in this line research

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"in this line of research" vs "on this line of research"

Last Updated: March 20, 2024

in this line of research

This phrase is correct and commonly used to refer to a specific area or topic of research.

• In this line of research, we focus on the impact of climate change on biodiversity.
• The findings in this line of research suggest a new approach to treating the disease.

Alternatives:

• within this line of research
• related to this line of research
• pertaining to this line of research
• concerning this line of research
• regarding this line of research

on this line of research

• On this line of research, we have made significant progress in understanding the behavior of certain species.
• The data collected on this line of research supports the hypothesis.

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• Student Notebook

Ten Tips for Developing a Programmatic Line of Research

• Experimental Psychology
• Graduate School

“My research is about…” Many graduate students finish this sentence with a long, awkward pause and a deep sigh, followed by the admission that they have done a number of unrelated studies in order to fulfill their program requirements. However, as APS Past President Henry L. Roediger, III, wrote in a 2007 Observer article, “Early in one’s career, publishing a steady series of journal articles is how one builds a reputation.” A programmatic line of research on one topic helps young scientists transition from frantic graduate students to accomplished scientists. This column provides my ideas and suggestions, gathered from experience, for creating a coherent line of experimental research while in graduate school.

1. Start with a specific project. Entering graduate school, every student is wide-eyed and willing to learn everything about the field, from how the brain works to the secrets of successful social relationships. Limiting yourself to a specific topic is crucial at the beginning. The field of psychology is so large that new graduate students can waste precious time trying to find a topic. Look at the resources available in your lab and the research interests of your supervisors; these are great starting points for finding your own niche.

2.  Have a strong paradigm. It is important to have a paradigm that works. Do not shy away from investing time in pilot testing and modifying your research tools. A strong paradigm can help create your line of research. Developing a paradigm takes effort and can greatly affect the outcome of your research. Examine the instruments, paradigms, and tools already available and consider modifying them to answer your research questions. Some researchers publish their paradigms online (for example, a number of scripts for paradigms using Inquisit software are available at www.millisecond.com/download/library). I have also gained access to other research tools by just e-mailing the authors. Modifying these paradigms for your purposes will get you in the lab earlier and give you more time for follow-up studies.

3. Work with your supervisor. Your supervisor is as interested as you are in creating a good research program. Such a program will not only add a few articles to his or her list of publications, it will also provide the sense of satisfaction that comes with mentoring a good researcher. Your supervisor can also learn a thing or two from you. Since examining theory and published data with your supervisor can lead to new research ideas or theoretical breakthroughs, make sure you set aside time for those discussions. Certain supervisors might be more flexible than others, but all  of them want to conduct good research. Push your ideas, and the ones that are worth the effort will be given the green light.

4.  Look for inspiration. Once you have a good paradigm, start browsing literature that lies a bit outside of your specific topic. For example, if you are researching a phenomenon related to personality, look at clinical studies in which that phenomenon has been hypothesized to play a role. This process can help you see links between what you are examining in your current experiment and other research domains. Write down these ideas. Later, once you have finished your first experiment and are ready to continue, these ideas will be helpful. Finding time to read additional literature can prove difficult during graduate studies. However, browsing the titles of articles in specific journals, setting up automatic research alerts (e.g., Google Scholar Alerts), or following specific authors on social media (e.g., Twitter, ResearchGate) can help you stay informed.

5. Attend conferences and network. Conferences can not only inspire you but also help you further your programmatic research line. Both large, multidisciplinary conferences (e.g., APS) and more specialized meetings provide opportunities to network. You can use these conferences as a way to start collaborations, which will help you work more efficiently.

6. Spend time thinking about theoretical issues. Graduate students do not devote as much time to theory as they should. In order to design your own line of research, you should examine the empirical results available and consider what they mean for the theoretical framework of your research. Comparing empirical data with theoretical assumptions often opens up more questions than it answers. These questions are the ones you might want to tackle in your follow-up experiments. Knowing a theory inside and out and examining which of its tenets are already empirically supported is another way of finding your niche. Many researchers have made a career by  (dis)proving a theory and amending it to cover new empirical data.

7. Collaborate with students and research assistants. Undergraduate students can develop their own talent by helping with your research. Pilot-testing, data-gathering, and data-entry tasks give undergraduates first-hand laboratory experience. In addition, explaining your topic and your proposed research to student assistants who are still building their theoretical skills allows you to clarify your own ideas and can also serve as a source of inspiration.

8. Present your research as a narrative. Despite your  efforts, you might still think your experiments look disjointed and do not form a logical series. If that’s the case, stop, take two steps back and look at your studies. Are there any common themes? Are there any common research tools? Is there a theory that focuses on these phenomena? Think carefully about how you moved from one study to another and what story your data tell that might be important to the field.

9.  Be persistent but know when to quit. This is probably the hardest and vaguest tip of all. Don’t expect your first experiment to work perfectly. Be prepared for the disappointment that occurs in the life of every researcher. However, if after four or five experiments your effects are still small or elusive, consider changing gears. This doesn’t mean that your efforts will be lost; write the data up and try to publish. You might save trouble for a future graduate student.

10. Be a researcher. Even if you are unsure about staying in academia, identify yourself as a researcher as well as a student. Do not think about your experiments as something you need for your Master’s or PhD; consider research your personal goal. This viewpoint will increase your motivation to expand your scientific expertise and explore the boundary conditions of the phenomena you are interested in. You will no longer be satisfied by examining whether a mechanism is present: Clarifying when and how it operates and what its causes and effects are will become important topics you.

Students can create a programmatic research line during graduate school. The effort and persistence you invest in your research will be noticed and will help open doors to future success in academia.

Thanks for your comprehensive text. As a young researcher, your words hit home and were very handy to me. I’ll keep it as a reminder.

All the best, Paulo Uliana

Thank you, your ordered tips are helpful, very much so. I have to build a research department, and I am having trouble with getting the message across.

APS regularly opens certain online articles for discussion on our website. Effective February 2021, you must be a logged-in APS member to post comments. By posting a comment, you agree to our Community Guidelines and the display of your profile information, including your name and affiliation. Any opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations present in article comments are those of the writers and do not necessarily reflect the views of APS or the article’s author. For more information, please see our Community Guidelines .

Please login with your APS account to comment.

About the Author

Inna Arnaudova is a last-year PhD student at University of Amsterdam under the supervision of Tom Beckers and Merel Kindt. Her research concentrates on the learning of approach-avoidance tendencies in ambiguous situations and how they transform into actual behavior.

Careers Up Close: Joel Anderson on Gender and Sexual Prejudices, the Freedoms of Academic Research, and the Importance of Collaboration

Joel Anderson, a senior research fellow at both Australian Catholic University and La Trobe University, researches group processes, with a specific interest on prejudice, stigma, and stereotypes.

Experimental Methods Are Not Neutral Tools

Ana Sofia Morais and Ralph Hertwig explain how experimental psychologists have painted too negative a picture of human rationality, and how their pessimism is rooted in a seemingly mundane detail: methodological choices. 

APS Fellows Elected to SEP

In addition, an APS Rising Star receives the society’s Early Investigator Award.

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MLA In-Text Citations: The Basics

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MLA (Modern Language Association) style is most commonly used to write papers and cite sources within the liberal arts and humanities. This resource, updated to reflect the MLA Handbook (9 th ed.), offers examples for the general format of MLA research papers, in-text citations, endnotes/footnotes, and the Works Cited page.

Guidelines for referring to the works of others in your text using MLA style are covered throughout the  MLA Handbook  and in chapter 7 of the  MLA Style Manual . Both books provide extensive examples, so it's a good idea to consult them if you want to become even more familiar with MLA guidelines or if you have a particular reference question.

Basic in-text citation rules

In MLA Style, referring to the works of others in your text is done using parenthetical citations . This method involves providing relevant source information in parentheses whenever a sentence uses a quotation or paraphrase. Usually, the simplest way to do this is to put all of the source information in parentheses at the end of the sentence (i.e., just before the period). However, as the examples below will illustrate, there are situations where it makes sense to put the parenthetical elsewhere in the sentence, or even to leave information out.

General Guidelines

• The source information required in a parenthetical citation depends (1) upon the source medium (e.g. print, web, DVD) and (2) upon the source’s entry on the Works Cited page.
• Any source information that you provide in-text must correspond to the source information on the Works Cited page. More specifically, whatever signal word or phrase you provide to your readers in the text must be the first thing that appears on the left-hand margin of the corresponding entry on the Works Cited page.

In-text citations: Author-page style

MLA format follows the author-page method of in-text citation. This means that the author's last name and the page number(s) from which the quotation or paraphrase is taken must appear in the text, and a complete reference should appear on your Works Cited page. The author's name may appear either in the sentence itself or in parentheses following the quotation or paraphrase, but the page number(s) should always appear in the parentheses, not in the text of your sentence. For example:

Both citations in the examples above, (263) and (Wordsworth 263), tell readers that the information in the sentence can be located on page 263 of a work by an author named Wordsworth. If readers want more information about this source, they can turn to the Works Cited page, where, under the name of Wordsworth, they would find the following information:

Wordsworth, William. Lyrical Ballads . Oxford UP, 1967.

In-text citations for print sources with known author

For print sources like books, magazines, scholarly journal articles, and newspapers, provide a signal word or phrase (usually the author’s last name) and a page number. If you provide the signal word/phrase in the sentence, you do not need to include it in the parenthetical citation.

These examples must correspond to an entry that begins with Burke, which will be the first thing that appears on the left-hand margin of an entry on the Works Cited page:

Burke, Kenneth. Language as Symbolic Action: Essays on Life, Literature, and Method . University of California Press, 1966.

In-text citations for print sources by a corporate author

When a source has a corporate author, it is acceptable to use the name of the corporation followed by the page number for the in-text citation. You should also use abbreviations (e.g., nat'l for national) where appropriate, so as to avoid interrupting the flow of reading with overly long parenthetical citations.

In-text citations for sources with non-standard labeling systems

If a source uses a labeling or numbering system other than page numbers, such as a script or poetry, precede the citation with said label. When citing a poem, for instance, the parenthetical would begin with the word “line”, and then the line number or range. For example, the examination of William Blake’s poem “The Tyger” would be cited as such:

The speaker makes an ardent call for the exploration of the connection between the violence of nature and the divinity of creation. “In what distant deeps or skies. / Burnt the fire of thine eyes," they ask in reference to the tiger as they attempt to reconcile their intimidation with their relationship to creationism (lines 5-6).

Longer labels, such as chapters (ch.) and scenes (sc.), should be abbreviated.

In-text citations for print sources with no known author

When a source has no known author, use a shortened title of the work instead of an author name, following these guidelines.

Place the title in quotation marks if it's a short work (such as an article) or italicize it if it's a longer work (e.g. plays, books, television shows, entire Web sites) and provide a page number if it is available.

Titles longer than a standard noun phrase should be shortened into a noun phrase by excluding articles. For example, To the Lighthouse would be shortened to Lighthouse .

If the title cannot be easily shortened into a noun phrase, the title should be cut after the first clause, phrase, or punctuation:

In this example, since the reader does not know the author of the article, an abbreviated title appears in the parenthetical citation, and the full title of the article appears first at the left-hand margin of its respective entry on the Works Cited page. Thus, the writer includes the title in quotation marks as the signal phrase in the parenthetical citation in order to lead the reader directly to the source on the Works Cited page. The Works Cited entry appears as follows:

"The Impact of Global Warming in North America." Global Warming: Early Signs . 1999. www.climatehotmap.org/. Accessed 23 Mar. 2009.

If the title of the work begins with a quotation mark, such as a title that refers to another work, that quote or quoted title can be used as the shortened title. The single quotation marks must be included in the parenthetical, rather than the double quotation.

Parenthetical citations and Works Cited pages, used in conjunction, allow readers to know which sources you consulted in writing your essay, so that they can either verify your interpretation of the sources or use them in their own scholarly work.

Author-page citation for classic and literary works with multiple editions

Page numbers are always required, but additional citation information can help literary scholars, who may have a different edition of a classic work, like Marx and Engels's  The Communist Manifesto . In such cases, give the page number of your edition (making sure the edition is listed in your Works Cited page, of course) followed by a semicolon, and then the appropriate abbreviations for volume (vol.), book (bk.), part (pt.), chapter (ch.), section (sec.), or paragraph (par.). For example:

Author-page citation for works in an anthology, periodical, or collection

When you cite a work that appears inside a larger source (for instance, an article in a periodical or an essay in a collection), cite the author of the  internal source (i.e., the article or essay). For example, to cite Albert Einstein's article "A Brief Outline of the Theory of Relativity," which was published in  Nature  in 1921, you might write something like this:

See also our page on documenting periodicals in the Works Cited .

Citing authors with same last names

Sometimes more information is necessary to identify the source from which a quotation is taken. For instance, if two or more authors have the same last name, provide both authors' first initials (or even the authors' full name if different authors share initials) in your citation. For example:

Citing a work by multiple authors

For a source with two authors, list the authors’ last names in the text or in the parenthetical citation:

Corresponding Works Cited entry:

Best, David, and Sharon Marcus. “Surface Reading: An Introduction.” Representations , vol. 108, no. 1, Fall 2009, pp. 1-21. JSTOR, doi:10.1525/rep.2009.108.1.1

For a source with three or more authors, list only the first author’s last name, and replace the additional names with et al.

