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Free resources, contingency maps for behavior problem-solving (freebie).

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Contingency maps are a cognitive-behavioral method for helping an individual to understand the consequences of behavioral choices.  They are particularly useful for teaching individuals to use functionally equivalent behaviors as alternatives to problem behavior.  

They also are sometimes referred to as consequence maps and they are essentially graphic organizers for behavior.  Michelle Garcia Winner uses similar strategies for Social Thinking that she calls Social Mapping .  

Contingency maps are a visual support that has been around in many forms for a number of years.  The examples below come from a strategy we used to call visual problem solvers about 15 years ago.

How Do Contingency Maps Work? 

Essentially, they are set up so that the student can see the consequence of the alternative behavior and the consequence (typically the naturally occurring consequence) of the negative behavior.  

So in this example, If the student gets worried, and uses his calming strategies, the outcome is usually that he feels better. If he gets worreid and doesn’t use the calming strategies, the outcome is often that he starts to scream and become more upset.

Evidence Base and Effectiveness

As a visual support strategy there is evidence for the use of a variety of visual cues to increase independence and reduce problem behavior , and contingency maps fit in that body of literature.  Specifically there have been two peer-reviewed articles looking at contingency maps as a way to reduce problem behavior.  

Using a single-subject research design, Brown and Mirenda (2006) showed that the use of visual contingency maps were more effective than providing verbal contingencies to an individual for initiating and completing routine tasks [ click here to read the abstract ].  Brown and Mirenda used the contingency map as part of a functional equivalence training program (also known as functional communication training ).  The contingency map showed the alternative behavior that was designed to replace the challenging behavior by serving the same function.

Tobin and Simpson (2012) have a great article in Teaching Exceptional Children describing data with another individual, using a single-subject design, that showed that a contingency map (they refer to it as a consequence map) was effective in reducing challenging behavior (decreased the frequency of disrobing) of a student.  If you are a member of the Council for Exceptional Children (CEC) –and I highly recommend it if you are a special education professional–you have access to the article.  If not, the abstract is available here as well .  This article also has a great description of how to implement contingency maps as well as examples.

Developing and Using Contingency Maps

Define the behavior.

Essentially to use a contingency, first you need to identify the specific behavior you want to change.  You need to define it clearly and make sure that you and the student understand what it looks like.  It also helps to take a baseline of the frequency of the behavior so you can determine if your contingency map works.

Determine the function

Next, you need to determine the function that the behavior serves.  That is the topic of another post to cover, however, I have written about in the past and there are some tools available at this post.  

The purpose of knowing the function of the behavior is to determine what appropriate behavior will serve the same function that you can use to replace it with.  For instance, if your student hits to escape from work tasks, think about teaching him to ask for a break.  Then this would be part of your graphic organizer.

Create the visual

Third, you need to create the contingency map, and that’s where I’ve got your back in several formats.

Below is a link to a freebie set of contingency maps along with some universal “no” signs to use with them.  They are editable in PowerPoint and available in the Free Resources Library and in my TpT Store.

Essentially a contingency map makes the statement that

• when this happens (typically the identified trigger for problem behavior from your functional assessment),
• if the student engages in the appropriate alternative behavior (e.g., asking for a break),
• he or she will get a consequence he or she enjoys (i.e., a reinforcer).  
• If he or she engages in the negative behavior then the positive consequence does not occur.

Sometimes the good choices are colored green and the poor choices are colored red, as in the examples below.

Steps for Using Contingency Maps

Contingency maps can be written or visual depending on the skills of your students.  They are good visual cues to use for redirection since they show the consequence of behaviors.

In this example, the student’s behavior has been determined to be functioning to escape work situations.   So, if he raises his hand and asks for a break, he gets a break to sit on the bean bag.  If he doesn’t ask for a break and runs away, he does not get the bean bag.

After you have created the visual, it is not a magic bullet and it won’t work without teaching.  You have to present the visual contingency and provide at least a brief explanation about how it works.  Sometimes a social story or social narrative can be helpful for this. I would also practice the contingencies through a role play and make sure you have it available when it is needed to be used.  

I would present it with as little verbal interaction as possible, just to lessen either the attention from the verbal explanation as a possible reinforcer for the problem behavior or to keep from escalating the behavior with verbal demands for some students.

Make sure to reinforce the alternative behavior with the promised contingency.  It is important to make sure that the reinforcer is meaningful for the alternative behavior and reinforcing.  Tools for finding reinforcers for students with ASD can be found in this post .  

It also helps for the consequence to be naturally occurring to help the behavior maintain in the absence of the map over time.  So for instance, if I ask my friends questions, they will want to talk to me, but if I hit my friends, they will not want to talk to me.

Assess and Fade

Take data on whether the frequency of the behavior is decreasing.  If it is working, then over time you can fade the use of the visual map as the student becomes more independent and the negative behavior reduces in frequency.

Contingency Map Options

Contingency Maps are part of several of my Behavioral Toolkits. I’ve noted where each one came from in the pictures above. But they are available in my Making Mistakes Toolkit (obviously focused on handling making errors) and in my Managing Anxiety Toolkit . Click the pictures below to grab either of them.

Click on either of the pictures below to check out the toolkits in the store

I have also created some templates for you to use.   Click here for the free version through my TPT store.   They are editable in PowerPoint to add your own pictures(or upload to Google Slides) or Keynote to add your own pictures on to them. There are some pictures included in the pdf version as well that you could use with velcro.

  Remember that if students are not great at comprehending what they have read, they may still need pictures.   You could also laminate the chart and use a dry erase marker to make a contingency map on the fly.

Clearly, contingency maps are an invaluable tool for educators working with students who exhibit challenging behavior. By providing a visual representation of expectations and consequences, these maps empower both teachers and students to take proactive steps towards positive behavior management.So, why wait? Grab your contingency maps now and start creating a more conducive learning environment for your students!

• Read more about: Behavior Support , Visual Supports

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Social Skills Activities that Teach Kids Problem-Solving

September 22 , 2021.

​​ Social skills activities are important for children of all abilities. With this in mind, We Rock the Spectrum’s Social Skills Blog Series aims to provide insight into activities and practical tips that help instill social skills in children. In this article, we focus on the importance of problem-solving skills in children and introduce five fun and educational activities that can enhance their problem-solving skill set. 

Autism Spectrum Disorder is a developmental disability in which children find it difficult to socialize and interact with others. Although autism comes in a variety of forms, many 

kids have difficulty developing problem-solving skills. The combination of diminished communication, emotional, and self-regulation skills, all contribute to the child’s reduced skills. To be able to become well-rounded individuals, children of all abilities need to be given the opportunity and resources to learn proper problem-solving skills so that they can face challenges head-on later in life. With this in mind, we have put together a guide on the importance of problem-solving skills for both neurotypical children and children with autism.

Why is Problem-Solving Important?

Problem-solving deals with the ability to make decisions in tough or challenging situations. Children of all abilities need to learn how to properly handle each situation with problem-solving in order to become more independent and resilient. Having good problem-solving skills allow children to gain the patience and self-confidence they need to develop into capable individuals.

Problem-solving activities help children develop the skills they need to efficiently and effectively deal with complex issues and situations. In life, children will run into a variety of situations with differing contexts. Having the proper problem-solving skill set will allow children to learn how to handle every situation with ease. Once a child is able to effectively problem-solve, they will be able to better navigate their own personal problems and those of others as well. Additionally, a child will be able to identify a problem, develop different solutions, test different solutions, and analyze the results.

It is essential for parents or guardians to help boost problem-solving skills through a variety of sensory strategies. Here is a list of 5 fun activities that will teach children of all abilities how to build their problem-solving skills.

5 Activities that Teach Problem Solving

1. problems in a jar.

Problems in a Jar is a fun and creative way for children to explore different situations that can occur in the real world. This activity is designed to help kids generate solutions from one problem or circumstance. To begin, an adult will write one situation on a small sheet of paper, fold it, and place it in a jar. This continues until the jar is full. The child then picks a paper and reads off the problem. He/she must then come up with the best solution that solves the challenging scenario. This helps children think thoroughly about each possible solution independently.

2. Scavenger Hunt

Everyone loves a game of scavenger hunt! This group activity prompts children’s deduction skills based on clues and hints, which in turn, enhances their problem-solving skills. To start, divide children into groups of 2-3 and have them come up with a plan on which members look for which items. Children can also brainstorm together on where each item is located. This helps kids work together towards one goal while also nourishing their communication. Parents can also reward kids with small treats for every item they find on the scavenger hunt.

3. Impromptu Skits

Impromptu skits are a fun and engaging way for kids to think independently and with quick reactions. In this activity, children are given one situation wherein they have to reenact how the situation unfolds and how to solve the issue. This allows children to think about how to deal with each situation and see how it can be solved efficiently. After the skit, ask the children to explain their thought processes and correct them if there were any actions that were unnecessary. Children watching the skit will also be able to learn and understand how to best act in certain circumstances. 

Puzzles are one of the best ways a child can stimulate their mind. Puzzles have multiple pieces that are all jumbled together. To solve a puzzle, children need to sort the pieces out and place them in their proper areas to be able to put the puzzle back together. This helps children develop memory recall and thought organization. To start off easy, children can work on puzzles with fewer pieces. Once they get the hang of it, they can move on to more difficult and complex puzzles to build their skill set. 

5. Play With A Purpose TM

Having a space where your children will feel safe experimenting is vital to developing problem-solving skills quickly. We Rock the Spectrum’s Play With A Purpose™ stimulates and exercises a child’s sight, smell, taste, hearing, touch, vestibular system, and proprioception through positive physical, emotional, and social development. At We Rock the Spectrum, kids are able to play and interact together through arts and crafts, classes, our sensory equipment , and more to strengthen their problem-solving skills in an inclusive, sensory-safe environment.

Key Takeaways

Equipping all children with the proper problem-solving tools and resources at an early age will ensure they develop the skills they need to become versatile individuals. Children who are able to hone their problem-solving skills at their most important phase of development will be able to become more independent and know how to acclimate best to a multitude of situations in the long run. We Rock the Spectrum is a kids gym franchise that offers a wide range of fun and inclusive problem-solving activities through its specialized sensory equipment and Play With A Purpose™ program. Discover more about our mission by getting in touch with us today !

Autism Awareness

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News and Knowledge

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Teaching Autistic Students to Solve Math Word Problems

August 29, 2022

By: Jenny Root, Ph.D., BCBA

Categories: How To , Education

In the past three months, how many times have you had no choice but to use cash to make a purchase? Or tell time using an analog clock?  

Although you have undoubtedly made purchases, it is likely you used a card or smart device, especially if the purchases were made online. To check the time, you probably glanced at a digital clock on a screen or even just asked Alexa, Google Home, or another artificial intelligence device.   

While the functions of many activities of daily living, such as making purchases and telling time, have remained the same over time, how we accomplish these tasks has changed dramatically as technology has evolved.   

Math instruction for autistic students has historically had a limited focus on “functional” skills in order to prepare them for independence in their adult lives. Yet in addition to mastering a series of discrete skills, autistic young adults need to be able to problem solve . This includes:  

• Being aware of when there is a problem.  
• Identifying a reasonable strategy.  
• Monitoring their progress accurately.  
• Adapting as necessary.  

Word problem solving is one way to teach students how, when, and why to apply math skills in real-world situations they will encounter in a future we may not be able to envision yet.   

These research-supported strategies can help teachers and parents teach autistic students to solve word problems using modified schema-based instruction (MSBI). MSBI is an evidence-based practice for teaching word problem solving.  

Create a meaningful task.

Word problems need to depict a realistic and meaningful problem. This will help students better understand the “why” behind word problem solving and support generalization to everyday situations. You can begin planning by identifying high-interest, real-world contexts when the targeted math skills could be used, such as familiar community locations, family routines, or preferred activities. The quantities represented in the problem should be realistic for the situation. Use technology to build background knowledge for generalization by showing short videos or pictures, such as videos of people making purchases using a credit card or comparing rideshare costs between two apps.  

Consider accessibility.

Both the materials and word problems themselves need to be accessible to students. The reading level, quantities represented, structure, and visual supports can all be adjusted to address barriers students may face. If independently reading the problem is a barrier, students can use technology to access text-to-speech or ask a skilled reader—a parent, peer, or teacher—to read it aloud to them. Quantities in the problem can be reduced to match a student’s numeracy skills (e.g., quantities under 10) or they can be provided with a calculator for efficiency.   

Research has shown that autistic students can successfully fade this equation template once they become fluent in problem solving.   

Focus on problem types, not keywords or operations.

Teaching word problem solving using MSBI may differ from your prior approaches to math instruction. Many teachers and parents teach operations sequentially, meaning once addition is mastered, they move on to subtraction, then multiplication, then division. But this developmental mindset can put unnecessary ceilings on student opportunity by having a “not ready for” mindset. Waiting for students to be “ready for” problem solving by overly focusing on their skill deficits will hold them back from meaningful, age-appropriate instruction.   

MSBI also does not teach students to focus on keywords to identify operations, such as “more” meaning add and “left” meaning subtract. While this trick may initially work for some simple problems, it doesn’t help students conceptually understand the problem. Real-world problems won’t have keywords.  

Instead of teaching by operation or focusing on keywords, research has shown when autistic students learn to identify and represent the problem by the schema (pattern of problem structure), they are able to independently solve, discriminate between, and generalize problems. There are two categories of schemas, or problem structures. Additive problems use addition and subtraction operations and include group/total, compare/difference, and change schemas. Multiplicative problems use multiplication and division and include equal group, multiplicative comparison, rate, and proportion. Here is a great resource that explains each schema .   

Choose a problem-solving routine.  

The three key components of schema instruction are teaching:   

• The key features of each schema.  
• A solution strategy for each schema.  
• Important language and vocabulary related to the schema.  

MSBI provides additional support as needed for working memory, language, reading level, and numeracy skills so that students are engaged, motivated, and able to “show what they know” while problem solving.   

Problem-solving routines draw students’ attention to the decisions they need to make and actions they need to engage in to arrive at a solution. General attack strategies can be effective. These are two examples:   

UPS Check  

• Understand  
• Check work  
• Discover the problem type.  
• Identify information in the problem to represent in the diagram.  
• Solve the problem.  
• Check the answer.   

Students usually write these at the top of their paper or reference them on a poster or whiteboard in the classroom. Autistic students and those with more extensive support needs will likely need a more detailed and personalized routine that breaks down the mathematical decisions into more discrete behaviors.   

