methods used in research papers

• USC Libraries
• Research Guides

Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper

• 6. The Methodology
• Purpose of Guide
• Design Flaws to Avoid
• Independent and Dependent Variables
• Glossary of Research Terms
• Reading Research Effectively
• Narrowing a Topic Idea
• Broadening a Topic Idea
• Extending the Timeliness of a Topic Idea
• Academic Writing Style
• Applying Critical Thinking
• Choosing a Title
• Making an Outline
• Paragraph Development
• Research Process Video Series
• Executive Summary
• The C.A.R.S. Model
• Background Information
• The Research Problem/Question
• Theoretical Framework
• Citation Tracking
• Content Alert Services
• Evaluating Sources
• Primary Sources
• Secondary Sources
• Tiertiary Sources
• Scholarly vs. Popular Publications
• Qualitative Methods
• Quantitative Methods
• Insiderness
• Using Non-Textual Elements
• Limitations of the Study
• Common Grammar Mistakes
• Writing Concisely
• Avoiding Plagiarism
• Footnotes or Endnotes?
• Further Readings
• Generative AI and Writing
• USC Libraries Tutorials and Other Guides
• Bibliography

The methods section describes actions taken to investigate a research problem and the rationale for the application of specific procedures or techniques used to identify, select, process, and analyze information applied to understanding the problem, thereby, allowing the reader to critically evaluate a study’s overall validity and reliability. The methodology section of a research paper answers two main questions: How was the data collected or generated? And, how was it analyzed? The writing should be direct and precise and always written in the past tense.

Kallet, Richard H. "How to Write the Methods Section of a Research Paper." Respiratory Care 49 (October 2004): 1229-1232.

Importance of a Good Methodology Section

You must explain how you obtained and analyzed your results for the following reasons:

• Readers need to know how the data was obtained because the method you chose affects the results and, by extension, how you interpreted their significance in the discussion section of your paper.
• Methodology is crucial for any branch of scholarship because an unreliable method produces unreliable results and, as a consequence, undermines the value of your analysis of the findings.
• In most cases, there are a variety of different methods you can choose to investigate a research problem. The methodology section of your paper should clearly articulate the reasons why you have chosen a particular procedure or technique.
• The reader wants to know that the data was collected or generated in a way that is consistent with accepted practice in the field of study. For example, if you are using a multiple choice questionnaire, readers need to know that it offered your respondents a reasonable range of answers to choose from.
• The method must be appropriate to fulfilling the overall aims of the study. For example, you need to ensure that you have a large enough sample size to be able to generalize and make recommendations based upon the findings.
• The methodology should discuss the problems that were anticipated and the steps you took to prevent them from occurring. For any problems that do arise, you must describe the ways in which they were minimized or why these problems do not impact in any meaningful way your interpretation of the findings.
• In the social and behavioral sciences, it is important to always provide sufficient information to allow other researchers to adopt or replicate your methodology. This information is particularly important when a new method has been developed or an innovative use of an existing method is utilized.

Bem, Daryl J. Writing the Empirical Journal Article. Psychology Writing Center. University of Washington; Denscombe, Martyn. The Good Research Guide: For Small-Scale Social Research Projects . 5th edition. Buckingham, UK: Open University Press, 2014; Lunenburg, Frederick C. Writing a Successful Thesis or Dissertation: Tips and Strategies for Students in the Social and Behavioral Sciences . Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press, 2008.

Structure and Writing Style

I.  Groups of Research Methods

There are two main groups of research methods in the social sciences:

• The e mpirical-analytical group approaches the study of social sciences in a similar manner that researchers study the natural sciences . This type of research focuses on objective knowledge, research questions that can be answered yes or no, and operational definitions of variables to be measured. The empirical-analytical group employs deductive reasoning that uses existing theory as a foundation for formulating hypotheses that need to be tested. This approach is focused on explanation.
• The i nterpretative group of methods is focused on understanding phenomenon in a comprehensive, holistic way . Interpretive methods focus on analytically disclosing the meaning-making practices of human subjects [the why, how, or by what means people do what they do], while showing how those practices arrange so that it can be used to generate observable outcomes. Interpretive methods allow you to recognize your connection to the phenomena under investigation. However, the interpretative group requires careful examination of variables because it focuses more on subjective knowledge.

II.  Content

The introduction to your methodology section should begin by restating the research problem and underlying assumptions underpinning your study. This is followed by situating the methods you used to gather, analyze, and process information within the overall “tradition” of your field of study and within the particular research design you have chosen to study the problem. If the method you choose lies outside of the tradition of your field [i.e., your review of the literature demonstrates that the method is not commonly used], provide a justification for how your choice of methods specifically addresses the research problem in ways that have not been utilized in prior studies.

The remainder of your methodology section should describe the following:

• Decisions made in selecting the data you have analyzed or, in the case of qualitative research, the subjects and research setting you have examined,
• Tools and methods used to identify and collect information, and how you identified relevant variables,
• The ways in which you processed the data and the procedures you used to analyze that data, and
• The specific research tools or strategies that you utilized to study the underlying hypothesis and research questions.

In addition, an effectively written methodology section should:

• Introduce the overall methodological approach for investigating your research problem . Is your study qualitative or quantitative or a combination of both (mixed method)? Are you going to take a special approach, such as action research, or a more neutral stance?
• Indicate how the approach fits the overall research design . Your methods for gathering data should have a clear connection to your research problem. In other words, make sure that your methods will actually address the problem. One of the most common deficiencies found in research papers is that the proposed methodology is not suitable to achieving the stated objective of your paper.
• Describe the specific methods of data collection you are going to use , such as, surveys, interviews, questionnaires, observation, archival research. If you are analyzing existing data, such as a data set or archival documents, describe how it was originally created or gathered and by whom. Also be sure to explain how older data is still relevant to investigating the current research problem.
• Explain how you intend to analyze your results . Will you use statistical analysis? Will you use specific theoretical perspectives to help you analyze a text or explain observed behaviors? Describe how you plan to obtain an accurate assessment of relationships, patterns, trends, distributions, and possible contradictions found in the data.
• Provide background and a rationale for methodologies that are unfamiliar for your readers . Very often in the social sciences, research problems and the methods for investigating them require more explanation/rationale than widely accepted rules governing the natural and physical sciences. Be clear and concise in your explanation.
• Provide a justification for subject selection and sampling procedure . For instance, if you propose to conduct interviews, how do you intend to select the sample population? If you are analyzing texts, which texts have you chosen, and why? If you are using statistics, why is this set of data being used? If other data sources exist, explain why the data you chose is most appropriate to addressing the research problem.
• Provide a justification for case study selection . A common method of analyzing research problems in the social sciences is to analyze specific cases. These can be a person, place, event, phenomenon, or other type of subject of analysis that are either examined as a singular topic of in-depth investigation or multiple topics of investigation studied for the purpose of comparing or contrasting findings. In either method, you should explain why a case or cases were chosen and how they specifically relate to the research problem.
• Describe potential limitations . Are there any practical limitations that could affect your data collection? How will you attempt to control for potential confounding variables and errors? If your methodology may lead to problems you can anticipate, state this openly and show why pursuing this methodology outweighs the risk of these problems cropping up.

NOTE :   Once you have written all of the elements of the methods section, subsequent revisions should focus on how to present those elements as clearly and as logically as possibly. The description of how you prepared to study the research problem, how you gathered the data, and the protocol for analyzing the data should be organized chronologically. For clarity, when a large amount of detail must be presented, information should be presented in sub-sections according to topic. If necessary, consider using appendices for raw data.

ANOTHER NOTE : If you are conducting a qualitative analysis of a research problem , the methodology section generally requires a more elaborate description of the methods used as well as an explanation of the processes applied to gathering and analyzing of data than is generally required for studies using quantitative methods. Because you are the primary instrument for generating the data [e.g., through interviews or observations], the process for collecting that data has a significantly greater impact on producing the findings. Therefore, qualitative research requires a more detailed description of the methods used.

YET ANOTHER NOTE :   If your study involves interviews, observations, or other qualitative techniques involving human subjects , you may be required to obtain approval from the university's Office for the Protection of Research Subjects before beginning your research. This is not a common procedure for most undergraduate level student research assignments. However, i f your professor states you need approval, you must include a statement in your methods section that you received official endorsement and adequate informed consent from the office and that there was a clear assessment and minimization of risks to participants and to the university. This statement informs the reader that your study was conducted in an ethical and responsible manner. In some cases, the approval notice is included as an appendix to your paper.

III.  Problems to Avoid

Irrelevant Detail The methodology section of your paper should be thorough but concise. Do not provide any background information that does not directly help the reader understand why a particular method was chosen, how the data was gathered or obtained, and how the data was analyzed in relation to the research problem [note: analyzed, not interpreted! Save how you interpreted the findings for the discussion section]. With this in mind, the page length of your methods section will generally be less than any other section of your paper except the conclusion.

Unnecessary Explanation of Basic Procedures Remember that you are not writing a how-to guide about a particular method. You should make the assumption that readers possess a basic understanding of how to investigate the research problem on their own and, therefore, you do not have to go into great detail about specific methodological procedures. The focus should be on how you applied a method , not on the mechanics of doing a method. An exception to this rule is if you select an unconventional methodological approach; if this is the case, be sure to explain why this approach was chosen and how it enhances the overall process of discovery.

Problem Blindness It is almost a given that you will encounter problems when collecting or generating your data, or, gaps will exist in existing data or archival materials. Do not ignore these problems or pretend they did not occur. Often, documenting how you overcame obstacles can form an interesting part of the methodology. It demonstrates to the reader that you can provide a cogent rationale for the decisions you made to minimize the impact of any problems that arose.

Literature Review Just as the literature review section of your paper provides an overview of sources you have examined while researching a particular topic, the methodology section should cite any sources that informed your choice and application of a particular method [i.e., the choice of a survey should include any citations to the works you used to help construct the survey].

It’s More than Sources of Information! A description of a research study's method should not be confused with a description of the sources of information. Such a list of sources is useful in and of itself, especially if it is accompanied by an explanation about the selection and use of the sources. The description of the project's methodology complements a list of sources in that it sets forth the organization and interpretation of information emanating from those sources.

Azevedo, L.F. et al. "How to Write a Scientific Paper: Writing the Methods Section." Revista Portuguesa de Pneumologia 17 (2011): 232-238; Blair Lorrie. “Choosing a Methodology.” In Writing a Graduate Thesis or Dissertation , Teaching Writing Series. (Rotterdam: Sense Publishers 2016), pp. 49-72; Butin, Dan W. The Education Dissertation A Guide for Practitioner Scholars . Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin, 2010; Carter, Susan. Structuring Your Research Thesis . New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012; Kallet, Richard H. “How to Write the Methods Section of a Research Paper.” Respiratory Care 49 (October 2004):1229-1232; Lunenburg, Frederick C. Writing a Successful Thesis or Dissertation: Tips and Strategies for Students in the Social and Behavioral Sciences . Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press, 2008. Methods Section. The Writer’s Handbook. Writing Center. University of Wisconsin, Madison; Rudestam, Kjell Erik and Rae R. Newton. “The Method Chapter: Describing Your Research Plan.” In Surviving Your Dissertation: A Comprehensive Guide to Content and Process . (Thousand Oaks, Sage Publications, 2015), pp. 87-115; What is Interpretive Research. Institute of Public and International Affairs, University of Utah; Writing the Experimental Report: Methods, Results, and Discussion. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Methods and Materials. The Structure, Format, Content, and Style of a Journal-Style Scientific Paper. Department of Biology. Bates College.

Writing Tip

Statistical Designs and Tests? Do Not Fear Them!

Don't avoid using a quantitative approach to analyzing your research problem just because you fear the idea of applying statistical designs and tests. A qualitative approach, such as conducting interviews or content analysis of archival texts, can yield exciting new insights about a research problem, but it should not be undertaken simply because you have a disdain for running a simple regression. A well designed quantitative research study can often be accomplished in very clear and direct ways, whereas, a similar study of a qualitative nature usually requires considerable time to analyze large volumes of data and a tremendous burden to create new paths for analysis where previously no path associated with your research problem had existed.

To locate data and statistics, GO HERE .

Another Writing Tip

Knowing the Relationship Between Theories and Methods

There can be multiple meaning associated with the term "theories" and the term "methods" in social sciences research. A helpful way to delineate between them is to understand "theories" as representing different ways of characterizing the social world when you research it and "methods" as representing different ways of generating and analyzing data about that social world. Framed in this way, all empirical social sciences research involves theories and methods, whether they are stated explicitly or not. However, while theories and methods are often related, it is important that, as a researcher, you deliberately separate them in order to avoid your theories playing a disproportionate role in shaping what outcomes your chosen methods produce.

Introspectively engage in an ongoing dialectic between the application of theories and methods to help enable you to use the outcomes from your methods to interrogate and develop new theories, or ways of framing conceptually the research problem. This is how scholarship grows and branches out into new intellectual territory.

Reynolds, R. Larry. Ways of Knowing. Alternative Microeconomics . Part 1, Chapter 3. Boise State University; The Theory-Method Relationship. S-Cool Revision. United Kingdom.

Yet Another Writing Tip

Methods and the Methodology

Do not confuse the terms "methods" and "methodology." As Schneider notes, a method refers to the technical steps taken to do research . Descriptions of methods usually include defining and stating why you have chosen specific techniques to investigate a research problem, followed by an outline of the procedures you used to systematically select, gather, and process the data [remember to always save the interpretation of data for the discussion section of your paper].

The methodology refers to a discussion of the underlying reasoning why particular methods were used . This discussion includes describing the theoretical concepts that inform the choice of methods to be applied, placing the choice of methods within the more general nature of academic work, and reviewing its relevance to examining the research problem. The methodology section also includes a thorough review of the methods other scholars have used to study the topic.

Bryman, Alan. "Of Methods and Methodology." Qualitative Research in Organizations and Management: An International Journal 3 (2008): 159-168; Schneider, Florian. “What's in a Methodology: The Difference between Method, Methodology, and Theory…and How to Get the Balance Right?” PoliticsEastAsia.com. Chinese Department, University of Leiden, Netherlands.

• << Previous: Scholarly vs. Popular Publications
• Next: Qualitative Methods >>
• Last Updated: Apr 16, 2024 10:20 AM
• URL: https://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide

News alert: UC Berkeley has announced its next university librarian

Secondary menu

• Log in to your Library account
• Hours and Maps
• Connect from Off Campus
• UC Berkeley Home

Search form

Research methods--quantitative, qualitative, and more: overview.

• Quantitative Research
• Qualitative Research
• Data Science Methods (Machine Learning, AI, Big Data)
• Text Mining and Computational Text Analysis
• Evidence Synthesis/Systematic Reviews
• Get Data, Get Help!

About Research Methods

This guide provides an overview of research methods, how to choose and use them, and supports and resources at UC Berkeley. 

As Patten and Newhart note in the book Understanding Research Methods , "Research methods are the building blocks of the scientific enterprise. They are the "how" for building systematic knowledge. The accumulation of knowledge through research is by its nature a collective endeavor. Each well-designed study provides evidence that may support, amend, refute, or deepen the understanding of existing knowledge...Decisions are important throughout the practice of research and are designed to help researchers collect evidence that includes the full spectrum of the phenomenon under study, to maintain logical rules, and to mitigate or account for possible sources of bias. In many ways, learning research methods is learning how to see and make these decisions."

The choice of methods varies by discipline, by the kind of phenomenon being studied and the data being used to study it, by the technology available, and more.  This guide is an introduction, but if you don't see what you need here, always contact your subject librarian, and/or take a look to see if there's a library research guide that will answer your question. 

Suggestions for changes and additions to this guide are welcome! 

START HERE: SAGE Research Methods

Without question, the most comprehensive resource available from the library is SAGE Research Methods.  HERE IS THE ONLINE GUIDE  to this one-stop shopping collection, and some helpful links are below:

• SAGE Research Methods
• Little Green Books  (Quantitative Methods)
• Little Blue Books  (Qualitative Methods)
• Dictionaries and Encyclopedias  
• Case studies of real research projects
• Sample datasets for hands-on practice
• Streaming video--see methods come to life
• Methodspace- -a community for researchers
• SAGE Research Methods Course Mapping

Library Data Services at UC Berkeley

Library Data Services Program and Digital Scholarship Services

The LDSP offers a variety of services and tools !  From this link, check out pages for each of the following topics:  discovering data, managing data, collecting data, GIS data, text data mining, publishing data, digital scholarship, open science, and the Research Data Management Program.

Be sure also to check out the visual guide to where to seek assistance on campus with any research question you may have!

Library GIS Services

Other Data Services at Berkeley

D-Lab Supports Berkeley faculty, staff, and graduate students with research in data intensive social science, including a wide range of training and workshop offerings Dryad Dryad is a simple self-service tool for researchers to use in publishing their datasets. It provides tools for the effective publication of and access to research data. Geospatial Innovation Facility (GIF) Provides leadership and training across a broad array of integrated mapping technologies on campu Research Data Management A UC Berkeley guide and consulting service for research data management issues

General Research Methods Resources

Here are some general resources for assistance:

• Assistance from ICPSR (must create an account to access): Getting Help with Data , and Resources for Students
• Wiley Stats Ref for background information on statistics topics
• Survey Documentation and Analysis (SDA) .  Program for easy web-based analysis of survey data.

Consultants

• D-Lab/Data Science Discovery Consultants Request help with your research project from peer consultants.
• Research data (RDM) consulting Meet with RDM consultants before designing the data security, storage, and sharing aspects of your qualitative project.
• Statistics Department Consulting Services A service in which advanced graduate students, under faculty supervision, are available to consult during specified hours in the Fall and Spring semesters.