Franck, Caroline, et al. “Agricultural Subsidies and the American Obesity Epidemic.” American Journal of Preventative Medicine , vol. 45, no. 3, Sept. 2013, pp. 327-333.

Citing multiple works by the same author

If you cite more than one work by an author, include a shortened title for the particular work from which you are quoting to distinguish it from the others. Put short titles of books in italics and short titles of articles in quotation marks.

Citing two articles by the same author :

Citing two books by the same author :

Additionally, if the author's name is not mentioned in the sentence, format your citation with the author's name followed by a comma, followed by a shortened title of the work, and, when appropriate, the page number(s):

Citing multivolume works

If you cite from different volumes of a multivolume work, always include the volume number followed by a colon. Put a space after the colon, then provide the page number(s). (If you only cite from one volume, provide only the page number in parentheses.)

Citing the Bible

In your first parenthetical citation, you want to make clear which Bible you're using (and underline or italicize the title), as each version varies in its translation, followed by book (do not italicize or underline), chapter, and verse. For example:

If future references employ the same edition of the Bible you’re using, list only the book, chapter, and verse in the parenthetical citation:

John of Patmos echoes this passage when describing his vision (Rev. 4.6-8).

Citing indirect sources

Sometimes you may have to use an indirect source. An indirect source is a source cited within another source. For such indirect quotations, use "qtd. in" to indicate the source you actually consulted. For example:

Note that, in most cases, a responsible researcher will attempt to find the original source, rather than citing an indirect source.

Citing transcripts, plays, or screenplays

Sources that take the form of a dialogue involving two or more participants have special guidelines for their quotation and citation. Each line of dialogue should begin with the speaker's name written in all capitals and indented half an inch. A period follows the name (e.g., JAMES.) . After the period, write the dialogue. Each successive line after the first should receive an additional indentation. When another person begins speaking, start a new line with that person's name indented only half an inch. Repeat this pattern each time the speaker changes. You can include stage directions in the quote if they appear in the original source.

Conclude with a parenthetical that explains where to find the excerpt in the source. Usually, the author and title of the source can be given in a signal phrase before quoting the excerpt, so the concluding parenthetical will often just contain location information like page numbers or act/scene indicators.

Here is an example from O'Neill's  The Iceman Cometh.

WILLIE. (Pleadingly) Give me a drink, Rocky. Harry said it was all right. God, I need a drink.

ROCKY. Den grab it. It's right under your nose.

WILLIE. (Avidly) Thanks. (He takes the bottle with both twitching hands and tilts it to his lips and gulps down the whiskey in big swallows.) (1.1)

Citing non-print or sources from the Internet

With more and more scholarly work published on the Internet, you may have to cite sources you found in digital environments. While many sources on the Internet should not be used for scholarly work (reference the OWL's  Evaluating Sources of Information  resource), some Web sources are perfectly acceptable for research. When creating in-text citations for electronic, film, or Internet sources, remember that your citation must reference the source on your Works Cited page.

Sometimes writers are confused with how to craft parenthetical citations for electronic sources because of the absence of page numbers. However, these sorts of entries often do not require a page number in the parenthetical citation. For electronic and Internet sources, follow the following guidelines:

• Include in the text the first item that appears in the Work Cited entry that corresponds to the citation (e.g. author name, article name, website name, film name).
• Do not provide paragraph numbers or page numbers based on your Web browser’s print preview function.
• Unless you must list the Web site name in the signal phrase in order to get the reader to the appropriate entry, do not include URLs in-text. Only provide partial URLs such as when the name of the site includes, for example, a domain name, like  CNN.com  or  Forbes.com,  as opposed to writing out http://www.cnn.com or http://www.forbes.com.

Miscellaneous non-print sources

Two types of non-print sources you may encounter are films and lectures/presentations:

In the two examples above “Herzog” (a film’s director) and “Yates” (a presentor) lead the reader to the first item in each citation’s respective entry on the Works Cited page:

Herzog, Werner, dir. Fitzcarraldo . Perf. Klaus Kinski. Filmverlag der Autoren, 1982.

Yates, Jane. "Invention in Rhetoric and Composition." Gaps Addressed: Future Work in Rhetoric and Composition, CCCC, Palmer House Hilton, 2002. Address.

Electronic sources

Electronic sources may include web pages and online news or magazine articles:

In the first example (an online magazine article), the writer has chosen not to include the author name in-text; however, two entries from the same author appear in the Works Cited. Thus, the writer includes both the author’s last name and the article title in the parenthetical citation in order to lead the reader to the appropriate entry on the Works Cited page (see below).

In the second example (a web page), a parenthetical citation is not necessary because the page does not list an author, and the title of the article, “MLA Formatting and Style Guide,” is used as a signal phrase within the sentence. If the title of the article was not named in the sentence, an abbreviated version would appear in a parenthetical citation at the end of the sentence. Both corresponding Works Cited entries are as follows:

Taylor, Rumsey. "Fitzcarraldo." Slant , 13 Jun. 2003, www.slantmagazine.com/film/review/fitzcarraldo/. Accessed 29 Sep. 2009. 

"MLA Formatting and Style Guide." The Purdue OWL , 2 Aug. 2016, owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/747/01/. Accessed 2 April 2018.

Multiple citations

To cite multiple sources in the same parenthetical reference, separate the citations by a semi-colon:

Time-based media sources

When creating in-text citations for media that has a runtime, such as a movie or podcast, include the range of hours, minutes and seconds you plan to reference. For example: (00:02:15-00:02:35).

When a citation is not needed

Common sense and ethics should determine your need for documenting sources. You do not need to give sources for familiar proverbs, well-known quotations, or common knowledge (For example, it is expected that U.S. citizens know that George Washington was the first President.). Remember that citing sources is a rhetorical task, and, as such, can vary based on your audience. If you’re writing for an expert audience of a scholarly journal, for example, you may need to deal with expectations of what constitutes “common knowledge” that differ from common norms.

Other Sources

The MLA Handbook describes how to cite many different kinds of authors and content creators. However, you may occasionally encounter a source or author category that the handbook does not describe, making the best way to proceed can be unclear.

In these cases, it's typically acceptable to apply the general principles of MLA citation to the new kind of source in a way that's consistent and sensible. A good way to do this is to simply use the standard MLA directions for a type of source that resembles the source you want to cite.

You may also want to investigate whether a third-party organization has provided directions for how to cite this kind of source. For example, Norquest College provides guidelines for citing Indigenous Elders and Knowledge Keepers⁠ —an author category that does not appear in the MLA Handbook . In cases like this, however, it's a good idea to ask your instructor or supervisor whether using third-party citation guidelines might present problems.

12.3 Glance at Genre: Introducing Research as Evidence

Learning outcomes.

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

• Identify key terms and characteristics of evidence-based research writing.
• Participate effectively in a continuing scholarly conversation by synthesizing research and discussing it with others.
• Identify and analyze genre conventions as shaped by purpose, culture, and expectation.

Good writing satisfies audience expectations in genre, style, and content. Similarly, careful research, conducted according to the scope and method of each discipline, is a precondition of good research writing. In the humanities, research usually focuses on texts, individual ideas, speculations, insights, and imaginative connections. On the other hand, research in the social and physical sciences tends to focus on data and ideas that can be verified through observation, measurement, and testing. However, regardless of differences in disciplines and preferences of varying audiences, certain principles of research, writing, and supporting a position hold true across the curriculum.

The Genre of Research: Joining Scholarly Conversations

Conducting research on topics about which you have limited knowledge can be intimidating. To feel more comfortable with research, you can think of it as participating in a scholarly conversation, with the understanding that all knowledge on a particular subject is connected. Even if you discover only a small amount of information on your topic, the conversations around it may have begun long before you were born and may continue beyond your lifetime. Your involvement with the topic is your way of entering a conversation with other students and scholars at this time, as you discuss and synthesize information. After you leave the conversation, or finish your research, others are likely to pick it up again.

What you find through research helps you provide solid evidence that empowers you to add productively to the conversation. Thinking of research in this way means understanding the connections among your topic, your course materials, and larger historical, social, political, and economic contexts and themes. Understanding such connectedness begins with choosing your topic and continues through all phases of your research.

Key Terms in Research Writing

These are key terms and characteristics of evidence-based research writing:

• Citation . When reporting research, writers use citations to acknowledge and give credit for all borrowed materials. Citation also strengthens the credibility, or ethos, of the researcher. Citations always have two parts. Internal citations are short references that lead readers to more detailed information about how to find the sources. External citations are the entries listed, with publishing information, on the Works Cited or References page of the paper. Formatting of both internal and external citations is disciplinary specific. See the Handbook for specific information about MLA Documentation and Format and APA Documentation and Format .
• claim . Claims are the points you make in your report. They are based on and supported by research and evidence.
• Counterclaims . When it comes to research, the counterclaim is the writer’s thoughtful consideration and addressing of the other side’s objections to claims made or even to the topic itself. Counterclaims may need to be supported by further research and evidence.
• Evidence . Within the genre of research, evidence is either findings from original research or, more often, borrowed information that helps you develop your thesis and support your organizational structure and line of reasoning.
• Field research . Field research is basically primary research you conduct through observation or experimentation. Depending on your research question, you may need to seek answers by visiting museums or businesses, attending concerts, conducting interviews, observing classrooms or professionals at work, performing experiments, or following leads. Field research is covered extensively in Research Process: How to Create Sources .
• Research question . Your research question dictates your general line or lines of inquiry that ultimately guide your research. In developing your research question(s), you are narrowing the scope of your topic. Your research question(s) will come from the purpose of your research, the audience of your research product, and the genre for reporting your research.
• Thesis . The thesis is the claim, position, or hypothesis by which you attempt to answer your formulated research question(s).
• Reasoning . Similar to an argumentative essay, the line of reasoning in a research essay, report, or presentation is the organizational arrangement of the supports and evidence that back up your thesis.
• Topic . The topic is the general subject or content area of your research. Strong topics are usually those that involve some controversy or debate. Topics that are not debatable or have no nuanced perspectives do not make for strong research questions or lines of inquiry.

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Home Market Research

Online research: Definition, Methods, Types and Execution

Online survey research is much more impactful than traditional research, considering the ease of access and cost savings they come with. The response rates received for online research are much higher than the others as the respondents are assured that their identity will be protected.

There’s constant progress in the field of online survey research with the progress that’s happening on the internet and social media. Social media has been a catalyst in the entire process of online research regarding access to databases and the experiments that can be conducted on this platform.

What is Online Research?

Online research is a research method that involves the collection of information from the internet. With the advent of the internet, the traditional pen-and-paper research techniques have taken a backseat and made room for online research design .

Online surveys , online polls , questionnaires , forms , and focus groups are various tools of online research that are vital in gathering essential information for market research . The internet has created impressive avenues for small and large businesses to conduct market research with zero to a minimum investment. Online research can be carried out for product testing, targeting an audience, database mining, customer satisfaction et al.

LEARN ABOUT:  Market research industry

5 Online Research Methods and Techniques:

Researchers and statisticians collect data from respondents using various online research techniques. They are often called internet research or web-based research methods. Many of these research methods are already being used in one way or another but are being revived for online mediums. The latest in this line of online research methods in social media research, as it offers extended levels of complexities and, thus, new avenues for research.

Researchers extensively use 5 such online research methods due to the precise nature of the offered results.

• Online focus group: A subset of the online research techniques, online focus groups are methods usually used for B2B research, consumer research and political research. A moderator is assigned to conduct and supervise the focus group who invites pre-selected and qualified participants who represent a specific area of interest to be a part of this focus group at a particular time. The respondents are usually incentivized to be a part of the discussion, which usually is an hour and 90 minutes.

LEARN ABOUT: B2B Online Panels

• Online interview: This online research method is quite similar to the face-to-face interview methods yet different in terms of the required standard practices, understanding with respondents, and sampling. Online interviews are organized using various computer-mediated communication (CMC), essentially SMS or Email. Based on  the response time for these interviews, they’re classified into synchronous and asynchronous methods.Synchronous online interviews are carried out via mediums such as online chat, where the responses are received in real-time. Asynchronous online interviews are those that happen over Email, where the responses are usually not in real-time. Just like face-to-face interviews, online interviews probe into respondents’ thoughts and feedback about a particular topic to get insights into their experiences, ideas, or attitudes.
• Online qualitative research: Other than the mainstream online focus groups and online interviews, there are various aspects of online qualitative research . These aspects include blogs, mobile diaries , and communities . These methods contribute toward cost and time savings and are supremely convenient for the researchers to gather information for their research topics. The level of sophistication that online qualitative research methods bring to the table is superior to any other traditional forms as the respondents can be either recruited from existing databases, or panels or can be added by conducting surveys . LEARN MORE: Qualitative Research Questions and Questionnaires
• Online text analysis: This analysis technique is an extension of text analysis which exists since the 17th century which is a collection of various online research examples used to derive insights from content available online. By using this online research technique, researchers can explain penned, verbal or graphic communication formats. Categories such as web pages, paragraphs, sentences, quasi-sentences, documents, etc. It is most often used for quantitative research but for better interpretation of the text, researchers also use qualitative techniques.

LEARN ABOUT: Qualitative Interview

• Social network analysis: Social network analysis is an emerging online research technique which is gaining acceptance due to the increased adoption of social networking platforms. By conducting social network analysis, a researcher can map and measure flows and relationships between people, organizations, URLs, groups or computers using graph theory. For instance, the latest meme culture has developed new social structures in which the people associated are termed as “nodes” and memes are the “links” between these nodes.