When developing routines to meet student needs, analyze the decisions that need to be made and behaviors involved in solving problems. Routines should always begin with reading the problem or requesting that a problem be read aloud. At least when students are initially learning the routine, they should have individual copies to follow, either printed directly on worksheets or as a separate visual support. Judiciously pair visual supports with text to give support but not so much that they are just relying on matching instead of demonstrating mathematical understanding. The general curriculum access lab at Florida State University has example problem-solving routines from research with students with autism and other developmental disabilities on their website.  

Support independence.

You must explicitly teach students to follow a problem-solving routine. Use think-alouds with clear and concise language while actively engaging students in the problem-solving process. Opportunities for guided practice are important for identifying points of strength and areas of misconception. A system of least prompts (starting with the prompt that provides the least amount of assistance) can be used when students are not independently correct:   

• A generic verbal prompt: Read/point to step of the problem-solving routine.   
• Direct verbal prompt: explain how to complete the step.   
• A model-retest: Model completing step and ask student to repeat.   

Self-monitoring and goal-setting can help facilitate independence in problem solving. Giving a space for students to check off steps as they are completed enables self-monitoring task completion to start as soon as they begin to solve the problem. The focus can shift to self-monitoring independence by having students check off steps completed “by myself” or “with help” as in the example below or self-monitoring duration by timing themselves.  

Word problem solving is an important skill for all students, as it puts math concepts and procedures into a real-world context. In addition, self-determinatio n skills such as choice-making, self-monitoring, and goal-setting can be feasibly embedded to enhance effectiveness and efficiency. To prepare autistic students for independence in their futures, they need instruction focused on skills of the future, not the past.  

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Autism and Puzzle Solving: Building Skills for Life

Autism is a neurodevelopmental disorder that affects individuals in various ways. Puzzle solving has been found to be a beneficial activity for individuals with autism, as it helps develop cognitive skills, problem-solving abilities, and visual-spatial abilities. In this article, we will explore the importance of puzzle solving for individuals with autism, the types of puzzles that are suitable for them, and the numerous benefits of incorporating puzzle solving into their daily lives. We will also discuss strategies for introducing puzzle solving to individuals with autism and how to support them in this activity. Finally, we will share success stories of how puzzle solving has positively impacted individuals with autism, highlighting their improved cognitive abilities, enhanced problem-solving skills, increased social interaction, and greater sense of achievement.

Key Takeaways

• Puzzle solving can promote cognitive development and improve problem-solving skills in individuals with autism.
• It enhances visual-spatial abilities and helps develop attention and focus.
• Jigsaw puzzles, logic puzzles, pattern recognition puzzles, and maze puzzles are suitable for individuals with autism.
• Puzzle solving can improve fine motor skills and enhance social skills.
• Introducing puzzle solving in structured environments with visual supports and using reinforcement and rewards can be effective strategies.

Understanding Autism

What is Autism?

Autism, also known as Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), is a neurodevelopmental condition characterized by social communication challenges and restricted, repetitive patterns of behavior. It is important to understand that autism is not a disease or a result of bad parenting. Autism is a unique way of experiencing the world, and individuals with autism have diverse strengths and abilities.

• Autism is a spectrum disorder, meaning that it affects individuals differently and to varying degrees.
• Common signs of autism include difficulties in social interaction, communication, and engaging in repetitive behaviors.
• Autism is a lifelong condition, but with the right support and interventions, individuals with autism can lead fulfilling and meaningful lives.

Tip: Embrace the strengths and talents of individuals with autism, and create an inclusive and supportive environment that celebrates their unique abilities.

Autism Spectrum Disorders

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental condition characterized by social communication challenges and restricted , repetitive patterns of behavior. It encompasses previous separate diagnoses such as Autistic disorder, Asperger Syndrome, and PDD-NOS. The DSM-5 criteria for diagnosing ASD include persistent deficits in social communication and social interaction, as well as restricted, repetitive patterns of behavior, interests, or activities. Diagnosing ASD involves a complex process of assessment and observation, often requiring the expertise of multiple professionals.

Causes of Autism

The exact causes of Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) are still unknown. However, experts believe that a combination of genetic and environmental factors play a role in its development. Research suggests that certain genes, brain structure abnormalities, and chemical imbalances in the brain may contribute to the development of ASD. While the exact cause may be unclear, it is important to note that autism is not caused by vaccines or parenting styles.

Signs and Symptoms

Autism is characterized by persistent deficits in social communication and social interaction across multiple contexts. Individuals with autism may have difficulty understanding and responding to social cues, maintaining eye contact, and expressing or understanding emotions. They may also exhibit repetitive behaviors, insistence on routine, intense or focused interests, and sensory sensitivities . These characteristics must cause clinically significant impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning. It's important to note that autism is not solely due to developmental delay. Diagnostic criteria for autism include persistent deficits in social communication and social interaction, as well as restricted, repetitive patterns of behavior, interests, or activities.

The Importance of Puzzle Solving

Cognitive Benefits of Puzzle Solving

Engaging in puzzle activities can enhance cognitive function, improve memory, and promote overall mental well-being. Puzzle solving stimulates critical thinking and problem-solving skills, allowing individuals with autism to exercise their cognitive abilities. It also provides a sense of accomplishment and satisfaction when a puzzle is successfully completed. Additionally, puzzle solving can help individuals with autism develop patience, perseverance, and attention to detail. By engaging in puzzle solving, individuals with autism can strengthen their cognitive skills and build a foundation for lifelong learning and success.

Improving Problem-Solving Skills

Developing problem-solving skills is crucial for individuals with autism. By engaging in puzzle solving activities, they can enhance their ability to think critically, analyze information, and find creative solutions. Puzzle solving provides a structured and engaging way to practice problem-solving skills, allowing individuals with autism to develop and strengthen this important cognitive ability. Additionally, puzzle solving can help individuals with autism improve their attention to detail, spatial reasoning, and logical thinking. It is a fun and effective way to promote cognitive development and boost confidence.

Enhancing Visual-Spatial Abilities

Developing strong visual-spatial abilities is crucial for individuals with autism. These skills involve understanding and interpreting visual information, such as shapes, patterns, and spatial relationships. Visual-spatial abilities play a significant role in problem-solving, decision-making, and navigation. They are essential for activities like assembling puzzles, reading maps, and recognizing objects in the environment.

To enhance visual-spatial abilities in individuals with autism, various strategies can be implemented:

• Engage in activities that involve visual-spatial processing, such as jigsaw puzzles and pattern recognition puzzles.
• Provide visual supports, such as visual cues and diagrams, to help individuals understand and interpret visual information.
• Create a structured environment that promotes organization and orderliness.

Tip : When introducing puzzles, start with simpler ones and gradually increase the complexity to match the individual's skill level.

Developing Attention and Focus

Developing attention and focus is crucial for individuals with autism. It allows them to stay engaged and complete tasks effectively. Here are some strategies to help improve attention and focus:

• Create a structured environment that minimizes distractions.
• Use visual supports, such as schedules and visual timers, to provide clear expectations.
• Break tasks into smaller, manageable steps.
• Provide positive reinforcement and rewards for staying focused.

Remember, developing attention and focus is a skill that can be cultivated over time with patience and support.

Types of Puzzles for Individuals with Autism

Jigsaw Puzzles

Jigsaw puzzles are a popular choice for individuals with autism. These puzzles provide a tactile and visual experience, allowing individuals to engage their fine motor skills and spatial awareness. The process of fitting the pieces together can be both challenging and rewarding, promoting problem-solving abilities and a sense of accomplishment. Jigsaw puzzles come in a variety of themes and difficulty levels, allowing individuals to choose puzzles that match their interests and abilities. Whether it's a puzzle featuring animals, landscapes, or characters from their favorite movies, jigsaw puzzles offer a fun and engaging activity for individuals with autism.

Logic Puzzles

Logic puzzles are a fantastic way to challenge the mind and develop critical thinking skills in individuals with autism. These puzzles require analytical thinking and problem-solving abilities , allowing individuals to exercise their cognitive abilities while having fun. By engaging in logic puzzles, individuals with autism can enhance their logical reasoning and decision-making skills . Additionally, logic puzzles provide a sense of accomplishment and satisfaction when solved, boosting self-esteem and confidence. Incorporating logic puzzles into daily life can be a stimulating and enjoyable activity for individuals with autism, promoting cognitive development and fostering a love for problem-solving.

Pattern Recognition Puzzles

Pattern recognition puzzles are a valuable tool for individuals with autism. These puzzles challenge the brain to identify and understand patterns, which can improve cognitive skills and problem-solving abilities. By engaging in pattern recognition puzzles, individuals with autism can enhance their visual-spatial abilities and develop attention and focus. These puzzles provide a structured and engaging activity that celebrates the unique strengths of autistic individuals. Whether it's finding the missing piece or deciphering a complex pattern, pattern recognition puzzles offer a fun and rewarding experience for individuals with autism.

Maze Puzzles

Maze puzzles are a captivating and stimulating activity for individuals with autism. These puzzles provide a unique opportunity to enhance problem-solving skills and promote cognitive development. By navigating through the twists and turns of a maze, individuals with autism can improve their visual-spatial abilities and develop attention and focus. Maze puzzles also offer a sense of accomplishment and satisfaction when successfully completed. Incorporating maze puzzles into daily life can be a fun and engaging way to build skills for individuals with autism.

Benefits of Puzzle Solving for Individuals with Autism

Promoting Cognitive Development

Promoting cognitive development is crucial for individuals with autism. By providing appropriate stimulation and support, we can help enhance their cognitive abilities. Here are some strategies to promote cognitive development:

• Create a structured environment that fosters learning and exploration.
• Choose puzzles that are challenging yet achievable.
• Provide visual supports such as visual schedules and visual cues.
• Use reinforcement and rewards to motivate and reinforce learning.

Remember, each individual with autism is unique, so it's important to tailor the strategies to their specific needs and abilities.

Improving Fine Motor Skills

Engaging in fine motor skills activities is essential for individuals with autism to enhance their motor coordination, hand dexterity, and overall independence. These activities can include tasks such as manipulating small objects, using scissors, and practicing handwriting. By regularly engaging in fine motor skills activities, individuals with autism can improve their ability to perform everyday tasks and gain a sense of accomplishment. It is important to provide a supportive and structured environment to facilitate their progress. Additionally, incorporating sensory elements, such as tactile materials or fidget toys, can further enhance their engagement and sensory integration.

Enhancing Social Skills

Improving social skills is a crucial aspect of supporting individuals with autism . People with autism often face challenges in social situations and forming meaningful relationships. ABA therapy incorporates social skills training to address these difficulties. Therapists employ various strategies to help individuals with autism initiate conversations, understand body language, and develop appropriate social behaviors. By enhancing social skills, individuals with autism can build stronger connections with their peers and feel more confident in social settings.

Boosting Self-Esteem and Confidence

Boosting self-esteem and confidence is crucial for individuals with autism. It reinforces their belief in their abilities and encourages them to undertake and persevere through challenges. Building self-esteem can be achieved through various strategies, such as:

• Providing positive reinforcement and praise for accomplishments
• Encouraging independence and autonomy
• Fostering a supportive and inclusive environment
• Celebrating individual strengths and achievements

By implementing these strategies, individuals with autism can develop a strong sense of self-worth and confidence, leading to greater overall well-being and success in various aspects of life.

Strategies for Introducing Puzzle Solving to Individuals with Autism

Creating a Structured Environment

For individuals with autism, creating a structured environment is crucial. It promotes a sense of stability and reduces anxiety . By establishing routines and utilizing visual supports, individuals with autism can navigate their daily lives with more ease and confidence. A structured environment provides a predictable and organized space that helps individuals with autism feel secure and supported. It allows them to focus on tasks and activities, improving their attention and concentration. Creating a structured environment is an essential step in introducing puzzle solving to individuals with autism.

Choosing Appropriate Puzzles

When selecting puzzles for individuals with autism, it's important to consider their unique needs and abilities. Tailor the difficulty level to match their cognitive skills, ensuring that the puzzle is challenging but not overwhelming. Choose puzzles with clear visual cues and minimal distractions to help them stay focused. Additionally, select puzzles that align with their interests to keep them engaged and motivated. Remember, the goal is to provide a positive and enjoyable puzzle-solving experience that promotes skill development and boosts self-esteem.

Providing Visual Supports

Visual supports are essential for individuals with autism, as they provide structure and predictability. Consistency with rules is key, and visual schedules, reminders, or written rules can help them understand expectations. These supports can be tailored to the individual's needs and can be created in collaboration with their ABA therapist . By incorporating visual demonstrations and cues, individuals with autism can better navigate their daily routines and tasks. Remember, every individual is unique, so it's important to find strategies that work best for them.

Using Reinforcement and Rewards

Utilize positive reinforcement by providing rewards, praise, or privileges when your teen displays desired behaviors. This encourages them to repeat those behaviors in the future. Operant extinction can be implemented by withholding attention or rewards for unwanted behaviors, decreasing their occurrence over time. Offer prompts to help your teen learn and perform desired behaviors, using verbal, visual, or physical cues. Gradually fade the prompts as they become more independent. Parental involvement is crucial for reinforcing skills and promoting progress in ABA therapy at home.

Incorporating Puzzle Solving into Daily Life

Puzzle Solving as a Leisure Activity

Puzzle solving is not just a leisure activity; it's a gateway to relaxation and mindfulness . As we immerse ourselves in the process of solving puzzles, we can experience a sense of calm and focus. It's a chance to escape from the busyness of everyday life and engage in a soothing and meditative activity. Whether it's a jigsaw puzzle, a logic puzzle, or a pattern recognition puzzle, the act of solving puzzles can provide a much-needed break and a moment of tranquility.

Puzzle Solving in Educational Settings

Incorporating puzzle solving into educational settings can have a profound impact on individuals with autism. Puzzle solving provides a unique opportunity for cognitive development and problem-solving skills enhancement. It helps individuals improve their visual-spatial abilities and develop attention and focus . Here are some strategies for incorporating puzzle solving in educational settings:

• Create a structured environment that promotes engagement and concentration.
• Choose puzzles that are appropriate for the individual's skill level.
• Provide visual supports, such as visual cues or step-by-step instructions.
• Use reinforcement and rewards to motivate and encourage participation.

By integrating puzzle solving into educational settings, we can create an inclusive and stimulating learning environment for individuals with autism.

Puzzle Solving in Therapy

Therapy is an essential component of autism treatment, focusing on improving behavior and social skills. Positive reinforcement is used to encourage desired behaviors and reduce unwanted ones. Speech and Language Therapy helps improve communication skills, while Occupational Therapy focuses on daily living skills. Behavioral Therapy uses positive reinforcement to improve behavior and social skills. Puzzle solving can be incorporated into therapy sessions to enhance problem-solving abilities and promote cognitive development. It provides a structured and engaging activity that celebrates autistic identities and encourages skill building.