Related Resourcex

• IRB / CPHS Qualitative research projects with human subjects often require that you go through an ethics review.
• OURS (Office of Undergraduate Research and Scholarships) OURS supports undergraduates who want to embark on research projects and assistantships. In particular, check out their "Getting Started in Research" workshops
• Sponsored Projects Sponsored projects works with researchers applying for major external grants.
• Next: Quantitative Research >>
• Last Updated: Apr 3, 2023 3:14 PM
• URL: https://guides.lib.berkeley.edu/researchmethods

Organizing Academic Research Papers: 6. The Methodology

• Purpose of Guide
• Design Flaws to Avoid
• Glossary of Research Terms
• Narrowing a Topic Idea
• Broadening a Topic Idea
• Extending the Timeliness of a Topic Idea
• Academic Writing Style
• Choosing a Title
• Making an Outline
• Paragraph Development
• Executive Summary
• Background Information
• The Research Problem/Question
• Theoretical Framework
• Citation Tracking
• Content Alert Services
• Evaluating Sources
• Primary Sources
• Secondary Sources
• Tertiary Sources
• What Is Scholarly vs. Popular?
• Qualitative Methods
• Quantitative Methods
• Using Non-Textual Elements
• Limitations of the Study
• Common Grammar Mistakes
• Avoiding Plagiarism
• Footnotes or Endnotes?
• Further Readings
• Annotated Bibliography
• Dealing with Nervousness
• Using Visual Aids
• Grading Someone Else's Paper
• How to Manage Group Projects
• Multiple Book Review Essay
• Reviewing Collected Essays
• About Informed Consent
• Writing Field Notes
• Writing a Policy Memo
• Writing a Research Proposal
• Acknowledgements

The methods section of a research paper provides the information by which a study’s validity is judged. The method section answers two main questions: 1) How was the data collected or generated? 2) How was it analyzed? The writing should be direct and precise and written in the past tense.

Importance of a Good Methodology Section

You must explain how you obtained and analyzed your results for the following reasons:

• Readers need to know how the data was obtained because the method you choose affects the results and, by extension, how you likely interpreted those results.
• Methodology is crucial for any branch of scholarship because an unreliable method produces unreliable results and it misappropriates interpretations of findings .
• In most cases, there are a variety of different methods you can choose to investigate a research problem. Your methodology section of your paper should make clear the reasons why you chose a particular method or procedure .
• The reader wants to know that the data was collected or generated in a way that is consistent with accepted practice in the field of study. For example, if you are using a questionnaire, readers need to know that it offered your respondents a reasonable range of answers to choose from.
• The research method must be appropriate to the objectives of the study . For example, be sure you have a large enough sample size to be able to generalize and make recommendations based upon the findings.
• The methodology should discuss the problems that were anticipated and the steps you took to prevent them from occurring . For any problems that did arise, you must describe the ways in which their impact was minimized or why these problems do not affect the findings in any way that impacts your interpretation of the data.
• Often in social science research, it is useful for other researchers to adapt or replicate your methodology. Therefore, it is important to always provide sufficient information to allow others to use or replicate the study . This information is particularly important when a new method had been developed or an innovative use of an existing method has been utilized.

Bem, Daryl J. Writing the Empirical Journal Article . Psychology Writing Center. University of Washington; Lunenburg, Frederick C. Writing a Successful Thesis or Dissertation: Tips and Strategies for Students in the Social and Behavioral Sciences . Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press, 2008.

Structure and Writing Style

I. Groups of Research Methods

There are two main groups of research methods in the social sciences:

• The empirical-analytical group approaches the study of social sciences in a similar manner that researchers study the natural sciences. This type of research focuses on objective knowledge, research questions that can be answered yes or no, and operational definitions of variables to be measured. The empirical-analytical group employs deductive reasoning that uses existing theory as a foundation for hypotheses that need to be tested. This approach is focused on explanation .
• The interpretative group is focused on understanding phenomenon in a comprehensive, holistic way . This research method allows you to recognize your connection to the subject under study. Because the interpretative group focuses more on subjective knowledge, it requires careful interpretation of variables.

II. Content

An effectively written methodology section should:

• Introduce the overall methodological approach for investigating your research problem . Is your study qualitative or quantitative or a combination of both (mixed method)? Are you going to take a special approach, such as action research, or a more neutral stance?
• Indicate how the approach fits the overall research design . Your methods should have a clear connection with your research problem. In other words, make sure that your methods will actually address the problem. One of the most common deficiencies found in research papers is that the proposed methodology is unsuited to achieving the stated objective of your paper.
• Describe the specific methods of data collection you are going to use , such as, surveys, interviews, questionnaires, observation, archival research. If you are analyzing existing data, such as a data set or archival documents, describe how it was originally created or gathered and by whom.
• Explain how you intend to analyze your results . Will you use statistical analysis? Will you use specific theoretical perspectives to help you analyze a text or explain observed behaviors?
• Provide background and rationale for methodologies that are unfamiliar for your readers . Very often in the social sciences, research problems and the methods for investigating them require more explanation/rationale than widely accepted rules governing the natural and physical sciences. Be clear and concise in your explanation.
• Provide a rationale for subject selection and sampling procedure . For instance, if you propose to conduct interviews, how do you intend to select the sample population? If you are analyzing texts, which texts have you chosen, and why? If you are using statistics, why is this set of statisics being used? If other data sources exist, explain why the data you chose is most appropriate.
• Address potential limitations . Are there any practical limitations that could affect your data collection? How will you attempt to control for potential confounding variables and errors? If your methodology may lead to problems you can anticipate, state this openly and show why pursuing this methodology outweighs the risk of these problems cropping up.

NOTE :  Once you have written all of the elements of the methods section, subsequent revisions should focus on how to present those elements as clearly and as logically as possibly. The description of how you prepared to study the research problem, how you gathered the data, and the protocol for analyzing the data should be organized chronologically. For clarity, when a large amount of detail must be presented, information should be presented in sub-sections according to topic.

III.  Problems to Avoid

Irrelevant Detail The methodology section of your paper should be thorough but to the point. Don’t provide any background information that doesn’t directly help the reader to understand why a particular method was chosen, how the data was gathered or obtained, and how it was analyzed. Unnecessary Explanation of Basic Procedures Remember that you are not writing a how-to guide about a particular method. You should make the assumption that readers possess a basic understanding of how to investigate the research problem on their own and, therefore, you do not have to go into great detail about specific methodological procedures. The focus should be on how you applied a method , not on the mechanics of doing a method. NOTE: An exception to this rule is if you select an unconventional approach to doing the method; if this is the case, be sure to explain why this approach was chosen and how it enhances the overall research process. Problem Blindness It is almost a given that you will encounter problems when collecting or generating your data. Do not ignore these problems or pretend they did not occur. Often, documenting how you overcame obstacles can form an interesting part of the methodology. It demonstrates to the reader that you can provide a cogent rationale for the decisions you made to minimize the impact of any problems that arose. Literature Review Just as the literature review section of your paper provides an overview of sources you have examined while researching a particular topic, the methodology section should cite any sources that informed your choice and application of a particular method [i.e., the choice of a survey should include any citations to the works you used to help construct the survey].

It’s More than Sources of Information! A description of a research study's method should not be confused with a description of the sources of information. Such a list of sources is useful in itself, especially if it is accompanied by an explanation about the selection and use of the sources. The description of the project's methodology complements a list of sources in that it sets forth the organization and interpretation of information emanating from those sources.

Azevedo, L.F. et al. How to Write a Scientific Paper: Writing the Methods Section. Revista Portuguesa de Pneumologia 17 (2011): 232-238; Butin, Dan W. The Education Dissertation A Guide for Practitioner Scholars . Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin, 2010; Carter, Susan. Structuring Your Research Thesis . New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012; Lunenburg, Frederick C. Writing a Successful Thesis or Dissertation: Tips and Strategies for Students in the Social and Behavioral Sciences . Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press, 2008. Methods Section . The Writer’s Handbook. Writing Center. University of Wisconsin, Madison; Writing the Experimental Report: Methods, Results, and Discussion . The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Methods and Materials . The Structure, Format, Content, and Style of a Journal-Style Scientific Paper. Department of Biology. Bates College.

Writing Tip

Statistical Designs and Tests? Do Not Fear Them!

Don't avoid using a quantitative approach to analyzing your research problem just because you fear the idea of applying statistical designs and tests. A qualitative approach, such as conducting interviews or content analysis of archival texts, can yield exciting new insights about a research problem, but it should not be undertaken simply because you have a disdain for running a simple regression. A well designed quantitative research study can often be accomplished in very clear and direct ways, whereas, a similar study of a qualitative nature usually requires considerable time to analyze large volumes of data and a tremendous burden to create new paths for analysis where previously no path associated with your research problem had existed.

Another Writing Tip

Knowing the Relationship Between Theories and Methods

There can be multiple meaning associated with the term "theories" and the term "methods" in social sciences research. A helpful way to delineate between them is to understand "theories" as representing different ways of characterizing the social world when you research it and "methods" as representing different ways of generating and analyzing data about that social world. Framed in this way, all empirical social sciences research involves theories and methods, whether they are stated explicitly or not. However, while theories and methods are often related, it is important that, as a researcher, you deliberately separate them in order to avoid your theories playing a disproportionate role in shaping what outcomes your chosen methods produce.

Introspectively engage in an ongoing dialectic between theories and methods to help enable you to use the outcomes from your methods to interrogate and develop new theories, or ways of framing conceptually the research problem. This is how scholarship grows and branches out into new intellectual territory.

Reynolds, R. Larry. Ways of Knowing. Alternative Microeconomics. Part 1, Chapter 3. Boise State University; The Theory-Method Relationship . S-Cool Revision. United Kingdom.

• << Previous: What Is Scholarly vs. Popular?
• Next: Qualitative Methods >>
• Last Updated: Jul 18, 2023 11:58 AM
• URL: https://library.sacredheart.edu/c.php?g=29803
• QuickSearch
• Library Catalog
• Databases A-Z
• Publication Finder
• Course Reserves
• Citation Linker
• Digital Commons
• Our Website

Research Support

• Ask a Librarian
• Appointments
• Interlibrary Loan (ILL)
• Research Guides
• Databases by Subject
• Citation Help

Using the Library

• Reserve a Group Study Room
• Renew Books
• Honors Study Rooms
• Off-Campus Access
• Library Policies
• Library Technology

User Information

• Grad Students
• Online Students
• COVID-19 Updates
• Staff Directory
• News & Announcements
• Library Newsletter

My Accounts

• Interlibrary Loan
• Staff Site Login

FIND US ON  

• Locations and Hours
• UCLA Library
• Research Guides
• Research Tips and Tools

Advanced Research Methods

Writing the research paper.

• What Is Research?
• Library Research
• Writing a Research Proposal

Before Writing the Paper

Methods, thesis, and hypothesis, clarity, precision, and academic expression, format your paper, typical problems, a few suggestions, avoid plagiarism.

• Presenting the Research Paper
• Try to find a subject that really interests you.
• While you explore the topic, narrow or broaden your target and focus on something that gives the most promising results.
• Don't choose a huge subject if you have to write a 3 page long paper, and broaden your topic sufficiently if you have to submit at least 25 pages.
• Consult your class instructor (and your classmates) about the topic.
• Find primary and secondary sources in the library.
• Read and critically analyse them.
• Take notes.
• Compile surveys, collect data, gather materials for quantitative analysis (if these are good methods to investigate the topic more deeply).
• Come up with new ideas about the topic. Try to formulate your ideas in a few sentences.
• Review your notes and other materials and enrich the outline.
• Try to estimate how long the individual parts will be.
• Do others understand what you want to say?
• Do they accept it as new knowledge or relevant and important for a paper?
• Do they agree that your thoughts will result in a successful paper?
• Qualitative: gives answers on questions (how, why, when, who, what, etc.) by investigating an issue
• Quantitative:requires data and the analysis of data as well
• the essence, the point of the research paper in one or two sentences.
• a statement that can be proved or disproved.
• Be specific.
• Avoid ambiguity.
• Use predominantly the active voice, not the passive.
• Deal with one issue in one paragraph.
• Be accurate.
• Double-check your data, references, citations and statements.

Academic Expression

• Don't use familiar style or colloquial/slang expressions.
• Write in full sentences.
• Check the meaning of the words if you don't know exactly what they mean.
• Avoid metaphors.
• Almost the rough content of every paragraph.
• The order of the various topics in your paper.
• On the basis of the outline, start writing a part by planning the content, and then write it down.
• Put a visible mark (which you will later delete) where you need to quote a source, and write in the citation when you finish writing that part or a bigger part.
• Does the text make sense?
• Could you explain what you wanted?
• Did you write good sentences?
• Is there something missing?
• Check the spelling.
• Complete the citations, bring them in standard format.

Use the guidelines that your instructor requires (MLA, Chicago, APA, Turabian, etc.).

• Adjust margins, spacing, paragraph indentation, place of page numbers, etc.
• Standardize the bibliography or footnotes according to the guidelines.

• EndNote and EndNote Basic by UCLA Library Last Updated Mar 18, 2024 898 views this year
• Zotero by UCLA Library Last Updated Jan 18, 2023 596 views this year

(Based on English Composition 2 from Illinois Valley Community College):

• Weak organization
• Poor support and development of ideas
• Weak use of secondary sources
• Excessive errors
• Stylistic weakness

When collecting materials, selecting research topic, and writing the paper:

• Be systematic and organized (e.g. keep your bibliography neat and organized; write your notes in a neat way, so that you can find them later on.
• Use your critical thinking ability when you read.
• Write down your thoughts (so that you can reconstruct them later).
• Stop when you have a really good idea and think about whether you could enlarge it to a whole research paper. If yes, take much longer notes.
• When you write down a quotation or summarize somebody else's thoughts in your notes or in the paper, cite the source (i.e. write down the author, title, publication place, year, page number).
• If you quote or summarize a thought from the internet, cite the internet source.
• Write an outline that is detailed enough to remind you about the content.
• Read your paper for yourself or, preferably, somebody else. 
• When you finish writing, check the spelling;
• Use the citation form (MLA, Chicago, or other) that your instructor requires and use it everywhere.

Plagiarism : somebody else's words or ideas presented without citation by an author

• Cite your source every time when you quote a part of somebody's work.
• Cite your source  every time when you summarize a thought from somebody's work.
• Cite your source  every time when you use a source (quote or summarize) from the Internet.

Consult the Citing Sources research guide for further details.

• << Previous: Writing a Research Proposal
• Next: Presenting the Research Paper >>
• Last Updated: Jan 4, 2024 12:24 PM
• URL: https://guides.library.ucla.edu/research-methods

When you choose to publish with PLOS, your research makes an impact. Make your work accessible to all, without restrictions, and accelerate scientific discovery with options like preprints and published peer review that make your work more Open.

• PLOS Biology
• PLOS Climate
• PLOS Complex Systems
• PLOS Computational Biology
• PLOS Digital Health
• PLOS Genetics
• PLOS Global Public Health
• PLOS Medicine
• PLOS Mental Health
• PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases
• PLOS Pathogens
• PLOS Sustainability and Transformation
• PLOS Collections

Open Methods

Methods describe the processes, procedures and materials used in a research investigation. Methods can take many forms depending on the field and approach, including study designs, protocols, code, materials and reagents, databases, and more.

Why methods matter

Transparency creates trust and deepens understanding..

When readers have the opportunity to examine your approach in detail, they gain a more profound, contextualized understanding of the results, and increased respect for the integrity of the work.

Reproducibility relies on detail. 

A narrative summary in the methods section of a research article is often insufficient to reproduce results or adapt a methodology to another study. Detailed open methods facilitate replication and reuse, and reduce the amount of trial and error along the way.

Methods transcend barriers.

Methods have the potential for adaptation and reuse in different contexts and across a broad range of research questions and disciplines. For that reason, methods articles tend to be highly cited, and to attract readers and citations for a longer period than standard research articles.

Read more about Open Methods

A research article is an orderly summation of a complex and circuitous process. It is characterized by detailed planning, iterative trial and error, meticulous execution and thoughtful analysis. As a summary, articles are invaluable, but detailed insight into processes and procedures is required to truly understand and reproduce research.

The methods section was once the most likely part of a paper to be unfairly abbreviated, overly summarized, or even relegated to hard-to-find sections of a publisher’s website. While some journals may responsibly include more detailed elements of methods in supplementary sections, the movement for increased reproducibility and rigor in science has reinstated the importance of the methods section.

Publishing open methods with PLOS

Shared methods can take many forms, including protocols, code, materials and reagents, and more. Whatever your approach, making methods publicly accessible inspires trust, facilitates reproducibility and reuse, and helps to keep your work relevant. Discover your options for communicating methods with PLOS.

The PLOS Open Science Toolbox

The future is open.

The PLOS Open Science Toolbox is your source for sci-comm tips and best-practice. Learn practical strategies and hands-on tips to improve reproducibility, increase trust, and maximize the impact of your research through Open Science.

Sign up to have new issues delivered to your inbox every week.

Learn more about the benefits of Open Science.  

How to write the methods section of a research paper

Affiliation.

• 1 Respiratory Care Services, San Francisco General Hospital, NH:GA-2, 1001 Potrero Avenue, San Francisco, CA 94110, USA. [email protected]
• PMID: 15447808

The methods section of a research paper provides the information by which a study's validity is judged. Therefore, it requires a clear and precise description of how an experiment was done, and the rationale for why specific experimental procedures were chosen. The methods section should describe what was done to answer the research question, describe how it was done, justify the experimental design, and explain how the results were analyzed. Scientific writing is direct and orderly. Therefore, the methods section structure should: describe the materials used in the study, explain how the materials were prepared for the study, describe the research protocol, explain how measurements were made and what calculations were performed, and state which statistical tests were done to analyze the data. Once all elements of the methods section are written, subsequent drafts should focus on how to present those elements as clearly and logically as possibly. The description of preparations, measurements, and the protocol should be organized chronologically. For clarity, when a large amount of detail must be presented, information should be presented in sub-sections according to topic. Material in each section should be organized by topic from most to least important.

• Biomedical Research*
• Research Design
• Writing* / standards

Have a language expert improve your writing

Run a free plagiarism check in 10 minutes, generate accurate citations for free.

• Knowledge Base

Methodology

• What Is a Research Design | Types, Guide & Examples

What Is a Research Design | Types, Guide & Examples

Published on June 7, 2021 by Shona McCombes . Revised on November 20, 2023 by Pritha Bhandari.

A research design is a strategy for answering your   research question  using empirical data. Creating a research design means making decisions about:

• Your overall research objectives and approach
• Whether you’ll rely on primary research or secondary research
• Your sampling methods or criteria for selecting subjects
• Your data collection methods
• The procedures you’ll follow to collect data
• Your data analysis methods

A well-planned research design helps ensure that your methods match your research objectives and that you use the right kind of analysis for your data.

Table of contents

Step 1: consider your aims and approach, step 2: choose a type of research design, step 3: identify your population and sampling method, step 4: choose your data collection methods, step 5: plan your data collection procedures, step 6: decide on your data analysis strategies, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about research design.