LEARN ABOUT: Best Data Collection Tools

Types of online research:

• Customer satisfaction research: Earlier, this type of research used to be conducted over phone calls but nowadays, the customers are accustomed to getting mail asking them to give their feedback on their recent experience with an organization. For instance, if you own a newly opened restaurant, you’d want to know customer satisfaction . You can either have a survey ready for them to fill out after their meal, send it out after taking their email address or use the offline app to conduct the survey.
• New product research: The launch of a new product can be unnerving. Understanding whether a new product will succeed with the target audience is much needed. New product research can be carried out by testing the product with a group of selected guinea pigs and collecting feedback almost immediately. It can be highly effective when conducting research for a new mall outlet (read: Walmart!), launching a car variant, or introducing adding new credit card options.
• Understand brand loyalty: Many small and big businesses survive merely on brand loyalty . It’s undoubtedly a big deal but to every organization needs to work on it to either maintain or improve it. Conduct online research to know what attracts a customer to a particular brand or the points that are currently keeping them from being loyal to your brand.
• Employee engagement and employee satisfaction research: Understanding what employees think about working with your organization is the key to success. The mood and morale of the employees must be tracked regularly so that they effectively contribute to the growth of the company. Surveys should be sent to improve employee engagement and also to strive to maintain employee satisfaction . 

Things to keep in mind for online survey research

Online survey research is one of the most impactful ways to carry out web-based research that yield effective results. Here are a few points that all organizations should take care of while designing an online survey for research:

Give open-ended questions a miss:

A respondent needs to think before submitting open-ended questions, so the time taken for completion can increase. This can annoy them to a point where they’d simply quit the survey. Yes-No questions, multiple choice questions, or ranking questions will be much easier for respondents to fill out and as effective as open-ended questions .

Show urgency but also be tolerant:

In case you want a response for something important, sending more than one invitation for respondents to fill out is alright. But, a prerequisite for this is that your database should be very well aware of this, and they should have no objection to it. Most importantly, be patient with the results once you’ve conducted an online survey. Appoint someone from the team who will take care of the entire process of conducting this survey.

Detailed surveys produce better results:

Survey takers can sit through a survey that would take them a maximum of 25 minutes. They would usually quit to never return, even for the surveys that you might send out in the future. The inclusion of drop-down questions or multiple choice questions (with accurate options) will help reduce the survey size and, in turn, the time invested by the survey takers.

Online Research Advantages:

• Access to data across the globe: The Internet is an elaborate platform for researchers to invest their time in retrieving crucial information that would otherwise consume a lot of their time. It is straightforward for them to conduct research skills even if they’re lazing on their couch and have deadlines.   
• Minimum investment of time and resources: Online mediums have become the numero uno resort for individuals to look up information to broaden their horizons of knowledge. There’s information being updated daily, and researchers latch onto this information for their benefit. It has eased the process of publishing and collecting information and thus saves time and money.  
• Central pool of facts and figures: Researchers and statisticians keep searching for updated information on various important topics. Students explore the internet for academic purposes, which is the most significant edge the internet offers.
• Capable tools for collecting information: Surveys, questionnaires, and polls are being conducted via online mediums like emails or QR codes, or embedded websites to gather or spread vital information.

Know more about the various online research methods.

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QuestionPro’s robust suite of research tools provides you with all you need to derive research results. Our online survey platform includes custom point-and-click logic and advanced question types.

LEARN ABOUT: Market research vs marketing research

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Conducting Qualitative Research Online: Challenges and Solutions

• Practical Application
• Open access
• Published: 11 June 2021
• Volume 14 , pages 711–718, ( 2021 )

Cite this article

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• Stacy M. Carter   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-2617-8694 1 ,
• Patti Shih   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-9628-7987 1 ,
• Jane Williams   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-0142-0299 2 ,
• Chris Degeling   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-4279-3443 1 &
• Julie Mooney-Somers   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-4047-3403 2  

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What ways of thinking and concrete strategies can assist qualitative health researchers to transition their research practice to online environments? We propose that researchers should foreground inclusion when designing online qualitative research, and suggest ethical, technological and social adaptations required to move data collection online. Existing research shows that this move can aid in meeting recruitment targets, but can also reduce the richness of the data generated, as well as how much participants enjoy participating, and the ability to achieve consensus in groups. Mindful and consultative choices are required to prevent these problems. To adapt to ethical challenges, researchers should especially consider participant privacy, and ways to build rapport and show appropriate care for participants, including protocols for dealing with distress or disengagement, managing data, and supporting consent. To adapt to technological challenges, research plans should choose between online modalities and platforms based on a clear understanding of their particular affordances and the implications of these. Finally, successful research in virtual social environments requires new protocols for engagement before data collection, attention to group numbers and dynamics, altered moderator teams and roles, and new logistical tasks for researchers. The increasing centrality of online environments to everyday life is driving traditional qualitative research methods to online environments and generating new qualitative research methods that respond to the particularities of online worlds. With strong design principles and attention to ethical, technical and social challenges, online methods can make a significant contribution to qualitative research in health.

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Coproducing Online Focus or Consultation Groups for Health and Social Care Research

Are we on the cusp of a fourth research paradigm? Predicting the future for a new approach to methods-use in medical and health services research

Frances Rapport & Jeffrey Braithwaite

Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.

Interviewer: Now, you were just about to say something when you froze.

Participant: Yeah …

Interviewer: Oh, now you’re freezing again.

Participant: Let me just close this other …

Interviewer: No, I’ve got you again, that’s, you’re coming back.

Participant: Ok, good, I just closed a window I had open.

Interviewer: Just give me one second and I’ll just shout upstairs at my daughter who is probably watching something.

Participant: Ok.

Interviewer: (has conversation with daughter) Sorry about that.

Participant: That’s ok. It’s part of, part of the world we live in.

Interviewer: It is. The cat’s been trying to come and have a look at you as well, but I’ve managed to keep her down.

Excerpt from qualitative interview conducted on a videoconferencing platform in 2020

Many readers will recognise the encounter above, and may have had interactions like it, attempting to balance the personal and the professional, attempting to transpose rules and norms of one milieu into another, attempting to connect against distraction and technological difficulties. These issues are perhaps more acute for research interactions—like the one above—than for everyday interactions. In research, the need to generate meaningful findings, the requirements of human research ethics, and limits of time and resources increase the stakes. The challenge is arguably greater still for qualitative research, where participants are asked to speak in depth about often very personal, private or challenging issues, and rapport and support for participants can be critical to success. Our aim here is to provide practical assistance to help qualitative researchers and participants succeed in this online terrain.

Qualitative methods are a natural fit for patient-centred outcomes and health preferences research, as they allow the study of participants’ experiences, choices and actions from the participant’s perspective. While qualitative methods are often used as a preliminary step in the development of quantitative instruments or studies [ 1 ], qualitative studies provide complex and patient-centred insights in their own right [ 2 ], and are now commonly synthesised to inform health policy, health services, and health technology assessment [ 3 ]. Qualitative health researchers are increasingly turning to online platforms to collect data, whether in response to social distancing requirements during the COVID-19 pandemic [ 4 ], to research online worlds as unique cultures and communication environments [ 5 ], or because innovative methods can achieve novel aims [ 6 ]. Moving research online is not a simple ‘like-for-like’ transfer however; the transition can be a disorienting struggle even for experienced researchers.

Qualitative research is diverse and heterogeneous, with different underpinning assumptions, aims, methods for data collection and analysis, and reporting styles [ 7 ]. We will concentrate only on interview and focus group methods because they are frequently used in patient preferences research. The online environment is reinventing these methods, with adaptations including online focus groups, email interviewing, Instant Messaging (IM) interviewing, and the use of internet-based video interviewing [ 8 ]. There are many other qualitative methods that can be used in the online environment, including netnography [ 9 ], online visual research methods [ 10 ], and social media research methods [ 5 ], but these are beyond the scope of this paper.

Qualitative researchers have adapted repeatedly to technological change, both in the mode of engagement with participants, and the collection, transformation and storage of data. A longitudinal view reveals multiple moments of technological recalibration for qualitative researchers. For some time, researchers accustomed to face-to-face interviews asked whether telephone interviews were acceptable, but they are now both commonplace and recognised as highly suitable for interaction with certain participants, e.g. with elites [ 11 , 12 ]. As natural language processing improves and data storage and processing speed increases, human transcribers are being replaced with automated transcription software, and transcripts with clipping and coding digital recordings directly [ 13 ]. These changes have not been linear—technologies are reinvented and recombined over time—but change and technological adaptation have been a constant. In each of these transformations, new issues arise that need to be considered.

The authors are experienced qualitative researchers who share an interest in methodology, methods and research ethics. This paper emerged through discussion of issues that had arisen in our online experience to date and potential issues we could foresee given the different topics and specific populations we research, along with looking to the literature for answers to questions we faced in our practice. We are writing in early 2021, when social distancing requirements in many countries have greatly accelerated a nascent move towards greater online data collection. As the qualitative research community continues to come to terms with these changes, we consider the opportunities and challenges of online data collection that pandemic conditions have made evident.

1 Doing Qualitative Research in a Virtual Environment: Opportunities, Challenges and Solutions

A recent scoping review compared face-to-face with online research studies of health and illness experiences. The authors concluded that while online methods appear to increase the likelihood of obtaining the desired sample, responses are typically shorter, less contextual information is obtained, and relational satisfaction and consensus development are lower [ 14 ]. This does not mean that online methods are inferior, but it does mean that researchers should deliberately plan to mitigate their potential weaknesses.

In the following sections, we consider a set of interconnected issues, taking a lead from Davies and colleagues’ scoping review [ 14 ]. First, we will argue that while the online environment may facilitate participation, the move online can enable or hinder inclusion. We will then consider the ethical, technological and social adaptations required in online data collection to, among other things, maximise data quality and care for participants. We note as a background premise that usual qualitative study design considerations—the need for sound aims, research questions, recruitment and sampling strategies, interview or focus group guides and analysis strategies—still hold. We will focus on adaptation of procedures, with sound research design principles assumed [ 15 , 16 ].

2 Moving Online Can Enable or Hinder Inclusion

Unjustly excluding people because of their technological or material circumstances is an old research ethics problem that potentially takes a new form in online research, potentially altering the accessibility of research for participants in positive or negative ways. Transitioning from face-to-face to online data collection can broaden access by lifting geographic limits. Online data collection can reduce the burdens of time and cost of participating in research. Participants do not have to travel or host a researcher, and it may be more convenient to conduct interviews and focus groups outside of working hours. These adjustments are likely to make participation easier or more appealing for some groups that previously faced practical limitations to taking part in qualitative research. For example, people with limited mobility, as well as caregivers, may find online participation from home inviting because they do not need to make the same sorts of accommodations that can stand in the way of in-person research [ 17 ].

Conversely, online data collection may also limit participation only to those who have a web-enabled device, and sometimes authority to install software. Online video platforms require a good-quality internet connection and relatively high data usage. People without access to fast and reliable internet, as well as people with limited access to data, may find it difficult or less appealing to participate. Online data collection risks excluding, or creating additional burdens and considerable stress for, participants who do not feel competent in the use of technology. Finally, not all technology can accommodate the needs of participants living with specific disabilities.

Researchers can mitigate these barriers to participation and inclusion through mindful and consultative technological and logistical choices. For those with limited access to technology, video conferencing platforms may be inappropriate; inclusion may require conducting an interview without video (audio only) or via telephone to reduce the need for a high-quality internet connection. Researchers may also consider methods such as email interviewing or IM interviewing, which offer accessibility benefits (e.g. more time for participant reflection, less data-intensive technology) but also disadvantages (e.g. requires sufficient literacy) [ 8 ]. Researchers can provide participants with data credit vouchers so that they can participate in video calls without the burden of additional data costs. Different platforms offer different participation options for people with disabilities (Table 1), and accessibility options are improving. Accessibility experts and advocacy groups are a good source of information (e.g. [ 18 , 19 ]). As in face-to-face data collection, specialist advice, including from participants themselves, can assist inclusion of people who use augmentative or alternative communication devices. Researchers should also be flexible with, and take the lead from, participants to maximise inclusion, as participants may have identified or developed solutions that make video conferencing platforms more accessible for them. People with impaired hearing, for example, may find it difficult to rely on lip-reading in video calls, but could participate via a synchronous text chat interview, or on a video platform with the right speech-to-text captioning tool, or with a sign language interpreter pinned next to the main speaker on screen [ 20 , 21 , 22 ].

Traditionally, meeting in person has helped shape sampling and recruitment strategies for studies. The location of the research team has often determined the geographic parameters of the study population because face-to-face interviews and focus groups have been the norm for data collection. Online platforms potentially eradicate some geographic barriers and may prompt researchers to think differently about their research questions. While it may be tempting to substantially widen sampling and recruitment because online methods have made it possible, researchers should remain mindful of the importance of methodological concerns. Study populations are shaped by considerations other than practicality. Researchers must be clear about why they have identified the population of interest and how that sample will help them answer their study questions. It may be that geographic location or experience of a particular healthcare system remains an important factor to capture.

3 Practical Ways to Adapt to Technological, Social and Ethical Challenges in Online Research

Successful online data collection requires three kinds of adaptation: to ethical challenges, to a new technological environment, and to a new social environment. These are interconnected but for clarity we deal with each of them in turn below.