Puzzle Solving for Skill Building

Puzzle solving is more than just a leisure activity for individuals with autism. It is a powerful tool for skill building and personal growth. By engaging in puzzles, individuals with autism can develop important cognitive abilities, such as problem-solving skills and attention to detail. Puzzle solving also helps improve fine motor skills and enhances visual-spatial abilities. It provides a structured and engaging way to build skills that can be applied in various aspects of life.

Supporting Individuals with Autism in Puzzle Solving

Understanding Individual Needs

When it comes to individuals with autism, understanding their unique needs is crucial. Each person on the autism spectrum is different, and their support should be tailored to their specific requirements. By recognizing and addressing these needs, we can enhance their skills and promote their growth and development. Diagnosis of Autism and Intellectual Disability involves a complex process of assessment and observation, often requiring the expertise of multiple professionals. It's important to increase awareness and knowledge of these conditions to improve outcomes for individuals affected by them. Additionally, individuals with both autism and intellectual disability may require a comprehensive and multi-faceted approach to support their unique needs.

Providing Guidance and Assistance

When supporting individuals with autism in puzzle solving, it is crucial to provide guidance and assistance tailored to their unique needs. Here are some strategies to consider:

• Use prompts: Guide individuals with verbal, visual, or physical cues to help them find the correct response.
• Model tasks: Show them how to perform tasks, engage in social interactions, or follow routines through visual demonstrations.
• Establish clear rules: Create visual schedules, reminders, or written rules to provide structure and predictability.

Remember, consistency and individualized support are key to fostering success in puzzle solving for individuals with autism.

Encouraging Independence

Encouraging independence is crucial for individuals with autism to develop essential life skills. Here are some strategies to promote independence:

Provide clear and consistent rules at home, using visual schedules and reminders to help them understand expectations.

Gradually fade prompts and cues as they become more independent in executing tasks and behaviors.

Model tasks and social interactions to show them how to perform them.

Reinforce positive actions with praise and incentives to encourage repetition.

Give opportunities for learning new skills, tailored specifically for teenagers.

Remember, consistency and support are key in fostering independence and empowering individuals with autism to thrive.

Adapting Puzzles for Different Abilities

When it comes to puzzle solving, it's important to consider the diverse abilities of individuals with autism. Adapting puzzles can make them more accessible and enjoyable for everyone. Here are some strategies to ensure inclusivity:

• Provide puzzle options with varying difficulty levels
• Use visual supports, such as color-coding or picture cues
• Break down complex puzzles into smaller, manageable parts
• Modify puzzle pieces for easier manipulation

Remember, the goal is to create a positive and empowering puzzle-solving experience for individuals with autism.

Success Stories: How Puzzle Solving has Impacted Individuals with Autism

Improved Cognitive Abilities

Enhancing cognitive abilities is a key benefit of puzzle solving for individuals with autism. Cognitive abilities refer to the mental processes involved in acquiring knowledge, understanding, and problem-solving. By engaging in puzzle solving, individuals with autism can improve their critical thinking and reasoning skills , as well as memory and attention . Puzzle solving also stimulates visual-spatial processing , which is important for tasks such as reading maps or solving complex puzzles. Additionally, puzzle solving can enhance creativity and flexible thinking , allowing individuals with autism to approach challenges from different perspectives.

Enhanced Problem-Solving Skills

Developing problem-solving skills is a crucial benefit of puzzle solving for individuals with autism. Problem-solving is an essential skill that empowers individuals to overcome challenges and find creative solutions. By engaging in puzzle solving, individuals with autism can enhance their ability to think critically, analyze information, and make decisions. This skill is not only valuable in daily life but also in educational and professional settings. Puzzle solving provides a fun and engaging way for individuals with autism to develop and strengthen their problem-solving skills.

Increased Social Interaction

Improving social skills is a crucial aspect of puzzle solving for individuals with autism. Puzzle solving activities provide opportunities for social interaction and collaboration, allowing individuals to practice communication, turn-taking, and teamwork. Engaging in puzzles with others can help individuals with autism develop and strengthen their social skills, fostering meaningful connections and relationships. Through puzzle solving, individuals with autism can enhance their ability to initiate conversations, understand non-verbal cues, and engage in cooperative play. By promoting social interaction, puzzle solving empowers individuals with autism to integrate into society, establish meaningful relationships, and gain independence.

Greater Sense of Achievement

Individuals with autism who engage in puzzle solving often experience a greater sense of achievement. Completing a puzzle, whether it's a jigsaw puzzle, logic puzzle, pattern recognition puzzle, or maze puzzle, provides a tangible result that can boost self-esteem and confidence. The feeling of accomplishment that comes from solving a puzzle can be especially empowering for individuals with autism, as it showcases their problem-solving abilities and showcases their unique strengths. Puzzle solving allows individuals with autism to showcase their intelligence and creativity, and it can be a source of pride and joy. It's a reminder that they are capable of overcoming challenges and achieving success.

Success Stories: How Puzzle Solving has Impacted Individuals with Autism. Puzzle solving has been proven to have a positive impact on individuals with autism. It helps improve cognitive skills, problem-solving abilities , and social interaction. Many individuals with autism have found solace and joy in solving puzzles, as it provides a sense of accomplishment and boosts self-esteem. At Autism Store, we understand the importance of puzzle solving for individuals with autism. That's why we offer a wide range of autism-themed puzzles, including jigsaw puzzles, 3D puzzles, and more. Visit our website to explore our collection and find the perfect puzzle for yourself or your loved ones. Join the puzzle-solving community and experience the benefits it brings to individuals with autism.

In conclusion, the journey of understanding and appreciating individual differences and strengths is crucial in supporting individuals with autism. Embracing these differences can lead to remarkable growth and connection, enabling individuals to build essential life skills and contribute meaningfully to society. It is imperative to focus on remediating all the things that are not going well, and instead, put autistic students in jobs that play to their strengths. This approach fosters independence, social integration, and personal growth, ultimately leading to a more inclusive and supportive environment for individuals with autism.

Frequently Asked Questions

What is autism.

Autism is a neurodevelopmental disorder that affects communication, social interaction, and behavior.

What are autism spectrum disorders?

Autism spectrum disorders (ASD) are a range of conditions characterized by challenges with social skills, repetitive behaviors, and communication difficulties.

What are the causes of autism?

The exact causes of autism are not known, but it is believed to be a combination of genetic and environmental factors.

What are the signs and symptoms of autism?

Signs and symptoms of autism can vary, but common ones include difficulties with social interaction, repetitive behaviors, and challenges with communication.

What are the cognitive benefits of puzzle solving?

Puzzle solving can improve cognitive skills such as problem-solving, attention, and visual-spatial abilities.

How does puzzle solving improve problem-solving skills?

Puzzle solving requires individuals to think critically, analyze patterns, and find solutions, which enhances problem-solving skills.

What types of puzzles are suitable for individuals with autism?

Suitable puzzles for individuals with autism include jigsaw puzzles, logic puzzles, pattern recognition puzzles, and maze puzzles.

How does puzzle solving enhance social skills?

Puzzle solving can promote social interaction, cooperation, and communication when done in a group setting or with a partner.

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Social Problem Solving: Best Practices for Youth with ASD

• By: Michael Selbst, PhD, BCBA-D Steven B. Gordon, PhD, ABPP Behavior Therapy Associates
• July 1st, 2014
• assessment , problem solving , social information processing , social skills
• 8086    0

Joey, age 9, has been diagnosed with an Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), and due to his high functioning has been mainstreamed into a fourth grade classroom with a shadow. His […]

Joey, age 9, has been diagnosed with an Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), and due to his high functioning has been mainstreamed into a fourth grade classroom with a shadow. His challenging behaviors typically center on his peer interactions in spite of adequate academic performance. When in a group situation he becomes very argumentative when his ideas are not used, becomes very bossy on the playground, and has run out of the classroom when things do not go his way. Megan, age 14, has also been diagnosed with ASD. She isolates herself from her peers and rarely initiates or responds to greetings. Conversations are almost nonexistent unless they are focused on her favorite topics of anime or fashion.

Children with ASD described as above typically have significant social skills impairments and often require direct instruction in order to address these deficits. They often have difficulty in many of the following areas: sharing, handling frustration, controlling their temper, ending arguments calmly, responding to teasing, making/keeping friends, complying with requests. Strong social skills contribute to the initiation and maintenance of positive relationships with others and as a result contribute to peer acceptance. Social skills impairments, on the other hand, contribute to peer rejection. The ability to get along with peers, therefore, is as important to self-esteem as the ability to meet with academic success in the classroom. This article will review the domain of social skills, the assessment of social skills, the importance of social problem-solving and a social skills curriculum which incorporates evidence-based practices to address this very important area.

Social information processing (SIP) is a widely-studied framework for understanding why some children have difficulty getting along with peers. A particularly well-known SIP model developed by Crick and Dodge (1994) describes six stages of information processing that children cycle through when evaluating a particular social situation: encoding (attending to and encoding the relevant cues), interpreting (making a judgment about what is going on), clarifying goals (deciding what their goal is in the particular situation), generating responses (identifying different behavioral strategies for attaining the decided upon goal), deciding on the response (evaluating the likelihood that each potential strategy will help reach their goal and choosing which strategy to implement), and performing the response (doing the chosen response). It is assumed that the steps outlined above operate in real time and frequently outside of conscious awareness. Numerous studies have shown that unpopular children have deficits at multiple stages of the SIP model. For example, they frequently attend to fewer social cues before deciding on peers’ intent, are more likely to assume that peers have acted towards them with hostile intent, are less likely to adopt pro-social goals, are more likely to access aggressive strategies for handling potential conflicts, evaluate aggressive responses more favorably, and are less skillful at enacting assertive and prosocial strategies.

Deficits in social skills are one of the defining characteristics of children with ASD. These impairments manifest in making and keeping friends, communicating feelings appropriately, demonstrating self-control, controlling emotions, solving social problems, managing anger, and generalizing learned social skills across settings. Elliott and Gresham (1991) indicated that social skills are primarily acquired through learning (observation, modeling, rehearsal, & feedback); comprise specific, discrete verbal and nonverbal behaviors; entail both effective and appropriate initiations and responses; maximize social reinforcement; are influenced by characteristics of environment; and that deficits/excesses in social performance can be specified and targeted for intervention. Social skills can be conceptualized as a narrow, discrete response (i.e., initiating a greeting) or as a broader set of skills associated with social problem solving. The former approach results in the generation of an endless list of discrete skills that are assessed for their presence/absence and are then targeted for instruction. Although this approach has an intuitive appeal and is easily understood, the child can easily become dependent on the teacher/parent in order to learn each skill.

An alternative approach focuses on teaching a problem solving model that the child is able to apply independently. Rather than focusing on teaching a specific behavioral skill, the focus is on teaching a social problem solving model that the learner would be able to use as a “tool box.” The well-used saying “give a person a fish and she eats for a day but teach her to fish and she eats for a lifetime” is particularly relevant. The social problem solving approach offers the promise of helping the child with ASD to become a better problem solver, thereby promoting greater independence in social situations and throughout life.

After many years of conducting social skills training using the specific skill approach, the authors have developed a model of social problem solving that uses the easily learned acronym of POWER. The steps of POWER-Solving® include:

P ut problem into words

O bserve feelings

W ork out your goal

E xplore solutions

R eview plan

Each of the five steps of POWER-Solving® has been previously identified as reliably distinguishing between children with emotional/behavioral disorders and psychologically well-adjusted individuals. The ability to “Put problem into words” is critical in order to start the problem solving process. Children with ASD often have difficulties finding the words to identify a problem. Thus, the first step in this approach involves direct training in the use of the rubric “I was… and then…” Upon entering the classroom and finding a peer in his seat Joey immediately pushed the peer in an attempt to get him out of his seat. Through the use of POWER-Solving® Joey was taught to articulate “I was walking into the classroom and then I saw that Billy was in my seat.”

The second step of “Observe feelings” was addressed by helping Joey develop a feelings vocabulary (e.g., angry, frustrated, scared, sad) as well as measuring the intensity of these emotions using a scale from one to ten, with a one being “very weak” and a ten being “very strong.” Photographs and drawings were used extensively to capitalize on his strong visual skills.

The third step of POWER-Solving®, “Work out your goal?” involves identifying the goal and the motivation to reach the chosen goal. This critical step sets the stage for what follows. The goal must be specific and measurable, consistent with Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) principles. Joey was able to identify that his goal consisted of two parts. First, he wanted to get Billy out of his seat and second, he wanted him to still be his friend. He reported that his desire to reach this goal was a nine on the ten-point scale.

The fourth step of POWER-Solving® involves “Explore solutions.” Socially skilled individuals are able to generate a range of effective solutions but those with impairments are more limited and often apply the same rigid solution over and over again in spite of repeated ineffectiveness. Joey was taught to “brainstorm,” which involves generating as many solutions as possible that might reach the stated goal, provided the solution is safe, fair, and effective. Joey was able to identify that approaching Billy and saying “Excuse me but I need to sit in my seat now” would help him to accomplish his goal(s). Behavioral rehearsal, combined with coaching and feedback, helped Joey to become fluent in applying this solution.

The final step of POWER-Solving®, “Review plan,” involved Joey reviewing his plan to use this skill the next time the situation presented and to reward himself by saying “I am proud of myself for figuring this out.”

POWER-Solving® has been applied successfully in multiple settings such as the classroom, a summer treatment program, clinical settings and home environments. The curriculum is systematic and relies heavily on visual cues and supports. Children are taught how to problem-solve first using their “toolbox” (i.e., the five steps of POWER-Solving®). The children are presented with specific unit lessons on each of the five steps of POWER-Solving®. All children have an opportunity to practice each step of POWER-Solving®. After learning each step of POWER, the children have acquired a “toolbox” which they can begin to apply to social situations.

When teaching social skills, it is important to coach the children through behavioral rehearsal activities to promote skill acquisition, performance, generalization and fluency. Additionally, daily activities reinforce these skills, some of which include designing their own feelings thermometer, developing novel products via group collaboration, and developing a skit to teach a specific skill.

To increase students’ performance of the desired skills, use of a token economy may be helpful, whereby points are earned during the day for displaying appropriate behavior, demonstrating a predetermined individualized social behavioral objective and for using the POWER-Solving® steps. At the end of every day, points could be exchanged for a reward. In addition to the direct instructional format, incidental teaching should be used in anticipation of a challenging situation as well as a consequence for failure to use the steps when confronted with a specific problem. An experienced social skills coach, generalization strategies, and a systematic plan to teach and reinforce skills are critical for success.