• Introduction

Before you can start designing your research, you should already have a clear idea of the research question you want to investigate.

There are many different ways you could go about answering this question. Your research design choices should be driven by your aims and priorities—start by thinking carefully about what you want to achieve.

The first choice you need to make is whether you’ll take a qualitative or quantitative approach.

Qualitative research designs tend to be more flexible and inductive , allowing you to adjust your approach based on what you find throughout the research process.

Quantitative research designs tend to be more fixed and deductive , with variables and hypotheses clearly defined in advance of data collection.

It’s also possible to use a mixed-methods design that integrates aspects of both approaches. By combining qualitative and quantitative insights, you can gain a more complete picture of the problem you’re studying and strengthen the credibility of your conclusions.

Practical and ethical considerations when designing research

As well as scientific considerations, you need to think practically when designing your research. If your research involves people or animals, you also need to consider research ethics .

• How much time do you have to collect data and write up the research?
• Will you be able to gain access to the data you need (e.g., by travelling to a specific location or contacting specific people)?
• Do you have the necessary research skills (e.g., statistical analysis or interview techniques)?
• Will you need ethical approval ?

At each stage of the research design process, make sure that your choices are practically feasible.

Prevent plagiarism. Run a free check.

Within both qualitative and quantitative approaches, there are several types of research design to choose from. Each type provides a framework for the overall shape of your research.

Types of quantitative research designs

Quantitative designs can be split into four main types.

• Experimental and   quasi-experimental designs allow you to test cause-and-effect relationships
• Descriptive and correlational designs allow you to measure variables and describe relationships between them.

With descriptive and correlational designs, you can get a clear picture of characteristics, trends and relationships as they exist in the real world. However, you can’t draw conclusions about cause and effect (because correlation doesn’t imply causation ).

Experiments are the strongest way to test cause-and-effect relationships without the risk of other variables influencing the results. However, their controlled conditions may not always reflect how things work in the real world. They’re often also more difficult and expensive to implement.

Types of qualitative research designs

Qualitative designs are less strictly defined. This approach is about gaining a rich, detailed understanding of a specific context or phenomenon, and you can often be more creative and flexible in designing your research.

The table below shows some common types of qualitative design. They often have similar approaches in terms of data collection, but focus on different aspects when analyzing the data.

Your research design should clearly define who or what your research will focus on, and how you’ll go about choosing your participants or subjects.

In research, a population is the entire group that you want to draw conclusions about, while a sample is the smaller group of individuals you’ll actually collect data from.

Defining the population

A population can be made up of anything you want to study—plants, animals, organizations, texts, countries, etc. In the social sciences, it most often refers to a group of people.

For example, will you focus on people from a specific demographic, region or background? Are you interested in people with a certain job or medical condition, or users of a particular product?

The more precisely you define your population, the easier it will be to gather a representative sample.

• Sampling methods

Even with a narrowly defined population, it’s rarely possible to collect data from every individual. Instead, you’ll collect data from a sample.

To select a sample, there are two main approaches: probability sampling and non-probability sampling . The sampling method you use affects how confidently you can generalize your results to the population as a whole.

Probability sampling is the most statistically valid option, but it’s often difficult to achieve unless you’re dealing with a very small and accessible population.

For practical reasons, many studies use non-probability sampling, but it’s important to be aware of the limitations and carefully consider potential biases. You should always make an effort to gather a sample that’s as representative as possible of the population.

Case selection in qualitative research

In some types of qualitative designs, sampling may not be relevant.

For example, in an ethnography or a case study , your aim is to deeply understand a specific context, not to generalize to a population. Instead of sampling, you may simply aim to collect as much data as possible about the context you are studying.

In these types of design, you still have to carefully consider your choice of case or community. You should have a clear rationale for why this particular case is suitable for answering your research question .

For example, you might choose a case study that reveals an unusual or neglected aspect of your research problem, or you might choose several very similar or very different cases in order to compare them.

Data collection methods are ways of directly measuring variables and gathering information. They allow you to gain first-hand knowledge and original insights into your research problem.

You can choose just one data collection method, or use several methods in the same study.

Survey methods

Surveys allow you to collect data about opinions, behaviors, experiences, and characteristics by asking people directly. There are two main survey methods to choose from: questionnaires and interviews .

Observation methods

Observational studies allow you to collect data unobtrusively, observing characteristics, behaviors or social interactions without relying on self-reporting.

Observations may be conducted in real time, taking notes as you observe, or you might make audiovisual recordings for later analysis. They can be qualitative or quantitative.

Other methods of data collection

There are many other ways you might collect data depending on your field and topic.

If you’re not sure which methods will work best for your research design, try reading some papers in your field to see what kinds of data collection methods they used.

Secondary data

If you don’t have the time or resources to collect data from the population you’re interested in, you can also choose to use secondary data that other researchers already collected—for example, datasets from government surveys or previous studies on your topic.

With this raw data, you can do your own analysis to answer new research questions that weren’t addressed by the original study.

Using secondary data can expand the scope of your research, as you may be able to access much larger and more varied samples than you could collect yourself.

However, it also means you don’t have any control over which variables to measure or how to measure them, so the conclusions you can draw may be limited.

Receive feedback on language, structure, and formatting

Professional editors proofread and edit your paper by focusing on:

• Academic style
• Vague sentences
• Style consistency

See an example

As well as deciding on your methods, you need to plan exactly how you’ll use these methods to collect data that’s consistent, accurate, and unbiased.

Planning systematic procedures is especially important in quantitative research, where you need to precisely define your variables and ensure your measurements are high in reliability and validity.

Operationalization

Some variables, like height or age, are easily measured. But often you’ll be dealing with more abstract concepts, like satisfaction, anxiety, or competence. Operationalization means turning these fuzzy ideas into measurable indicators.

If you’re using observations , which events or actions will you count?

If you’re using surveys , which questions will you ask and what range of responses will be offered?

You may also choose to use or adapt existing materials designed to measure the concept you’re interested in—for example, questionnaires or inventories whose reliability and validity has already been established.

Reliability and validity

Reliability means your results can be consistently reproduced, while validity means that you’re actually measuring the concept you’re interested in.

For valid and reliable results, your measurement materials should be thoroughly researched and carefully designed. Plan your procedures to make sure you carry out the same steps in the same way for each participant.

If you’re developing a new questionnaire or other instrument to measure a specific concept, running a pilot study allows you to check its validity and reliability in advance.

Sampling procedures

As well as choosing an appropriate sampling method , you need a concrete plan for how you’ll actually contact and recruit your selected sample.

That means making decisions about things like:

• How many participants do you need for an adequate sample size?
• What inclusion and exclusion criteria will you use to identify eligible participants?
• How will you contact your sample—by mail, online, by phone, or in person?

If you’re using a probability sampling method , it’s important that everyone who is randomly selected actually participates in the study. How will you ensure a high response rate?

If you’re using a non-probability method , how will you avoid research bias and ensure a representative sample?

Data management

It’s also important to create a data management plan for organizing and storing your data.

Will you need to transcribe interviews or perform data entry for observations? You should anonymize and safeguard any sensitive data, and make sure it’s backed up regularly.

Keeping your data well-organized will save time when it comes to analyzing it. It can also help other researchers validate and add to your findings (high replicability ).

On its own, raw data can’t answer your research question. The last step of designing your research is planning how you’ll analyze the data.

Quantitative data analysis

In quantitative research, you’ll most likely use some form of statistical analysis . With statistics, you can summarize your sample data, make estimates, and test hypotheses.

Using descriptive statistics , you can summarize your sample data in terms of:

• The distribution of the data (e.g., the frequency of each score on a test)
• The central tendency of the data (e.g., the mean to describe the average score)
• The variability of the data (e.g., the standard deviation to describe how spread out the scores are)

The specific calculations you can do depend on the level of measurement of your variables.

Using inferential statistics , you can:

• Make estimates about the population based on your sample data.
• Test hypotheses about a relationship between variables.

Regression and correlation tests look for associations between two or more variables, while comparison tests (such as t tests and ANOVAs ) look for differences in the outcomes of different groups.

Your choice of statistical test depends on various aspects of your research design, including the types of variables you’re dealing with and the distribution of your data.

Qualitative data analysis

In qualitative research, your data will usually be very dense with information and ideas. Instead of summing it up in numbers, you’ll need to comb through the data in detail, interpret its meanings, identify patterns, and extract the parts that are most relevant to your research question.

Two of the most common approaches to doing this are thematic analysis and discourse analysis .

There are many other ways of analyzing qualitative data depending on the aims of your research. To get a sense of potential approaches, try reading some qualitative research papers in your field.

If you want to know more about the research process , methodology , research bias , or statistics , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Simple random sampling
• Stratified sampling
• Cluster sampling
• Likert scales
• Reproducibility

 Statistics

• Null hypothesis
• Statistical power
• Probability distribution
• Effect size
• Poisson distribution

Research bias

• Optimism bias
• Cognitive bias
• Implicit bias
• Hawthorne effect
• Anchoring bias
• Explicit bias

A research design is a strategy for answering your   research question . It defines your overall approach and determines how you will collect and analyze data.

A well-planned research design helps ensure that your methods match your research aims, that you collect high-quality data, and that you use the right kind of analysis to answer your questions, utilizing credible sources . This allows you to draw valid , trustworthy conclusions.

Quantitative research designs can be divided into two main categories:

• Correlational and descriptive designs are used to investigate characteristics, averages, trends, and associations between variables.
• Experimental and quasi-experimental designs are used to test causal relationships .

Qualitative research designs tend to be more flexible. Common types of qualitative design include case study , ethnography , and grounded theory designs.

The priorities of a research design can vary depending on the field, but you usually have to specify:

• Your research questions and/or hypotheses
• Your overall approach (e.g., qualitative or quantitative )
• The type of design you’re using (e.g., a survey , experiment , or case study )
• Your data collection methods (e.g., questionnaires , observations)
• Your data collection procedures (e.g., operationalization , timing and data management)
• Your data analysis methods (e.g., statistical tests  or thematic analysis )

A sample is a subset of individuals from a larger population . Sampling means selecting the group that you will actually collect data from in your research. For example, if you are researching the opinions of students in your university, you could survey a sample of 100 students.

In statistics, sampling allows you to test a hypothesis about the characteristics of a population.

Operationalization means turning abstract conceptual ideas into measurable observations.

For example, the concept of social anxiety isn’t directly observable, but it can be operationally defined in terms of self-rating scores, behavioral avoidance of crowded places, or physical anxiety symptoms in social situations.

Before collecting data , it’s important to consider how you will operationalize the variables that you want to measure.

A research project is an academic, scientific, or professional undertaking to answer a research question . Research projects can take many forms, such as qualitative or quantitative , descriptive , longitudinal , experimental , or correlational . What kind of research approach you choose will depend on your topic.

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the “Cite this Scribbr article” button to automatically add the citation to our free Citation Generator.

McCombes, S. (2023, November 20). What Is a Research Design | Types, Guide & Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved April 17, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/research-design/

Is this article helpful?

Shona McCombes

Other students also liked, guide to experimental design | overview, steps, & examples, how to write a research proposal | examples & templates, ethical considerations in research | types & examples, what is your plagiarism score.

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

• Publications
• Account settings

Preview improvements coming to the PMC website in October 2024. Learn More or Try it out now .

• Advanced Search
• Journal List
• Neurol Res Pract

How to use and assess qualitative research methods

Loraine busetto.

1 Department of Neurology, Heidelberg University Hospital, Im Neuenheimer Feld 400, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany

Wolfgang Wick

2 Clinical Cooperation Unit Neuro-Oncology, German Cancer Research Center, Heidelberg, Germany

Christoph Gumbinger

Associated data.

Not applicable.

This paper aims to provide an overview of the use and assessment of qualitative research methods in the health sciences. Qualitative research can be defined as the study of the nature of phenomena and is especially appropriate for answering questions of why something is (not) observed, assessing complex multi-component interventions, and focussing on intervention improvement. The most common methods of data collection are document study, (non-) participant observations, semi-structured interviews and focus groups. For data analysis, field-notes and audio-recordings are transcribed into protocols and transcripts, and coded using qualitative data management software. Criteria such as checklists, reflexivity, sampling strategies, piloting, co-coding, member-checking and stakeholder involvement can be used to enhance and assess the quality of the research conducted. Using qualitative in addition to quantitative designs will equip us with better tools to address a greater range of research problems, and to fill in blind spots in current neurological research and practice.

The aim of this paper is to provide an overview of qualitative research methods, including hands-on information on how they can be used, reported and assessed. This article is intended for beginning qualitative researchers in the health sciences as well as experienced quantitative researchers who wish to broaden their understanding of qualitative research.

What is qualitative research?

Qualitative research is defined as “the study of the nature of phenomena”, including “their quality, different manifestations, the context in which they appear or the perspectives from which they can be perceived” , but excluding “their range, frequency and place in an objectively determined chain of cause and effect” [ 1 ]. This formal definition can be complemented with a more pragmatic rule of thumb: qualitative research generally includes data in form of words rather than numbers [ 2 ].

Why conduct qualitative research?

Because some research questions cannot be answered using (only) quantitative methods. For example, one Australian study addressed the issue of why patients from Aboriginal communities often present late or not at all to specialist services offered by tertiary care hospitals. Using qualitative interviews with patients and staff, it found one of the most significant access barriers to be transportation problems, including some towns and communities simply not having a bus service to the hospital [ 3 ]. A quantitative study could have measured the number of patients over time or even looked at possible explanatory factors – but only those previously known or suspected to be of relevance. To discover reasons for observed patterns, especially the invisible or surprising ones, qualitative designs are needed.

While qualitative research is common in other fields, it is still relatively underrepresented in health services research. The latter field is more traditionally rooted in the evidence-based-medicine paradigm, as seen in " research that involves testing the effectiveness of various strategies to achieve changes in clinical practice, preferably applying randomised controlled trial study designs (...) " [ 4 ]. This focus on quantitative research and specifically randomised controlled trials (RCT) is visible in the idea of a hierarchy of research evidence which assumes that some research designs are objectively better than others, and that choosing a "lesser" design is only acceptable when the better ones are not practically or ethically feasible [ 5 , 6 ]. Others, however, argue that an objective hierarchy does not exist, and that, instead, the research design and methods should be chosen to fit the specific research question at hand – "questions before methods" [ 2 , 7 – 9 ]. This means that even when an RCT is possible, some research problems require a different design that is better suited to addressing them. Arguing in JAMA, Berwick uses the example of rapid response teams in hospitals, which he describes as " a complex, multicomponent intervention – essentially a process of social change" susceptible to a range of different context factors including leadership or organisation history. According to him, "[in] such complex terrain, the RCT is an impoverished way to learn. Critics who use it as a truth standard in this context are incorrect" [ 8 ] . Instead of limiting oneself to RCTs, Berwick recommends embracing a wider range of methods , including qualitative ones, which for "these specific applications, (...) are not compromises in learning how to improve; they are superior" [ 8 ].

Research problems that can be approached particularly well using qualitative methods include assessing complex multi-component interventions or systems (of change), addressing questions beyond “what works”, towards “what works for whom when, how and why”, and focussing on intervention improvement rather than accreditation [ 7 , 9 – 12 ]. Using qualitative methods can also help shed light on the “softer” side of medical treatment. For example, while quantitative trials can measure the costs and benefits of neuro-oncological treatment in terms of survival rates or adverse effects, qualitative research can help provide a better understanding of patient or caregiver stress, visibility of illness or out-of-pocket expenses.

How to conduct qualitative research?

Given that qualitative research is characterised by flexibility, openness and responsivity to context, the steps of data collection and analysis are not as separate and consecutive as they tend to be in quantitative research [ 13 , 14 ]. As Fossey puts it : “sampling, data collection, analysis and interpretation are related to each other in a cyclical (iterative) manner, rather than following one after another in a stepwise approach” [ 15 ]. The researcher can make educated decisions with regard to the choice of method, how they are implemented, and to which and how many units they are applied [ 13 ]. As shown in Fig.  1 , this can involve several back-and-forth steps between data collection and analysis where new insights and experiences can lead to adaption and expansion of the original plan. Some insights may also necessitate a revision of the research question and/or the research design as a whole. The process ends when saturation is achieved, i.e. when no relevant new information can be found (see also below: sampling and saturation). For reasons of transparency, it is essential for all decisions as well as the underlying reasoning to be well-documented.

Iterative research process

While it is not always explicitly addressed, qualitative methods reflect a different underlying research paradigm than quantitative research (e.g. constructivism or interpretivism as opposed to positivism). The choice of methods can be based on the respective underlying substantive theory or theoretical framework used by the researcher [ 2 ].

Data collection

The methods of qualitative data collection most commonly used in health research are document study, observations, semi-structured interviews and focus groups [ 1 , 14 , 16 , 17 ].

Document study

Document study (also called document analysis) refers to the review by the researcher of written materials [ 14 ]. These can include personal and non-personal documents such as archives, annual reports, guidelines, policy documents, diaries or letters.

Observations

Observations are particularly useful to gain insights into a certain setting and actual behaviour – as opposed to reported behaviour or opinions [ 13 ]. Qualitative observations can be either participant or non-participant in nature. In participant observations, the observer is part of the observed setting, for example a nurse working in an intensive care unit [ 18 ]. In non-participant observations, the observer is “on the outside looking in”, i.e. present in but not part of the situation, trying not to influence the setting by their presence. Observations can be planned (e.g. for 3 h during the day or night shift) or ad hoc (e.g. as soon as a stroke patient arrives at the emergency room). During the observation, the observer takes notes on everything or certain pre-determined parts of what is happening around them, for example focusing on physician-patient interactions or communication between different professional groups. Written notes can be taken during or after the observations, depending on feasibility (which is usually lower during participant observations) and acceptability (e.g. when the observer is perceived to be judging the observed). Afterwards, these field notes are transcribed into observation protocols. If more than one observer was involved, field notes are taken independently, but notes can be consolidated into one protocol after discussions. Advantages of conducting observations include minimising the distance between the researcher and the researched, the potential discovery of topics that the researcher did not realise were relevant and gaining deeper insights into the real-world dimensions of the research problem at hand [ 18 ].