3.1 Adapting to Ethical Challenges

In addition to usual research ethics considerations, online data collection raises special challenges. For example, online data collection creates different privacy risks. Online engagement with video means a researcher (and if a focus group, other group members) can potentially see and hear a participant’s domestic space. There are other privacy considerations—some communication platforms require a participant profile, including name, date of birth, email address and/or mobile phone number; participants may not want a profile, or if they have one they may not want to disclose it. Supporting people to participate anonymously may be vital for some populations/research topics. Participants also need access to a quiet and private space. For example, participants who rely on public libraries for internet access are unlikely to be able to do this with privacy.

During in-person research, we use ordinary actions to show our presence and care, or to create rapport: small talk, sharing a beverage, handing a tissue to a distressed participant, closing an encounter by walking a participant out of the building. Online data collection means the loss of this embodied care. Researchers need to develop strategies to establish rapport or comfort a distressed participant; these protocols should be included in ethics applications. We suggest the following adaptations to address these and other important ethical concerns.

Develop a protocol for dealing with distress or disengagement Common in research with vulnerable participants or on sensitive topics, we recommend these protocols for all online qualitative research. Develop clear strategies for how you will deal with an interview participant who becomes visibly distressed or unresponsive, moves away from the screen, shuts down the platform, does not return from an agreed comfort break, or where you witness problematic interactions with other people in the participant’s setting. A similar protocol is advisable for focus groups to deal with distress, or with abuse or discriminatory actions between participants. Ensure you have an alternative means to contact each participant and let participants know in advance under what circumstances you will contact them via this alternative channel.

Ensure video and/or audio recordings are stored appropriately Researchers should check where an online platform is storing recordings and their privacy policy. Using a platform’s cloud service can be in contravention of local privacy legislation (e.g. the European Union’s General Data Protection Regulation [GDRP]) or ethical approval; choose a platform that allows researchers to store recordings on their computer or institutional cloud service. For sensitive research topics, recording via an offline audio device (e.g. digital recorder) provides greater security.

Decide how consent will be recorded Consent processes can be less straightforward for online research; several methods are available, each with benefits and disadvantages. Asking participants to return a written consent form prior to data collection can place burdens on participants and requires a printer and scanner/smartphone. Online platforms (e.g. DocuSign) can be efficient but raise participant access, competency and data security concerns. Adobe Acrobat offers several methods including allowing participants to ‘sign’ via a smartphone screen, print and scan. Researchers can seek and record verbal consent (if acceptable to their ethics review board); this may be preferable, both for its lower burden on participants and to encourage the participant to ask questions before participating. Consider doing this in an introductory interaction (before the data collection event), especially for focus groups; this allows more attention to individual questions, and greater confidentiality. Flexibility is important as methods should suit participants’ comfort and capabilities.

Address online data collection challenges in ethics applications Ethics review boards will vary in their understanding of and tolerance for online data collection. As with face-to-face research, anticipate and address concerns: provide a logic for your study design, explain how the chosen data collection method(s) and platform meet the needs of the participants and the research topic. Be transparent about challenges and outline specific strategies for enhancing participation and offsetting risk. If your online research engages participants in new and unfamiliar locations, researchers should investigate whether their local ethics board approval will be sufficient to work in that context. Seeking advice from ethics review boards in advance can reveal common concerns and offer solutions.

3.2 Adapting to Technological Challenges: Hardware and Software

Planning ahead As online research events rely on the functionality and management of technology, both hardware and software, technological logistics should be central to research planning. Before commencing data collection, researchers should ensure that prospective participants have (1) access to hardware (e.g. phone, tablet, computer); (2) a reliable internet connection; (3) familiarity with the chosen platform; and (4) adequate support to respond to technological problems. Participants may need technical coaching and support before data collection occurs.

Affordances that facilitate desired social interactions Different online communication platforms have different affordances [ 4 ], and these functionalities enable, for example, different degrees of interactivity, data recording, confidentiality and privacy, and security (Box 1 ). Although ideally platforms would be chosen to suit the participants, in some instances a researcher’s institution, or local legislation will dictate the use of certain platforms for reasons including licensing or security. Issues to consider in selecting and managing the technological aspects of online research include the following.

Microphone and camera control: allows either, or both, participant or host to manually control their own or others’ cameras and microphones, helpful for managing background noise or speaking order if required.

Chat functions: allows short textual comments or questions to be posted by participants, usually in a sidebar from the main screen, and usually without disrupting the verbal conversation.

Breakout rooms: small subgroup discussions that can be separated out from the main meeting; host/s can join in and out, for example to answer or ask questions, or to facilitate discussions. Some platforms can automatically assign participants into rooms, with a mandatory timed finish, and automatically rejoin participants back into the main meeting.

Participant polling: short surveys or votes to gauge participant sentiments or show preferences.

Screen sharing: allows any participant to share the contents of their own screen, which is useful for sharing digital images or other materials the participant might want to introduce to the discussion.

Screen annotation: interactive screen-based textual and drawing tools, enabling participants to visually mark the content shown on screen.

Live subtitles and captioning: an additional service, often requiring subscription, that enables live subtitling of video calls, using a ‘speech to text’ recognition software. This may aid the participation of people living with hearing impairment [ 19 ].

Anonymity of participants If anonymity of participants is important, choose a platform that can easily control username displays and prepare participants to control how they present themselves. Some platforms display both first and surnames by default when entering an online meeting, therefore ensure participants know how to edit their display name. Avoid online platforms that require an account sign-up and automatically displays the user’s account name or contact phone number, as this compromises privacy and confidentiality. As participants may join the virtual research from their own homes or private offices, pre-research coaching should include the option of using virtual backgrounds for greater privacy protection.

Recording, screenshots and transcription Certain platforms offer recording of online interactions and transcription of audio data. Be sure to check how and where these data files will be stored and secured (see ‘Adapting to Ethical Challenges’ section). A screenshot allows anyone accessing the online event to take a photograph of the screen. This can be a useful tool in research but also allows participants to take recordings and screenshots without the knowledge of researchers and others. Consent for recording should be discussed with everyone taking part prior to commencing any online data collection activities, recording turned off for participants, and participants instructed not to make their own offline recordings.

Manually controlled or password entry Controlled entry by the host usually comes in the form of a ‘waiting room’, whereby the host manually admits participants. This gives hosts a greater degree of control but will also require more time and attention, particularly for larger groups. Password entry allows anyone with a password to the meeting to enter automatically and may save more time. Many research institutions and Human Research Ethics Committees (HRECs) already require password protection for online research.

Box 1 Platform functions checklist

When choosing an appropriate platform, check these specific technological affordances against the needs and suitability for your research method and participants:

For managing privacy, confidentiality and security of the participants and the research space:

✓ Password entry

✓ Admission and removal of participants

✓ Username display control

✓ Virtual background

For facilitating effective social interactions online

✓ Microphone and camera control

✓ Chat functions

✓ Breakout rooms

✓ Participant polling

✓ Screen sharing

✓ Screen annotation

For managing data collection and storage

✓ Built-in video and audio recording

✓ Subtitles and captioning

✓ Secure storage of recorded data

✓ Screenshot

3.3 Adapting to Social Difference: Knowing the Virtual Social Environment and Working with It

Compared with face-to-face research settings, researchers will have less control over potential interruptions to online data collection activities, as they cannot be physically present to offer alternative arrangements or interventions. Some participants may be practiced in online interactions as part of their daily work or social routine, while others will not [ 23 ]. Being prepared to manage interruptions, unpredictability and diversity of comfort level with online interactions is crucial. Below we suggest some adaptations to manage the social dimensions of online research.

Pre-research briefing/check-in Conducting a pre-research briefing can help participants be informed about what to expect and ensure they are comfortable using the online technologies and platforms. If you are working with participants who are vulnerable, have challenges in communicating, or are not familiar with using online technologies, supporting their communication and technology-use needs before data collection is crucial. This can also help build rapport to enhance participants’ relational satisfaction with participation.

Determining numbers in a focus group Compared with face-to-face research, online group interactions demand more cognitive effort for both moderators and participants [ 23 ]. Online interactions can also have a slower flow due to minor lags in screen interactions, which tends to exacerbate as the number of participants increase. Maximum numbers will likely be smaller than in face-to-face interactions; we recommend four to six participants for online focus groups. The goal is to not only ensure enough ‘energy’ in the room to sustain interaction but to also make facilitation manageable and the experience more enjoyable for participants.

Manage the energy in the ‘room’ Online focus groups and interviews require more than facilitating the content and flow of the discussion. Focused social interactions between people on a research topic, particularly with unfamiliar others, are particularly mentally demanding. Ways to manage this include slowing down the speed of the conversation with slightly longer pauses between sentences or questions and taking shorter breaks more frequently if a focus group runs for more than an hour. In our experience, online group modalities can encourage participants to take discrete turns rather than interacting in a dynamic flow; this may be offset to some extent by smaller group size and less intrusive moderation that creates more space for participant talk.

Use assistant moderators and make them co-hosts of the online call Assistants can help manage the technology while remaining muted with the camera off in the background. This can reduce cognitive burden for the moderator, allowing greater focus on the conversation. Ensure the assistant moderator role is explained to participants at the start of research events.

Designate personnel for emotional support In addition to an assistant moderator, a ‘runner’ or research assistant can act as a point of support for participants in difficulty. The role of this person should also be explained to all participants. Some participants may also wish to access support more discretely, and how this can be done should also be made clear.

Establish a culturally safe research space In any research, whether face-to-face or online, participants should feel culturally safe [ 24 ]. Managing the cultural safety of online interactions, particularly in group research, may sometimes be more challenging because visual cues that threaten cultural safety may be more difficult to read and respond to. Moderators need to establish ground rules early to set the tone and expectations of the room and be firm and decisive in using microphone control to temporarily mute disrespectful participants, or, in unresolvable situations, have an assistant remove them. Check that the selected technological platforms will allow the host to eject or temporarily mute a participant if necessary. Assistant moderators can also keep track of chat room interactions to help manage any challenging circumstances. While some online platforms (e.g. Zoom) can facilitate the provision of language interpretation via simultaneous audio channels, we note that ensuring cultural safety requires more than interpretation, and that adding additional channels does add technological and interpersonal complexity.

Manage microphones and background noise While asking participants to mute their microphones can often minimise background noise, having to turn the microphone on and off during interactions will also interrupt the flow of interactions. To maximise participation, leaving microphones on is recommended, despite the trade-off with background noise, which can interfere with data quality and the experience of other participants. Asking participants to do their best in minimising background noise or asking an assistant moderator to mute individual participants if background noise becomes problematic may help manage this. Discuss the preferred arrangement with participants at the start of the research event, including when and if microphones should be muted, and the best way to manage when to speak.

Have a back-up plan Sometimes technology can go wrong (computers crash, hardware malfunctions, internet connections go down), either halting the research or producing inaudible content. We have already considered the need for a clear, agreed backup plan to manage distress and cultural safety; this is also important to manage technical problems. Assistant moderators should hold a list of participants’ contact phone numbers and clear agreement with participants on when their contact number will be used. Moderators should be decisive about when to abandon the online platform and move to the back-up plan.

Manage unexpected intrusions ‘Zoom bombers’ join online meetings uninvited. They can cause interruption and embarrassment and they breach the privacy of a confidential research event. ‘Zoom bombing’ happens mostly when a link to the meeting is posted publicly and becomes searchable online. Use a private password for every online research event and consider using a waiting room for more control. Explicitly ask participants not to post events publicly or share links, and ensure passwords are secure and not publicised (e.g. on social media).

Conduct evaluation, and research online qualitative research Consider including questions about the use of the technology and online platform in post-research evaluations; feedback can not only be used to refine design and processes in future research but can also support methodological research.

4 Conclusions

Online methods were once marginal in qualitative research, rarely considered a first choice for data collection, and restricted mostly to those researchers who were interested in online worlds such as social media or gaming cultures as a subject of study. This has radically shifted. At the time of writing, the COVID-19 pandemic has driven much of everyday life into virtual worlds, as families, workplaces and existing social networks try to sustain themselves in the face of the risk of transmission. Niels Bohr allegedly quipped that prediction is very difficult, especially about the future; allowing for this caveat, we cannot imagine a future where everyday life or research practices return exactly to a 2019 pre-pandemic status quo. Online qualitative research has opened up a world of options for accessing participants and creating new types of data, and this seems likely to continue to expand. Qualitative researchers, then, need to respond to these new circumstances and opportunities in methodologically and ethically sound ways.

This paper is limited by our knowledge, experience and reading. Others will have expertise that we do not (e.g. in assistive communication technologies). We are also writing in a particular moment—a pandemic-induced flight to online research. As online qualitative research becomes mainstream, it is likely that technologies, practices and understandings will mature. Because change is inevitable, we have focused on principles rather than fine details of different platforms. There may be scope for researchers to engage with platforms over time and demand technological innovations that will more easily serve the ethical and methodological needs of research practice. Researchers themselves will also generate new qualitative methods that respond to the particularities of online platforms and their affordances. If researchers remain focused on design principles and attend to ethical, technical and social challenges, online methods will continue to make a significant contribution to qualitative health preferences research.

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Carter, .M., Shih, P., Williams, J. et al. Conducting Qualitative Research Online: Challenges and Solutions. Patient 14 , 711–718 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40271-021-00528-w

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Discussing findings.