Please feel free to contact us at Behavior Therapy Associates for more information about best practices for social skills training, as well as information regarding the POWER-Solving curriculum. We can be reached at 732-873-1212, via email [email protected] or on website at www.BehaviorTherapyAssociates.com .

Crick, N.R., & Dodge, K.A. (1994). A review and reformulation of social information-processing mechanisms in children’s social adjustment.  Psychological Bulletin , 115, 74–101.

Elliott, S.T. & Gresham, F. M. (1991).  Social skills intervention guide: Practical strategies for social skills training . Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service.

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How Autism May Affect Students’ Understanding Of Math And What Teachers Can Do To Help

Hilary forbes.

Here we look at the impact of autism on math from my perspective as an autistic teacher who’s spent many years working in schools; as such I’ve taught children with all neurodiversities and have my own unique insight into some of the challenges that math and especially math problem solving can have for the autistic learner.

We look at the key barriers to learning that some autistic children face when learning math, the roots of these and how teachers can remove them without extra workload and more sleepless nights planning and preparing lessons.

Autistic learners are part of a neurodiverse classroom

Overwhelming volume of content in the curriculum, how to think about abstract concepts in math, questions to consider when teaching autistic children math, how autism can affect math problem solving, why are these connections not obvious to our learners, processing time is crucial, understanding how key mathematical connections need to be taught and practiced, putting a plan in place to build relationships and agree expectations, allow for verbal processing or any other special needs, reassure and encourage, autism math takeaways.

Autism Spectrum Condition is a neurological and developmental condition that affects how those with autism interact with other people, including how they communicate, behave and learn.

Autism is a wide and varied condition and presents itself in a broad array of ways, meaning that not all autistic people will behave or face the same challenges when learning math or any other subject.

Autistic children, like any children, can make great mathematicians and can have many cognitive strengths and even savant abilities. However, in some cases, different approaches may need to be utilized to best teach math concepts to autistic students and unlock their mathematical ability .

For example, for some autistic learners, the classroom environment itself can be a challenge, especially if it is brightly lit, heavily decorated or loud. Sensory overload can be a big obstacle, preventing students from being able to focus on what they are learning. 

Read more: How To Support A Child With Autism In The Classroom

Math mastery recognizes that children need to have a deep understanding of mathematical concepts and how these concepts connect with one another. In order for this to happen, there needs to be time for processing. 

However, the math curriculum can often feel like a race for teachers as they try to cover all topics by the end of the year. This can be detrimental for those children who require more processing time; they can begin to lose the connections they need to build on their knowledge. 

When content is covered so quickly, the time for students to process new information is cut short. For some autistic children, this rush through the material can cause sensory overload, as there is a large amount of information to process at one time.

The fast pace of schools (especially in light of the pandemic), can lead to lots of gaps in learning as the student is trying to process the first concept while the teacher has moved on to the next.

This fast pace, combined with the already multisensory environment of a classroom, can be overwhelming for autistic students. 

There is now a gradually increasing recognition that all children need more time to acquire a deep understanding of the connections in math, and perhaps that the curriculum needs to be narrower in order for these connections to be really understood.

Third Space Learning’s one-to-one intervention program mitigates this by first identifying the gaps in students’ understanding and developing a tailored set of lessons. These are then covered by a tutor who supports the student at a pace that works for them, moving their learning forward and closing the gap.

There is a fallacy that autistic children cannot learn or understand abstract concepts. This is incorrect.

What autistic children often struggle to understand is not the abstract concept itself, but rather when they are not taught that something is an abstract concept.

In this case, autistic children can think that they are expected to understand abstract concepts in the same way as concrete ideas.

In teaching, it is easy to move seamlessly from concrete to abstract, but it is also easy to forget that children do not always know where that seam lies. This is a crucial aspect of teaching if autistic learners are to grasp the necessary connections.

The best way to ensure more explicit connections is to try to understand every possible angle from which the subject matter can be learned. This can be done by getting into the habit of asking yourself a series of questions.

Here are some questions that you could consider when teaching any child, but especially autistic children. Of course, they are particularly pertinent to the types of math problem solving we encourage all children to explore throughout their math education.

• What could be misunderstood?
• What words or phrases are there that need explaining? 
• Are there everyday words used in the subject matter that mean something different in math?

While it might sound obvious, we as teachers need to have a deep familiarity and knowledge of the subject matter and all the different connections with every area of math, before being able to communicate these to any child, especially autistic children.

This does not necessitate having a 1st class degree in mathematics. It means developing the practice of being a learning detective and looking for clues when children do not have those connections in place.

It’s about finding ways to communicate first in everyday language, and then explaining the formal math language.

The missing connections are often much more basic than is often immediately obvious.                                                                                                               

Autistic children can experience deficits in executive functioning. This can lead to difficulties in math word problem solving as it involves:

• Organizing information and operations
• Flexibly moving between pieces of information
• Identifying the relevant information in the problem
• Understanding the problem holistically 

All of these difficulties, in turn, have a direct effect on math word problem solving for students with Autism Spectrum Condition.

Autism and math example: times a number by 2

I recently asked a 10th grade student to multiply a number by 2. He did not know how to do it until I suggested that he add the number to the same number and then he got it. He tapped himself on the head and said “Oh yes”, but it was not immediately obvious to him.

Why, though? What is the root of him not having that connection embedded in his thinking? I suggest it is because that was missed in elementary school, and he has slipped through the net of that connection not being recognized.

How is it possible for a 10th grade student to have gone through 5 years of math and this missed information not be recognized?

In Third Space Learning’s one-to-one tutoring programme, tutors try to convey these connections to students. For example, demonstrating that multiplying by two is the same as adding the same number twice.

We know, as teachers, how it is possible because teachers are teaching between 20 to 35 students in the classroom, all with an increasing number of missed connections and math skills.

We are trying to constantly plug the gaps that are obvious without realizing that the roots go so much deeper. 

There are lots of ways to say the same thing, which can be confusing for anyone. Some people with autism will need to be explicitly taught the meaning of words or phrases in context.

For example, if a student with autism has only encountered the word ‘table’ in the context of a piece of furniture, they may not understand what you are referring to as a mathematical table without explicit teaching.

Elementary school is where these basic connections are created and learned. Children are not generally taught to make connections ; they are assumed to recognize the connections from what is taught .

An elementary school teacher said to me that if a child has a good understanding of an area of math, they will recognize that area in a math problem-solving question.

This is an assumption that simply cannot be taken for granted. Autistic learners will often resort to the last thing they knew how to do.

Autism and math example: multiply -7 × 6

I recently asked a student to multiply -7 × 6. He told me the answer was -1. His confusion was that there was a minus sign in the question and he did not know what to do with it.

However, he knew that he needed to do something, so he did what was familiar to him (addition problems) and instead answered the question -7 + 6, arriving at the answer -1. 

So, why was this? It was because he had only remembered what to do with adding and subtracting negative numbers, but multiplying and dividing with negative numbers was not familiar to him.

While students might recognize several aspects of math within the question, they may not know what to do with them.

Autism and math example: multiply 15 × ½

I asked another student to multiply 15 × ½. The first thing he said was that he had to find a common denominator. He saw the ½ and remembered something about common denominators. He could not access the question itself. 

We then spent about 20 minutes multiplying fractions, but before that, I also spent some time talking about how all whole numbers can also be written as fractions and why this is the case.

We discussed how multiplying and dividing by fractions is counter-intuitive, and why for example, 3 ÷ ½ = 6 because there are 2 halves in 1 whole one, and therefore 6 halves in 3 whole ones.

These examples demonstrate abstract concepts learners have not had enough time to process in their lessons. Students will always resort to the most familiar thing that they are sure of, even when that is not what the question requires.

Even when a child understands, in a passive way, when the teacher explains a concept, it does not mean they will remember it and be able to apply it later on. The amount of processing needed is likely to be considerably more than what may be assumed by us as teachers. 

If we also consider that many people with autism struggle to process information quickly, we start to see where they may struggle in the fast-paced, busy and noisy environment of a classroom.

The above mathematical connections are those that learners stumble over in problem-solving questions. It is not because they cannot accept abstract ideas, it is because they have not understood how those ideas connect.

They will continue to make the same mistake over and over again if these lost connections are not recognized by teachers, talked through and explained. This enables the child to know they have time to process, practise and get the answer right. 

Autistic children will be very unlikely to say if they do not understand . They will either have a go and get the wrong answer, or they will panic and not even attempt the question. It is also highly likely that they will not want immediate attention because they do not want anyone to notice them as needing help.

It is a good idea to discuss this with parents and the student before the year begins so that an agreed plan for how to help the student is put in place. This plan is something the student should feel happy about, as well as feel like they can take ownership of it.

This kind of behavior is not just the case for elementary school age autistic children. I have taught mature students of 30+ who have literally run out of the room of a small class of nine students because they did not understand, did not want the attention drawn to them and left the room upset. 

This is not trivial. Autistic learners do not grow out of being autistic.

However, if a plan is put in place then they will be extremely effective at learning. Feeling safe, having clarity, and having processing time (and sometimes this means having a separate place to work on questions) , are all not only helpful but essential for autistic learners. 

Third Space Learning’s one-to-one set-up can really help in this area as the pressure of the onlooking class is removed; the interaction is purely between the student and the tutor.

As not all autistic students learn in the same way, it is important to be in tune with the special needs of the individual student. 

Many autistic learners are verbal processors. For example, sitting math tests in silence means that they are automatically at a huge disadvantage. This is something I have become increasingly aware of over my years of teaching, and this is not something that students grow out of.

One mature student in her thirties told me if she did not have a room of her own when she worked through her exams, she simply would not pass.

I made sure she did have this, and she talked her way through the whole exam, reading the questions out loud, and talking through her methods as she wrote. 

She passed.

However, a considerable number of students are not aware of their own need to process in this way. During a Q&A time in the classroom, it is important to allow students to feel safe to answer questions and for their answers to be seen as part of their processing and not necessarily the final answer. 

To shut them down with either “that’s incorrect” or passing on immediately to another student with their hand up is discouraging and means that student may be unlikely to try again.

If they do not understand that they have got perhaps, halfway to the answer, then they will assume they simply cannot do math and give up quickly thinking they can.

While elementary schools often allow students to talk during class depending on the teacher, in middle schools and high schools the situation can be a huge jump.

The transition from elementary to middle can have the effect that students become bewildered as they are unable to access the questions due to not being able to talk or read them out loud. 

This is where elementary schools can inform middle schools about identifying those children who are verbal processors. This is not trivial. This is not going to change with age; a verbal processor in childhood is a verbal processor in adulthood.

The key to successfully teaching autistic students math is really understanding the student and their needs. Remember that autism is a spectrum and affects each individual differently. Therefore, it is crucial to understand what teaching strategies your student responds to best.

We hope that this blog can give teachers ideas on techniques to deploy in the classroom to engage autistic learners.

• ADHD In The Classroom
• Dyscalculia In Schools: A Guide To Identifying And Supporting Pupils

Do you have students who need extra support in math? Give your students more opportunities to consolidate learning and practice skills through personalized math tutoring with their own dedicated online math tutor. Each student receives differentiated instruction designed to close their individual learning gaps, and scaffolded learning ensures every student learns at the right pace. Lessons are aligned with your state’s standards and assessments, plus you’ll receive regular reports every step of the way. Personalized one-on-one math tutoring programs are available for: – 2nd grade tutoring – 3rd grade tutoring – 4th grade tutoring – 5th grade tutoring – 6th grade tutoring – 7th grade tutoring – 8th grade tutoring Why not learn more about how it works ?

The content in this article was originally written by secondary math specialist Hilary Forbes and has since been revised and adapted for US schools by elementary math teacher Christi Kulesza.

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• v.15(3); 2022 Sep

Teaching Individuals with Autism Problem-Solving Skills for Resolving Social Conflicts

Victoria d. suarez.

1 Endicott College, Beverly, MA USA

Adel C. Najdowski

2 Pepperdine University, Malibu, CA USA

Jonathan Tarbox

3 University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA USA

4 Halo Behavioral Health, Valley Village, California USA

Megan St. Clair

Peter farag.

Resolving social conflicts is a complex skill that involves consideration of the group when selecting conflict solutions. Individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) often have difficulty resolving social conflicts, yet this skill is important for successful social interaction, maintenance of relationships, and functional integration into society. This study used a nonconcurrent multiple baseline across participants design to assess the efficacy of a problem-solving training and generalization of problem solving to naturally occurring untrained social conflicts. Three male participants with ASD were taught to use a worksheet as a problem-solving tool using multiple exemplar training, error correction, rules, and reinforcement. The results showed that using the worksheet was successful in bringing about a solution to social conflicts occurring in the natural environment. In addition, the results showed that participants resolved untrained social conflicts in the absence of the worksheet during natural environment probe sessions.

Problem solving is traditionally defined as the ability to identify the problem and then create solutions for the problem (Agran et al., 2002 ). From a behavioral perspective, a person is faced with a problem when they experience a state of deprivation or aversive stimulation (Skinner, 1953, p. 246), and reinforcement is contingent upon a response that is in the person’s repertoire, but cannot be evoked under current conditions (Palmer, 1991 , 2009 ). According to Skinner ( 1953 ), “problem-solving may be defined as any behavior which, through the manipulation of variables, makes the appearance of a solution more probable” (p. 247). Therefore, problem solving involves mediating or precurrent behaviors that function to manipulate or generate discriminative stimuli needed to evoke a resolution response (Palmer, 1991 ; Skinner, 1984 ). See Szabo ( 2020 ) for a conceptual analysis of problem solving.

Behavioral researchers have taught specific problem-solving strategies to individuals for learning specific skills (see Axe et al., 2019 for a review), such as categorizing items (Kisamore et al., 2011 ; Sautter et al., 2011 ), explaining how to complete tasks (Frampton & Shillingsburg, 2018 ), and completing vocational tasks (Lora et al., 2019 ). Such problem-solving strategies functioned to teach participants to engage in mediating or precurrent behaviors that brought about a resolution. For example, Sautter et al. ( 2011 ) taught participants to use rules as a precurrent behavior to evoke the resolution of sorting stimuli. Kisamore et al. ( 2011 ) taught participants a visual imagining strategy as a precurrent behavior to evoke the resolution of categorizing. Frampton and Shillingsburg ( 2018 ) taught participants to sort and sequence visual stimuli of each step of a multistep task as a precurrent behavior to evoke explaining how to complete the multistep task.