Semi-structured interviews

Hijmans & Kuyper describe qualitative interviews as “an exchange with an informal character, a conversation with a goal” [ 19 ]. Interviews are used to gain insights into a person’s subjective experiences, opinions and motivations – as opposed to facts or behaviours [ 13 ]. Interviews can be distinguished by the degree to which they are structured (i.e. a questionnaire), open (e.g. free conversation or autobiographical interviews) or semi-structured [ 2 , 13 ]. Semi-structured interviews are characterized by open-ended questions and the use of an interview guide (or topic guide/list) in which the broad areas of interest, sometimes including sub-questions, are defined [ 19 ]. The pre-defined topics in the interview guide can be derived from the literature, previous research or a preliminary method of data collection, e.g. document study or observations. The topic list is usually adapted and improved at the start of the data collection process as the interviewer learns more about the field [ 20 ]. Across interviews the focus on the different (blocks of) questions may differ and some questions may be skipped altogether (e.g. if the interviewee is not able or willing to answer the questions or for concerns about the total length of the interview) [ 20 ]. Qualitative interviews are usually not conducted in written format as it impedes on the interactive component of the method [ 20 ]. In comparison to written surveys, qualitative interviews have the advantage of being interactive and allowing for unexpected topics to emerge and to be taken up by the researcher. This can also help overcome a provider or researcher-centred bias often found in written surveys, which by nature, can only measure what is already known or expected to be of relevance to the researcher. Interviews can be audio- or video-taped; but sometimes it is only feasible or acceptable for the interviewer to take written notes [ 14 , 16 , 20 ].

Focus groups

Focus groups are group interviews to explore participants’ expertise and experiences, including explorations of how and why people behave in certain ways [ 1 ]. Focus groups usually consist of 6–8 people and are led by an experienced moderator following a topic guide or “script” [ 21 ]. They can involve an observer who takes note of the non-verbal aspects of the situation, possibly using an observation guide [ 21 ]. Depending on researchers’ and participants’ preferences, the discussions can be audio- or video-taped and transcribed afterwards [ 21 ]. Focus groups are useful for bringing together homogeneous (to a lesser extent heterogeneous) groups of participants with relevant expertise and experience on a given topic on which they can share detailed information [ 21 ]. Focus groups are a relatively easy, fast and inexpensive method to gain access to information on interactions in a given group, i.e. “the sharing and comparing” among participants [ 21 ]. Disadvantages include less control over the process and a lesser extent to which each individual may participate. Moreover, focus group moderators need experience, as do those tasked with the analysis of the resulting data. Focus groups can be less appropriate for discussing sensitive topics that participants might be reluctant to disclose in a group setting [ 13 ]. Moreover, attention must be paid to the emergence of “groupthink” as well as possible power dynamics within the group, e.g. when patients are awed or intimidated by health professionals.

Choosing the “right” method

As explained above, the school of thought underlying qualitative research assumes no objective hierarchy of evidence and methods. This means that each choice of single or combined methods has to be based on the research question that needs to be answered and a critical assessment with regard to whether or to what extent the chosen method can accomplish this – i.e. the “fit” between question and method [ 14 ]. It is necessary for these decisions to be documented when they are being made, and to be critically discussed when reporting methods and results.

Let us assume that our research aim is to examine the (clinical) processes around acute endovascular treatment (EVT), from the patient’s arrival at the emergency room to recanalization, with the aim to identify possible causes for delay and/or other causes for sub-optimal treatment outcome. As a first step, we could conduct a document study of the relevant standard operating procedures (SOPs) for this phase of care – are they up-to-date and in line with current guidelines? Do they contain any mistakes, irregularities or uncertainties that could cause delays or other problems? Regardless of the answers to these questions, the results have to be interpreted based on what they are: a written outline of what care processes in this hospital should look like. If we want to know what they actually look like in practice, we can conduct observations of the processes described in the SOPs. These results can (and should) be analysed in themselves, but also in comparison to the results of the document analysis, especially as regards relevant discrepancies. Do the SOPs outline specific tests for which no equipment can be observed or tasks to be performed by specialized nurses who are not present during the observation? It might also be possible that the written SOP is outdated, but the actual care provided is in line with current best practice. In order to find out why these discrepancies exist, it can be useful to conduct interviews. Are the physicians simply not aware of the SOPs (because their existence is limited to the hospital’s intranet) or do they actively disagree with them or does the infrastructure make it impossible to provide the care as described? Another rationale for adding interviews is that some situations (or all of their possible variations for different patient groups or the day, night or weekend shift) cannot practically or ethically be observed. In this case, it is possible to ask those involved to report on their actions – being aware that this is not the same as the actual observation. A senior physician’s or hospital manager’s description of certain situations might differ from a nurse’s or junior physician’s one, maybe because they intentionally misrepresent facts or maybe because different aspects of the process are visible or important to them. In some cases, it can also be relevant to consider to whom the interviewee is disclosing this information – someone they trust, someone they are otherwise not connected to, or someone they suspect or are aware of being in a potentially “dangerous” power relationship to them. Lastly, a focus group could be conducted with representatives of the relevant professional groups to explore how and why exactly they provide care around EVT. The discussion might reveal discrepancies (between SOPs and actual care or between different physicians) and motivations to the researchers as well as to the focus group members that they might not have been aware of themselves. For the focus group to deliver relevant information, attention has to be paid to its composition and conduct, for example, to make sure that all participants feel safe to disclose sensitive or potentially problematic information or that the discussion is not dominated by (senior) physicians only. The resulting combination of data collection methods is shown in Fig.  2 .

Possible combination of data collection methods

Attributions for icons: “Book” by Serhii Smirnov, “Interview” by Adrien Coquet, FR, “Magnifying Glass” by anggun, ID, “Business communication” by Vectors Market; all from the Noun Project

The combination of multiple data source as described for this example can be referred to as “triangulation”, in which multiple measurements are carried out from different angles to achieve a more comprehensive understanding of the phenomenon under study [ 22 , 23 ].

Data analysis

To analyse the data collected through observations, interviews and focus groups these need to be transcribed into protocols and transcripts (see Fig.  3 ). Interviews and focus groups can be transcribed verbatim , with or without annotations for behaviour (e.g. laughing, crying, pausing) and with or without phonetic transcription of dialects and filler words, depending on what is expected or known to be relevant for the analysis. In the next step, the protocols and transcripts are coded , that is, marked (or tagged, labelled) with one or more short descriptors of the content of a sentence or paragraph [ 2 , 15 , 23 ]. Jansen describes coding as “connecting the raw data with “theoretical” terms” [ 20 ]. In a more practical sense, coding makes raw data sortable. This makes it possible to extract and examine all segments describing, say, a tele-neurology consultation from multiple data sources (e.g. SOPs, emergency room observations, staff and patient interview). In a process of synthesis and abstraction, the codes are then grouped, summarised and/or categorised [ 15 , 20 ]. The end product of the coding or analysis process is a descriptive theory of the behavioural pattern under investigation [ 20 ]. The coding process is performed using qualitative data management software, the most common ones being InVivo, MaxQDA and Atlas.ti. It should be noted that these are data management tools which support the analysis performed by the researcher(s) [ 14 ].

From data collection to data analysis

Attributions for icons: see Fig. ​ Fig.2, 2 , also “Speech to text” by Trevor Dsouza, “Field Notes” by Mike O’Brien, US, “Voice Record” by ProSymbols, US, “Inspection” by Made, AU, and “Cloud” by Graphic Tigers; all from the Noun Project

How to report qualitative research?

Protocols of qualitative research can be published separately and in advance of the study results. However, the aim is not the same as in RCT protocols, i.e. to pre-define and set in stone the research questions and primary or secondary endpoints. Rather, it is a way to describe the research methods in detail, which might not be possible in the results paper given journals’ word limits. Qualitative research papers are usually longer than their quantitative counterparts to allow for deep understanding and so-called “thick description”. In the methods section, the focus is on transparency of the methods used, including why, how and by whom they were implemented in the specific study setting, so as to enable a discussion of whether and how this may have influenced data collection, analysis and interpretation. The results section usually starts with a paragraph outlining the main findings, followed by more detailed descriptions of, for example, the commonalities, discrepancies or exceptions per category [ 20 ]. Here it is important to support main findings by relevant quotations, which may add information, context, emphasis or real-life examples [ 20 , 23 ]. It is subject to debate in the field whether it is relevant to state the exact number or percentage of respondents supporting a certain statement (e.g. “Five interviewees expressed negative feelings towards XYZ”) [ 21 ].

How to combine qualitative with quantitative research?

Qualitative methods can be combined with other methods in multi- or mixed methods designs, which “[employ] two or more different methods [ …] within the same study or research program rather than confining the research to one single method” [ 24 ]. Reasons for combining methods can be diverse, including triangulation for corroboration of findings, complementarity for illustration and clarification of results, expansion to extend the breadth and range of the study, explanation of (unexpected) results generated with one method with the help of another, or offsetting the weakness of one method with the strength of another [ 1 , 17 , 24 – 26 ]. The resulting designs can be classified according to when, why and how the different quantitative and/or qualitative data strands are combined. The three most common types of mixed method designs are the convergent parallel design , the explanatory sequential design and the exploratory sequential design. The designs with examples are shown in Fig.  4 .

Three common mixed methods designs

In the convergent parallel design, a qualitative study is conducted in parallel to and independently of a quantitative study, and the results of both studies are compared and combined at the stage of interpretation of results. Using the above example of EVT provision, this could entail setting up a quantitative EVT registry to measure process times and patient outcomes in parallel to conducting the qualitative research outlined above, and then comparing results. Amongst other things, this would make it possible to assess whether interview respondents’ subjective impressions of patients receiving good care match modified Rankin Scores at follow-up, or whether observed delays in care provision are exceptions or the rule when compared to door-to-needle times as documented in the registry. In the explanatory sequential design, a quantitative study is carried out first, followed by a qualitative study to help explain the results from the quantitative study. This would be an appropriate design if the registry alone had revealed relevant delays in door-to-needle times and the qualitative study would be used to understand where and why these occurred, and how they could be improved. In the exploratory design, the qualitative study is carried out first and its results help informing and building the quantitative study in the next step [ 26 ]. If the qualitative study around EVT provision had shown a high level of dissatisfaction among the staff members involved, a quantitative questionnaire investigating staff satisfaction could be set up in the next step, informed by the qualitative study on which topics dissatisfaction had been expressed. Amongst other things, the questionnaire design would make it possible to widen the reach of the research to more respondents from different (types of) hospitals, regions, countries or settings, and to conduct sub-group analyses for different professional groups.

How to assess qualitative research?

A variety of assessment criteria and lists have been developed for qualitative research, ranging in their focus and comprehensiveness [ 14 , 17 , 27 ]. However, none of these has been elevated to the “gold standard” in the field. In the following, we therefore focus on a set of commonly used assessment criteria that, from a practical standpoint, a researcher can look for when assessing a qualitative research report or paper.

Assessors should check the authors’ use of and adherence to the relevant reporting checklists (e.g. Standards for Reporting Qualitative Research (SRQR)) to make sure all items that are relevant for this type of research are addressed [ 23 , 28 ]. Discussions of quantitative measures in addition to or instead of these qualitative measures can be a sign of lower quality of the research (paper). Providing and adhering to a checklist for qualitative research contributes to an important quality criterion for qualitative research, namely transparency [ 15 , 17 , 23 ].

Reflexivity

While methodological transparency and complete reporting is relevant for all types of research, some additional criteria must be taken into account for qualitative research. This includes what is called reflexivity, i.e. sensitivity to the relationship between the researcher and the researched, including how contact was established and maintained, or the background and experience of the researcher(s) involved in data collection and analysis. Depending on the research question and population to be researched this can be limited to professional experience, but it may also include gender, age or ethnicity [ 17 , 27 ]. These details are relevant because in qualitative research, as opposed to quantitative research, the researcher as a person cannot be isolated from the research process [ 23 ]. It may influence the conversation when an interviewed patient speaks to an interviewer who is a physician, or when an interviewee is asked to discuss a gynaecological procedure with a male interviewer, and therefore the reader must be made aware of these details [ 19 ].

Sampling and saturation

The aim of qualitative sampling is for all variants of the objects of observation that are deemed relevant for the study to be present in the sample “ to see the issue and its meanings from as many angles as possible” [ 1 , 16 , 19 , 20 , 27 ] , and to ensure “information-richness [ 15 ]. An iterative sampling approach is advised, in which data collection (e.g. five interviews) is followed by data analysis, followed by more data collection to find variants that are lacking in the current sample. This process continues until no new (relevant) information can be found and further sampling becomes redundant – which is called saturation [ 1 , 15 ] . In other words: qualitative data collection finds its end point not a priori , but when the research team determines that saturation has been reached [ 29 , 30 ].

This is also the reason why most qualitative studies use deliberate instead of random sampling strategies. This is generally referred to as “ purposive sampling” , in which researchers pre-define which types of participants or cases they need to include so as to cover all variations that are expected to be of relevance, based on the literature, previous experience or theory (i.e. theoretical sampling) [ 14 , 20 ]. Other types of purposive sampling include (but are not limited to) maximum variation sampling, critical case sampling or extreme or deviant case sampling [ 2 ]. In the above EVT example, a purposive sample could include all relevant professional groups and/or all relevant stakeholders (patients, relatives) and/or all relevant times of observation (day, night and weekend shift).

Assessors of qualitative research should check whether the considerations underlying the sampling strategy were sound and whether or how researchers tried to adapt and improve their strategies in stepwise or cyclical approaches between data collection and analysis to achieve saturation [ 14 ].

Good qualitative research is iterative in nature, i.e. it goes back and forth between data collection and analysis, revising and improving the approach where necessary. One example of this are pilot interviews, where different aspects of the interview (especially the interview guide, but also, for example, the site of the interview or whether the interview can be audio-recorded) are tested with a small number of respondents, evaluated and revised [ 19 ]. In doing so, the interviewer learns which wording or types of questions work best, or which is the best length of an interview with patients who have trouble concentrating for an extended time. Of course, the same reasoning applies to observations or focus groups which can also be piloted.

Ideally, coding should be performed by at least two researchers, especially at the beginning of the coding process when a common approach must be defined, including the establishment of a useful coding list (or tree), and when a common meaning of individual codes must be established [ 23 ]. An initial sub-set or all transcripts can be coded independently by the coders and then compared and consolidated after regular discussions in the research team. This is to make sure that codes are applied consistently to the research data.

Member checking

Member checking, also called respondent validation , refers to the practice of checking back with study respondents to see if the research is in line with their views [ 14 , 27 ]. This can happen after data collection or analysis or when first results are available [ 23 ]. For example, interviewees can be provided with (summaries of) their transcripts and asked whether they believe this to be a complete representation of their views or whether they would like to clarify or elaborate on their responses [ 17 ]. Respondents’ feedback on these issues then becomes part of the data collection and analysis [ 27 ].

Stakeholder involvement

In those niches where qualitative approaches have been able to evolve and grow, a new trend has seen the inclusion of patients and their representatives not only as study participants (i.e. “members”, see above) but as consultants to and active participants in the broader research process [ 31 – 33 ]. The underlying assumption is that patients and other stakeholders hold unique perspectives and experiences that add value beyond their own single story, making the research more relevant and beneficial to researchers, study participants and (future) patients alike [ 34 , 35 ]. Using the example of patients on or nearing dialysis, a recent scoping review found that 80% of clinical research did not address the top 10 research priorities identified by patients and caregivers [ 32 , 36 ]. In this sense, the involvement of the relevant stakeholders, especially patients and relatives, is increasingly being seen as a quality indicator in and of itself.

How not to assess qualitative research

The above overview does not include certain items that are routine in assessments of quantitative research. What follows is a non-exhaustive, non-representative, experience-based list of the quantitative criteria often applied to the assessment of qualitative research, as well as an explanation of the limited usefulness of these endeavours.

Protocol adherence

Given the openness and flexibility of qualitative research, it should not be assessed by how well it adheres to pre-determined and fixed strategies – in other words: its rigidity. Instead, the assessor should look for signs of adaptation and refinement based on lessons learned from earlier steps in the research process.

Sample size

For the reasons explained above, qualitative research does not require specific sample sizes, nor does it require that the sample size be determined a priori [ 1 , 14 , 27 , 37 – 39 ]. Sample size can only be a useful quality indicator when related to the research purpose, the chosen methodology and the composition of the sample, i.e. who was included and why.

Randomisation

While some authors argue that randomisation can be used in qualitative research, this is not commonly the case, as neither its feasibility nor its necessity or usefulness has been convincingly established for qualitative research [ 13 , 27 ]. Relevant disadvantages include the negative impact of a too large sample size as well as the possibility (or probability) of selecting “ quiet, uncooperative or inarticulate individuals ” [ 17 ]. Qualitative studies do not use control groups, either.

Interrater reliability, variability and other “objectivity checks”

The concept of “interrater reliability” is sometimes used in qualitative research to assess to which extent the coding approach overlaps between the two co-coders. However, it is not clear what this measure tells us about the quality of the analysis [ 23 ]. This means that these scores can be included in qualitative research reports, preferably with some additional information on what the score means for the analysis, but it is not a requirement. Relatedly, it is not relevant for the quality or “objectivity” of qualitative research to separate those who recruited the study participants and collected and analysed the data. Experiences even show that it might be better to have the same person or team perform all of these tasks [ 20 ]. First, when researchers introduce themselves during recruitment this can enhance trust when the interview takes place days or weeks later with the same researcher. Second, when the audio-recording is transcribed for analysis, the researcher conducting the interviews will usually remember the interviewee and the specific interview situation during data analysis. This might be helpful in providing additional context information for interpretation of data, e.g. on whether something might have been meant as a joke [ 18 ].

Not being quantitative research

Being qualitative research instead of quantitative research should not be used as an assessment criterion if it is used irrespectively of the research problem at hand. Similarly, qualitative research should not be required to be combined with quantitative research per se – unless mixed methods research is judged as inherently better than single-method research. In this case, the same criterion should be applied for quantitative studies without a qualitative component.

The main take-away points of this paper are summarised in Table ​ Table1. 1 . We aimed to show that, if conducted well, qualitative research can answer specific research questions that cannot to be adequately answered using (only) quantitative designs. Seeing qualitative and quantitative methods as equal will help us become more aware and critical of the “fit” between the research problem and our chosen methods: I can conduct an RCT to determine the reasons for transportation delays of acute stroke patients – but should I? It also provides us with a greater range of tools to tackle a greater range of research problems more appropriately and successfully, filling in the blind spots on one half of the methodological spectrum to better address the whole complexity of neurological research and practice.

Take-away-points

Acknowledgements

Abbreviations, authors’ contributions.