• GENERAL LANGUAGE FUNCTIONS
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• Being critical
• Classifying and listing
• Compare and contrast
• Defining terms
• Describing trends
• Describing quantities
• Explaining causality
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The term ‘discussion’ has a variety of meanings in English. In academic writing, however, it usually refers to two types of activity: a) considering both sides of an issue, or question before reaching a conclusion; b) considering the results of research and the implications of these. Discussion sections in dissertations and research articles are probably the most complex sections in terms of their elements. They normally centre around a ‘statement of result’ or an important ‘finding’. As there is usually more than one result, discussion sections are often structured into a series of discussion cycles. The most common elements in these cycles, and some of the language that is typically associated with them, are listed below. Note that when offering explanations and suggesting implications the language used is very tentative or cautious (refer to the section entitled  B e ing cautious ).

Providing background information: reference to the literature

Several reports have shown that … As mentioned in the literature review, … Prior studies that have noted the importance of … Very little was found in the literature on the question of … Previous studies evaluating X observed inconsistent results on whether … A strong relationship between X and Y has been reported in the literature. In reviewing the literature, no data was found on the association between X and Y.

Providing background information: reference to the question

The third question in this research was … An initial objective of the project was to identify … The first question in this study sought to determine … It was hypothesised that participants with a history of … The present study was designed to determine the effect of … With respect to the first research question, it was found that … This study set out with the aim of assessing the importance of X in …

Restating the result or one of several results

This study found that … Another finding is that … The results of this study show that … The current investigation found that … In this study, Xs were found to cause … On the question of X, this study found that … The first part of the questionnaire revealed that … This experiment did not detect any evidence for … The most obvious finding to emerge from the analysis is that …

Pointing out interesting or important findings

One interesting finding is … Another important finding is that … The most important result was that … Most striking was the substantial difference in … Another finding that stands out from the results reported earlier is …

Indicating an unexpected outcome

What is surprising is that … Surprisingly, X was found to … One unanticipated result was that … What is curious about this result is that … Surprisingly, no differences were found in … This finding was unexpected and suggests that … One unexpected finding was the extent to which … It is somewhat surprising that no X was noted in this condition … It is interesting to compare Figure 4 with Figure 2 in Smith (2019) that shows … One surprising variable that was found to be significantly associated with X was … Contrary to expectations, this study did not find a significant difference between … These findings are somewhat surprising given the fact that other research shows …

Comparing the result: supporting previous findings

This study confirms that X is associated with … This finding was also reported by Smith  et al . (1989). This finding is consistent with that of Smith (2000) who … Comparison of the findings with those of other studies confirms … This also accords with our earlier observations, which showed that … These results reflect those of Smith  et al . (1992) who also found that … Increased activation in the X in this study corroborates these earlier findings. These results corroborate the findings of a great deal of the previous work in … This finding broadly supports the work of other studies in this area linking X with Y. In accordance with the present results, previous studies have demonstrated that … It is encouraging to compare this figure with that found by Jones (1993) who found that … Consistent with the literature, this research found that participants who reported using X also … This study supports evidence from previous observations (e.g. Smith, 2006; Jones  et al ., 2011). There are similarities between the attitudes expressed by X in this study and those described by …

Comparing the result: contradicting previous findings

This study has been unable to demonstrate that … However, this result has not previously been described. This outcome is contrary to that of Smith et al. (2001) who found … This finding is contrary to previous studies which have suggested that … In contrast to earlier findings, however, no evidence of X was detected. The yields in this investigation were higher compared to those of other studies. However, the findings of the current study do not support the previous research. Smith et al. (1999) showed that … This differs from the findings presented here … The overall level was found to be 15%, lower than that of previously reported levels. It has been suggested that … (Smith et al. , 2002). This does not appear to be the case. The levels observed in this investigation are far below those observed by Smith  et al.  (2007). These results differ from Smith’s 2003 estimate of Y, but they are broadly consistent with earlier …

Offering an explanation for the findings

A possible explanation for this might be … Another possible explanation for this is that … There are several possible explanations for this result. Several factors could explain this observation. Firstly, … An alternative explanation for this result is that it is due to … It is difficult to explain this result, but it might be related to …

This inconsistency may be due to … This discrepancy could be attributed to … These differences can be explained in part by … These relationships may partly be explained by … The observed increase in X could be attributed to … The observed correlation between X and Y might be explained in this way: …

It seems possible that these results are due to … It may be that these participants benefitted from … The possible interference of X cannot be ruled out. Differences between X and Y may have influenced … There are two likely causes for the differences between … Since this difference has not been found elsewhere it is probably not due to …

Advising cautious interpretation of the findings

Another source of uncertainty is … A note of caution is due here since … These findings may be somewhat limited by … These findings cannot be extrapolated to all patients. These data must be interpreted with caution because … It could be argued that the positive results were due to … These results therefore need to be interpreted with caution. In observational studies, there is a potential for bias from … It is important to bear in mind the possible bias in these responses. Although exclusion of X did not …, these results should be interpreted with caution. However, with a small sample size, caution must be applied, as the findings might not be …

Suggesting general hypotheses

These findings suggest that … It is possible, therefore, that … The findings reported here suggest that … According to these data, we can infer that … The present study raises the possibility that … Hence, it could conceivably be hypothesised that … This observation may support the hypothesis that … It may be the case therefore that these variations … It is therefore likely that such connections exist between … The value of X suggests that a weak link may exist between … These results provide further support for the hypothesis that … Therefore, X could be a major factor, if not the only one, causing …

Noting implications of the findings

These findings suggest that … It can therefore be assumed that the … An implication of this finding is the possibility that … One of the issues that emerges from these findings is … Some of the issues emerging from this finding relate specifically to … The results of this observational study suggest that X may help prevent …

Commenting on the findings

This finding is reassuring since … These findings are rather disappointing. However, these results were not very encouraging. The test was successful as it was able to identify students who … The present results are significant in at least two major respects. Unfortunately, these findings are rather difficult to interpret because …

Giving suggestions for future work

This is an important issue for future research. Research questions that could be asked include … Several questions remain unanswered at present. Despite these promising results, questions remain. Additional research is needed to better understand the … A further study with more focus on X is therefore suggested. There is abundant room for further progress in determining … Future studies on the current topic are therefore recommended. Further work is needed to develop reliable analytical methods for … To develop a full picture of X, additional studies will be needed that … In future investigations, it might be possible to use a different X in which … Further studies, which take these variables into account, will need to be undertaken.

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A systematic approach to searching: an efficient and complete method to develop literature searches

Associated data.

Creating search strategies for systematic reviews, finding the best balance between sensitivity and specificity, and translating search strategies between databases is challenging. Several methods describe standards for systematic search strategies, but a consistent approach for creating an exhaustive search strategy has not yet been fully described in enough detail to be fully replicable. The authors have established a method that describes step by step the process of developing a systematic search strategy as needed in the systematic review. This method describes how single-line search strategies can be prepared in a text document by typing search syntax (such as field codes, parentheses, and Boolean operators) before copying and pasting search terms (keywords and free-text synonyms) that are found in the thesaurus. To help ensure term completeness, we developed a novel optimization technique that is mainly based on comparing the results retrieved by thesaurus terms with those retrieved by the free-text search words to identify potentially relevant candidate search terms. Macros in Microsoft Word have been developed to convert syntaxes between databases and interfaces almost automatically. This method helps information specialists in developing librarian-mediated searches for systematic reviews as well as medical and health care practitioners who are searching for evidence to answer clinical questions. The described method can be used to create complex and comprehensive search strategies for different databases and interfaces, such as those that are needed when searching for relevant references for systematic reviews, and will assist both information specialists and practitioners when they are searching the biomedical literature.

INTRODUCTION

Librarians and information specialists are often involved in the process of preparing and completing systematic reviews (SRs), where one of their main tasks is to identify relevant references to include in the review [ 1 ]. Although several recommendations for the process of searching have been published [ 2 – 6 ], none describe the development of a systematic search strategy from start to finish.

Traditional methods of SR search strategy development and execution are highly time consuming, reportedly requiring up to 100 hours or more [ 7 , 8 ]. The authors wanted to develop systematic and exhaustive search strategies more efficiently, while preserving the high sensitivity that SR search strategies necessitate. In this article, we describe the method developed at Erasmus University Medical Center (MC) and demonstrate its use through an example search. The efficiency of the search method and outcome of 73 searches that have resulted in published reviews are described in a separate article [ 9 ].

As we aimed to describe the creation of systematic searches in full detail, the method starts at a basic level with the analysis of the research question and the creation of search terms. Readers who are new to SR searching are advised to follow all steps described. More experienced searchers can consider the basic steps to be existing knowledge that will already be part of their normal workflow, although step 4 probably differs from general practice. Experienced searchers will gain the most from reading about the novelties in the method as described in steps 10–13 and comparing the examples given in the supplementary appendix to their own practice.

CREATING A SYSTEMATIC SEARCH STRATEGY

Our methodology for planning and creating a multi-database search strategy consists of the following steps:

• Determine a clear and focused question
• Describe the articles that can answer the question
• Decide which key concepts address the different elements of the question
• Decide which elements should be used for the best results
• Choose an appropriate database and interface to start with
• Document the search process in a text document
• Identify appropriate index terms in the thesaurus of the first database
• Identify synonyms in the thesaurus
• Add variations in search terms
• Use database-appropriate syntax, with parentheses, Boolean operators, and field codes
• Optimize the search
• Evaluate the initial results
• Check for errors
• Translate to other databases
• Test and reiterate

Each step in the process is reflected by an example search described in the supplementary appendix .

1. Determine a clear and focused question

A systematic search can best be applied to a well-defined and precise research or clinical question. Questions that are too broad or too vague cannot be answered easily in a systematic way and will generally result in an overwhelming number of search results. On the other hand, a question that is too specific will result into too few or even zero search results. Various papers describe this process in more detail [ 10 – 12 ].

2. Describe the articles that can answer the question

Although not all clinical or research questions can be answered in the literature, the next step is to presume that the answer can indeed be found in published studies. A good starting point for a search is hypothesizing what the research that can answer the question would look like. These hypothetical (when possible, combined with known) articles can be used as guidance for constructing the search strategy.

3. Decide which key concepts address the different elements of the question

Key concepts are the topics or components that the desired articles should address, such as diseases or conditions, actions, substances, settings, domains (e.g., therapy, diagnosis, etiology), or study types. Key concepts from the research question can be grouped to create elements in the search strategy.

Elements in a search strategy do not necessarily follow the patient, intervention, comparison, outcome (PICO) structure or any other related structure. Using the PICO or another similar framework as guidance can be helpful to consider, especially in the inclusion and exclusion review stage of the SR, but this is not necessary for good search strategy development [ 13 – 15 ]. Sometimes concepts from different parts of the PICO structure can be grouped together into one search element, such as when the desired outcome is frequently described in a certain study type.

4. Decide which elements should be used for the best results

Not all elements of a research question should necessarily be used in the search strategy. Some elements are less important than others or may unnecessarily complicate or restrict a search strategy. Adding an element to a search strategy increases the chance of missing relevant references. Therefore, the number of elements in a search strategy should remain as low as possible to optimize recall.

Using the schema in Figure 1 , elements can be ordered by their specificity and importance to determine the best search approach. Whether an element is more specific or more general can be measured objectively by the number of hits retrieved in a database when searching for a key term representing that element. Depending on the research question, certain elements are more important than others. If articles (hypothetically or known) exist that can answer the question but lack a certain element in their titles, abstracts, or keywords, that element is unimportant to the question. An element can also be unimportant because of expected bias or an overlap with another element.

Schema for determining the optimal order of elements

Bias in elements

The choice of elements in a search strategy can introduce bias through use of overly specific terminology or terms often associated with positive outcomes. For the question “does prolonged breastfeeding improve intelligence outcomes in children?,” searching specifically for the element of duration will introduce bias, as articles that find a positive effect of prolonged breastfeeding will be much more likely to mention time factors in their titles or abstracts.

Overlapping elements

Elements in a question sometimes overlap in their meaning. Sometimes certain therapies are interventions for one specific disease. The Lichtenstein technique, for example, is a repair method for inguinal hernias. There is no need to include an element of “inguinal hernias” to a search for the effectiveness of the Lichtenstein therapy. Likewise, sometimes certain diseases are only found in certain populations. Adding such an overlapping element could lead to missing relevant references.

The elements to use in a search strategy can be found in the plot of elements in Figure 1 , by following the top row from left to right. For this method, we recommend starting with the most important and specific elements. Then, continue with more general and important elements until the number of results is acceptable for screening. Determining how many results are acceptable for screening is often a matter of negotiation with the SR team.

5. Choose an appropriate database and interface to start with

Important factors for choosing databases to use are the coverage and the presence of a thesaurus. For medically oriented searches, the coverage and recall of Embase, which includes the MEDLINE database, are superior to those of MEDLINE [ 16 ]. Each of these two databases has its own thesaurus with its own unique definitions and structure. Because of the complexity of the Embase thesaurus, Emtree, which contains much more specific thesaurus terms than the MEDLINE Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) thesaurus, translation from Emtree to MeSH is easier than the other way around. Therefore, we recommend starting in Embase.

MEDLINE and Embase are available through many different vendors and interfaces. The choice of an interface and primary database is often determined by the searcher’s accessibility. For our method, an interface that allows searching with proximity operators is desirable, and full functionality of the thesaurus, including explosion of narrower terms, is crucial. We recommend developing a personal workflow that always starts with one specific database and interface.