Another type of scenario that requires one to engage in problem solving is when dealing with social conflict. Resolving social conflicts likely involves similar precurrent behaviors addressed in previous behavioral literature, such as behavior chains, rules, self-questioning, sequencing, and potentially visual imagining (See Axe et al., 2019 , for a review). However, because social conflicts by definition involve interacting with other people, successfully resolving social conflicts also likely involves engaging in perspective taking, including tacting others’ perspectives, engaging in deictic relating behavior by switching perspectives (Luciano et al., 2020 ), and likely arranging for others involved in the conflict to also obtain reinforcement.

According to traditional psychology, problem solving begins to develop as early as the preschool years (e.g., Best et al., 2009 ; Garon et al., 2008 ). Yet, individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) often display deficits in social skills (American Psychiatric Association [APA], 2013 ) and have been found to demonstrate difficulties resolving social conflicts (Bernard-Optiz et al., 2001 ).

Given that a defining feature of ASD is to present with deficits in social communication and interaction (APA, 2013 ) and that resolving social conflicts across a wide range of situations is essential for functional integration into society and the maintenance of relationships (Bonete et al., 2015 ), it appears necessary to identify effective methods for teaching individuals with ASD to engage in problem-solving skills that will aid social conflict resolution. However, behavioral research has not evaluated methods to teach problem-solving skills in this context specifically to individuals diagnosed with ASD.

Although the population of ASD has not been studied in previous behavioral research on using problem-solving strategies to deal with social conflicts, a study conducted by Park and Gaylord-Ross ( 1989 ) used behavioral procedures to teach individuals with intellectual disabilities precurrent behaviors including rules, self-questioning, and self-prompting to solve problems they encountered at work, including social initiations, mumbling, and conversation expansions and terminations. During training, the researchers provided participants with a picture of themselves in a social situation (e.g., passing by a familiar customer at their workplace) and asked them how they would behave in the presented situation. Participants were provided with seven rules or questions to ask themselves: (1) What is happening? (2) What are three behaviors I could emit? (3) What will be the outcome of each behavior? (4) Which is better? (5) Pick one (6) Emit the behavior and (7) How did I feel? Prompting, modeling, and praise were used to teach participants to use the seven rules/questions. Pictures of novel social situations (other than the target situation) were presented at the end of training sessions to assess generalization to untrained stimuli and only one of three participants demonstrated stimulus generalization. During follow-up, an audiocassette recorder was placed in the participants' shirt pockets to record their interactions during their work and evaluate generalization of responding to trained stimuli in the natural environment. The results of the study indicated that participants’ target behaviors improved during training, and follow-up performance in the natural environment improved compared to baseline.

In addition to the paucity of research on this topic within behavior analysis, there is limited research outside of the behavioral literature that has evaluated methods for teaching individuals with ASD to use problem-solving strategies for dealing with social conflicts. One notable exception is a study conducted by Bernard-Optiz et al. ( 2001 ), who used a web-based problem-solving program to teach typically developing children and children with ASD to select and develop appropriate solutions. In particular, social conflicts were presented to participants on a computer screen with choices of possible solutions and an option to insert an individualized solution. For example, participants were shown a scenario in which two children wanted a turn to go down a slide. An audio cue asking, “What would you do?” was presented, and icons offering problem-solving solutions, such as requesting to go first, were provided. A second audio cue asking, “Do you have any good ideas?” was subsequently presented, and the option to insert a unique solution was presented. Novel solutions identified by participants resulted in social praise, and the option to continue inputting novel solutions continued to appear until participants no longer produced additional responses. All participants demonstrated an increase in the number of appropriate novel solutions generated. The results of Bernard-Optiz et al. ( 2001 ) demonstrated that social praise and a web-based problem-solving program functioned to increase generativity of problem solutions. Moreover, the results demonstrated that participants with ASD were taught to generate novel solutions to social conflicts using prompts and reinforcement. However, as the authors point out, a limited selection of social conflict scenarios were presented during intervention. Perhaps the most substantial limitation to the study is the use of an analogue computer task, without assessing whether problem-solving skills improved during real-life social interactions. In addition, maintenance was not measured.

Although behavioral research has found that teaching precurrent behaviors led participants to solve problems (e.g., Frampton & Shillingsburg, 2018 ; Kisamore et al., 2011 ; Lora et al., 2019 ; Park & Gaylord-Ross, 1989; Sautter et al., 2011 ), no research of which we are aware has evaluated the effects of teaching precurrent behaviors for resolving social conflicts to individuals with ASD. Further, although nonbehavioral research demonstrates prompts and social praise may function to increase resolving social conflicts in children with ASD (Bernard-Optiz et al., 2001 ), it is unknown if prompts and reinforcement would be successful in teaching individuals with ASD to use precurrent behaviors to resolve social conflicts. In addition, although research by Park and Gaylord-Ross (1989) measured generalization to trained problems in the natural environment, there is a dearth of research measuring generalization to untrained social conflicts occurring in the natural environment. Furthermore, research that has evaluated generalization to untrained problems found positive results with only one of three participants (Park & Gaylord-Ross, 1989).

The purpose of the current study was to investigate the effects of a problem-solving training package conducted in the natural environment on the use of problem-solving skills (i.e., precurrent behaviors) to resolve untrained social conflicts by individuals with ASD. The problem-solving training package consisted of a problem-solving worksheet, multiple exemplar training, error correction, rules, and reinforcement. Generalization of problem solving to untrained conflicts was programmed for by using multiple exemplar training and was assessed throughout the course of the study.

Participants and Setting

Three male individuals, with primary language being English, participated. Patrick was an 11-year-old Indigenous, Latinx, and white male with diagnoses of ASD, attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and bipolar disorder. Oliver was a 22-year-old Israeli male with a diagnosis of ASD. Russell was a 10-year-old Indigenous, Latinx, and white male with diagnoses of ASD and ADHD.

All participants received applied behavior analytic (ABA) services from a community-based agency for 10–12 hr per week. They demonstrated a listener behavior repertoire by engaging in auditory–visual conditional discriminations and following multistep instructions, used vocal–verbal communication in full sentences, and read and wrote basic paragraphs (i.e., three to five sentences). In addition, they demonstrated well-developed language skills by engaging in echoics, mands, tacts, and intraverbals. All participants labeled emotions in others (e.g., answered “How does she feel?”), identified cause-and-effect (e.g., answered “Why?” and “What will happen if . . . ?” For example, “Why did the egg break?” [“Because you dropped it.”], or “What will happen if I drop this egg?” [“It will break.”]), identified emotional cause-and-effect (e.g., answered “Why is she sad?” or “What will happen if someone takes her toy?”), and followed rules (e.g., “If you’re wearing pink, then raise your hand.”). In addition, participants used pronouns in speech and demonstrated listener behavior according to pronouns. All participants had a history of learning via role play and engaged in up to four intraverbal exchanges with others. At the time of recruitment, Patrick’s overall score on the Basic Living Skills Assessment Protocol from the Assessment of Functional Living Skills (AFLS) was 469 and Russell’s overall score was 475. No standardized assessment scores are available for Oliver, because his most recent assessment conducted prior to participation in this study was conducted using a commercially available web-based platform that does not provide raw scores. Participants were included because they did not independently and appropriately resolve social conflicts, and deficiency in resolving social conflicts was affecting their maintenance of positive relationships with siblings or parents. Individuals who demonstrated significant challenging behavior severe enough to interfere with instruction (e.g., self-injurious behavior [SIB], moderate to severe aggression) were ineligible to participate.

Participants were recruited because they were determined to benefit from learning to resolve social conflicts by their supervising clinician. Moreover, participants were recruited by asking them (for Oliver) or their parents (for Patrick and Russell) if they would like to participate in a research study evaluating a lesson for teaching problem-solving skills to resolve social conflicts. Consent was obtained by providing a consent form outlining the study’s purpose, methods, and potential benefits/risks to Oliver and the parents of Patrick and Russell. In addition, assent forms were provided to Patrick and Russell.

Research sessions were conducted during regularly scheduled ABA-based teaching sessions in home-based and clinic-based settings for the duration of the study with the exception of Oliver who made a transition from home- and clinic-based sessions to solely telehealth sessions (due to the COVID-19 pandemic) beginning with session 21. Research sessions were conducted in various rooms throughout the session environment (e.g., bedroom, living room, lobby, conference room). Research sessions were 5–30 min in length and consisted of the presentation of one problem. One to two research sessions (conducted at least 30 min apart) were conducted 1–3 days per week.

Response Measurement and Data Collection

A problem-solving task analysis (TA; Table ​ Table1) 1 ) was used to calculate the percentage of correct, independent problem-solving steps completed by each participant. Each step of the TA was scored as correct or incorrect based on the specified criteria (Table ​ (Table1). 1 ). A correct response included independently and accurately completing a step within the task analysis by either writing a response or vocally stating a response within 10 s of: (1) the problem occurring (step 1) and (2) the previous step being completed (steps 2–13). An incorrect response included responses irrelevant to the current step, prompted responses, and nonresponses (i.e., failure to respond within 10 s of the problem [step 1] or previous step occurring [steps 2–14]). During baseline and posttraining, if the participant was not progressing through the conflict (e.g., not doing anything to resolve the conflict) after 1 min of the problem occurring, the conflict was ended by the interventionist resolving the conflict (e.g., if the conflict was that brother left Legos on the table where the participant was going to eat, the interventionist resolved the conflict by removing the Legos) and all remaining steps of the TA were scored as incorrect.

Problem-solving task analysis

Note: Task analysis (TA) steps and correct response criteria for each TA step.

Natural environment probes (explained below) were scored as all or nothing. If the participant successfully resolved the social conflict by engaging in a viable solution (i.e., any solution that would function to resolve the conflict and could be readily carried out) within 10 s of the conflict occurring, the natural environment probe was scored as 100% correct. On the other hand, if the participant failed to resolve the social conflict (i.e., proposed and/or engaged in an impracticable solution or was nonresponsive as defined earlier), the natural environment probe was scored as 0% correct.

Interobserver agreement (IOA) was collected by two independent observers who recorded data during 33% of baseline sessions for all participants. IOA data were collected during 50%, 62%, and 57% of training sessions for Patrick, Oliver, and Russell, respectively. Moreover, IOA data were collected during 67% of posttraining sessions for Patrick and Oliver and 50% for Russell. IOA data were collected during 75% of follow-up sessions for Patrick and 100% for Oliver and Russell. Finally, IOA data were collected during 50%, 40%, and 50% of natural environment probes for Patrick, Oliver, and Russell, respectively. Point-by-point agreement was used to identify observers’ agreement on whether each step was performed correctly versus incorrectly by dividing the number of steps for which there was agreement by the total number of steps and multiplying the resulting quotient by 100%.. Mean IOA was 100%, 98.8% (range; 90%–100%), and 98.7% (range: 90%–100%) for Patrick, Oliver, and Russell, respectively.

Experimental Design and Procedure

A nonconcurrent multiple baseline across participants design was used to assess the effects of the problem-solving training package.

General Procedures

At the beginning of each ABA-based teaching session, participants were provided with a variation of the following instruction: “Today during your session, a social problem with someone will happen at some point. Here is a worksheet [see Fig. ​ Fig.1] 1 ] you can use to help solve the problem when it happens.” The worksheet was written using language that was previously observed to be used by the participants and that they were familiar with.

Problem-solving worksheet

Then, ABA-based teaching activities began, and at some point between teaching activities, up to 15 min after delivering the instruction, a social conflict was contrived or captured with people in the natural environment. For example, when the participant and his brother both wanted to go first at a game, data were collected on how the participant responded to the problem-solving steps outlined on the TA. If the participant engaged in any negative emotional responding, such as whining or crying during the presentation of the social conflict, a second conflict was not presented again that day.

Social conflicts to be used were determined by interviewing the participants and their parents and asking them what situations usually led to arguments with others. In addition, we observed naturally occurring social interactions between the participants and others and identified situations in which a social conflict arose and the participant failed to resolve the conflict. We then set up these scenarios to occur during the research session. For example, Russell stated he argued with his brother when his brother wanted to play a video game that he was already playing. So, we arranged for Russell’s brother to request playing a video game that Russell was actively playing during the research session. Other times, the scenarios were genuinely captured, so we ran the research session upon capturing the naturally occurring conflict. For example, we observed that Patrick walked into his room to find that his brother had left dirty dishes on his desk and was notably upset as evidenced by his tone of voice, prosody, heavy breathing, and crying. The social conflicts contrived or captured are provided in Table ​ Table2 2 .

List of social conflicts presented

Note: Sample of contrived or captured social conflicts encountered by Patrick, Oliver, and Russell.

During baseline, in addition to the general procedures, problems occurred with at least two different people (e.g., parent, sibling; see Table ​ Table3). 3 ). We did not provide any prompting or feedback in order to assess the extent to which participants resolved social conflicts independently. If the participant was not progressing through the conflict after 1 min of the conflict occurring, the conflict was ended by the interventionist resolving the problem. It was planned that if any distressed behavior (e.g., crying, screaming, negative statements, SIB, aggression) was observed for a duration of at least 10 s, the conflict was to be ended by the interventionist resolving the problem; however, distressed behavior never occurred during baseline. Participants qualified to continue to the training phase if they scored 60% or less on the problem-solving TA. Two participants were excluded for not meeting this criterion.

People and problems presented each phase

Note: People and social conflicts used across baseline, training, and posttraining conditions and during natural environment probes. Social conflicts and people used to assess generalization are included alongside people and social conflicts in posttraining.

Pretraining Phase

In this phase, the participant was taught how to use the problem-solving worksheet. In particular, the purpose of this phase was to evaluate whether simply providing the worksheet would result in improved problem-solving performance, that is, to ensure that the repertoires were not already present but just not under the stimulus control of the worksheet. The interventionist began by providing the participant with the following instruction: “This is a worksheet you can use to help you solve problems you have with other people. To use it, you will read each of the questions on it and answer them while the problem is happening to help you solve it.” Then, the interventionist walked the participant through each question on the worksheet by pointing to each step and instructing the participant on what they should do for each worksheet question. For example, the interventionist pointed to the first question on the worksheet and said, “In this box you will ask yourself, ‘What is the problem?’ and you will write down or say out loud the problem that is happening between you and another person. After this, the interventionist pointed to the second question on the worksheet and said, “In this box you will ask yourself, ‘What do I think happened?’ and you will write down what happened from your perspective.” After going through each question on the worksheet with the participant in a similar fashion, the interventionist presented the following instruction: “At some point today I am going to have a social problem with you; when it happens, you can use the worksheet to help you solve it.” The participant was handed the blank worksheet alongside a pen/pencil. Participants were also told that they could call out their responses aloud if they did not want to write on the worksheet. At some point later in the session (between 5–15 min after reviewing how to use the worksheet), a social conflict was contrived between the interventionist and the participant. If the participant asked for help, they were told to do their best. Similar to baseline, no prompting, feedback, praise, or reinforcement was delivered. In addition, if any distressed behavior was observed for a duration of at least 10 s, the problem was ended by the interventionist resolving the social conflict. If the participant was not progressing through solving the problem after 1 min of the conflict occurring, the conflict was likewise ended by the interventionist resolving it. Participants qualified to continue to the training phase if they scored 60% or less on the problem-solving TA in pretraining. No participants were excluded from continued participation during this phase.

