regard.

In this study, the US, Australia and the UK were well represented in terms of the leading authors of crisis management studies in the hospitality and tourism industry. Academic platforms may favour more interested researchers in this area who originate from other places. The cross-cultural approach is also strongly recommended for systematic comparisons of the findings generated from different cultural backgrounds. Future research could be extended to more developing countries, such as China and Vietnam, to compare their crisis prevention measures.

5.1.4. Risk assessment

Less than 10 papers focused on risk assessment, a figure which could suggest a future research direction. Undeniably, hospitality and tourism companies may be interested in identifying the possible risks according to their frequency, scale and level of loss, and assess their influences for developing effective risk management strategies ( Tsai & Chen, 2010 ). Roe et al. (2014) summarised many methodological approaches that are currently adopted to assess and manage the various risks, particularly environmental ones. They exemplified with the Environmental Impact Assessment, Environmental Audit and Ecological Footprint with support of Delphi Technique. In fact, tourists can also learn from the risk assessment results to manage their holiday travel plans and decide insurance purchase ( Olya & Alipour, 2015 ). However, as each assessment methodology has its own merits as well as limitations, methodological innovations and comprehensive assessment models are expected for future research, particularly in the hospitality and tourism context owing to the lack of research output in this regard ( Tsai & Chen, 2010 ).

5.2. Context

5.2.1. covid-19 (coronavirus disease 2019).

COVID-19 has threatened the lives and health of people globally and seriously disrupts the traffic flow of people worldwide. Hotels, travel agencies, airlines and all sorts of related industries face a serious challenge in 2020 ( Gössling et al., 2020 ; Qiu et al., 2020a , b ). In fact, the world may see a co-occurrence of various health risks and diseases in future. With lessons derived from COVID-19, health-related crisis management could be a universal issue.

The COVID-19 pandemic may not be over in year 2021 although different vaccines are available. Tourism and hospitality industry will still be seriously affected. Firstly, the impacts on the industry have already been estimated for the year 2020.70% of hotel employees have been laid off and 4.6 million supporting jobs was lost in United States ( American Hospitality and Lodging Association, 2020 ). The forecasted impacts for the year 2021 are still in progress and not yet available. Secondly, there could be new models for people travelling for leisure or business after the pandemic. Thirdly, new business model may evolve for the hotel, airlines, catering, or even the sharing business ( Farmaki et al., 2020 ).

5.2.2. Data privacy in hospitality and tourism

Today, most organisations are using information technology as a main or supplementary tool for their business operations and management. Extensive organisational/customer sensitive information is stored and/or processed in digital format, particularly when using social media for communications. Loss of confidential information would be disastrous for a company. Note that any inappropriate processing of such sensitive and personal information may cause great damage to organisational reputation with the expected decline of customer trust and loyalty ( Watson & Rodrigues, 2018 ). This fact was highlighted with no exception in the hospitality and tourism industry ( Chen & Jai, 2019 ). Unfortunately, very few papers have addressed this issue. Chen and Jai (2019) explored a research agenda to examine the relationship between data breach or privacy issues and customer relationship building and loyalty. They also suggested checking the different levels of privacy concerns by customers and their impacts.

5.2.3. Political-related crisis events

Many political-related crisis events also have impacts on hospitality and tourism industry. For example, in a historical sense, the US-Iran conflict has long influences over the development of Iran's tourism industry ( Estrada et al., 2020 ; Khodadadi, 2018 ). Recently, the Hong Kong extradition bill controversy (2019–2020) also shook Hong Kong's society and the tourism industry in particular ( Lee, 2020 ). More researchers are expected to express interest on these cases to discuss different research questions. These cases are related to risk and crisis management for destination marketers and various stakeholders. However, the natures of these circumstances vary, a situation which could possibly generate dissimilar research findings and shed light in the crisis management field. Future researchers could investigate the effects of crisis types on crisis management with case studies of new crisis events ( Coombs, 2019 ).

5.2.4. Digital media theme

Digital media plays a major role in future. People may like to use social media more often to express and share their views. However, a crisis may occur for the companies that fail to adequately manage the social communications of their products and brands. For example, customers may complain on social media. How the complaint is transmitted through the Internet and the responses from the organisation are rather practical topics for researchers. Ryschka et al. (2016) is one of the few to explore how a company's response to a crisis raised on social media affects its reputation. Their results showed that the speed of response is important as well as the brand familiarity and cultural values. Unfortunately, their research context (cruise industry) has its special nature and may not be applicable to other industry sectors or businesses at large. Sigala (2012) indicated that future studies could analyse role of social media in crisis communications and its impacts on organisation image. The factors that contribute to the motivations and barriers of using social media by companies can also be studied accordingly ( Sigala, 2012 ). Luo and Zhai (2017) highlighted the need for further research about cyber nationalism and bilateral relationships concerning the tourism boycott and destination crisis.