6. Document the search process in a text document

We advise designing and creating the complete search strategies in a log document, instead of directly in the database itself, to register the steps taken and to make searches accountable and reproducible. The developed search strategies can be copied and pasted into the desired databases from the log document. This way, the searcher is in control of the whole process. Any change to the search strategy should be done in the log document, assuring that the search strategy in the log is always the most recent.

7. Identify appropriate index terms in the thesaurus of the first database

Searches should start by identifying appropriate thesaurus terms for the desired elements. The thesaurus of the database is searched for matching index terms for each key concept. We advise restricting the initial terms to the most important and most relevant terms. Later in the process, more general terms can be added in the optimization process, in which the effect on the number of hits, and thus the desirability of adding these terms, can be evaluated more easily.

Several factors can complicate the identification of thesaurus terms. Sometimes, one thesaurus term is found that exactly describes a specific element. In contrast, especially in more general elements, multiple thesaurus terms can be found to describe one element. If no relevant thesaurus terms have been found for an element, free-text terms can be used, and possible thesaurus terms found in the resulting references can be added later (step 11).

Sometimes, no distinct thesaurus term is available for a specific key concept that describes the concept in enough detail. In Emtree, one thesaurus term often combines two or more elements. The easiest solution for combining these terms for a sensitive search is to use such a thesaurus term in all elements where it is relevant. Examples are given in the supplementary appendix .

8. Identify synonyms in the thesaurus

Most thesauri offer a list of synonyms on their term details page (named Synonyms in Emtree and Entry Terms in MeSH). To create a sensitive search strategy for SRs, these terms need to be searched as free-text keywords in the title and abstract fields, in addition to searching their associated thesaurus terms.

The Emtree thesaurus contains more synonyms (300,000) than MeSH does (220,000) [ 17 ]. The difference in number of terms is even higher considering that many synonyms in MeSH are permuted terms (i.e., inversions of phrases using commas).

Thesaurus terms are ordered in a tree structure. When searching for a more general thesaurus term, the more specific (narrower) terms in the branches below that term will also be searched (this is frequently referred to as “exploding” a thesaurus term). However, to perform a sensitive search, all relevant variations of the narrower terms must be searched as free-text keywords in the title or abstract, in addition to relying on the exploded thesaurus term. Thus, all articles that describe a certain narrower topic in their titles and abstracts will already be retrieved before MeSH terms are added.

9. Add variations in search terms (e.g., truncation, spelling differences, abbreviations, opposites)

Truncation allows a searcher to search for words beginning with the same word stem. A search for therap* will, thus, retrieve therapy, therapies, therapeutic, and all other words starting with “therap.” Do not truncate a word stem that is too short. Also, limitations of interfaces should be taken into account, especially in PubMed, where the number of search term variations that can be found by truncation is limited to 600.

Databases contain references to articles using both standard British and American English spellings. Both need to be searched as free-text terms in the title and abstract. Alternatively, many interfaces offer a certain code to replace zero or one characters, allowing a search for “pediatric” or “paediatric” as “p?ediatric.” Table 1 provides a detailed description of the syntax for different interfaces.

Field codes in five most used interfaces for biomedical literature searching

Searching for abbreviations can identify extra, relevant references and retrieve more irrelevant ones. The search can be more focused by combining the abbreviation with an important word that is relevant to its meaning or by using the Boolean “NOT” to exclude frequently observed, clearly irrelevant results. We advise that searchers do not exclude all possible irrelevant meanings, as it is very time consuming to identify all the variations, it will result in unnecessarily complicated search strategies, and it may lead to erroneously narrowing the search and, thereby, reduce recall.

Searching partial abbreviations can be useful for retrieving relevant references. For example, it is very likely that an article would mention osteoarthritis (OA) early in the abstract, replacing all further occurrences of osteoarthritis with OA . Therefore, it may not contain the phrase “hip osteoarthritis” but only “hip oa.”

It is also important to search for the opposites of search terms to avoid bias. When searching for “disease recurrence,” articles about “disease free” may be relevant as well. When the desired outcome is survival , articles about mortality may be relevant.

10. Use database-appropriate syntax, with parentheses, Boolean operators, and field codes

Different interfaces require different syntaxes, the special set of rules and symbols unique to each database that define how a correctly constructed search operates. Common syntax components include the use of parentheses and Boolean operators such as “AND,” “OR,” and “NOT,” which are available in all major interfaces. An overview of different syntaxes for four major interfaces for bibliographic medical databases (PubMed, Ovid, EBSCOhost, Embase.com, and ProQuest) is shown in Table 1 .

Creating the appropriate syntax for each database, in combination with the selected terms as described in steps 7–9, can be challenging. Following the method outlined below simplifies the process:

• Create single-line queries in a text document (not combining multiple record sets), which allows immediate checking of the relevance of retrieved references and efficient optimization.
• Type the syntax (Boolean operators, parentheses, and field codes) before adding terms, which reduces the chance that errors are made in the syntax, especially in the number of parentheses.
• Use predefined proximity structures including parentheses, such as (() ADJ3 ()) in Ovid, that can be reused in the query when necessary.
• Use thesaurus terms separately from free-text terms of each element. Start an element with all thesaurus terms (using “OR”) and follow with the free-text terms. This allows the unique optimization methods as described in step 11.
• When adding terms to an existing search strategy, pay close attention to the position of the cursor. Make sure to place it appropriately either in the thesaurus terms section, in the title/abstract section, or as an addition (broadening) to an existing proximity search.

The supplementary appendix explains the method of building a query in more detail, step by step for different interfaces: PubMed, Ovid, EBSCOhost, Embase.com, and ProQuest. This method results in a basic search strategy designed to retrieve some relevant references upon which a more thorough search strategy can be built with optimization such as described in step 11.

11. Optimize the search

The most important question when performing a systematic search is whether all (or most) potentially relevant articles have been retrieved by the search strategy. This is also the most difficult question to answer, since it is unknown which and how many articles are relevant. It is, therefore, wise first to broaden the initial search strategy, making the search more sensitive, and then check if new relevant articles are found by comparing the set results (i.e., search for Strategy #2 NOT Strategy #1 to see the unique results).

A search strategy should be tested for completeness. Therefore, it is necessary to identify extra, possibly relevant search terms and add them to the test search in an OR relationship with the already used search terms. A good place to start, and a well-known strategy, is scanning the top retrieved articles when sorted by relevance, looking for additional relevant synonyms that could be added to the search strategy.

We have developed a unique optimization method that has not been described before in the literature. This method often adds valuable extra terms to our search strategy and, therefore, extra, relevant references to our search results. Extra synonyms can be found in articles that have been assigned a certain set of thesaurus terms but that lack synonyms in the title and/or abstract that are already present in the current search strategy. Searching for thesaurus terms NOT free-text terms will help identify missed free-text terms in the title or abstract. Searching for free-text terms NOT thesaurus terms will help identify missed thesaurus terms. If this is done repeatedly for each element, leaving the rest of the query unchanged, this method will help add numerous relevant terms to the query. These steps are explained in detail for five different search platforms in the supplementary appendix .

12. Evaluate the initial results

The results should now contain relevant references. If the interface allows relevance ranking, use that in the evaluation. If you know some relevant references that should be included in the research, search for those references specifically; for example, combine a specific (first) author name with a page number and the publication year. Check whether those references are retrieved by the search. If the known relevant references are not retrieved by the search, adapt the search so that they are. If it is unclear which element should be adapted to retrieve a certain article, combine that article with each element separately.

Different outcomes are desired for different types of research questions. For instance, in the case of clinical question answering, the researcher will not be satisfied with many references that contain a lot of irrelevant references. A clinical search should be rather specific and is allowed to miss a relevant reference. In the case of an SR, the researchers do not want to miss any relevant reference and are willing to handle many irrelevant references to do so. The search for references to include in an SR should be very sensitive: no included reference should be missed. A search that is too specific or too sensitive for the intended goal can be adapted to become more sensitive or specific. Steps to increase sensitivity or specificity of a search strategy can be found in the supplementary appendix .

13. Check for errors

Errors might not be easily detected. Sometimes clues can be found in the number of results, either when the number of results is much higher or lower than expected or when many retrieved references are not relevant. However, the number expected is often unknown, and very sensitive search strategies will always retrieve many irrelevant articles. Each query should, therefore, be checked for errors.

One of the most frequently occurring errors is missing the Boolean operator “OR.” When no “OR” is added between two search terms, many interfaces automatically add an “AND,” which unintentionally reduces the number of results and likely misses relevant references. One good strategy to identify missing “OR”s is to go to the web page containing the full search strategy, as translated by the database, and using Ctrl-F search for “AND.” Check whether the occurrences of the “AND” operator are deliberate.

Ideally, search strategies should be checked by other information specialists [ 18 ]. The Peer Review of Electronic Search Strategies (PRESS) checklist offers good guidance for this process [ 4 ]. Apart from the syntax (especially Boolean operators and field codes) of the search strategy, it is wise to have the search terms checked by the clinician or researcher familiar with the topic. At Erasmus MC, researchers and clinicians are involved during the complete process of structuring and optimizing the search strategy. Each word is added after the combined decision of the searcher and the researcher, with the possibility of directly comparing results with and without the new term.

14. Translate to other databases

To retrieve as many relevant references as possible, one has to search multiple databases. Translation of complex and exhaustive queries between different databases can be very time consuming and cumbersome. The single-line search strategy approach detailed above allows quick translations using the find and replace method in Microsoft Word (<Ctrl-H>).

At Erasmus MC, macros based on the find-and-replace method in Microsoft Word have been developed for easy and fast translation between the most used databases for biomedical and health sciences questions. The schema that is followed for the translation between databases is shown in Figure 2 . Most databases simply follow the structure set by the Embase.com search strategy. The translation from Emtree terms to MeSH terms for MEDLINE in Ovid often identifies new terms that need to be added to the Embase.com search strategy before the translation to other databases.

Schematic representation of translation between databases used at Erasmus University Medical Center

Dotted lines represent databases that are used in less than 80% of the searches.

Using five different macros, a thoroughly optimized query in Embase.com can be relatively quickly translated into eight major databases. Basic search strategies will be created to use in many, mostly smaller, databases, because such niche databases often do not have extensive thesauri or advanced syntax options. Also, there is not much need to use extensive syntax because the number of hits and, therefore, the amount of noise in these databases is generally low. In MEDLINE (Ovid), PsycINFO (Ovid), and CINAHL (EBSCOhost), the thesaurus terms must be adapted manually, as each database has its own custom thesaurus. These macros and instructions for their installation, use, and adaptation are available at bit.ly/databasemacros.

15. Test and reiterate

Ideally, exhaustive search strategies should retrieve all references that are covered in a specific database. For SR search strategies, checking searches for their recall is advised. This can be done after included references have been determined by the authors of the systematic review. If additional papers have been identified through other non-database methods (i.e., checking references in included studies), results that were not identified by the database searches should be examined. If these results were available in the databases but not located by the search strategy, the search strategy should be adapted to try to retrieve these results, as they may contain terms that were omitted in the original search strategies. This may enable the identification of additional relevant results.

A methodology for creating exhaustive search strategies has been created that describes all steps of the search process, starting with a question and resulting in thorough search strategies in multiple databases. Many of the steps described are not new, but together, they form a strong method creating high-quality, robust searches in a relatively short time frame.

Our methodology is intended to create thoroughness for literature searches. The optimization method, as described in step 11, will identify missed synonyms or thesaurus terms, unlike any other method that largely depends on predetermined keywords and synonyms. Using this method results in a much quicker search process, compared to traditional methods, especially because of the easier translation between databases and interfaces (step 13). The method is not a guarantee for speed, since speed depends on many factors, including experience. However, by following the steps and using the tools as described above, searchers can gain confidence first and increase speed through practice.

What is new?

This method encourages searchers to start their search development process using empty syntax first and later adding the thesaurus terms and free-text synonyms. We feel this helps the searcher to focus on the search terms, instead of on the structure of the search query. The optimization method in which new terms are found in the already retrieved articles is used in some other institutes as well but has to our knowledge not been described in the literature. The macros to translate search strategies between interfaces are unique in this method.

What is different compared to common practice?

Traditionally, librarians and information specialists have focused on creating complex, multi-line (also called line-by-line) search strategies, consisting of multiple record sets, and this method is frequently advised in the literature and handbooks [ 2 , 19 – 21 ]. Our method, instead, uses single-line searches, which is critical to its success. Single-line search strategies can be easily adapted by adding or dropping a term without having to recode numbers of record sets, which would be necessary in multi-line searches. They can easily be saved in a text document and repeated by copying and pasting for search updates. Single-line search strategies also allow easy translation to other syntaxes using find-and-replace technology to update field codes and other syntax elements or using macros (step 13).

When constructing a search strategy, the searcher might experience that certain parentheses in the syntax are unnecessary, such as parentheses around all search terms in the title/abstract portion, if there is only one such term, there are double parentheses in the proximity statement, or one of the word groups exists for only one word. One might be tempted to omit those parentheses for ease of reading and management. However, during the optimization process, the searcher is likely to find extra synonyms that might consist of one word. To add those terms to the first query (with reduced parentheses) requires adding extra parentheses (meticulously placing and counting them), whereas, in the latter search, it only requires proper placement of those terms.

Many search methods highly depend on the PICO framework. Research states that often PICO or PICOS is not suitable for every question [ 22 , 23 ]. There are other acronyms than PICO—such as sample, phenomenon of interest, design, evaluation, research type (SPIDER) [ 24 ]—but each is just a variant. In our method, the most important and specific elements of a question are being analyzed for building the best search strategy.