LB drafted the manuscript; WW and CG revised the manuscript; all authors approved the final versions.

no external funding.

Availability of data and materials

Ethics approval and consent to participate, consent for publication, competing interests.

The authors declare no competing interests.

Publisher’s Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

• Privacy Policy

Buy Me a Coffee

Home » Research Paper – Structure, Examples and Writing Guide

Research Paper – Structure, Examples and Writing Guide

Table of Contents

Research Paper

Definition:

Research Paper is a written document that presents the author’s original research, analysis, and interpretation of a specific topic or issue.

It is typically based on Empirical Evidence, and may involve qualitative or quantitative research methods, or a combination of both. The purpose of a research paper is to contribute new knowledge or insights to a particular field of study, and to demonstrate the author’s understanding of the existing literature and theories related to the topic.

Structure of Research Paper

The structure of a research paper typically follows a standard format, consisting of several sections that convey specific information about the research study. The following is a detailed explanation of the structure of a research paper:

The title page contains the title of the paper, the name(s) of the author(s), and the affiliation(s) of the author(s). It also includes the date of submission and possibly, the name of the journal or conference where the paper is to be published.

The abstract is a brief summary of the research paper, typically ranging from 100 to 250 words. It should include the research question, the methods used, the key findings, and the implications of the results. The abstract should be written in a concise and clear manner to allow readers to quickly grasp the essence of the research.

Introduction

The introduction section of a research paper provides background information about the research problem, the research question, and the research objectives. It also outlines the significance of the research, the research gap that it aims to fill, and the approach taken to address the research question. Finally, the introduction section ends with a clear statement of the research hypothesis or research question.

Literature Review

The literature review section of a research paper provides an overview of the existing literature on the topic of study. It includes a critical analysis and synthesis of the literature, highlighting the key concepts, themes, and debates. The literature review should also demonstrate the research gap and how the current study seeks to address it.

The methods section of a research paper describes the research design, the sample selection, the data collection and analysis procedures, and the statistical methods used to analyze the data. This section should provide sufficient detail for other researchers to replicate the study.

The results section presents the findings of the research, using tables, graphs, and figures to illustrate the data. The findings should be presented in a clear and concise manner, with reference to the research question and hypothesis.

The discussion section of a research paper interprets the findings and discusses their implications for the research question, the literature review, and the field of study. It should also address the limitations of the study and suggest future research directions.

The conclusion section summarizes the main findings of the study, restates the research question and hypothesis, and provides a final reflection on the significance of the research.

The references section provides a list of all the sources cited in the paper, following a specific citation style such as APA, MLA or Chicago.

How to Write Research Paper

You can write Research Paper by the following guide:

• Choose a Topic: The first step is to select a topic that interests you and is relevant to your field of study. Brainstorm ideas and narrow down to a research question that is specific and researchable.
• Conduct a Literature Review: The literature review helps you identify the gap in the existing research and provides a basis for your research question. It also helps you to develop a theoretical framework and research hypothesis.
• Develop a Thesis Statement : The thesis statement is the main argument of your research paper. It should be clear, concise and specific to your research question.
• Plan your Research: Develop a research plan that outlines the methods, data sources, and data analysis procedures. This will help you to collect and analyze data effectively.
• Collect and Analyze Data: Collect data using various methods such as surveys, interviews, observations, or experiments. Analyze data using statistical tools or other qualitative methods.
• Organize your Paper : Organize your paper into sections such as Introduction, Literature Review, Methods, Results, Discussion, and Conclusion. Ensure that each section is coherent and follows a logical flow.
• Write your Paper : Start by writing the introduction, followed by the literature review, methods, results, discussion, and conclusion. Ensure that your writing is clear, concise, and follows the required formatting and citation styles.
• Edit and Proofread your Paper: Review your paper for grammar and spelling errors, and ensure that it is well-structured and easy to read. Ask someone else to review your paper to get feedback and suggestions for improvement.
• Cite your Sources: Ensure that you properly cite all sources used in your research paper. This is essential for giving credit to the original authors and avoiding plagiarism.

Research Paper Example

Note : The below example research paper is for illustrative purposes only and is not an actual research paper. Actual research papers may have different structures, contents, and formats depending on the field of study, research question, data collection and analysis methods, and other factors. Students should always consult with their professors or supervisors for specific guidelines and expectations for their research papers.

Research Paper Example sample for Students:

Title: The Impact of Social Media on Mental Health among Young Adults

Abstract: This study aims to investigate the impact of social media use on the mental health of young adults. A literature review was conducted to examine the existing research on the topic. A survey was then administered to 200 university students to collect data on their social media use, mental health status, and perceived impact of social media on their mental health. The results showed that social media use is positively associated with depression, anxiety, and stress. The study also found that social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO (Fear of Missing Out) are significant predictors of mental health problems among young adults.

Introduction: Social media has become an integral part of modern life, particularly among young adults. While social media has many benefits, including increased communication and social connectivity, it has also been associated with negative outcomes, such as addiction, cyberbullying, and mental health problems. This study aims to investigate the impact of social media use on the mental health of young adults.

Literature Review: The literature review highlights the existing research on the impact of social media use on mental health. The review shows that social media use is associated with depression, anxiety, stress, and other mental health problems. The review also identifies the factors that contribute to the negative impact of social media, including social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO.

Methods : A survey was administered to 200 university students to collect data on their social media use, mental health status, and perceived impact of social media on their mental health. The survey included questions on social media use, mental health status (measured using the DASS-21), and perceived impact of social media on their mental health. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and regression analysis.

Results : The results showed that social media use is positively associated with depression, anxiety, and stress. The study also found that social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO are significant predictors of mental health problems among young adults.

Discussion : The study’s findings suggest that social media use has a negative impact on the mental health of young adults. The study highlights the need for interventions that address the factors contributing to the negative impact of social media, such as social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO.

Conclusion : In conclusion, social media use has a significant impact on the mental health of young adults. The study’s findings underscore the need for interventions that promote healthy social media use and address the negative outcomes associated with social media use. Future research can explore the effectiveness of interventions aimed at reducing the negative impact of social media on mental health. Additionally, longitudinal studies can investigate the long-term effects of social media use on mental health.

Limitations : The study has some limitations, including the use of self-report measures and a cross-sectional design. The use of self-report measures may result in biased responses, and a cross-sectional design limits the ability to establish causality.

Implications: The study’s findings have implications for mental health professionals, educators, and policymakers. Mental health professionals can use the findings to develop interventions that address the negative impact of social media use on mental health. Educators can incorporate social media literacy into their curriculum to promote healthy social media use among young adults. Policymakers can use the findings to develop policies that protect young adults from the negative outcomes associated with social media use.

References :

• Twenge, J. M., & Campbell, W. K. (2019). Associations between screen time and lower psychological well-being among children and adolescents: Evidence from a population-based study. Preventive medicine reports, 15, 100918.
• Primack, B. A., Shensa, A., Escobar-Viera, C. G., Barrett, E. L., Sidani, J. E., Colditz, J. B., … & James, A. E. (2017). Use of multiple social media platforms and symptoms of depression and anxiety: A nationally-representative study among US young adults. Computers in Human Behavior, 69, 1-9.
• Van der Meer, T. G., & Verhoeven, J. W. (2017). Social media and its impact on academic performance of students. Journal of Information Technology Education: Research, 16, 383-398.

Appendix : The survey used in this study is provided below.

Social Media and Mental Health Survey

• How often do you use social media per day?
• Less than 30 minutes
• 30 minutes to 1 hour
• 1 to 2 hours
• 2 to 4 hours
• More than 4 hours
• Which social media platforms do you use?
• Others (Please specify)
• How often do you experience the following on social media?
• Social comparison (comparing yourself to others)
• Cyberbullying
• Fear of Missing Out (FOMO)
• Have you ever experienced any of the following mental health problems in the past month?
• Do you think social media use has a positive or negative impact on your mental health?
• Very positive
• Somewhat positive
• Somewhat negative
• Very negative
• In your opinion, which factors contribute to the negative impact of social media on mental health?
• Social comparison
• In your opinion, what interventions could be effective in reducing the negative impact of social media on mental health?
• Education on healthy social media use
• Counseling for mental health problems caused by social media
• Social media detox programs
• Regulation of social media use

Thank you for your participation!

Applications of Research Paper

Research papers have several applications in various fields, including:

• Advancing knowledge: Research papers contribute to the advancement of knowledge by generating new insights, theories, and findings that can inform future research and practice. They help to answer important questions, clarify existing knowledge, and identify areas that require further investigation.
• Informing policy: Research papers can inform policy decisions by providing evidence-based recommendations for policymakers. They can help to identify gaps in current policies, evaluate the effectiveness of interventions, and inform the development of new policies and regulations.
• Improving practice: Research papers can improve practice by providing evidence-based guidance for professionals in various fields, including medicine, education, business, and psychology. They can inform the development of best practices, guidelines, and standards of care that can improve outcomes for individuals and organizations.
• Educating students : Research papers are often used as teaching tools in universities and colleges to educate students about research methods, data analysis, and academic writing. They help students to develop critical thinking skills, research skills, and communication skills that are essential for success in many careers.
• Fostering collaboration: Research papers can foster collaboration among researchers, practitioners, and policymakers by providing a platform for sharing knowledge and ideas. They can facilitate interdisciplinary collaborations and partnerships that can lead to innovative solutions to complex problems.

When to Write Research Paper

Research papers are typically written when a person has completed a research project or when they have conducted a study and have obtained data or findings that they want to share with the academic or professional community. Research papers are usually written in academic settings, such as universities, but they can also be written in professional settings, such as research organizations, government agencies, or private companies.

Here are some common situations where a person might need to write a research paper:

• For academic purposes: Students in universities and colleges are often required to write research papers as part of their coursework, particularly in the social sciences, natural sciences, and humanities. Writing research papers helps students to develop research skills, critical thinking skills, and academic writing skills.
• For publication: Researchers often write research papers to publish their findings in academic journals or to present their work at academic conferences. Publishing research papers is an important way to disseminate research findings to the academic community and to establish oneself as an expert in a particular field.
• To inform policy or practice : Researchers may write research papers to inform policy decisions or to improve practice in various fields. Research findings can be used to inform the development of policies, guidelines, and best practices that can improve outcomes for individuals and organizations.
• To share new insights or ideas: Researchers may write research papers to share new insights or ideas with the academic or professional community. They may present new theories, propose new research methods, or challenge existing paradigms in their field.

Purpose of Research Paper

The purpose of a research paper is to present the results of a study or investigation in a clear, concise, and structured manner. Research papers are written to communicate new knowledge, ideas, or findings to a specific audience, such as researchers, scholars, practitioners, or policymakers. The primary purposes of a research paper are:

• To contribute to the body of knowledge : Research papers aim to add new knowledge or insights to a particular field or discipline. They do this by reporting the results of empirical studies, reviewing and synthesizing existing literature, proposing new theories, or providing new perspectives on a topic.
• To inform or persuade: Research papers are written to inform or persuade the reader about a particular issue, topic, or phenomenon. They present evidence and arguments to support their claims and seek to persuade the reader of the validity of their findings or recommendations.
• To advance the field: Research papers seek to advance the field or discipline by identifying gaps in knowledge, proposing new research questions or approaches, or challenging existing assumptions or paradigms. They aim to contribute to ongoing debates and discussions within a field and to stimulate further research and inquiry.
• To demonstrate research skills: Research papers demonstrate the author’s research skills, including their ability to design and conduct a study, collect and analyze data, and interpret and communicate findings. They also demonstrate the author’s ability to critically evaluate existing literature, synthesize information from multiple sources, and write in a clear and structured manner.

Characteristics of Research Paper

Research papers have several characteristics that distinguish them from other forms of academic or professional writing. Here are some common characteristics of research papers:

• Evidence-based: Research papers are based on empirical evidence, which is collected through rigorous research methods such as experiments, surveys, observations, or interviews. They rely on objective data and facts to support their claims and conclusions.
• Structured and organized: Research papers have a clear and logical structure, with sections such as introduction, literature review, methods, results, discussion, and conclusion. They are organized in a way that helps the reader to follow the argument and understand the findings.
• Formal and objective: Research papers are written in a formal and objective tone, with an emphasis on clarity, precision, and accuracy. They avoid subjective language or personal opinions and instead rely on objective data and analysis to support their arguments.
• Citations and references: Research papers include citations and references to acknowledge the sources of information and ideas used in the paper. They use a specific citation style, such as APA, MLA, or Chicago, to ensure consistency and accuracy.
• Peer-reviewed: Research papers are often peer-reviewed, which means they are evaluated by other experts in the field before they are published. Peer-review ensures that the research is of high quality, meets ethical standards, and contributes to the advancement of knowledge in the field.
• Objective and unbiased: Research papers strive to be objective and unbiased in their presentation of the findings. They avoid personal biases or preconceptions and instead rely on the data and analysis to draw conclusions.

Advantages of Research Paper

Research papers have many advantages, both for the individual researcher and for the broader academic and professional community. Here are some advantages of research papers:

• Contribution to knowledge: Research papers contribute to the body of knowledge in a particular field or discipline. They add new information, insights, and perspectives to existing literature and help advance the understanding of a particular phenomenon or issue.
• Opportunity for intellectual growth: Research papers provide an opportunity for intellectual growth for the researcher. They require critical thinking, problem-solving, and creativity, which can help develop the researcher’s skills and knowledge.
• Career advancement: Research papers can help advance the researcher’s career by demonstrating their expertise and contributions to the field. They can also lead to new research opportunities, collaborations, and funding.
• Academic recognition: Research papers can lead to academic recognition in the form of awards, grants, or invitations to speak at conferences or events. They can also contribute to the researcher’s reputation and standing in the field.
• Impact on policy and practice: Research papers can have a significant impact on policy and practice. They can inform policy decisions, guide practice, and lead to changes in laws, regulations, or procedures.
• Advancement of society: Research papers can contribute to the advancement of society by addressing important issues, identifying solutions to problems, and promoting social justice and equality.

Limitations of Research Paper

Research papers also have some limitations that should be considered when interpreting their findings or implications. Here are some common limitations of research papers:

• Limited generalizability: Research findings may not be generalizable to other populations, settings, or contexts. Studies often use specific samples or conditions that may not reflect the broader population or real-world situations.
• Potential for bias : Research papers may be biased due to factors such as sample selection, measurement errors, or researcher biases. It is important to evaluate the quality of the research design and methods used to ensure that the findings are valid and reliable.
• Ethical concerns: Research papers may raise ethical concerns, such as the use of vulnerable populations or invasive procedures. Researchers must adhere to ethical guidelines and obtain informed consent from participants to ensure that the research is conducted in a responsible and respectful manner.
• Limitations of methodology: Research papers may be limited by the methodology used to collect and analyze data. For example, certain research methods may not capture the complexity or nuance of a particular phenomenon, or may not be appropriate for certain research questions.
• Publication bias: Research papers may be subject to publication bias, where positive or significant findings are more likely to be published than negative or non-significant findings. This can skew the overall findings of a particular area of research.
• Time and resource constraints: Research papers may be limited by time and resource constraints, which can affect the quality and scope of the research. Researchers may not have access to certain data or resources, or may be unable to conduct long-term studies due to practical limitations.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

You may also like

How to Cite Research Paper – All Formats and...

Data Collection – Methods Types and Examples

Delimitations in Research – Types, Examples and...

Research Paper Format – Types, Examples and...

Research Process – Steps, Examples and Tips

Research Design – Types, Methods and Examples

•   SMU Libraries
• Scholarship & Research
• Teaching & Learning
• Bridwell Library
• Business Library
• DeGolyer Library
• Fondren Library
• Hamon Arts Library
• Underwood Law Library
• Fort Burgwin Library
• Exhibits & Digital Collections
• SMU Scholar
• Special Collections & Archives
• Connect With Us
• Research Guides by Subject
• How Do I . . . ? Guides
• Find Your Librarian
• Writing Support

Types of Research Papers: Overview

A research paper is simply a piece of writing that uses outside sources. There are different types of research papers with varying purposes and expectations for sourcing.

While this guide explains those differences broadly, disciplines and assignments vary. Ask your professor for clarification on the purpose and types of appropriate research questions and sources.

Need More Help?

Related guides.

• Literature Reviews
• Annotated Bibliographies
• Starting Your Research

Research and Writing Lab

Need last minute help but didn't book an appointment? Every week we offer online drop-in labs.

Tuesdays 3:00pm - 4:30pm via Zoom @   https://smu.zoom.us/j/92637892352  and in-person, Fondren Red 1st floor (near elevators)

• Last Updated: Apr 12, 2024 1:00 PM
• URL: https://guides.smu.edu/researchpapertypes

This paper is in the following e-collection/theme issue:

Published on 17.4.2024 in Vol 26 (2024)

This is a member publication of University College London (Jisc)

Twitter Analysis of Health Care Workers’ Sentiment and Discourse Regarding Post–COVID-19 Condition in Children and Young People: Mixed Methods Study

Authors of this article:

Original Paper

• Macarena Chepo 1 * , RN, BSN, MPH, PhD   ; 
• Sam Martin 2, 3 * , MSc, PhD   ; 
• Noémie Déom 2 , MSc   ; 
• Ahmad Firas Khalid 4 , MD, PhD   ; 
• Cecilia Vindrola-Padros 2 , BA, MA, PhD  

1 School of Nursing, Universidad Andrés Bello, Santiago, Chile

2 Department of Targeted Intervention, University College London, London, United Kingdom

3 Oxford Vaccine Group, Churchill Hospital, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom

4 Canadian Institutes of Health Research Health System Impact Fellowship, Centre for Implementation Research, Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, Otawa, ON, Canada

*these authors contributed equally

Corresponding Author:

Sam Martin, MSc, PhD

Department of Targeted Intervention

University College London

Charles Bell House 43-45

Foley Street

London, W1W 7TY

United Kingdom

Phone: 44 (0)20 3108 3232

Email: [email protected]

Background: The COVID-19 pandemic has had a significant global impact, with millions of cases and deaths. Research highlights the persistence of symptoms over time (post–COVID-19 condition), a situation of particular concern in children and young people with symptoms. Social media such as Twitter (subsequently rebranded as X) could provide valuable information on the impact of the post–COVID-19 condition on this demographic.