5.2.5. Other less explored contexts

Most of the reviewed crisis management studies focused on hotels as a sector of the hospitality and tourism industry. Studies should be more diversified across other sectors of the industry. Certain hospitality and tourism industry sectors are under-explored, including airlines, travel agencies, restaurants, the conference sector, ocean cruising, theme parks and wellness spas. For instance, any destination and tourism crisis may affect tour operators and travel agencies which play an important role in tourism flows ( Cavlek, 2002 ). Emphasis on tour operators is suggested for their strategic importance towards destination recovery in the post-crisis period ( Cavlek, 2002 ). The airline industry is also very sensitive to economic downturns and global crises ( Hatty & Hollmeier, 2003 ). Accordingly, the companies involved in that industry may be unable to adjust immediately when facing declining demands in the market. Sangpikul and Kim (2009) identified different factors of barriers affecting the convention and meeting industry. For example, they revealed political unrest as the source of crisis for the MICE (Meeting, Incentive, Conventions and Exhibitions) industry. However, few studies have investigated this sector.

Previous crisis management research relied on traditional methodologies including case studies, content analysis, descriptive analysis and regression analysis ( Table 5 ). Researchers could consider analysing images and/or pictures of the crisis event. Case study in crisis research usually involves with very small sample size. Two diseases cases (SARS and H1N1) were covered in a crisis management study ( Fung et al., 2020 ). Generalization of a case study usually is a difficult task for researcher. Thus, case study sometimes was conducted by way of an exploratory study; or simply used to test a pre-established theory. Besides, case study would also be used to demonstrate a good crisis management practice and propose a relationship or association among variables ( Eisenbhardt, 1989 ). As a whole, case study is a perfect choice to explain and answer the questions on “how” and “why”.

Researchers can consider qualitative comparative analysis. In literature, less than one percentage of crisis management articles used qualitative comparative analysis (see Table 5 ). Most of the focal researches examined relationships among variables in a linear manner using regression analysis and ignored the complexities that might possibly exist across the variables. Even in the case of low level of multi-collinearity, one variable might depend on the other explanatory variable ( Woodside, 2013 ). Often, the impacts on tourism due to crisis might not work in a linear relationship. The qualitative comparative analysis can be a suitable analysis method ( Papatheodorou & Pappas, 2017 ).

5.9 percent or thirty of crisis management papers adopted structural equation modelling as their main analysis method ( Table 5 ). Partial Least Squares structural equation modelling (PLS-SEM) has not been used extensively in particular hospitality and tourism research but rather preferred in marketing and management studies in general ( Ali et al., 2018 ). Conceptually, PLS has some advantages including smaller sample size and less restricted data normality requirement. For example, with 5% significant level, minimum R-square 10% and number of arrows pointing at a construct is five, 150 samples is sufficient ( Hair et al., 2019 ). This fits the current research situation under pandemic concerns that achieving big sample size may not be an easy task. Moreover, models in risk perception sometimes evolve more than one dependent variable and some other mediating or moderating variables, such as perceived security, perceived risk, destination image or willingness to visit ( Zenker et al., 2019 ). Complex predicting model could be handled by PLS easily.

Conjoint analysis is sometimes used in hospitality research. For example, it could explain how tourists choose a particular hotel. It depends on a lot of considerations at the same time. Costs, time, word-of-mouth, activities, past experience and so on are possible reasons ( Suess & Mody, 2017 ). Only a subset of combinations needs to be tested in the field in order to get the answer. In crisis management research, crisis response can be one of the possible topics using this method. For example, one has to take into account different factors before formally making an apology for a customer complaint. Possible factors can include seriousness of crisis, crisis history, and responsibility of company ( Coombs, 2019 ).

6.1. Specific future research questions

Based on the above analysis, ten key future areas were identified. This study took a step further to prepare a total of 100 specific research questions ( Table 8 ) that warrant greater attention in the future. Research findings in these areas were also reported (first column of Table 8 ). Future researchers of crisis management in hospitality and tourism industry can take the specific questions as a direct reference to prepare their projects. Among these specific questions, some questions were reported as unanswered in the existing literature in these areas (second column of Table 8 ), thus being worthy of future research. Other specific questions (last column of Table 8 ) were generated from analyses in this study, after a critical review of literature.