Though it is generally recommended that searchers search both MEDLINE and Embase, most use MEDLINE as the starting point. It is considered the gold standard for biomedical searching, partially due to historical reasons, since it was the first of its kind, and more so now that it is freely available via the PubMed interface. Our method can be used with any database as a starting point, but we use Embase instead of MEDLINE or another database for a number of reasons. First, Embase provides both unique content and the complete content of MEDLINE. Therefore, searching Embase will be, by definition, more complete than searching MEDLINE only. Second, the number of terms in Emtree (the Embase thesaurus) is three times as high as that of MeSH (the MEDLINE thesaurus). It is easier to find MeSH terms after all relevant Emtree terms have been identified than to start with MeSH and translate to Emtree.

At Erasmus MC, the researchers sit next to the information specialist during most of the search strategy design process. This way, the researchers can deliver immediate feedback on the relevance of proposed search terms and retrieved references. The search team then combines knowledge about databases with knowledge about the research topic, which is an important condition to create the highest quality searches.

Limitations of the method

One disadvantage of single-line searches compared to multi-line search strategies is that errors are harder to recognize. However, with the methods for optimization as described (step 11), errors are recognized easily because missed synonyms and spelling errors will be identified during the process. Also problematic is that more parentheses are needed, making it more difficult for the searcher and others to assess the logic of the search strategy. However, as parentheses and field codes are typed before the search terms are added (step 10), errors in parentheses can be prevented.

Our methodology works best if used in an interface that allows proximity searching. It is recommended that searchers with access to an interface with proximity searching capabilities select one of those as the initial database to develop and optimize the search strategy. Because the PubMed interface does not allow proximity searches, phrases or Boolean “AND” combinations are required. Phrase searching complicates the process and is more specific, with the higher risk of missing relevant articles, and using Boolean “AND” combinations increases sensitivity but at an often high loss of specificity. Due to some searchers’ lack of access to expensive databases or interfaces, the freely available PubMed interface may be necessary to use, though it should never be the sole database used for an SR [ 2 , 16 , 25 ]. A limitation of our method is that it works best with subscription-based and licensed resources.

Another limitation is the customization of the macros to a specific institution’s resources. The macros for the translation between different database interfaces only work between the interfaces as described. To mitigate this, we recommend using the find-and-replace functionality of text editors like Microsoft Word to ease the translation of syntaxes between other databases. Depending on one’s institutional resources, custom macros can be developed using similar methods.

Results of the method

Whether this method results in exhaustive searches where no important article is missed is difficult to determine, because the number of relevant articles is unknown for any topic. A comparison of several parameters of 73 published reviews that were based on a search developed with this method to 258 reviews that acknowledged information specialists from other Dutch academic hospitals shows that the performance of the searches following our method is comparable to those performed in other institutes but that the time needed to develop the search strategies was much shorter than the time reported for the other reviews [ 9 ].

CONCLUSIONS

With the described method, searchers can gain confidence in their search strategies by finding many relevant words and creating exhaustive search strategies quickly. The approach can be used when performing SR searches or for other purposes such as answering clinical questions, with different expectations of the search’s precision and recall. This method, with practice, provides a stepwise approach that facilitates the search strategy development process from question clarification to final iteration and beyond.

SUPPLEMENTAL FILE

Acknowledgments.

We highly appreciate the work that was done by our former colleague Louis Volkers, who in his twenty years as an information specialist in Erasmus MC laid the basis for our method. We thank Professor Oscar Franco for reviewing earlier drafts of this article.

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A new report tackles the myth of peak oil.

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Fatih Birol, executive director of the International Energy Agency (IEA), speaks during a panel ... [+] session on the opening day of the World Economic Forum (WEF) in Davos, Switzerland, on Tuesday, Jan. 16, 2024. The annual Davos gathering of political leaders, top executives and celebrities runs from January 15 to 19. Photographer: Stefan Wermuth/Bloomberg

When will the world achieve the mythical threshold of “peak oil?” It is an eternal question many experts in the energy field have attempted to answer for well over a century now. Originally constructed as predictions about when the earth would reach a “peak” in oil supplies dating back into the late 19 th century, this theoretical construct morphed into projections of peak demand in the early 21 st century as global supplies proved far more bountiful and resilient than “experts” had predicted for well over a century.

The experts at the International Energy Agency (IEA) made news in advance of last December’s COP28 conference held in Dubai when they published a report predicting peak demand would happen before the end of this current decade. “Even under today’s policy settings, global demand for both oil and gas is set to peak by 2030,” IEA projected, adding, “Stronger action to tackle climate change would mean clear declines in demand for both fuels. If governments deliver in full on their national energy and climate pledges, demand would fall 45% below today's level by 2050.”

The IEA report was met with widespread skepticism, and it is fair to point out that the agency has published upward revisions to its near-term demand projections in every monthly report since then.

In a response to the IEA’s report in January titled “ A history of ‘unrealized’ peaks ,” OPEC traced predictions of “peak oil” all the way back to the 1880s, noting that “repeated predictions of peak oil supply have repeatedly been moved further into the future, and at ever-higher levels.” OPEC further pointed to its own recent forecast that projects global demand for crude growing through at least 2045, when demand would reach an unprecedented 116 million barrels per day, a rise of 15 million bpd from today’s levels.

So, which prediction is right? The most likely answer is neither one, given the highly speculative nature of predicting levels of demand for a global commodity so far out into the future. Chances are good that the real outcome will land somewhere in the middle of these two extremes.

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This is where a new report from energy analytics and advisory firm Enverus comes in. In a new analysis released this week, Enverus Intelligence Research (EIR), an Enverus subsidiary, says it sees global crude demand rising at least well into the 2030s, and possibly longer. The major shift the firm sees where crude demand is concerned lies in a reconfiguration of demand dispersal around the globe.

“Both OPEC and IEA global oil demand estimates require a significant change in consumption behavior or a reversal of off-oil measures over a short period. History is not in their favor. Instead, we believe the rate of demand growth will gradually slow but not peak. However, the regional dispersion of the growth changes dramatically,” said Al Salazar, report author and director at EIR.

Where the IEA’s November estimate foresees global crude demand “peaking” at about 103 million barrels of oil per day, Enverus sees the number growing to 108 million bopd, with demand growth slowing but potentially continuing to rise for the foreseeable future thereafter. EIR’s report notes that “fuel economy standards have underwhelmed their stated targets, while electric vehicle momentum appears to be slowing in the U.S.” That latter finding is supported by Tesla’s TSLA recent quarterly drop in sales and the recent announcement by Ford F Motor Company of a shift from making pure electric vehicles to a fleet of hybrid models.

ROMULUS, MI - FEBRUARY 13: Ford CEO Jim Farley pats a Ford F-150 Lightning truck. (Photo by Bill ... [+] Pugliano/Getty Images)

When asked if the slowing EV demand is a global phenomenon, Salazar told me it appears to be a US-centric phenomenon for now. “Tesla’s struggles and Ford’s pivot to hybrids is ample evidence of the slowing U.S. momentum towards EVs,” Salazar says. “However, momentum for EVs is still strong in Europe and China.”

EIR’s report cites a failure by automakers to conform to government-mandated mileage requirements, noting that “fuel economy standards have underwhelmed their stated targets.” Asked to expand on that, Salazar tells me, “While gov’t fuel economy standards have aimed for roughly a doubling of fuel efficiencies for new vehicles, the actual on-road fuel economy of such vehicles appears to be much less than that. One could point to the Volkswagen scandal as an extreme example of fuel efficiencies not meeting the desired outcome. Next, American preference for larger vehicles have also likely dulled targeted fuel efficiency gains.”

In other words, US automakers have focused on providing car buyers with the models they prefer. Go figure. Absent a mandated shift to a command-and-control economic model dictated by Washington, DC, it’s hard to see how that trend shifts as dramatically over the next handful of years as the Biden administration is attempting to influence through regulation and subsidy programs.

The Bottom Line

One key point EIR notes in its report is that its model does not project any firm date at which “peak demand” will be reached. However, the firm’s best guess is that it will take place sometime between 2030 and 2035, dependent on a variety of hard-to-predict factors. The report does predict a peak in US oil production at 14.6 million barrels per day to happen at some point in 2029.

At the end of the day, it should hardly be surprising that EIR’s report comes in somewhere between the findings by the IEA and OPEC. Where the IEA’s report is motivated in large part by political considerations, and OPEC’s projections are at least somewhat motivated by economic self-interest, the report by an intelligence advisory firm like EIR is highly motivated by a desire to provide the best available information and expert analysis possible to an array of customers.

It's always productive to have a cooler head in the room.

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An Oil Company Is Trespassing on Tribal Land in Wisconsin, Justice Dept. Says

Department lawyers said in a brief that Enbridge, a Canadian company, “lacks any legal right” to operate its Line 5 pipeline on reservation territory.

By Rebecca Halleck and Dionne Searcey

The Department of Justice has weighed in on a court battle over an oil and gas pipeline in Wisconsin, saying that a Canadian oil company has been willfully trespassing on tribal lands in the state for more than a decade.

On Wednesday, lawyers for the Justice Department filed a brief saying that the company, Enbridge, “lacks any legal right to remain” on the land, part of a reservation of the Bad River Band, an Ojibwe group. But the brief largely sidestepped the question of whether a 1970s treaty between the United States and Canada gives Enbridge the right to operate the pipeline indefinitely, as the company asserts.

Enbridge is fighting demands by state, tribal and judicial authorities to shut down the pipeline known as Line 5, which crosses 645 miles of Wisconsin and Michigan, in lawsuits pending in federal appellate court in each state.

The cases are being watched closely by tribes that see them as important for their sovereignty as well as by states that want greater control over pipelines within their boundaries. Environmentalists in both states have raised concerns about the deteriorating condition of Line 5 and the company’s proposals to shore it up.

In December, the 7th Circuit Court of Appeals in Wisconsin asked Justice Department attorneys to submit an amicus brief specifically addressing the pipeline treaty.

But despite being asked to directly address the treaty, and after requesting multiple extensions, department lawyers essentially avoided the issue in their brief, saying that a lower court judge had “failed to adequately assess all of the public interests” related to the treaty issue.

The brief asserted that trade implications, diplomatic relations and tribal sovereignty were all factors the courts should reconsider.

In its filing, the Justice Department criticized a lower court decision from last year that ordered Enbridge pay $5 million in restitution to the Bad River Band, calling the sum a “paltry amount” that would fail to deter any company from trespassing on tribal land in the future.

Members of the Bad River Band said they were heartened at the DOJ’s clear reaffirmation of the trespass finding, but disappointed that they stopped short of calling for an immediate shut down of Line 5.

“Enbridge should be required to promptly leave our Reservation, just like other companies that have trespassed on tribal land,” Robert Blanchard, chairman and chief executive officer for the Bad River Band, said in a statement to The Times.

In a statement to The New York Times, Enbridge said the company “continues to work diligently to find an equitable and amicable solution with the Bad River Band that recognizes the Band’s sovereignty and addresses their concerns while also allowing the continued delivery of vital energy that millions of people rely on every day throughout the Great Lakes region.”

A spokesman for the Canadian Global Affairs ministry declined to immediately comment. Canada has backed Enbridge in court filings, saying that any shutdown of Line 5 could hurt Canadian customers.

The Justice Department’s brief was 60 pages, nearly double the length allowed, but the court on Wednesday allowed it to stand.

Enbridge has invoked the treaty in the Michigan case, too, claiming it gives the company the right to continue transporting oil and gas unless or until the United States or Canadian federal governments say otherwise.

Tribal officials and supporters who had hoped to gain clarity on the federal government’s position said they were frustrated with the Justice Department’s filing.

“The courts passed the mic to the U.S., and the U.S. handed the mic right back to the courts,” said Debbie Chizewer, an attorney for Earthjustice who is representing the Bay Mills Indian Community in the Michigan case.

Tribes assert that century-old treaties between the Bad River Band and the United States, which were signed decades before the United States and Canada agreed to the pipeline treaty, trump any agreements with Canada.

“We’re talking about the very essence of what tribal sovereignty is,” said David Gover, an attorney with the Native American Rights Fund working on the Line 5 litigation in Michigan.

Enbridge has taken steps in both Wisconsin and Michigan to address concerns.

In Michigan, where the pipeline crosses the narrow waterway between Lake Michigan and Lake Huron, Enbridge has proposed encasing a new segment of pipeline in a concrete tunnel to better protect it from shipping traffic in the Straits of Mackinac.

In Wisconsin, the company says it is prepared to reroute the pipeline around the Bad River Band’s reservation, but lacks the permits necessary to do so.

The cases are playing out in two battleground states in the upcoming presidential race, and the pipeline issue is likely to surface in the campaign.

The Wisconsin appellate court has given the tribe and Enbridge an opportunity to respond to the Justice Department’s brief by April 24.

Rebecca Halleck is a senior editor for digital storytelling and training. Before joining The Times in 2017, she was a digital editor at the Chicago Tribune and an adjunct lecturer at Northwestern University. More about Rebecca Halleck

Dionne Searcey is a Times reporter who writes about how the choices made by people and corporations affect the future of the planet. More about Dionne Searcey

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The Islamic State Five Years After the Collapse of the Caliphate

• Colin P. Clarke
• Christopher J. O’Leary
• March 29, 2024
• Center for Intelligence and Nontraditional Warfare

Bottom Line

While isis’s territorial caliphate has been dismantled, its ideological appeal endures., isis and its affiliates have demonstrated a remarkable ability to adapt and survive, transforming into a decentralized network of regional branches, many of which retain the capacity to launch high-profile terrorist attacks., the isis-k attack in moscow last week was a stark reminder of the group’s reach and demonstrated that, with the deadly marriage of capability and intent, islamic state jihadists could look to target us embassies, facilities, or personnel abroad., an innovative and adaptive counterterrorism strategy that ensures interagency collaboration, resource optimization, synergy of effort, and international cooperation are desperately needed to address the complex challenge of terrorism and ensure the security of the united states and its allies..