Objective: With a social media analysis of the discourse surrounding the prevalence of post–COVID-19 condition in children and young people, we aimed to explore the perceptions of health care workers (HCWs) concerning post–COVID-19 condition in children and young people in the United Kingdom between January 2021 and January 2022. This will allow us to contribute to the emerging knowledge on post–COVID-19 condition and identify critical areas and future directions for researchers and policy makers.

Methods: From a pragmatic paradigm, we used a mixed methods approach. Through discourse, keyword, sentiment, and image analyses, using Pulsar and InfraNodus, we analyzed the discourse about the experience of post–COVID-19 condition in children and young people in the United Kingdom shared on Twitter between January 1, 2021, and January 31, 2022, from a sample of HCWs with Twitter accounts whose biography identifies them as HCWs.

Results: We obtained 300,000 tweets, out of which (after filtering for relevant tweets) we performed an in-depth qualitative sample analysis of 2588 tweets. The HCWs were responsive to announcements issued by the authorities regarding the management of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom. The most frequent sentiment expressed was negative. The main themes were uncertainty about the future, policies and regulations, managing and addressing the COVID-19 pandemic and post–COVID-19 condition in children and young people, vaccination, using Twitter to share scientific literature and management strategies, and clinical and personal experiences.

Conclusions: The perceptions described on Twitter by HCWs concerning the presence of the post–COVID-19 condition in children and young people appear to be a relevant and timely issue and responsive to the declarations and guidelines issued by health authorities over time. We recommend further support and training strategies for health workers and school staff regarding the manifestations and treatment of children and young people with post–COVID-19 condition.

Introduction

More than 3 years after the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic [ 1 ], the social, political, and economic impact of this phenomenon has been more than significant, considering >700 million worldwide cases and nearly 7 million people’s deaths [ 2 ]. Given the scale of the phenomenon, it is imperative for all countries to thoroughly examine the lessons gleaned from the pandemic, particularly regarding a matter that has raised significant concern among the populace: the long-term effects experienced by individuals who have had COVID-19, spanning weeks, months, or even years after their initial infection [ 3 ]. This phenomenon, referred to as post–COVID-19 condition (or more commonly “long COVID”), warrants careful consideration and analysis [ 4 ].

There is increasing information regarding the clinical manifestation of this condition, particularly in the adult population. The worldwide prevalence has been estimated at approximately 50% to 70% in individuals hospitalized during acute COVID-19 infection and 10% to 12% in vaccinated cases [ 5 ]. While children and young people have a low likelihood of severe COVID-19 infection [ 6 ], the information available to date indicates that the presence of post–COVID-19 condition in this group may be as disabling as in adults, reaching a prevalence rate of 23.4% (range 3.7%-66.5%) [ 7 ].

An agreed definition by the World Health Organization indicates that post–COVID-19 condition in children and young people is a condition that occurs “in individuals with a history of confirmed or probable SARS-CoV-2 infection when experiencing symptoms lasting at least two months which initially occurred within three months of acute COVID-19” [ 8 ]. Post–COVID-19 condition strongly impacts daily functioning and can develop or continue after COVID-19 infection and may fluctuate or relapse over time [ 4 , 8 , 9 ].

Among the symptoms most frequently attributable to post–COVID-19 condition in children and young people are fatigue, altered smell or anosmia, and anxiety [ 8 ]. However, other symptoms have also been reported, such as sleep disturbances, difficulty in concentrating, abdominal pain, myalgia or arthralgia, earache or ringing in ears, mood swings, persistent chest pain, stomach pain, light sensitivity, diarrhea, heart palpitations, and skin lesions [ 8 , 10 ]. One of England’s most significant studies is the Children and Young People With Long COVID study by Stephenson et al [ 11 ]. This national research matched longitudinal and cohort studies in adolescent individuals aged 11 to 17 years and found the presence of symptoms in 35.4% of the adolescent individuals who tested positive at baseline and 8.3% who of the adolescent individuals who tested negative at baseline. A total of 3 months after testing, 66.5% of those who tested positive and 53.3% of those who tested negative had any symptoms [ 11 ]. However, Stephenson et al [ 12 ] recently indicated that in a 6-month follow-up, the prevalence of specific symptoms reported at the time of the polymerase chain reaction testing decreased over time, where, for example, the prevalence of chills, fever, myalgia, cough, and sore throat among those who tested positive decreased from 10% to 25% to <3%.

As research on the symptoms, prevalence, and treatment of post–COVID-19 condition in children and young people continues, it is essential to add to the literature by developing studies that determine the condition’s impact on this group, considering that they are experiencing a range of unwanted symptoms that disrupt their quality of life and that of their families.

Considering that listening to the voices of families and health workers could be helpful to broaden the knowledge achieved in post–COVID-19 condition in children and young people, a powerful tool could be social media, such as Twitter (subsequently rebranded as X). With >3729 million daily active users, Twitter has become one of the most important social platforms in the world [ 13 ]. People used Twitter during the COVID-19 pandemic for different purposes, such as world leaders communicating with citizens [ 14 , 15 ], organizations monitoring movement [ 16 ], scientists studying public discourse around the pandemic [ 17 , 18 ], and researchers performing sentiment analysis [ 19 - 21 ]. In the case of physicians and health care workers (HCWs), Twitter has been used to share and evaluate scientific evidence, guidelines, and technical advice [ 22 - 24 ] and track the course and burden of disease [ 25 ].

Using the social media monitoring platform Pulsar [ 26 ], we aimed to explore HCWs’ perceptions concerning post–COVID condition in children and young people in the United Kingdom between January 2021 and January 2022. We aimed to contribute to the emerging knowledge on post–COVID-19 condition in children and young people and identify critical areas and future directions for researchers and policy makers.

We considered a mixed methods approach to be a pragmatic research paradigm. We analyzed data by conducting a Collaborative and Digital Analysis of Big Qualitative Data in Time Sensitive Contexts (LISTEN) [ 27 ]. This mixed methods analysis consisted of iterative cycles intercalating team discussion and using digital text and discourse analytics tools to analyze related social media data [ 27 ]. We used the LISTEN method to perform quantitative and qualitative analyses of Twitter posts, extracted through the Pulsar platform [ 26 ], related to the experience of post–COVID-19 condition in children and young people in the United Kingdom (eg, phrases, words, hashtags, videos, and images), published between January 1, 2021, and January 31, 2022. We created an advanced Boolean search for keywords mentioning “long COVID” and corelated words, hashtags, and symptoms; furthermore, we filtered for user accounts who identified as HCWs in their Twitter biography description ( Multimedia Appendix 1 ).

Quantitative analysis of all tweets included the following: (1) engagement analysis, where we specifically measured reactions to posts, for example, a retweet, a share, or a comment or quote made toward a tweet; (2) sentiment and emotion analysis, where we measured the positive or negative sentiment in the words and tone of each post within the context of post–COVID-19 condition and HCW’s roles ( Multimedia Appendix 2 ); (3) emotion analysis, where we measured the emotions expressed in the tweets, classified as sadness, anger, disgust, fear, and joy; (4) frequency analysis, where we observed the frequency of keywords and themes in the data set; (5) segmentation analysis, where we measured the key connections or relationships between keywords and their frequent use in the same context; (6) demographic analysis, where we measured the occupation, gender (man or woman or nonbinary or unknown), and city of origin related to the users posting tweets; and (7) analyses, where we evaluated the most influential accounts and the most mentioned websites.

Big qualitative analysis was carried out through thematic discourse analysis of the data sample, using InfraNodus [ 28 ], specifically analyzing the key themes and topics of concern expressed throughout the data set. A codebook was constructed based on the mapping of themes agreed upon by 3 researchers (ND, SM, and MC; Multimedia Appendix 3 ).

The principal investigators (ND, AFK, SM, and MC) interpreted and analyzed the data collected, following the recommendations for rigorous research provided by Creswell and Poth [ 29 ]. Using the LISTEN method [ 27 ], we aimed to show that the integration of qualitative insights through thematic analysis with the quantitative backing of topic modeling can offer a comprehensive view of the discourse. This mixed methods approach allows us to capture the richness of qualitative data while leveraging the objectivity of quantitative measures. Our initial data harvest of the larger corpus data from the Pulsar platform captured 300,000 tweets; this data harvest helped to underpin the software’s sentiment analysis modeling of this specific data set, providing a robust quantitative foundation. The addition of further qualitative data analyses from a smaller qualitative sample allowed for an in-depth understanding of nuanced conversations, particularly when exploring new or complex phenomena such as post–COVID-19 condition in children and young people, with the provision of insights into the context, subtext, and sentiment behind the tweets offering valuable snapshots of public perception and discourse. We used an iterative mixed methods approach, iterating between team discussions and using digital analytics tools to discern relevant themes from the Twitter data corpus. Specifically, we used InfraNodus for thematic analysis, which incorporates a topic modeling script for analyzing and identifying key topics of concern with a data set and provides a structured and objective interpretation of the data. The coding process involved 3 independent researchers (MC, SM, and ND), each with expertise in health care, social network analysis, and digital global health. When initial coding disagreements arose, we meticulously tagged any queries and discussed the posts in question. These instances led to 3 structured meetings wherein the research team deliberated collaboratively to resolve conflicting interpretations. This approach resulted in an 81.99% (2122/2588) initial intercoder agreement rate for the tweets analyzed. For the remaining instances where consensus was not initially reached, the majority rule was applied to finalize theme codings. To quantify the reliability of our coding procedure, with 81.99% (2122/2588) of the tweets coded identically, we used the Cohen κ score, which provides a measure of interrater agreement adjusted for chance. Including the calculation of all variations, this score was calculated to be approximately κ=0.70, indicating good agreement among the coders.

Ethical Considerations

The study only collected data from publicly accessible social networks that have been anonymized by various means, particularly by replacing all usernames and links with anonymous text and summaries of tweets that have been edited, retaining the original message, avoiding direct quotations being identifiable, and ensuring that no information is provided on the identity of the individuals who posted the content studied on the platform.

Internet research requires researchers to carefully consider guidelines to determine whether ethics approval and informed consent are needed [ 30 ]. On the basis of the terms set out by the Research Ethics Committee at the University College London [ 31 ], the study was considered exempt from formal ethics approval for the following reasons: (1) study involving information freely available in the public domain, such as published biographies, newspaper accounts of an individual’s activities, and published minutes of a meeting, that although is considered personal under the Data Protection Act, would not require ethics review; and (2) study involving anonymized records and data sets in the public domain, such as data sets available through the Office for National Statistics or the UK Data Archive where appropriate permissions have already been obtained and it is not possible to identify individuals from the information provided.

Therefore, we anonymized all records and data sets collected during the study to make identification impossible. We removed social media usernames from the data samples. No direct or easily traceable quotes have been included. These measures align with best practices [ 32 - 35 ]. While this study was beyond the scope of the human ethics committee, we adhered to the principles of ethics: beneficence, nonmaleficence, autonomy, and justice [ 36 ]. We collected and analyzed data through secure encrypted servers via the Meltwater and InfraNodus platforms.

Audience Analysis

During the period from January 2021 to January 2022, we obtained 300,000 tweets from 936 accounts. After filtering for relevant posts (refer to inclusion and exclusion criteria in Multimedia Appendix 1 ), we analyzed a sample of 2588 tweets using mixed methods analysis. In terms of gender (man, woman, nonbinary, or unknown), 32.88% (851/2588) were female individuals, 23.49% (608/2588) were male individuals, and 43.59% (1128/2588) were unknown. According to the description given in the user’s biography, the most frequently self-reported terms were “NHS” (582/2588, 22.49%), “health” (230/2588, 8.89%), “medical” (168/2588, 6.49%), “nurse” (166/2588, 6.41%), “clinical” (160/2588, 6.18%), “mum” (158/2588, 6.11%), “doctor” (145/2588, 5.6%), and “GP” (145/2588, 5.6%). In terms of city, tweets came mainly from London (958/2588, 37.02%), Newcastle upon Tyne (326/2588, 12.6%), Redcar (160/2588, 6.18%), Manchester (140/2588, 5.41%), and Bradford (111/2588, 4.29%).

Regarding profession described in the user’s biography, the most frequently mentioned roles were nurses (176/2588, 6.8%); medical roles, for example, paramedic and nursing assistant (173/2588, 6.68%); clinical roles, for example, surgeon, physiotherapist, and anesthesiologist (160/2588, 6.18%); general practitioners (GPs), for example, hospital GP or local surgery GP (142/2588, 5.49%); and physician (140/2588, 5.41%). The most frequent organization affiliated with was the National Health Service (587/2588, 22.68%).

Most Influential Accounts

One of the accounts that generated the highest number of mentions and, therefore, some of the most influence, as they were the ones that talked the most about post–COVID-19 condition in children and young people, was the account for @longcovidkids (593/2588, 22.91% tweets), related to the most shared website longcovidkids.org [ 37 ] , an international UK-based charity for families and children living with post–COVID-19 condition. Although the account was created in October 2020, it was first mentioned in our data collection timeline on January 1, 2021. It offers web support services, funding, and research participation and represents children and young people living with post–COVID-19 condition in expert forums, research panels, health organizations, and parliamentary groups. The other most shared web pages were theguardian.com (the United Kingdom) [ 38 ], bbc.co.uk (the United Kingdom) [ 39 ], peoplewith.com (the United States) [ 40 ], and ncbi.nlm.nih.gov (the United States) [ 41 ]. This shows that in the United Kingdom, there was a mixed influence of UK and US link resources linked to HCW Twitter users in the United Kingdom.

Keyword Analysis

The volume of social media engagement in the discussion about the post–COVID-19 condition experience in children and young people in the United Kingdom reached 1400 posts, 1550 engagements, and 1.9 million impressions. Overall, comments were very responsive to government decisions regarding the vaccination program and school closures ( Multimedia Appendix 4 ). During the first peak of comments in January 2021, the amount of discourse expanded leading up to March 2021, when there were different announcements of school closures, and the guidelines were delivered regarding the priority groups of the vaccination program (frontline HCW and people aged >80 years first). The highest engagement was between June and July 2021, which coincides with the government announcement regarding the availability of vaccines for people aged >18 years. The third peak of comments occurred in September 2021, the same month the authorities announced the extension of the vaccination program to children aged 12 to 15 years.

Top Keywords Analysis

The top words in posts associated with children and young people’s experience of post–COVID-19 condition in the United Kingdom were “Children” (352/2588, 13.6%), “kids” (160/2588, 6.18%), “people” (158/2588, 6.11%), “Young” (148/2588, 5.72%), and “schools” (83/2588, 3.21%). The top hashtags were #longcovid (1387/2588, 53.59%), #longcovidkids (448/2588, 17.31%), #covid19 (370/2588, 14.3%), and #covid (176/2588, 6.8%).

Sentiment and Emotions Analysis

According to sentiment analysis, 99.38% (2572/2588) of the posts reflected negative sentiments and 0.62% (16/2588) reflected positive sentiments. Negative sentiments were mainly associated with comments on hospitalization figures related to the COVID-19 pandemic, criticism of pandemic mitigation policies, and vaccination of children and young people. Furthermore, positive sentiments mainly concerned acknowledgments around decreasing numbers of community support groups.

The primary emotions identified were as follows:

• Sadness (1752/2588, 67.7%), such as in the following tweet:

@[Username] Really upset, after my tough on-call last night. Hospitalisations are still going up, and Gov announcement minismises the effect of long-COVID in adults and children. It’s so hard to keep spirits up today. But we’ll try and continue doing our best in the NHS.

• Joy (367/2588, 14.18%), such as in the following tweet:

@[Username] It’s been an amazing day! [...] I’ve been able to share the experience I’ve gained treating children and adolescents with Long COVID over the last year.

• Fear (233/2588, 9%), as seen in the following tweet:

@[Username] It’s really urgent that young people get the message that they need to get vaccinated. Long COVID is ruining many people’s lives! It’s not a lie or hypochondria, there are real, physiological changes, please understand!

Segmentation Analysis

This analysis revealed the critical clusters of conversation around the main topics of concern within the discourse network around post–COVID-19 condition. Comments were distributed in 4 key conversation segments as follows:

• People, schools, and prevention (1734/2588, 67%): Most of the comments related to measures taken in terms of COVID-19 prevention in schools, concern about the risk of exposure, and sharing experiences of infection in schools.
• Health, adults, and impact (401/2588, 15.49%): Comments mainly reflected concerns and uncertainty about the long-term effect of post–COVID-19 condition on both children and young people and adults.
• Cases, virus, and risk (326/2588, 12.6%): Comments reflected worries about the associated risks and long-term consequences attributable to post–COVID-19 condition (in both adults and children and young people) and the constant mutation of the virus, which will create a permanent risk in the population.
• Months, distress, and symptoms (106/2588, 4.1%): Some HCWs used Twitter to share how children and young people experience post–COVID-19 condition and the extent of these symptoms. Some HCWs exemplified certain typical manifestations, such as fatigue.

Discourse Analysis by Theme

To better understand the topics discussed from the segmentation analysis, we performed a discourse analysis of the key co-occurring themes and topics of concern shared within discussions regarding post–COVID-19 condition in children and young people. The following themes emerged ( Textbox 1 ): concern or uncertainty for the future, school attendance, mask protection from COVID-19, vaccine uptake, infection rates, policy (support or skepticism), understanding and visualizing symptoms, child mental health, access to care, community support, and research ( Figures 1 and 2 ).