7. Conclusions

This study systematically reviewed crisis management literature in the hospitality and tourism industry from 1985 to 2020, spanning 36 years; and found that only few articles were produced during earlier period. A sharp increase of related research interests emerged thereafter. This work analysed various major academic journals and presented the trends of their collection of crisis management studies; and discussed the study locations and authorship. Moreover, a systematic summary of the crisis types and the different industry sectors within the hospitality and tourism industry can be found this study.

Under the area of crisis management in the hospitality and tourism industry, traditional research foci were found to comprise crisis management and risk management/with multiple topics, disaster management, crisis impacts and recovery, and risk perception. This study summarised further that the main emerging themes over the last decade have revolved around health-related crisis including COVID-19, social media crisis, political disturbance crisis and terrorism crisis. The research cases and environments covered different industry sectors.

Crisis management research will likely be conducted continually with scholarly passion in the near future. A three-layer TCM (theory-context-method) framework for further research of crisis management in the hospitality and tourism is proposed. Ten directions are suggested for future research agenda: 1) crisis prevention and preparedness, 2) risk communication, 3) crisis management education and training, 4) risk assessment, 5) COVID-19 and other health-related crisis events, 6) data privacy in hospitality and tourism, 7) political-related crisis events, 8) digital media theme, 9) other less explored research contexts, and 10) adopting newer analytical methods and approaches. A summary of important works up to date and the suggested 100 specific research questions were also presented for future research purpose.

This study has its natural limitations, the papers collected were published within a specific time period (1985–2020). Using more keywords in literature search can found more papers in this field. Exploring this topic further at different academic platforms, particularly for those in languages other than English, can for sure generated more search results. Investigation of crisis management with a regional focus is also suggested for analysing the research outputs recorded in the local and regional languages.

Author statement

Wut, T. M.: Conceptualization; Data curation; formal analysis; funding acquisition; investigation; Methodology; original draft, Xu, B.: Funding acquisition; review and editing, Wong, S.: Project Administration; resources; supervision.

Declaration of competing interest

We declare that there is no potential conflict of interest

Biographies

Wut, Tai Ming; Dr Wut is a senior lecturer in the School of Professional Education and Executive Development, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, where he teaches courses in risk management, crisis management and corporate social responsibility. His interdisciplinary research interests cover engineering management, corporate social responsibility and engineers' role in society. He has published papers in international journals such as International Journal of Consumer Studies and Young Consumers. He has also presented his papers in international academic conferences.

Xu, Bill; Dr Bill Xu is a senior lecturer in the School of Professional Education and Executive Development, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University. With respect to research, he has published academic articles and book reviews in international journals like the Journal of China Tourism Research, the Asian Pacific Journal of Tourism Research, the International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, Tourism Management, etc. He also presented papers in international academic conferences. His teaching and research interests include consumer behaviour and consumption experience (in tourism and hospitality management), tourism psychology and sociology, tour operations and wholesaling, China tourism and hotel businesses, hospitality management in China, and quality service management.

Wong, Helen Shun-mun; Dr Helen Wong obtained her Bachelor of Arts (First Class Hons) from The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Master of Science from the University of London, and Doctor of Business Administration from the University of South Australia. She is also a fellow member of ACCA, an associate member of HKICPA, and CGA. Dr Wong has a diversified business background and several years' accounting and finance experience in Hong Kong and Canada. Prior to joining HKCC, she had worked for various well-known organisations, such as PricewaterhouseCoopers, Hong Kong Stock Exchange, and the University of Toronto.

Appendix B Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2021.104307 .

Appendix A. 

Location of first author (N = 512) (Extended version of Table 1 )

(Source: authors)

Impact statement

Crises events and crisis management often become research topics for hospitality and tourism researchers. However, review papers in this field are lacking. An updated systematic literature review of crisis management research in hospitality and tourism industry is highly needed for the time being, to show what has progressed in recent decades and what would possibly progress in the near future. Under the outbreak of COVID-19, more hospitality and tourism researchers are expected to develop their research interests in crisis management field in the near future. Our paper fills in the research gap to summarise and discuss the traditionally dominated crisis management research themes and the emerging themes over the last decade from 2010. Meanwhile, it also sheds lights in providing clear and detailed advice to future researchers through eliciting what kind of crisis management research areas and specific research questions can be considered.

Appendix B. Supplementary data

The following is the Supplementary data to this article:

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