Training Phase

In addition to the general procedures, during training, the participant was taught to engage in precurrent behavior (i.e., use the worksheet) to resolve social conflicts using multiple exemplar training, error correction, and reinforcement. At the beginning of each session, an informal preference assessment was conducted by asking participants what they would like to earn after resolving a conflict. Then, the participant was told that they would be able to access the predetermined reinforcer for more or less time depending on how many questions of the worksheet they completed correctly. The amount of time that was granted with the reinforcer was determined using a grading scale in which higher percentages of independent correct responding on the worksheet resulted in more time with the reinforcer (see Fig. ​ Fig.2). 2 ). For example, if the participant scored 20% correct on the problem-solving worksheet, they received 2 min of access to their reinforcer (e.g., video game, free time), and if they scored 90% correct they received 13 min of access. A social conflict was then contrived and each independently performed step of the TA was praised. Access to the predetermined reinforcer was granted for a prespecified amount of time depending on the participant’s percentage of correct responding.

Reinforcement grading scale

Incorrect responses resulted in re-presentation of the step followed by an immediate prompt using a least-to-most prompting hierarchy. The first prompt used was a gestural prompt, which consisted of the interventionist pointing to (in-person sessions) or highlighting with a cursor (telehealth sessions) the current step of the worksheet. If the gestural prompt did not result in a correct response, the step was re-presented with an immediate directive prompt. The directive prompt consisted of the interventionist saying, “Ask yourself [ step-related question ]” (e.g. “Ask yourself, ‘What is the problem?’”; “Ask yourself, ‘What do I think happened?’”) while pointing to the current step on the worksheet. If the directive prompt did not result in a correct response, the step was re-presented with an immediate leading-question prompt. Leading-question prompts were individualized for each conflict and each step of the TA. For example, “What is going on right now?” was used as a leading question for the first step of the worksheet (i.e., identifying the problem). If the leading question prompt did not result in a correct response, a choice prompt was presented. Choice prompts were also individualized for each conflict and each step of the TA using the following script: “Is the problem [ correct/irrelevant possibility ], or is the problem [ correct/irrelevant possibility ]?” (e.g., “Is the problem that we both want to go first [the problem], or is the problem that you need a place to sit?” [irrelevant to the problem]). A coin flip was used to randomize the order of correct/irrelevant choices provided. Finally, the most intrusive prompt provided was a full vocal model of the correct answer (e.g., “The problem is that we both want to go first.”). It was planned that if the participants came up with three nonviable solutions, the aforementioned prompting hierarchy would be used to prompt them to think of at least one solution that would work to solve the problem; however, all participants proposed at least one viable solution during training, so this was not needed. The criterion for ending the training phase was for the participant to respond with at least 80% accuracy for three consecutive sessions with the interventionist. After this, the posttraining phase was introduced.

Posttraining Phase

At the beginning of each posttraining session, a variation of the following instruction was presented, “Even if you can solve the problem by yourself without the worksheet, I need you to use the worksheet so that I know what you are thinking.” If participants began to resolve the conflict without using the worksheet, the instruction was re-presented. Other than the presence of that instruction, this phase was identical to baseline conditions, in that no feedback or reinforcement was provided at any point. Exemplars from baseline were re-presented during this phase (Table ​ (Table3) 3 ) to evaluate whether participants resolved social conflicts that they were unsuccessful in resolving prior to receiving the problem-solving training package.

Natural Environment Probes

Natural environment probes were used to evaluate problem solving in the absence of the worksheet. The first natural environment probe was conducted during baseline to evaluate participants’ problem-solving skills in the absence of the worksheet. During training, natural environment probes were contrived after participants scored at or above 80% correct on the problem-solving worksheet, with the exception of Oliver, who had a natural environment probe captured after the sixth training session. During posttraining, natural environment probes were graphed whenever captured. For example, if a naturally occurring social conflict arose at any time, it was captured as a natural environment probe. In addition, three consecutive natural environments probes were presented after completing posttraining sessions for all participants.

Follow-up natural environment probes were conducted at 2 (Patrick, Russell, and Oliver), 4 (Patrick and Russell), 6 (Patrick and Russell), and 10 (Patrick only) weeks posttraining to evaluate maintenance.

Social Validity

A social validity questionnaire (Table ​ (Table4) 4 ) was administered to each participant upon the completion of training. Participants were instructed to complete the questionnaire to the best of their ability and no additional feedback on their responses was provided. The questionnaire consisted of six questions (two each for goals, procedures, and outcomes; see Table ​ Table4) 4 ) scored on a 5-point Likert scale: (1) strongly disagree, (2) disagree, (3) neutral, (4) agree, and (5) strongly agree. There were also two open-ended questions that asked participants to identify what they liked the most and least about the problem-solving training package.

Social validity questionnaire items

Figure ​ Figure3 3 contains the results for Patrick (top panel), Oliver (middle panel), and Russell (bottom panel); these are described below, respectively. Patrick responded during baseline with 0%–8% accuracy in the presence of the worksheet and did not resolve the social conflict presented during the natural environment probe. During pretraining, Patrick performed with 0% accuracy in the presence of the worksheet. During training in the presence of novel problems, there was an immediate increase in correct responding, and he met the mastery criterion on the sixth training session. After training, during a natural environment probe (no worksheet), Patrick successfully resolved a contrived social conflict. During posttraining when untrained social conflict exemplars from baseline were repeated, Patrick consistently scored 100% using the problem-solving worksheet and also successfully resolved social conflicts during the natural environment probes (no worksheet). Maintenance was measured 2, 4, 6, and 10 weeks following training, and Patrick successfully resolved novel, naturally occurring social conflicts in the absence of a worksheet.

Percentage of correct problem-solving steps emitted by participants

Oliver responded with 0%–21% accuracy during baseline in the presence of the worksheet and did not resolve the social conflict presented during the natural environment probe. During pretraining, Oliver scored 7% correct in the presence of the worksheet. During training in the presence of novel problems, there was an immediate increase in correct responding, and he met the mastery criterion on the ninth training sessions. During session 15, we captured a naturally occurring social conflict, and Oliver successfully resolved it in the absence of the worksheet. During posttraining when untrained social conflict exemplars from baseline were repeated, Oliver scored 92%–100% correct and successfully resolved a social conflict during session 20 during a captured natural environment probe. After session 21, a 2-month period elapsed wherein Oliver did not receive services as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic. Upon returning to sessions using telehealth technology, Oliver scored 62% correct on the problem-solving worksheet under posttraining conditions. Because Oliver’s performance notably decreased, a novel exemplar probe under baseline conditions was conducted to determine if Oliver should receive a booster training session, and he scored 77% correct. The novel exemplar probe consisted of the presentation of a social conflict that had not been contrived at any other time in the study. Given that Oliver scored below 80% on the novel exemplar probe, Oliver was provided with booster training until he re-met the mastery criterion of 80%–100% correct across three consecutive sessions. The booster training conditions were identical to the training conditions. Then, another novel exemplar probe under baseline conditions was presented, and Oliver scored 100% correct. After this, a natural environment probe was captured in which Oliver successfully resolved a conflict in the absence of the problem-solving worksheet. Oliver scored 100% correct in the following session when he was presented with an untrained exemplar from baseline under posttraining conditions. Then, three natural environment probes were conducted and Oliver successfully resolved social conflicts in the absence of the worksheet. Maintenance was measured 2 weeks following posttraining in which Oliver successfully resolved a novel, naturally occurring social conflict in the absence of a worksheet.

Russell responded with 0%–8% accuracy during baseline in the presence of the worksheet and did not resolve the social conflict presented during the natural environment probe. During pretraining, Russell scored 8% correct in the presence of the worksheet. During training in the presence of novel problems, there was an immediate increase in correct responding, and he met the mastery criterion on the seventh training session. Moreover, Russell successfully resolved a contrived social conflict in the absence of the worksheet. During posttraining when untrained social conflict exemplars from baseline were repeated, Russell scored 70%–100% correct using the problem-solving worksheet and successfully resolved social conflicts in the absence of the worksheet. Maintenance was measured 2, 4, and 6 weeks following posttraining, and Russell successfully resolved novel, naturally occurring social conflicts in the absence of the worksheet.

Patrick and Russell scored the problem-solving training package as being highly acceptable with mean scores of 5 and 4.82, respectively. Oliver’s mean social validity score was 3.83. He scored “strongly agree” for one question and “agree” for three questions. The questions he scored as neutral included: (1) “I believe that I am better at solving social problems after participating in the social problem-solving lesson”; and (2) “I think that completing the social problem-solving lesson helped me solve social problems I have with my family/friends.” Patrick identified what he liked most about the training package was that it was helpful to him, and Oliver identified what he liked most was feeling like he was right. The only reported dislike about the training package was that it was tedious (Oliver).

The data from the current study suggest that multiple exemplar training, combined with a worksheet, was effective in teaching three individuals with ASD to resolve novel social conflicts occurring in the natural environment. In addition, generalization across untrained conflicts and people was observed from baseline to posttraining for all participants. These results are consistent with behavioral research conducted by Frampton and Shillingsburg ( 2018 ), Kisamore et al. ( 2011 ), Lora et al. ( 2019 ), Park and Gaylord-Ross (1989), and Sautter et al. ( 2011 ) in demonstrating that problem-solving strategies can be taught using behavioral strategies.

A noteworthy finding was that pretraining was insufficient to occasion the use of the worksheet during social conflicts. This finding is consistent with the behavioral skills training (BST) literature, which has shown instructions alone are generally ineffective compared to behavioral packages, such as BST (e.g., Feldman et al., 1989 ; Hudson, 1982 ; Ward-Horner & Sturmey, 2012 ). This finding is also consistent with previous problem-solving research that found modeling and prompting resulted in superior responding as compared to other strategies, such as teaching rules (Kisamore et al., 2011 ).

The results of this study are also consistent with previous research conducted by Bernard-Optiz et al. ( 2001 ) in demonstrating an increase in the use of novel solutions by individuals with ASD. In particular, the results showed that precurrent behaviors were successful in bringing a variety of solutions (not just one type of solution) under the control of the conflict context. For example, types of solutions used by participants included many different repertoires, some of which have not been addressed in previous research such as apologizing, providing information, advocating for individual needs/wants, compromising, and removing oneself from the situation, along with others that have been targeted in previous research, such as requesting information (e.g., Shillingsburg et al., 2011 ), requesting tangibles (e.g., Bourret et al., 2004 ), and requesting help/removal (e.g., Rodriguez et al., 2017 ; see Table ​ Table5). 5 ). A potential limitation of this study is that we did not preplan the types of solutions we would teach, so exposure to types of solutions was not controlled for or counterbalanced. Therefore, it is possible that variation in the types of solutions used affected the results. However, consistent results were obtained across the three participants, so there is no direct evidence that inconsistency affected the results. In addition, training a variety of strategies, all of which have the same function, to solve the problem, may be considered a form of multiple exemplar training in itself, and therefore may have contributed to the favorable generalization that was observed. Still, uncontrolled variables are often frowned upon in research, so future researchers may want to consider controlling the number of each type of solution taught to participants.

Solutions used by participants

Note: Number and percentage of types of solutions used across social conflicts by Patrick, Oliver, and Russell

This study expanded upon past research by capturing and contriving social conflicts within each participants’ natural environment. By conducting training with naturally occurring stimuli and “training loosely” (Stokes & Baer, 1977 ), generalization was promoted to ensure that participants acquired a repertoire for resolving social conflicts, rather than generating solutions only for specifically targeted conflicts. A compelling finding was that participants successfully resolved social conflicts in the absence of the worksheet during natural environment probes. Thus, the current study contributes to the literature by demonstrating that problem-solving strategies (i.e., worksheet use) can result in participants with ASD demonstrating successful generalization to untrained social conflicts occurring in the natural environment in the absence of a worksheet. The worksheet may be conceptualized as a prompt, that may have facilitated acquisition at first and was then no longer necessary to occasion the problem-solving chain of behaviors. Future research could consider teaching social conflict resolution in the absence of a worksheet, possibly by teaching each step of the problem-solving worksheet. Future research could also evaluate whether teaching a shorter problem-solving chain would be efficacious. For example, the last two steps of the worksheet could be omitted.

Continued successful problem-solving during natural environment probes also has implications for the possibility that some of the mediating behaviors previously cued by the worksheet were completed by participants on a covert level when the worksheet was no longer present. However, it is not possible to identify with any certainty whether participants were engaging in covert behavior. Given that participants were unsuccessful with resolving social conflicts during baseline, but were successful with resolving naturally occurring social conflicts after being trained to follow the problem-solving steps, and continued to resolve social conflicts effectively during posttraining, it seems possible that participants completed some of the steps on a covert level. In addition, after completing training, anecdotal observations found that participants engaged in overt behavior that suggested the possibility that they were engaging in covert completion of the steps, such as overtly saying, “You might think I am just not wanting to share the computer, but really I have been doing schoolwork all morning and just started my turn” (Step 3: What does the other person think happened?). It is also possible that participants engaged in visual imagining of the worksheet during natural environment probes. Skinner ( 1969 ) described precurrent behaviors of visual imagining in mathematical problem-solving and Kisamore et al. ( 2011 ) attempted to directly train visual imagining problem-solving behavior, so it is possible that the participants in this study engaged in covert imagining behavior. As with any covert behavior, it is not possible for researchers to directly measure it, but future research could attempt to train participants to observe and record their own covert verbal behavior, in order to provide an approximate measurement of the generalization of problem-solving repertoires to the covert level. For example, researchers might ask the participant, “How did you figure out how to solve that problem?,” to which a participant might respond with something like, “I imagined the worksheet in my head until I thought of the solution.” To the extent that participants are not directly trained to give specific verbal reports of this kind, such verbal reports might provide interesting supplementary data on the possibility of covert problem solving behavior.