Five years ago this March, the final remnants of the Islamic State’s so-called caliphate were physically destroyed. The Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF), a Kurdish militia backed by the United States and its allies, swept into the Syrian desert town of Baghouz to capture the group’s remaining fighters and their families. ISIS’s last stand was the culmination of a years-long effort led by the United States and its allies to uproot the group from its Levantine headquarters. 

At its apex in 2015-2017, ISIS-controlled territory larger than the size of Great Britain. They boasted tens of thousands of foreign fighters from dozens of countries and were capable of launching complex terrorist attacks in the heart of Europe, as the group did in Paris in November 2015 and Brussels in March 2016. Its propaganda inspired lone wolves to embark on murderous rampages targeting crowds of civilians with vehicles. Its fighters beheaded Western hostages and used the videos and images to seduce radicalized recruits. 

But in early 2024, the organization is nearly unrecognizable from what it was just five years earlier. Although ISIS is no longer anchored in the Middle East, a rump of hardcore fighters remain in Iraq and Syria, where they conduct guerrilla-style operations. Many of its most prolific and active branches are now located in Africa, where ISIS branches regularly claim attacks in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), Egypt, Mozambique, and Nigeria. 

Its franchise in Afghanistan, ISIS-Khorasan (ISIS-K), is the group responsible for last week’s terrorist attack at a theater in Moscow , in addition to attacks in Iran and Türkiye so far this year. ISIS-K is currently the Islamic State’s standard bearer and most operationally capable affiliate, drawing comparisons to al-Qaeda’s Yemeni branch in the Arabian Peninsula, which developed a reputation for its ability to develop high-profile terrorist plots.

The Islamic State’s Global Network of Affiliates

ISIS and its affiliates have demonstrated a remarkable ability to adapt and survive. After sustaining significant territorial losses in the Middle East, substantive reductions in its ranks, and the elimination of key leaders, ISIS still managed to transform itself into a decentralized network of regional branches, many of which retain the capacity to launch high-profile terrorist attacks. Built around its central Salafi-Jihadi extremist ideology that has continued to resonate with aspiring extremists, ISIS has leveraged social media, internet forums, and a sophisticated propaganda apparatus to promote its violent and virulently sectarian messaging to vulnerable and disenfranchised populations.  

ISIS’s ability to recruit, inspire, radicalize, and mobilize its supporters to violence is directly tied to its effectiveness in exploiting historical grievances and its deliberate strategy to establish franchise groups in regions characterized by political corruption, vast socioeconomic disparities, and weak governance. 

ISIS’s effectiveness in identifying the most fertile ground to promote its ideology and brand has led to the birth of affiliate groups in Egypt’s Sinai Peninsula, Somalia, Mozambique, West Africa, and the southern Philippines, among other places. Each affiliate’s alliance with ISIS is contingent on their pledge of baya’t (allegiance) to ISIS’s core leadership. The organization’s decentralized structure permits the affiliates to operate semi-autonomously outside a traditional rigid command-and-control structure. Still, it allows their activities to nest within the group’s global terrorism enterprise and reinforce its overall objectives.

Where ISIS Poses the Greatest Risks

The most glaring example of where the fight against ISIS has been left unfinished is in Iraq and Syria. Approximately 46,500 women and children are still languishing in dilapidated refugee camps in northeastern Syria, while an additional 9,000 ISIS fighters are held in detention centers administered by the SDF. On multiple occasions, ISIS fighters have attempted to free their comrades from prison, even launching an offensive campaign termed “Breaking the Walls,” focused on assaulting prisons and inciting prison riots. In January 2022, ISIS attacked a prison in Hasakah, Syria, sparking a ten-day battle and allowing hundreds of jihadist prisoners to escape. 

In Africa’s Sahel region, a vast semi-arid swath of desert that encompasses western and north-central Africa, the Islamic State Sahel Province and Islamic State West Africa Province control pieces of territory that stretches from the West African littoral to the Lake Chad Basin. According to the Global Terrorism Index , four of the top ten countries most impacted by terrorist violence last year are located in this region: Burkina Faso (1), Mali (3), Nigeria (8), and Niger (10).

ISIS-K has been linked to a growing number of plots in Europe recently. Three men were arrested in the German state of North Rhine-Westphalia over alleged plans to attack the Cologne Cathedral on New Year’s Eve in 2023. The raids are linked to another three terror arrests in Austria and one in Germany that took place on December 24. The four individuals were reportedly acting in support of ISIS-K. Going back a bit further to July 2023, Germany and the Netherlands coordinated arrests targeting an ISIS-K-linked network suspected of plotting attacks in Germany. Nearly four years ago, German police halted a plan to attack US and NATO military bases in Germany (April 2020). The four Tajik nationals arrested were reported to be in contact with Islamic State officials in Afghanistan and Syria .

Challenges in Countering the Islamic State

The ISIS-K attack in Moscow last week was a stark reminder of the group’s reach. It demonstrated that, with the deadly marriage of capability and intent, Islamic State jihadists could look to target US embassies, facilities, or personnel abroad. The Islamic State is attracted to unstable regions, stretching its tentacles into Central Asia, the Caucasus, and the Balkans. An increasing operational tempo offers a hint at the group’s plans. 

After the attacks of September 11, 2001, the 9/11 Commission report spoke of terrorism as a generational challenge. For those who lived through the aftermath, as we both did, that challenge remains despite the understandable fatigue of the Global War on Terrorism. The zeitgeist in Washington and Brussels is all about ‘great power competition.’ Major challenges loom on the horizon, and it makes sense to divert resources to counter China’s rise and deal with the complexities presented by artificial intelligence. Yet, pivoting from counterterrorism will have serious consequences for the United States and its allies. 

After British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher was nearly killed by the Provisional Irish Republican Army in a bombing at the Brighton Hotel in 1984, the ‘Provos’ scolded her : “You have to be lucky all the time. We only have to be lucky once.” The Islamic State, and ISIS-K in particular, are aware of those odds and, without significant counterterrorism pressure, will not relent.

What Can Be Done?

First, it is crucial to recognize that the Islamic State and its affiliates are persistent and enduring threats. While the group’s territorial caliphate has been dismantled, its ideological appeal and metastasizing global disposition pose significant security challenges to the United States and the international community more broadly. Acknowledging that we still have a terrorism problem is not a failure but a reality. This acknowledgment also sets the conditions for ensuring counterterrorism remains a strategic priority, which requires proper resource allocation and facilitates the development of comprehensive strategies to address the complexity of the threat.

Looking back, we must at once recognize that ISIS has shown an instinctive ability to adapt to shifting dynamics, allowing it to grow stronger over time and, in turn, remain a lethal global enterprise despite years of an aggressive US-led counterterrorism onslaught. While ISIS’s territorial caliphate has been dismantled, its ideological appeal endures. The Islamic State’s global network has shown an instinctive ability to adapt and take advantage of shifting geopolitical circumstances. The United States has largely maintained a monolithic counterterrorism strategy for the past two decades based almost exclusively on military force, and in some ways, it has been a victim of its own success. Exquisite intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance (ISR) capabilities, augmented by armed drones and special operations forces (SOF) raids, have produced endless tactical victories against terrorist networks, but a strategic breakthrough has proven elusive.

America has developed an incredible capability to locate members of foreign terrorist organizations and remove them from the battlefield in some of the most far-flung corners of the globe. However, despite the tactical effectiveness against terror networks, groups like ISIS continue to grow in size and lethality like a widespread metastatic cancer.

Looking forward, it is imperative to understand that terrorism is a complex challenge that spans across political, military, diplomatic, and economic spheres. Therefore, the need to construct a counterterrorism strategy that transcends military might is self-evident. Developing and implementing a fully evolved counterterrorism strategy that blends “soft power” components with limited hard power tools, employing the full spectrum of national power, is a critical first step. 

Vitally important to the success of such an approach is ensuring synchronization of efforts across government agencies and departments. This is required to ensure that disparate programs and resources are complementary and do not conflict with each other or work at cross-purposes, as some security and economic development initiatives might. A whole-of-government approach is more than just policy jargon; when done properly, it can minimize redundancies and ensure that manpower and resources effectively contribute to the broader strategy. While some have pointed to the reallocation of resources away from counterterrorism and over to the strategic competition space to counter China and Russia as a concern and excuse for why the violent extremist problem continues to grow, substantial capabilities and tools remain to address the challenge of terrorism.  

Our next two decades will most certainly mirror the past two decades, with the threat continuing to expand, unless we acknowledge the deficiencies in our current application of a military force-dependent counterterrorism plan and pivot to a more comprehensive approach in concert with our international partners. An innovative and adaptive counterterrorism strategy that ensures interagency collaboration, resource optimization, synergy of effort, and international cooperation is desperately needed to address the complex challenge of terrorism and ensure the safety and security of the United States and its allies.

The terrorist massacre that Hamas perpetrated on October 7th and the more recent attack by ISIS-K in Moscow should serve as a wake-up call that the threat from terrorism is still very real.

The views expressed in this article are those of the author alone and do not necessarily reflect the position of the Foreign Policy Research Institute, a non-partisan organization that seeks to publish well-argued, policy-oriented articles on American foreign policy and national security priorities.

Image credit: Armed French soldiers patrol on the Trocadero square near the Eiffel Tower as part of the “Vigipirate” security plan as France raises terror alert warning to the highest level, after the Moscow attack, in Paris, France, March 25, 2024. REUTERS/Benoit Tessier

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University of Utah announces major funding for new addiction treatment research

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Patricia Brandt Manager, Public Relations and Communications, Huntsman Mental Health Institute University of Utah Health Email: Patricia.Brandt @hsc.utah.edu

Salt Lake City (April 10, 2024) - Worldwide, someone dies from drug or alcohol addiction every four minutes. Now, researchers at Huntsman Mental Health Institute at the University of Utah have been selected by Wellcome Leap to research a new treatment for substance use disorder as part of a $50 million commitment to develop innovative treatments.

Brian J. Mickey, MD, PhD, professor of psychiatry at Huntsman Mental Health Institute (pictured top left), will lead the team of investigators with expertise in psychiatry, biomedical engineering, neuroscience, radiology, and social work to research a new, noninvasive treatment for addiction. Co-principal investigators include Jan Kubanek, PhD , (pictured top center), and Taylor Webb, PhD (pictured top right); co-investigators include (from left to right) Eric Garland, PhD, LCSW ; Rana Jawish, MD ; Vincent Koppelmans, PhD ; and Tom Riis, PhD.

The research will be funded by the Untangling Addiction program, which is a $50 million program founded by Wellcome Leap , to develop scalable measures to assess addiction susceptibility, quantify the risks stemming from addiction, and develop innovative treatments.  

“Substance use disorder is a significant global health problem, and yet the treatment options are limited,” Mickey said.  “We’re developing a non-invasive intervention for preventing and treating addiction, chronic pain, and depression. This funding will help us validate and generate the data to support the next critical step: an efficacy trial to determine the effectiveness of the intervention.”

Mickey’s team will use a novel ultrasound-based device to modulate deep brain regions and behaviors associated with opioid addiction. The goal will be to ultimately develop this approach into an individually targeted therapeutic intervention for a range of addictions. “Addictions are brain illnesses that have enormous negative impact on individuals, families, and society,” Mickey said. “A major reason that addictions have been difficult to prevent—and treat—is that they are driven by dysfunction of deep brain regions that are challenging to access. Many psychiatric problems such as depression, anxiety, and addiction are caused by malfunction of brain circuits. This project is an example of our mission to understand how these neural circuits are dysregulated and to develop novel, circuit-targeted interventions that return the brain to a healthy state.”

"We are proud to bring Wellcome Leap's innovative problem-solving and funding approach to our research enterprise at the University of Utah," said Taylor Randall, President , University of Utah. "To have our mental health researchers contributing to pioneering work on addiction treatment reaffirms our commitment to improving lives through discovery."

“What makes research like this so impactful is that it brings together a variety of disciplines to help solve complex problems in mental health,” said Mark Hyman Rapaport, MD , CEO of Huntsman Mental Health Institute. “This is particularly timely news given the groundbreaking of a new translational research building on campus focused on mental health and the brain. Our nation is in a mental health crisis, but there is hope if we can think differently and work together to change this trajectory.”

About Huntsman Mental Health Institute

Huntsman Mental Health Institute at University of Utah Health brings together 75 years of patient care, research, and education into one of the nation's leading academic medical centers focused on mental health. Nestled in the campus of University of Utah, Huntsman Mental Health Institute serves the community with 1,600 faculty and staff in 20 locations providing inpatient and outpatient services for youth, teens, and adults as well as a comprehensive crisis care model which includes the nationally recognized SafeUT app and the 988 Crisis hotline for Utah. Our mission is to advance mental health knowledge, hope, and healing for all. Learn more at:  HMHI.utah.edu  and join the conversation on  Instagram ,  Facebook ,  TikTok ,  X  and  LinkedIn .

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