• Concern for the future or uncertainty (615/2588, 23.76% tweets): Most comments showed a concern for the future, focusing on shared statistics regarding the rate and spread of infection in children and young people and how this would affect future health outcomes. Furthermore, this group expressed concern regarding political decisions; the presence of illness in loved ones; the eventual overload and response capacity of the health system in the face of an increase in post–COVID-19 condition cases; and the need for training of health care workers (HCWs) to deal with comorbid, potentially long-term symptoms ( Figure 1 A).
• Schools (460/2588, 17.77% tweets): Comments aimed to promote vaccination policies for schoolchildren and flexible measures regarding teachers’ work and attendance, considering cases of people with prolonged symptoms. In addition, several tweets expressed dissatisfaction with school risk mitigation measures, such as the use of face masks and air filters ( Figure 1 B).
• Vaccine (386/2588, 14.9% tweets): Most tweets from this group showed their disapproval of the constant changes in the government’s decisions regarding schools and priority groups for vaccination. Between March and June 2021, the first set of tweets criticized the lack of priority in the vaccination program for schoolchildren and other at-risk groups (such as teachers). Once the authorities announced a vaccination program for schoolchildren aged 12 to 15 years ( Multimedia Appendix 4 ), most comments promoted vaccination for this group. A few comments (78/2588, 3.01%) shared concerns about the vaccine’s efficacy for children, based on the experiences of COVID-19 reinfection in adults despite having received the recommended initial doses. However, to a lesser extent (26/2588, 1%), there was a refusal to vaccinate children, citing fear of possible adverse effects. Nonetheless, it is worth noting that the community frequently refuted such comments ( Figure 1 C).
• Share statistics (334/2588, 12.91% tweets): Frequently, HCWs shared statistical data, such as the number of affected children and young people, the number of post–COVID-19 condition cases, and hospital admissions and deaths. Some of these data were used to validate the existence of the post–COVID-19 phenomenon or to express concern about it ( Figure 1 D).
• Policy (316/2588, 12.21% tweets): The comments were responsive to the policies emanating from the authorities over time ( Multimedia Appendix 4 ). There were 5 main criticisms, including changes in school closure or opening policies; HCWs question why the authorities ignore the evidence of post–COVID-19 cases in children and young people, leading them to question whether decision makers have sufficient training to control the pandemic adequately; the failure to include teachers and school workers in the COVID-19 vaccination program as well as the younger population; the lack of mitigation measures in schools, such as improvements in ventilation systems and mandatory use of masks; and the herd immunity as a plan in the government’s hidden agenda , that is, to promote work and activate the economy ( Figure 1 E).
• “Proof” (280/2588, 10.82% tweets): Most tweets in this group argued regarding the existence of children and young people with post–COVID-19 condition through pictures; statistics; scientific papers; and personal, family, and professional experiences ( Figure 1 F).
• Signs and symptoms (189/2588, 7.3% tweets): Among the symptoms described, chronic fatigue and exhaustion were the most frequent symptoms, which prevent normal activities. Other symptoms were respiratory: dyspnea, chronic cough, and shortness of breath; gastrointestinal: acute or intense abdominal pain, nausea, bloating, gastroparesis, and change in smell or taste; muscular: severe joint pain, “painful foot” and difficulty with physical activity; mental health: anxiety and low mood; topical: rash, skin rashes, and redness and pain in the eyes; and nonspecific symptoms, such as chest pain, heart palpitations, constant high body temperature, precocious puberty, hormonal changes, and erectile dysfunction ( Figure 2 A).
• Face masks (119/2588, 4.6% tweets): Face masks were widely promoted, especially in schools, because HCWs considered them as a practical and straightforward strategy to control the pandemic ( Figure 2 B).
• Skepticism (101/2588, 3.9% tweets): Comments showed reticence toward post–COVID-19 condition in children and young people. Some of the arguments focused on a perceived lack of clarity in the clinical manifestations and stressed the need to better differentiate the post–COVID-19 condition from other related symptomatologies, such as mood disorders (eg, depression and anxiety due to confinement). In contrast, several arguments agreed on the need for more scientific evidence, arguing that post–COVID-19 condition in children and young people are isolated. Other users claimed not to know of such cases instead of calling post–COVID-19 condition in children and young people SMS text message an exaggeration. In addition, several arguments favored releasing restrictions for children and young people, particularly arguments related to the use of masks, because of possible associated risks, for example, hypoxia ( Figure 2 C).
• Mental health (54/2588, 2.09% tweets): Symptoms attributable to mental health problems in children and young people were also a concern. For instance, HCWs mentioned sadness, fear of infecting their family, anxiety regarding sick parents, stress, night terrors, self-harm, and suicidal ideation. Furthermore, users discussed a perceived lack of specific support for children and young people and their families in situations such as hospitalization; prolonged COVID-19 condition; admission to intensive care; and death of a family member, schoolmate, or teacher, all situations that triggered permanent stress in these groups ( Figure 2 D).
• Community support or asking for advice (93/2588, 3.59% tweets): Some HCWs used Twitter to ask for guidance on a specific issue or share experiences of having post–COVID-19 condition or caring for children and young people or family members. Furthermore, they shared informative infographics provided by experts regarding post–COVID-19 condition in children and young people ( Figure 2 E).
• Access to health care or treatment (72/2588, 2.78% tweets): Some HCWs mentioned the lack of specialist (cardiology) support, concerns regarding prolonged National Health Service burnout, and criticisms regarding how follow-up was carried out concerning the relative symptomatology of children and young people with post–COVID-19 condition. At the same time, opening new centers for children and young people with post–COVID-19 condition generated different reactions. On the one hand, some HCWs recognized it as a substantial development, but on the other hand, some HCWs recognized it as proof of the existence of post–COVID-19 condition in children and young people, which raised concerns for the future ( Figure 2 F).
• Research (52/2588, 2% tweets): Under this theme, tweets largely promoted study on post–COVID-19 condition in children and young people or highlighted the need for further study on the subject ( Figure 2 G).
• Images (57/2588, 2.2% tweets): Images shared were primarily from scientific studies, including infographics (from organizations such as National Health Service or @LongCovidKids) and visualization of children and young people’s symptoms, such as rashes, COVID-19 toe, and joint pain. Most infographics shared by organizations (and not individuals), such as the organization LongCovidKids, were related to statistics, such as the number of children and young people with post–COVID-19 condition or the quantification of the type of symptoms experienced. Shared photographs tended to show the more “visually recognizable” symptoms of post–COVID-19 condition, such as skin lesions, rashes, or inflammation. The less visible symptoms, such as chronic fatigue and neurological issues, were represented with photographs of children and young people lying, sleeping under blankets, or duvets or on hospital beds ( Figure 2 H).

Principal Findings

Our primary objective was to explore HCWs’ perceptions concerning post–COVID-19 condition in children and young people in the United Kingdom between January 2021 and January 2022. Our findings indicated that comments made by HCWs on Twitter were responsive to announcements issued by authorities regarding the management of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom and associated regulations on the operation of schools. The most frequent feelings and emotions were negative, mainly sadness. In turn, we identified relevant themes for HCWs, such as uncertainty or concern about the future; policies; and regulations for the prevention, management, and addressing both COVID-19 and post–COVID-19 condition in children and young people; vaccination; and the use of Twitter as a strategy to share scientific literature, management strategies, and clinical and personal experiences.

Concern from HCWs regarding the policies for addressing the COVID-19 pandemic in the children and young people in the United Kingdom (including vaccination and schools) was a recurring theme in our findings. Furthermore, concern regarding the side effects of the COVID-19 vaccine and how the vaccine might interact with preexisting physiological symptoms of post–COVID-19 condition in children and young people was a topic of discussion. Similarly, the constant change in policy making in the United Kingdom, as public health bodies and governments have tried to understand and adapt to the emergence of post–COVID-19 condition, have added to the strength of this ongoing debate [ 42 ]. The lack of up-to-date evidence on post–COVID-19 condition in children and young people prompted HCWs to rely on Twitter during the pandemic to communicate relevant information. Twitter has a broad audience reach; is used as a communication tool by politicians, health bodies, and other key influences; and facilitates real-time updates [ 43 ]. During the pandemic, HCWs, primarily those in frontline roles and local response coordination, have often been challenged to become credible spokespersons for pandemic information [ 44 ]. Such credibility directly influences public confidence and decision-making, ultimately determining the success or failure of a public health intervention [ 43 ].

Furthermore, failures in risk communication could explain the presence of uncertainty and negative feelings associated with school regulations. When people are upset, distressed, or fearful, they often do not trust the authority, decrease the perceived validity of the communication received, and find information processing difficult [ 45 ]. In this regard, Fotheringham et al [ 46 ] indicated that during 2020, school leaders in the United Kingdom faced pressures and challenges related to translating and enacting school policies, particularly with the perceived lack of agency shared by the government concerning being able to translate centrally issued guidelines. In turn, Tomson et al [ 47 ] reported that the pandemic has negatively impacted the well-being of leaders in all types of schools and across all demographic groups, affecting their ability to think clearly and solve work-related problems. Given that the protection and care of children and young people health during the COVID-19 pandemic ultimately rests with school leaders, the search for support strategies that focus on the needs of these groups becomes an urgent necessity.

Findings in Relation to Other Studies

Using Twitter’s information, this is one of the first studies to capture health professionals’ perceptions of prolonged COVID-19 in the children and young people in the United Kingdom. However, other studies have addressed post–COVID-19 condition on this social network. Callard and Peregov [ 48 ] reviewed how, through social platforms such as Twitter, patients made the persistence and heterogeneity of COVID-19 symptoms visible, thus catapulting the inclusion of post–COVID-19 condition as a relevant phenomenon in clinical and policy debates. In contrast, other authors in the last 2 years have explored on various platforms (including Twitter) the persistence of symptoms and emotional impact after months of suspected and confirmed diagnosis of COVID-19 [ 49 - 55 ], including the period of vaccination. Furthermore, others have explored web discussions regarding this phenomenon [ 56 ]. Several of these authors agree on a perceived lack of support and specific resources from governmental bodies, a lack of information or clarity in the instructions given, and the absence of formal mechanisms to allow the voices of patients and the community to be heard. The above point is critical as it highlights the gap between the needs of the population and the response provided by policy makers, which not only translates into a gap in access to health services but also limits citizen participation in decision-making on the issues that affect their own health and increases distrust toward regulations and instructions issued by the government.

Implications for Policy and Practice

Several policy recommendations and implications are targeted at various stakeholders to consider while implementing future policy guidelines to address post–COVID-19 health care delivery. First, policy makers should consider investing appropriate resources to collect data regarding post–COVID-19 condition in children and young people, specifically on the impact of COVID-19 on the mental health of children and young people. This implies working closely with researchers to streamline data collection and reporting on post–COVID-19 condition. Second, policy makers should consider providing a basic level of psychosocial support with access to quality mental health and psychosocial support services for HCWs, school staff, parents, and children and young people experiencing post–COVID-19 condition. This implies strengthening health systems, community-based programming, and mobilization. Policies must include documenting the impact of mental health and psychosocial support interventions and innovative approaches to be more widely disseminated and scaled up across different contexts and target population groups. Third, to address the criticism around frequent changes in school closure and opening policies, decision makers should develop clear, easy-to-understand school mitigation plans informed by the best available evidence. The plans should incorporate teachers, school workers, and parents to ensure all voices are included in the policy plan. Fourth, policy makers should adopt a shared decision-making approach incorporating HCWs in the decision-making process for managing the COVID-19 pandemic. Finally, government decision makers should set post–COVID-19 pandemic recovery policies informed from a health equity perspective and how this affects children and young people living with post–COVID-19 condition, factoring in childhood, family income, housing, domestic violence, access to health care, and racism.

In terms of the needed clearer road map for recommendations to support training strategies for HCWs and school staff regarding post–COVID-19 condition in children and young people, we have outlined the following 10 steps.

Step 1: Data Collection and Analysis

Our study underlines the critical need for comprehensive data on post–COVID-19 condition’s impact on the mental health of children and young people. As a first step, it is recommended that policy makers should allocate resources for the systematic collection and analysis of data on post–COVID-19 condition in children and young people, particularly focusing on mental health outcomes. These data should be used to identify the most prevalent symptoms and the most effective treatment strategies. In this context, it is recommended that experts emphasize the importance of early detection and medical consultation for mental health issues in children and young people diagnosed with post–COVID-19 condition, including mood changes, irritability, social withdrawal, memory problems, difficulty in concentrating, anxiety, depression, posttraumatic stress, school absenteeism, and suicidal ideation [ 57 , 58 ]. This entails working closely with researchers to streamline data collection and reporting on post–COVID-19 condition.

Step 2: Psychosocial Support Framework

It has been noted that globally, programs for managing post–COVID-19 condition in children and young people are heterogeneous, ranging from the use of physiotherapy, pediatric occupational therapy, and psychological support to interventions aimed at lifestyle modifications [ 59 ]. This diversity could impact differential outcomes in the treatment, recovery, and timely and effective rehabilitation of children and young people with post–COVID-19 condition. Upon analyzing the wider literature and the social media data in this study, it is recommended that a basic level of psychosocial support should be established. This would involve ensuring access to quality mental health services for HCWs, school staff, parents, and children and young people with post–COVID-19 condition. This framework should be integrated into the health system and community-based programming, emphasizing the mobilization of resources and strengthening of support networks. It is suggested that the psychosocial support framework should facilitate access to quality mental health services and support networks that are robust and responsive. Community engagement gleaned from further Twitter discourse analysis should be a helpful guide in the development of these services to ensure they meet the real and expressed needs of children and young people with post–COVID-19 condition. Practical examples of basic psychosocial support include using web support services; individual or group therapy sessions; school-based emotional support programs; and counseling sessions aimed at parents, family members, or school staff.

Step 3: Educational Mitigation Plans

The frequent policy changes around school closures highlight the necessity for stable and clear educational mitigation plans. It is recommended that these plans should be directly informed by the evidence collected and further analysis of sentiments and emotions surrounding post–COVID-19 condition in schools. Incorporating the viewpoints of teachers, parents, and school staff, as identified in our thematic analysis, will ensure that the mitigation strategies are comprehensive, feasible, and sensitive to the psychosocial impact on children and young people. School staff and policy makers should collaborate to develop clear, evidence-informed educational mitigation plans. These plans should be straightforward and involve teachers, school workers, and parents in their creation, ensuring a unified approach that considers the voices of all stakeholders.

Step 4: Shared Decision-Making in Health Care

In health care settings, the adoption of a shared decision-making model is crucial, enabling HCWs to actively contribute to the formulation of COVID-19 and post–COVID-19 policies. This inclusive approach ensures that frontline workers can provide valuable insights toward policy development. To facilitate this, the establishment of advisory committees composed of representatives from HCWs is recommended. This committee can convene regularly to deliberate on key decisions pertaining to the COVID-19 pandemic management, including prevention measures, resource distribution, and vaccination strategies. Such collaborative groups have demonstrated effectiveness in identifying priority needs within the context of a pandemic [ 60 ].

Step 5: Health Equity in Policy Setting

Post–COVID-19 recovery policies should be set with a health equity lens. This means considering factors such as family income, housing, domestic violence, access to health care, and racism and how these factors affect children and young people living with post–COVID-19 condition. Our findings emphasize the importance of framing post–COVID-19 recovery policies through a lens of health equity. The concerns raised by HCWs regarding the socioeconomic impacts, such as family income and access to health care, underline the need for policies that address not just the medical aspects of post–COVID-19 condition but also the social determinants of health. An equitable approach will ensure that children and young people from diverse backgrounds receive appropriate support.

Step 6: Documenting and Disseminating Interventions

It is vital to document the impact of mental health and psychosocial support interventions. In this context, it is crucial to implement innovative strategies to disseminate unbiased information about post–COVID-19 condition among health care professionals and educators working with children and young people, ensuring it reaches different contexts and populations. These strategies may include creating interactive multimedia resources, such as videos and mobile apps; organizing webinars; actively using social media; and forming web support groups. These groups will provide a space where patients, health care professionals, and educators can share their experiences and knowledge regarding post–COVID-19 condition. These actions will not only help reduce isolation and social stigma but also strengthen support for these groups considered vulnerable [ 61 ].

Step 7: Developing a Clear Communication Strategy

Policy makers must develop a clear communication strategy to address frequent policy changes and mitigate confusion. This strategy should be informed by the data collected and analysis conducted in Step 1. The data reveal a palpable sense of uncertainty and frustration due to frequent policy shifts, underscoring the need for a clear and consistent communication strategy. This strategy should be grounded in the evidence gathered from the health care community’s discourse and aim to minimize confusion by providing timely, transparent, and reliable information regarding post–COVID-19 policies and support services.

Step 8: Training and Support Strategies

On the basis of the findings of the comprehensive data analysis, specific training and support strategies should be developed for HCWs and school staff. These strategies should be focused on the practical aspects of identifying and managing post–COVID-19 condition in children and young people. For instance, training sessions could include practical workshops on recognizing post–COVID-19 symptoms in children and adolescents, conducting diagnostic assessments, and implementing appropriate treatment and support interventions.

Step 9: Continuous Feedback and Policy Adaptation

The continuous evolution of the post–COVID-19 phenomenon demands an iterative approach to policy making. On the basis of our study, we recommend establishing feedback mechanisms with HCWs and school staff to monitor the reception and effectiveness of implemented policies. This feedback, coupled with ongoing research, should inform policy adaptations to ensure they remain aligned with the evolving landscape of post–COVID-19 condition and its impact on children and young people.

Step 10: Evaluation and Research

Finally, there should be a commitment to ongoing evaluation and research. This will involve not only monitoring the implementation of the abovementioned steps but also supporting new research to fill any remaining gaps in understanding the long-term effects of COVID-19 on children and young people.

This sequence of steps is designed to be iterative and responsive, ensuring that the recommendations from the study are translated into concrete actions that adapt to emerging data and research findings.

Strengths and Limitations

A key strength of this study is that our social media analysis of post–COVID-19 condition contributes toward an emerging understanding of reported experiential, emotional, and practical dimensions of post–COVID-19 condition in children and young people specifically and questions of vaccine hesitancy in children and young people with post–COVID-19 condition. This is one of the few studies to collect HCWs’ perceptions regarding post–COVID-19 condition in children and young people in the United Kingdom using information from Twitter. We identify key areas that need considering attention and focus, such as the provision of psychosocial support with access to quality mental health resources to alleviate the impact of post–COVID-19 condition in children and young people and the development of clear post–COVID-19 pandemic recovery guidelines that are informed by health equity perspective, and how this affects children and young people living with post–COVID-19 condition.

One of the limitations this study acknowledges is the definition of post–COVID-19 condition in children and young people. When data were collected, the lack of consensus on the definition of post–COVID-19 condition in children and young people forced us to formulate a definition of post–COVID-19 condition in children and young people based on the available literature. Furthermore, this study is limited to the perceptions of people who used descriptors in their web biography attributable to HCWs; therefore, our results only represent some HCWs in the United Kingdom and those in other countries. In turn, this research collected data from Twitter only; therefore, further inquiry into HCWs’ perceptions of post–COVID-19 condition in children and young people required expanding to other data sources or social networks and including languages other than English. We acknowledge that demographic factors, geographic location, and individual daily activities of social media users can significantly influence language use and word choice, introducing potential biases in tweet-based data. Such biases are inherent in any analysis of social media content and can affect the generalizability of findings. For instance, our study relies on Twitter data, which do not encompass the full spectrum of global or the UK public opinion on post–COVID-19 condition in children and young people. While Twitter serves as a valuable platform for capturing real-time sentiments and experiences, it is not fully representative of all demographics and geographic regions. Our results may reflect the perspectives of more vocal or active social media users, which may not correspond to the silent majority or those without access to social media. In addition, the absence of geotagged information for many users limits our ability to conduct a more nuanced spatial analysis of the sentiments expressed.