It is interesting that all participants were observed to attempt to solve problems without using the worksheet in posttraining, although they were presented with the worksheet. In these instances, participants were reminded to use the worksheet. This indicated that participants had acquired problem-solving skills and no longer needed the worksheet; however, it was necessary to have participants use the worksheet in order to compare their posttraining performance to their baseline performance (because we could not measure their covert behavior to identify if they were implementing the problem-solving steps). Future research should evaluate methods to measure problem-solving skills in ways that allow participants to demonstrate their newly acquired skills without being limited by the apparatus/materials of the experiment. A possible solution could be to consider problem resolution as the primary dependent variable and evaluate pre- and posttraining data for conflict resolution following training in a problem-solving strategy.

We also found that emotional responding occasionally occurred upon presentation of social conflicts and possibly interfered with participants’ performance with resolving social conflicts. For example, Patrick was occasionally observed crying in response to a social conflict, which was followed by engaging in additional emotional self-regulation behaviors (e.g., take deep breaths, drink some water) and then successfully resolving the conflict. However, given that participants were successful in resolving social conflicts albeit experiencing emotional responding, the likelihood that emotional responses hindered learning problem-solving skills is low. Data were not collected on emotional responding; however, the team anecdotally observed that emotional responding decreased as participants learned to use the problem-solving worksheet. Future research should consider measuring emotional responding when teaching individuals to resolve social conflicts and may also investigate the role of emotion-regulation repertoires on problem-solving skills of individuals with ASD.

One potential limitation of the study is that we did not assess whether the trained problem-solving repertoires specifically came under the stimulus control of problems. Put another way, although the training procedure trained participants to identify problems and to discriminate which social situations were problems, we did not formally collect data on whether such discrimination was occurring. Although formal data were not collected on unnecessary or inappropriate application of problem-solving skills, the research team anecdotally reported that they never observed this to occur.

Another limitation of the study is that procedural fidelity data were not collected, so the degree to which procedures were implemented with fidelity is unknown. In addition, social validity information was not collected from family members. Given that social conflicts often occurred between the participants and their family members, future research could assess the family members’ impressions of the intervention by collecting social validity information from family members with whom conflicts typically occurred

Probably the most notable limitation of the study was that all solutions effectively resolved the current social conflict, because we primed the people who had social conflicts with the participants to make sure the participants’ solutions were successful. This was done by vocally instructing individuals present within the session that if a social conflict arose between them and the participant, they should allow whatever solution is presented by the participant to resolve the social conflict. In other words, whatever solution the participant proposed received functional reinforcement by the conflict being resolved. This was done to ensure the problem-solving sequence resulted in reinforcement; however, the schedule of reinforcement for problem solving in the natural environment is certainly not fixed. Future research should make a transition to a variable schedule of reinforcement when teaching problem-solving skills. In addition, when a strategy to resolve a conflict fails, one must engage in a subsequent behavior chain of problem solving. Therefore, future research should investigate the additional problem-solving steps required when an initial solution is unsuccessful.

Overall, the current study was successful in teaching three individuals with ASD to resolve social conflicts occurring in their every-day lives using a problem-solving worksheet, multiple exemplar training, error correction, rules, and reinforcement. In addition, the results of this study indicate that acquired skills for problem resolution successfully generalized to untrained social conflicts and maintained after training. The most notable aspect of the study was that the findings of this study indicate that overt precurrent behaviors, such as completing a worksheet, were not needed by participants to successfully resolve social conflicts after receiving training in engaging in such precurrent behaviors. As noted by Frampton and Shillingsburg ( 2018 ), it is important to identify efficacious methods for teaching complex skills, such as resolving social conflicts, that often occur at the covert level. Finally, it should be noted that according to traditional psychology, problem solving is associated with executive function (EF; Zelazo et al., 1997 ). In our clinical practice, skills associated with EF have become a requested repertoire to be targeted during behavioral intervention. For example, individualized educational planning (IEP) team members and parents have requested goals related to EF skills. The findings of this study demonstrate that behavioral procedures can be used to address a skill that is traditionally categorized as being an EF skill.

Acknowledgments

Victoria D. Suarez is Latina, Adel C. Najdowski is bi-racial: Latina and White, Jonathan Tarbox is White, Emma I. Moon is White, Megan St. Clair is White, and Peter Farag is Egyptian. We thank Jasmyn Pacheco, Lauri Simchoni, and Bryan Acuña for their assistance with this project.

Declarations

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Informed consent was obtained by all human participants using a consent form approved by Endicott College’s IRB.

Publisher’s Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

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High-Functioning Autism: The Challenges of Managing HFA Symptoms

Living With HFA, Previously Diagnosed as Asperger’s Syndrome

• What Is HFA?

People with autism who have low support needs (previously called high-functioning autism or Asperger's syndrome) may not need as much support as other autistic people; however, they may still find some day-to-day activities a challenge. Since autism is a spectrum disorder, this means people have a wide range of needs and abilities.

Autistic adults and children with low support needs share traits that can lead to differences with their neurotypical peers. These include experiencing sensory overload, not understanding social cues, and difficulty controlling emotions.

This article discusses the common challenges for autistic people with low support needs.  

What Is High Functioning Autism?

Autism with low support needs describes what was once known as high-functioning autism (HFA), an unofficial term used for people whose autism traits appear mild. The official diagnostic term is autism spectrum disorder (ASD) level 1.

Is Asperger's the Same as HFA?

Asperger's syndrome is no longer used as a diagnosis or a way to categorize autism.

In the past, people who were told they had "Asperger’s” had some features of autism but had an average or higher-than-average IQ and age-appropriate language skills. 

Asperger's was removed from the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders in 2013 when the fifth edition (DSM-5) was published. Now, people with autism labeled as “high functioning” are usually diagnosed with Level 1 ASD.

Today, the severity of autism spectrum disorder is described by a level from 1 to 3 , based on how much support a person needs:

• Level 1 requires some support.
• Level 2 requires substantial support.
• Level 3 requires very substantial support.

People with autism now are evaluated and described on the basis of these support needs rather than a level of function. In the autism community, functioning labels are discouraged because they can be misleading. A person can be able to function independently in some areas but require significant support in other areas.

People labeled as high-functioning can often have significant needs that are overlooked. It's preferred to describe people in terms of their support needs rather than function.

Educators and professionals should be made aware of the invisible challenges for autistic people with low support needs. These include sensory issues, emotional regulation, social skills,  executive functioning , verbal communication, and mood disorders.

It’s also important to remember that autistic children with low support needs grow into adults with low support needs. Even adults with ASD-1 who are mostly independent can still have support needs. 

Symptoms of High-Functioning Autism

The symptoms of autistic adults and children with low support needs vary but generally fall into certain categories.

• Experiencing sensory overload
• Having trouble figuring out or picking up on social cues
• Anxiety or mood disorders
• Challenges with organization
• Difficulty controlling emotions
• Differences in verbal communication
• Challenges with back-and-forth conversation
• Trouble with social relationships
• Repetitive actions and self-stimulating behaviors (stimming or stims) 
• Limited interests
• Highly sensitive

Some people with high-functioning autism only experience mild challenges in their lives because of these symptoms. Others find that these symptoms make certain aspects of their lives, like socializing and work, more difficult to undertake without help. 

Sensory Differences

Many autistic people have sensory processing disorder, which is also called  sensory overload .

Noise, crowds, bright lights, strong tastes, smells, and being touched can all be unbearable to a person with HFA.

Activities like going to restaurants, movies, and shopping malls can be difficult or even intolerable for people who experience sensory overload. Relatively simple acts like putting on socks or being hugged can be also challenging for someone with sensory processing differences.

These sensory differences are not something that an autistic person will outgrow. If an autistic person had sensory sensitivities as a child, they’ll still have them as an adult. 

However, they may learn coping strategies that make them a little easier to navigate. For example, some people with autism learn to tolerate sensory challenges in their environments by using skills they learn in sensory occupational therapy.

Social Awkwardness

People with HFA can have a hard time  recognizing social cues  and body language.

People with HFA may find interacting with others confusing or challenging because they have a hard time:

• Understanding appropriate greetings
• Knowing when to let someone else talk
• Regulating the tone and volume of their voice

Social awkwardness can be a major obstacle to making friends, finding and keeping a job, and dating for autistic people.

Anxiety and Depression

Anxiety , depression, and other mental health conditions are common in people with autism, including people who have been labeled “high-functioning.” In fact, studies suggest that people with HFA are more likely to be diagnosed with a mood disorder than the general population.  

It’s not clear why these disorders are connected. Some researchers think autism and mental health conditions could have certain things in common, like genetics or environment. It’s also possible that the social rejection and discrimination autistic people face lead to anxiety and depression. 

Executive Planning Challenges

Executive functioning is a term for the skills people use to organize and plan their lives. This includes tasks like making and sticking to schedules or following a timeline to complete a long-term project.

Many people with HFA have trouble with executive functioning. They may face challenges in caring for things in their living space (like chores and grocery shopping) and have a hard time coping with even minor schedule changes at school or work.

Emotional Dysregulation

People with autism can feel extreme emotions. They may appear to overreact in some situations yet under-react in others.

When something unpredictable happens, it can be hard for an autistic person to control their response because the change makes them feel strong emotions. The transition from one setting or activity to the next can be challenging for them to get through. 

For example, a person with high-functioning autism may burst into tears if there's an unexpected change in plans or get agitated if their routine is thrown off.

Difficulty With Verbal Communication

A child with autism deemed high-functioning will typically not have problems understanding language. Tasks like learning individual words, grammar rules, and vocabulary may not present any challenges for them—in fact, they may even do very well with them.

However, the use of language to communicate can be where challenges start to show up. Someone with HFA may have trouble understanding sarcasm, metaphors, or idioms—what’s called “pragmatic" language.

Some people with HFA may struggle to talk when they are under stress or overwhelmed. 

The process of diagnosing autism spectrum disorder often starts in childhood. In some cases, people with autism who do not have as many support needs may go through most of their young lives without ever being diagnosed. 

Sometimes, a person who is considered to have high-functioning autism or was told they had “Asperger’s” as a child does not get a formal autism diagnosis until adulthood. 

Getting an autism diagnosis as an adult can be a difficult and lengthy process. The first step is to find a psychologist or psychiatrist who works with adults with autism. Sometimes, a mental health professional can diagnose autism in adults by asking questions and observing responses for common autistic traits.

A more formal autism evaluation includes forms that you will have to fill out. In some cases, additional forms are filled out by people who know you well, like your partner, relative, close friend, or employer (with your consent).

Self-Diagnosis

Getting diagnosed with autism as an adult is not always possible because there are many barriers, like cost and access.

Within the autism community, there is growing acceptance of self-diagnosis, especially for people who have less access to a formal diagnosis and those less likely to have been diagnosed as a child (for example, people who identify as women and racial/ethnic minorities). 

Support for High Functioning Autism

Once a person learns they are on the autism spectrum, they can talk to their providers about how much support or help they need to go about their day-to-day lives.

Some adults with high-functioning autism do not need much, if any, outside help (for example, from caregivers or formal support from community services). Others may need help with certain tasks, like organizing their budget, staying on top of personal care and appointments, and finding employment. 

It’s also possible that an autistic person’s support needs will change, even if they are told they are “high-functioning.” 

For example, during times of stress or crisis, a person with autism may need more help than they usually do. Just like someone who is not autistic, someone with high-functioning autism might need more help and support if they’re sick or hurt, or going through a big life change. 

A support network is crucial. People with autism may not always recognize that they need more help, but their loved ones may pick up on signs that they're not coping well. 

People might need extra support if they find:

• They let chores go unfinished and pile up (after previously having ways to keep up with them).
• They’re spending more time involved with their specific interests as an “escape.”
• They’re doing more self-stimulatory behaviors (stimming) to try to feel better.

Even if a person with high-functioning autism recognizes they need more help, because they have been labeled as having low support needs, they may not feel like they are allowed to ask for more. They may feel guilty or ashamed for needing more support. 

Black-and-white thinking can also make it harder for an autistic person to accept that their needs have changed and no longer “fit” the label they were given. Even if it’s only temporary, the “mismatch” can be very distressing and confusing. 

It’s important that an autistic person has a support plan in place with their loved ones and care team to make sure they will be able to have the help they need. They need to feel safe about asking for and accepting more support when they need it.

Many autistic people benefit from working with a caring team of medical and mental health professionals who can help them navigate the challenges and joys that autism can bring. 

It’s also important for different providers to be part of an autistic person’s support network because they may have mental health disorders (such as avoidant restrictive food intake disorder or ARFID) and physical health conditions (like gastrointestinal disorders) that commonly co-occur with autism.

Depending on the type of support a person with high-functioning autism needs, treatments like  speech-language therapy  and social skills training can address some of the challenges they’re facing and give them the resources they need to be empowered in their lives and able to do the things they want to do. 

Even though functioning labels like “high-functioning autism” and “Asperger’s” are less common today, many providers still use them to talk about people living with autism.

Autism is a spectrum disorder not just in terms of the symptoms a person experiences, but how much support they need to live their lives independently and fully.

A person with “high-functioning” autism does not necessarily need no help—they just might not need as much assistance as another person with autism.

That said, in times of stress or crisis, even a person with autism who usually has lower needs can benefit from more help. That’s why it’s important to have a support network that includes caregivers, mental health providers, and healthcare providers. 

Barahona-Corrêa JB, Filipe CN. A Concise History of Asperger Syndrome: The Short Reign of a Troublesome Diagnosis . Front Psychol. 2016 Jan 25;6:2024. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.02024.

American Psychiatric Association.  Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders , 5th ed . Washington, DC; 2013.

Schevdt S, Needham I.  Possible signs of sensory overload .  Psychiatr Prax.  2017 Apr;44(3):28-133. doi:10.1055/s-0042-118988

National Institute of Mental Health. Autism Spectrum Disorder .

Lake JK, Perry A, Lunsky Y. Mental health services for individuals with high functioning autism spectrum disorder .  Autism Res Treat . 2014;2014:502420. doi:10.1155/2014/502420

The Adult Autism Center. Autism and executive function .

Asperger/Autism Network (AANE).  Asperger profiles: Emotions and empathy .

National Institute on Deafness and Other Hearing Disorders.  Autism Spectrum Disorder: Communication in Children .

University of Washington. Self-diagnosis-friendly resources and communitie s.

ARFID Awareness UK. AFRID & Autism .