Furthermore, our study is built upon the recognition that social media data may overrepresent certain demographic groups while underrepresenting others, such as the older population or those without reliable internet access. This skew can influence the apparent prevalence of certain views or experiences of post–COVID-19 condition. Moreover, individuals’ patterns of daily life, reflected in their social media use and content, contribute additional layers of complexity and potential bias to the discourse analyzed.

Consistent with scholarly precedents on the subject [ 62 , 63 ], our study acknowledges these biases as intrinsic limitations of social media–based research. Although our analysis did not control for these factors, we recognize their potential impact on our results. Future studies would benefit from incorporating a broader array of data sources, including interviews or focus groups, to provide a more representative and comprehensive understanding of post–COVID-19 condition in children and young people. This approach would complement our Twitter-based findings and help mitigate the biases inherent in social media data.

Conclusions

More than a year after the start of the COVID-19 pandemic, the perceptions described on Twitter by HCWs concerning the presence of post–COVID-19 condition in children and young people appear to be a relevant and timely issue as well as very responsive to the declarations and guidelines issued by the health authorities over time. The most prominent group within the discourse studied was the activist or lobbying organization @LongCovidKids, which shared the most tweets and images over the period studied. We recommend that future research focus on how web health activism is organized and carried out for children and young people with post–COVID-19 condition. Such a strategy would allow for a better understanding of the scope and impact of this phenomenon and how it can influence decision-making. Furthermore, we suggest different mitigation strategies, support, and training of HCWs and school staff regarding manifestations and treatment of post–COVID-19 condition in children and young people across all demographic areas.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank the Rapid Research Evaluation and Assessment Lab, Department of Targeted Intervention, University College London, London, United Kingdom, whose support has been essential for developing this project.

Conflicts of Interest

None declared.

Filters used for the search strategy on Twitter.

Sentiment analysis framework: attitudes toward post–COVID-19 condition in children and young people.

Theme codebook: examples of tweets that fit into main themes tagged for mention of children and young people with post–COVID-19 condition.

Timeline of national governmental policies and guidelines regarding children and young people.

• World Health Organization. COVID-19 Public Health Emergency of International Concern (PHEIC) Global research and innovation forum. Global Research Collaboration for Infectious Disease Preparedness. Feb 12, 2020. URL: https:/​/www.​who.int/​publications/​m/​item/​covid-19-public-health-emergency-of-international-concern-(pheic)-global-research-and-inno vation-forum [accessed 2022-06-06]
• Johns Hopkins University of Medicine. COVID-19 Dashboard by the Center for Systems Science and Engineering (CSSE) at Johns Hopkins University (JHU). Coronavirus Resource Center. Jan 22, 2020. URL: https://coronavirus.jhu.edu/map.html [accessed 2023-06-09]
• Nature Editorial. Long COVID and kids: more research is urgently needed. Nature. Feb 08, 2022;602(7896):183. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Long COVID or post-COVID conditions. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. URL: https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/long-term-effects/index.html [accessed 2023-06-09]
• Davis HE, McCorkell L, Vogel JM, Topol E. Long COVID: major findings, mechanisms and recommendations. Nat Rev Microbiol. Mar 13, 2023;21(3):133-146. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Zimmermann P, Curtis N. Why is COVID-19 less severe in children? A review of the proposed mechanisms underlying the age-related difference in severity of SARS-CoV-2 infections. Arch Dis Child. Dec 01, 2020;106(5):429-439. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Zheng YB, Zeng N, Yuan K, Tian SS, Yang YB, Gao N, et al. Prevalence and risk factor for long COVID in children and adolescents: a meta-analysis and systematic review. J Infect Public Health. Mar 07, 2023;16(5):660-672. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• World Health Organization. A clinical case definition for post COVID-19 condition in children and adolescents by expert consensus. World Health Organization. Feb 16, 2023. URL: https:/​/www.​who.int/​publications/​i/​item/​WHO-2019-nCoV-Post -COVID-19-condition-CA-Clinical-case-definition-2023-1 [accessed 2024-03-26]
• Stephenson T, Allin B, Nugawela MD, Rojas N, Dalrymple E, Pinto Pereira S, CLoCk Consortium, et al. Long COVID (post-COVID-19 condition) in children: a modified Delphi process. Arch Dis Child. Jun 17, 2022;107(7):674-680. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Esposito S, Principi N, Azzari C, Cardinale F, Di Mauro G, Galli L, et al. Italian intersociety consensus on management of long Covid in children. Ital J Pediatr. Mar 09, 2022;48(1):1-9. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Stephenson T, Pinto Pereira SM, Shafran R, de Stavola BL, Rojas N, McOwat K, CLoCk Consortium, et al. Physical and mental health 3 months after SARS-CoV-2 infection (long COVID) among adolescents in England (CLoCk): a national matched cohort study. Lancet Child Adolesc Health. Feb 08, 2022;6(4):230-239. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Stephenson T, Pinto Pereira SM, Nugawela MD, McOwat K, Simmons R, Chalder T, et al. CLoCk Consortium. Long COVID-six months of prospective follow-up of changes in symptom profiles of non-hospitalised children and young people after SARS-CoV-2 testing: a national matched cohort study (The CLoCk) study. PLoS One. Mar 6, 2023;18(3):e0277704. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Twitter users, stats, data and trends. Data Reportal. May 11, 2023. URL: https://datareportal.com/essential-twitter-stats#:~ :text=Based [accessed 2023-06-09]
• Rufai SR, Bunce C. World leaders' usage of Twitter in response to the COVID-19 pandemic: a content analysis. J Public Health (Oxf). Aug 18, 2020;42(3):510-516. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Haman M. The use of Twitter by state leaders and its impact on the public during the COVID-19 pandemic. Heliyon. Nov 2020;6(11):e05540. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Huang X, Li Z, Jiang Y, Li X, Porter D. Twitter reveals human mobility dynamics during the COVID-19 pandemic. PLoS One. Nov 10, 2020;15(11):e0241957. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Wicke P, Bolognesi MM. Framing COVID-19: how we conceptualize and discuss the pandemic on Twitter. PLoS One. Sep 30, 2020;15(9):e0240010. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Chang CH, Monselise M, Yang CC. What are people concerned about during the pandemic? detecting evolving topics about COVID-19 from Twitter. J Healthc Inform Res. Jan 17, 2021;5(1):70-97. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Xue J, Chen J, Hu R, Chen C, Zheng C, Su Y, et al. Twitter discussions and emotions about the COVID-19 pandemic: machine learning approach. J Med Internet Res. Nov 25, 2020;22(11):e20550. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Boon-Itt S, Skunkan Y. Public perception of the COVID-19 pandemic on Twitter: sentiment analysis and topic modeling study. JMIR Public Health Surveill. Nov 11, 2020;6(4):e21978. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Valdez D, Ten Thij M, Bathina K, Rutter LA, Bollen J. Social media insights into US mental health during the COVID-19 pandemic: longitudinal analysis of Twitter data. J Med Internet Res. Dec 14, 2020;22(12):e21418. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Rashid MA, Yip SW, Gill D, Arfeen Z. Sharing is caring: an analysis of #FOAMed Twitter posts during the COVID-19 pandemic. Postgrad Med J. Mar 14, 2022;98(1157):199-204. [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Ghosh P, Schwartz G, Narouze S. Twitter as a powerful tool for communication between pain physicians during COVID-19 pandemic. Reg Anesth Pain Med. Feb 21, 2021;46(2):187-188. [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Burgos LM, Gil Ramirez A, Utengen A, Thamman R. Use of Twitter during COVID-19 pandemic: an opportunity for continuing medical education in cardiology. Medicina (B Aires). 2020;80 Suppl 6:122-123. [ FREE Full text ] [ Medline ]
• Margus C, Brown N, Hertelendy AJ, Safferman MR, Hart A, Ciottone GR. Emergency physician Twitter use in the COVID-19 pandemic as a potential predictor of impending surge: retrospective observational study. J Med Internet Res. Jul 14, 2021;23(7):e28615. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Pulsar TRAC- Audience intelligence platform and social listening tool. Pulsar. URL: https://www.pulsarplatform.com/solutions/pulsar-trac/ [accessed 2022-03-01]
• Vera San Juan N, Aceituno D, Djellouli N, Sumray K, Regenold N, Syversen A, et al. Mental health and well-being of healthcare workers during the COVID-19 pandemic in the UK: contrasting guidelines with experiences in practice. BJPsych Open. Dec 10, 2020;7(1):e15. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Paranyushkin D. InfraNodus: generating insight using text network analysis. In: Proceedings of the World Wide Web Conference. 2019. Presented at: WWW '19; May 13-17, 2019; San Francisco, CA. [ CrossRef ]
• Creswell JW, Poth CN. Qualitative Inquiry and Research Design: Choosing Among Five Approaches 4th Edition. Thousand Oaks, CA. SAGE Publications, Inc; 2017.
• Eysenbach G, Till JE. Ethical issues in qualitative research on internet communities. BMJ. Nov 10, 2001;323(7321):1103-1105. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• UCL research ethics. University College London. URL: https://www.ucl.ac.uk/research-ethics/do-i-need-ethical-approval# When [accessed 2023-06-12]
• Martin S, Kilich E, Dada S, Kummervold PE, Denny C, Paterson P, et al. "Vaccines for pregnant women…?! Absurd" - Mapping maternal vaccination discourse and stance on social media over six months. Vaccine. Sep 29, 2020;38(42):6627-6637. [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Kummervold PE, Martin S, Dada S, Kilich E, Denny C, Paterson P, et al. Categorizing vaccine confidence with a transformer-based machine learning model: analysis of nuances of vaccine sentiment in Twitter discourse. JMIR Med Inform. Oct 08, 2021;9(10):e29584. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Ahmed W, Bath PA, Demartini G. Using Twitter as a data source: an overview of ethical, legal, and methodological challenges. In: Woodfield K, editor. The Ethics of Online Research. Bingley, UK. Emerald Publishing Limited; Dec 12, 2017.
• Ayers JW, Caputi TL, Nebeker C, Dredze M. Don't quote me: reverse identification of research participants in social media studies. NPJ Digit Med. Aug 2, 2018;1(1):30. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Varkey B. Principles of clinical ethics and their application to practice. Med Princ Pract. Jun 4, 2021;30(1):17-28. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Long Covid Kids homepage. Long Covid Kids. URL: https://es.longcovidkids.org/ [accessed 2023-06-12]
• The Guardian homepage. The Guardian. URL: https://www.theguardian.com/uk [accessed 2023-06-12]
• Welcome to the BBC. BBC. URL: https://www.bbc.com/ [accessed 2023-06-12]
• People with health. PeopleWith. URL: https://peoplewith.com/ [accessed 2023-06-12]
• Welcome to NCBI. National Institutes of Health National Library of Medicine. URL: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ [accessed 2023-06-12]
• Edobor M. Trust and public discourse during the Covid‐19 pandemic. IPPR Progress Rev. Feb 15, 2021;27(4):354-360. [ CrossRef ]
• Nielsen RK, Fletcher R, Kalogeropoulos A, Simon F. Communications in the coronavirus crisis: lessons for the second wave. Reuters Institute for the Study of Journalism. Oct 27, 2020. URL: https://reutersinstitute.politics.ox.ac.uk/communications-coronavirus-crisis-lessons-second-wave [accessed 2024-03-26]
• Zohar T, Negev M, Sirkin M, Levine H. Trust in COVID-19 policy among public health professionals in Israel during the first wave of the pandemic: a cross-sectional study. Isr J Health Policy Res. Apr 11, 2022;11(1):20. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Enria L, Waterlow N, Rogers NT, Brindle H, Lal S, Eggo RM, et al. Trust and transparency in times of crisis: results from an online survey during the first wave (April 2020) of the COVID-19 epidemic in the UK. PLoS One. Feb 16, 2021;16(2):e0239247. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Fotheringham P, Harriott T, Healy G, Arenge G, Wilson E. Pressures and influences on school leaders navigating policy development during the COVID‐19 pandemic. Brit Educ Res J. Jul 30, 2021;48(2):201-227. [ CrossRef ]
• Thomson P, Greany T, Martindale N. The trust deficit in England: emerging research evidence about school leaders and the pandemic. J Educ Admin History. Sep 13, 2021;53(3-4):296-300. [ CrossRef ]
• Callard F, Perego E. How and why patients made long COVID. Soc Sci Med. Jan 2021;268:113426. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Davis HE, Assaf GS, McCorkell L, Wei H, Low RJ, Re'em Y, et al. Characterizing long COVID in an international cohort: 7 months of symptoms and their impact. EClinicalMedicine. Aug 2021;38:101019. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Miyake E, Martin S. Long Covid: online patient narratives, public health communication and vaccine hesitancy. Digit Health. Nov 29, 2021;7:20552076211059649. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Matharaarachchi S, Domaratzki M, Katz A, Muthukumarana S. Discovering long COVID symptom patterns: association rule mining and sentiment analysis in social media tweets. JMIR Form Res. Sep 07, 2022;6(9):e37984. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Bhattacharyya A, Seth A, Rai S. The effects of long COVID-19, its severity, and the need for immediate attention: analysis of clinical trials and Twitter data. Front Big Data. Dec 15, 2022;5:1051386. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Samannodi M, Alwafi H, Naser AY, Al Qurashi AA, Qedair JT, Salawati E, et al. Determinants of post-COVID-19 conditions among SARS-CoV-2-infected patients in Saudi Arabia: a web-based cross-sectional study. Diseases. Aug 23, 2022;10(3):55. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Santarossa S, Rapp A, Sardinas S, Hussein J, Ramirez A, Cassidy-Bushrow AE, et al. Understanding the #longCOVID and #longhaulers conversation on Twitter: multimethod study. JMIR Infodemiology. 2022;2(1):e31259. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Déguilhem A, Malaab J, Talmatkadi M, Renner S, Foulquié P, Fagherazzi G, et al. Identifying profiles and symptoms of patients with long COVID in France: data mining infodemiology study based on social media. JMIR Infodemiology. Nov 22, 2022;2(2):e39849. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Awoyemi T, Ebili U, Olusanya A, Ogunniyi KE, Adejumo AV. Twitter sentiment analysis of long COVID syndrome. Cureus. Jun 2022;14(6):e25901. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Malone LA, Morrow A, Chen Y, Curtis D, de Ferranti SD, Desai M, et al. Multi-disciplinary collaborative consensus guidance statement on the assessment and treatment of postacute sequelae of SARS-CoV-2 infection (PASC) in children and adolescents. PM R. Oct 2022;14(10):1241-1269. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Shachar-Lavie I, Shorer M, Segal H, Fennig S, Ashkenazi-Hoffnung L. Mental health among children with long COVID during the COVID-19 pandemic. Eur J Pediatr. Apr 14, 2023;182(4):1793-1801. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Brackel CL, Noij LC, Vijverberg SJ, Legghe CL, Maitland-van der Zee AH, van Goudoever JB, et al. International care programs for pediatric post-COVID condition (long COVID) and the way forward. Pediatr Res. Jan 29, 2024. (forthcoming). [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Ripp J, Peccoralo L, Charney D. Attending to the emotional well-being of the health care workforce in a New York City health system during the COVID-19 pandemic. Acad Med. Aug 2020;95(8):1136-1139. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Buonsenso D, Camporesi A, Morello R, De Rose C, Fracasso M, Chieffo DP, et al. Social stigma in children with long COVID. Children (Basel). Sep 07, 2023;10(9):1518. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Mitchell L, Frank MR, Harris KD, Dodds PS, Danforth CM. The geography of happiness: connecting twitter sentiment and expression, demographics, and objective characteristics of place. PLoS One. May 29, 2013;8(5):e64417. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Padilla JJ, Kavak H, Lynch CJ, Gore RJ, Diallo SY. Temporal and spatiotemporal investigation of tourist attraction visit sentiment on Twitter. PLoS One. Jun 14, 2018;13(6):e0198857. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]

Abbreviations

Edited by A Mavragani; submitted 20.06.23; peer-reviewed by R Gore, A Wahbeh; comments to author 02.11.23; revised version received 14.02.24; accepted 08.03.24; published 17.04.24.

©Macarena Chepo, Sam Martin, Noémie Déom, Ahmad Firas Khalid, Cecilia Vindrola-Padros. Originally published in the Journal of Medical Internet Research (https://www.jmir.org), 17.04.2024.

This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work, first published in the Journal of Medical Internet Research, is properly cited. The complete bibliographic information, a link to the original publication on https://www.jmir.org/, as well as this copyright and license information must be included.

Read our research on: Gun Policy | International Conflict | Election 2024

Regions & Countries

Political typology quiz.

Notice: Beginning April 18th community groups will be temporarily unavailable for extended maintenance. Thank you for your understanding and cooperation.

Where do you fit in the political typology?

Are you a faith and flag conservative progressive left or somewhere in between.

Take our quiz to find out which one of our nine political typology groups is your best match, compared with a nationally representative survey of more than 10,000 U.S. adults by Pew Research Center. You may find some of these questions are difficult to answer. That’s OK. In those cases, pick the answer that comes closest to your view, even if it isn’t exactly right.

About Pew Research Center Pew Research Center is a nonpartisan fact tank that informs the public about the issues, attitudes and trends shaping the world. It conducts public opinion polling, demographic research, media content analysis and other empirical social science research. Pew Research Center does not take policy positions. It is a subsidiary of The Pew Charitable Trusts .

This is a potential security issue, you are being redirected to https://csrc.nist.gov .

You have JavaScript disabled. This site requires JavaScript to be enabled for complete site functionality.

An official website of the United States government

Here’s how you know

Official websites use .gov A .gov website belongs to an official government organization in the United States.

Secure .gov websites use HTTPS A lock ( Lock Locked padlock icon ) or https:// means you’ve safely connected to the .gov website. Share sensitive information only on official, secure websites.

Novel Schoolbook-Originated Polynomial Multiplication Accelerators for NTRUbased PQC

Description, presented at.

5th PQC Standardization Conference (2024) [in-person]

Event Details

Fifth PQC Standardization Conference

Related Topics

Security and Privacy: post-quantum cryptography