Williams DL, Mazefsky CA, Walker JD, Minshew NJ, Goldstein G. Associations between conceptual reasoning, problem solving, and adaptive ability in high-functioning autism .  J Autism Dev Disord . 2014;44(11):2908–2920. doi:10.1007/s10803-014-2190-y

By Lisa Jo Rudy Lisa Jo Rudy, MDiv, is a writer, advocate, author, and consultant specializing in the field of autism.

Enhancing social problem solving in children with autism and normal children through computer-assisted instruction

Affiliation.

• 1 Department of Social Work and Psychology, National University of Singapore. [email protected]
• PMID: 11569584
• DOI: 10.1023/a:1010660502130

Children with autism have difficulty in solving social problems and in generating multiple solutions to problems. They are, however, relatively skilled in responding to visual cues such as pictures and animations. Eight distinct social problems were presented on a computer, along with a choice of possible solutions, and an option to produce alternative solutions. Eight preschool children with autism and eight matched normal children went through 10 training sessions interleaved with 6 probe sessions. Children were asked to provide solutions to animated problem scenes in all the sessions. Unlike the probe sessions, in the training sessions problem solutions were first explained thoroughly by the trainer. Subsequently these explanations were illustrated using dynamic animations of the solutions. Although children with autism produced significantly fewer alternative solutions compared to their normal peers, a steady increase across probe sessions was observed for the autistic group. The frequency of new ideas was directly predicted by the diagnostic category of autism. Results suggest young children with autism and their normal peers can be taught problem-solving strategies with the aid of computer interfaces. More research is required to establish whether such computer-assisted instruction will generalize to nontrained problem situations in real-life contexts.

Publication types

• Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't
• Autistic Disorder / psychology*
• Child, Preschool
• Problem Solving*
• Social Behavior*
• Social Perception
• Therapy, Computer-Assisted*

Autistic traits linked to creative problem-solving

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Research Article

Thinking in pictures in everyday life situations among autistic adults

Roles Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Methodology, Writing – original draft

* E-mail: [email protected]

Current address: Laboratoire CERPPS, Université Toulouse Jean Jaurès, Toulouse, France

Affiliation Laboratoire CERPPS-E.A. 7411, Université Toulouse Jean Jaurès, Toulouse, France

Roles Methodology, Supervision, Writing – review & editing

Affiliation Psychology Department, C.P. 8888 Succursale Centre-Ville, Université du Québec à Montréal, Montreal, Canada

Roles Conceptualization, Funding acquisition, Methodology, Validation, Writing – review & editing

• Clara Bled, 
• Quentin Guillon, 
• Isabelle Soulières, 
• Lucie Bouvet

• Published: July 22, 2021
• https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0255039
• Peer Review
• Reader Comments

Autistic individuals are often described as thinking in pictures. The aim of this study was to investigate the phenomenological characteristics of mental representations and inner experiences of autistic individuals. A total of 39 autistic adults and 80 control adults answered an online questionnaire. Autistic participants reported a more frequent use of visual mental representations than controls for different types of everyday situations. Moreover, autistic individuals defined their visual mental representations as more detailed than control participants. Furthermore, when describing their inner experiences, autistic participants used perceptive visual themes whereas control participants relied more on the description of events and memories. Our results support the hypothesis that some autistic individuals indeed “think in pictures”. We discuss the impact of such a visual way of thinking in daily life.

Citation: Bled C, Guillon Q, Soulières I, Bouvet L (2021) Thinking in pictures in everyday life situations among autistic adults. PLoS ONE 16(7): e0255039. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0255039

Editor: Barbara Dritschel, University of St Andrews, UNITED KINGDOM

Received: December 14, 2020; Accepted: July 9, 2021; Published: July 22, 2021

Copyright: © 2021 Bled et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Data Availability: All relevant data are within the manuscript and its Supporting Information files.

Funding: This work was funded by the French National Research Agency (ANR-19-CE28-0012). The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.

Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Introduction

According to the Diagnostic and Statistical manual of Mental disorders, fifth edition (DSM-5), autism is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by impairments in social communication and interaction, as well as restricted and repetitive patterns of behaviors or interests [ 1 ]. Autism therefore entails behavioral but also cognitive atypicalities. Autistic individuals are often described as “thinking in pictures”. This assumption mainly originates from the eponymous book by Temple Grandin, Thinking In Pictures . In this book she reports that “ when I think about abstract concepts I use visual images” , “thinking in language and words is alien to me . I think in pictures” [ 2 ].

Kunda and Goel [ 3 ] hypothesized that some performance of autistic individuals can be explained by this tendency to think in pictures and the use of visual strategies with visual mental representations. For instance, a greater activation of the visual cortex has been observed throughout different tasks [ 4 – 6 ]. Moreover, autistic individuals also use visual strategies and mental representations when performing tasks of language comprehension and verbal reasoning [ 7 , 8 ].

Another example of the use of visual strategies in autistic individuals and its behavioral outcome is the smaller word length effect during a serial recall task. This result suggests that autistic individuals rely more on the visual representation of words than controls [ 9 ]. In addition, in a recent literature review, Williams et al. [ 10 ] found that articulatory suppression, which prevents the use of verbal strategies, had no impact on the performances of autistic individuals. The authors hypothesized that cognition in autistic individuals may rely less on internal language or “inner speech” than in controls, as they use alternative, i.e. visual, strategies [ 10 ].

Although these studies have characterized the use of visual strategies in autistic individuals or the ability of autistic individuals to use / manipulate visual mental representations with laboratory tasks [ 11 – 14 ], very few studies have documented the phenomenology of mental representations or explored the inner experiences of autistic individuals in daily life.

Cognitive theories concentrate on mental processes of conceptual thinking whereas phenomenology pays attention to the subjective processes displayed “within” the individual’s contact with the world. Phenomenology finds its roots in philosophy. It is an approach that focuses on the form and structure of conscious experience with descriptions of how we think (mode/form), what we think (content) and why we think like we do (insight/understanding). This subject-oriented or 1 st person approach may not only be relevant in a diagnostic process of autism [ 15 ] but may also shed light on dimensions of cognitive experience that are lacking in current research [ 16 ].

The investigation of the subjective experience can provide a unique possibility to explore how people with autism experience themselves, others, and the world [ 17 ]. There are indeed several theoretical accounts of how phenomenological concepts can inform our understanding of subjective experience in autism. Some phenomenological theoretical papers questioned the theory of mind and the capacity of autistic individuals to understand their own mind [ 18 ] or the capacity of intersubjectivity (e.g., a pre-reflective embodied relationship of self and other in an emergent bipersonal field) in autism [ 19 ]. Other phenomenological clinical studies explored the sensory atypicalities [ 20 ] or subjective experience of time in autism [ 21 ]. While these studies have focused primarily on the content of autistic individuals’ thoughts (i.e. what they think), the current study focuses instead on the form of mental representations (i.e. how they think) as well as their basic phenomenological characteristics.

In 1993, Hurlburt developed a method called the Descriptive Experience Sampling (DES) method, to explore people’s inner experience [ 22 ]. This method consisted in wearing, for several days in a row, a small device that beeped at random intervals. When they heard a beep, participants had to “freeze” the content of their awareness and write it down on paper. Four major categories of inner experience were identified: verbal inner experiences (or inner speech), visual images (or visual mental representations), unsymbolized thinking (or what they described as “pure thought”) and feelings (or emotional experiences). Using this method with three adults with Asperger syndrome, Hurlburt et al. were the first to explore the form of autistic individuals’ thought in a systematic way in their daily lives [ 23 ]. They found that these three individuals reported thoughts primarily or solely in the form of visual images. More recently, Hare et al. also noted the importance of visual thinking in autism in everyday life [ 24 ]. Using a similar approach known as experience sampling methodology (ESM) where participants are invited several times a day for several days in a row to answer a series of questions when prompted by a signal, they found that the most common form of thought among Asperger participants was images reported in 40% of the prompts, followed by inner speech reported in 37.5% of the prompts. In contrast, control participants mainly reported thoughts in the form of inner speech (68.4% vs. 19.1% for thoughts as images).

In the current study, we investigated the form of mental representations and inner experiences of autistic individuals in everyday life using an online questionnaire. The use of an online questionnaire makes it more accessible and allows more people to participate. Based on the thinking in pictures account by Kunda and Goel [ 3 ] as well as reports by Hurlburt et al. [ 23 ] and Hare et al. [ 24 ], we hypothesized that autistic participants would report a greater use of visual mental representations than control, non-autistic, participants in everyday life situations. To further explore and characterize the inner experience of these visual mental representations, participants answered questions about basic phenomenological characteristics, including their duration, level of detail and manipulation. We also explored inner experiences with an open-ended question to assess the use of visual mental representations via a textual analysis of their written production.

Material and method

The study was approved by the ethics committee of the University of Toulouse (CERNI 2018–112) and all participants read an information leaflet with explanations concerning the study and gave their written consent before beginning the questionnaire.

1. Participants

Participants were recruited by posting an advertisement (containing a direct link to the questionnaire) in local clinical centers and associations for autistic adults, on social networks and forums about autism. To be included in the analyses, participants had to be over 18 and had to provide enough details about their diagnosis (specifying the age at diagnosis, institution of diagnosis and the diagnostic tool that was used). A total of 79 autistic participants responded to the questionnaire, of whom 71 were over 18 and provided enough details about their diagnosis. Of these, 32 did not fully complete the questionnaire and were excluded. Given the fixed order of questions, the pattern of missing data was not random and we therefore decided to exclude all protocols that were not fully complete. In total, 39 adults (11 men, 28 women) with a formal diagnosis of autism based on DSM criteria (either DSM-IV or DSM 5) were included in the analyses (age range 18 to 62, mean = 33.5, SD = 10.6). Among them, 20 were assessed with the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule (ADOS 2) [ 25 ] and/or the Autism Diagnostic Interview (ADI) [ 26 ] and the remaining 19 with other standardized tools (e.g. Australian Scale for Asperger Syndrome (ASAS-R) [ 27 ], Ritvo Autism Asperger Diagnostic Scale (RAADS-R) [ 28 ], Autism spectrum Quotient (AQ) [ 29 ]). All diagnoses were confirmed by a medical doctor in a specialized autism resource center (CRA) (45.2%), in a private practice (41.9%) or in a hospital (12.9%). Most of our respondents received a late diagnosis (age range at diagnosis 4 to 56 years, mean = 29.5, SD = 12.8). Out of 39 autistic participants, 12 reported a depressive episode in the past and 1 a Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), 6 declared having an anxiety disorder, 9 an Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), 3 dyspraxia, 1 dyslexia, 1 dyscalculia and 2 a High Intellectual Potential (HIP).

281 control participants also responded to the questionnaire, but two of them were under 18, 175 did not fully complete the questionnaire, 24 had close family members with autism and so were removed from analysis. Thus, a total of 80 comparison participants (24 men, 56 women) were included (age range 18 to 69, mean = 35.9, SD = 12.6). Most control participants had no psychiatric history but 8 of them reported a depressive episode in the past, 5 declared having a High Intellectual Potential (HIP), 6 an Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and 1 a visuospatial dyspraxia.

The two groups did not significantly differ in terms of age (t(117) = 1.06, p = .292), education level (χ 2 (5) = 9.81, p = .081) and gender (70% of women in the control group, 71.8% in the autistic group, χ 2 (1) = .04, p = .840).

2. General procedure

The questionnaire was created using LimeSurvey© , and securely hosted by the University Toulouse–Jean Jaurès.

The questionnaire contained a total of 66 items and took approximately 20 minutes to complete. For the purpose of this study, 11 of these items were analyzed. The original French version of these 11 items is available in supplementary data. These items pertained to three blocks of questions presented in the same fixed order for all participants. First, participants answered three questions related to the phenomenological characteristics of their visual representations. Then, they were asked an open question about what comes to their mind when they hear the name of a city they know well. The third block consisted of seven questions related to the use of visual mental representations in everyday life situations.

Participants could, at any time, stop the questionnaire and erase their answers or continue the questionnaire later. They also had the possibility of backtracking if they wished to correct some of their answers.

3. Measures

The 11 items of the questionnaire were created based on pre-existing mental representation questionnaires or interviews [ 23 , 30 , 31 ].

Phenomenological characteristics of the visual mental representations.

These 3 items assessed how participants subjectively experience their visual mental representations. We were interested in the duration of mental images, the level of detail of mental images and the ability to manipulate mental images. Prior to answering these questions, participants were asked to mentally visualize an object or a situation of their choice and answer the questions in relation to the triggered internal image. There were three possible answers for each question. The three items are as follows:

• “Is this internal image detailed or blurry or sometimes blurry and sometimes detailed ?
• Is this internal image persistent or of short duration or sometimes persistent and sometimes of short duration ?
• Do you manage to manipulate this internal image (e . g . change point of view , zoom in , etc . ) ? Always or never or sometimes ? ”

For each question, the last two responses, indicating poorer visual mental representations, were grouped together for analysis.

Open question.

We asked an open question in order to assess the inner experiences of the participants qualitatively.

“ Describe what comes to your mind when you hear the name of a city you have already been to , such as Toulouse .” (Note that Toulouse is a city well known to all participants.)

Participants had to type their answer in a box reserved for this purpose.

Use of visual mental representations.

Participants indicated if they usually use images and/or words for 7 different “everyday” situations: recollection, problem solving, anticipation, decision making, planning, comprehension and memorization. The 7 items are as follows:

• “When you remember something (that you have read , seen or heard) , do you tend to use images , words or both ?
• To understand something that is being explained to you (e . g . instructions) , do you tend to use images , words or both ?
• When you anticipate an upcoming event (e . g . if you have to go somewhere) , do you tend to use images , words or both ?
• When planning activities (e . g . if you are thinking about how to organize your day) , do you tend to use images , words or both ?
• When you face a problem and cannot find a solution , do you tend to use images , words or both ?
• When you have to make a decision (e . g . the best way to go somewhere) , do you tend to use images , words or both ?
• When you have to memorize something (e . g . a shopping list , a phone number , etc . ) do you tend to use images , words or both ? ”

For each situation, the response “words only” was scored 0, “images and words” was scored 1, and “images only” was scored 2.

4. Data analysis

To verify the covariance of scores on different items and justify the use of a global score for the use of visual mental representations, Cronbach’s alpha was used. To account for the ordered nature of the variable, a Mann-Whitney U test (one-tailed) was used to test for a between-group difference in the use of visual mental representations. Statistical significance was set to a p-value of 0.05. Interquartile ranges (IQR) are reported as a range between the 1 st and 3 rd quartiles to convey information about the asymmetrical/symmetrical distribution of scores around the median. In addition, we calculated a Glass rank biserial correlation coefficient ( r g) to assess the effect size of the difference. For between-group comparisons of response frequencies with respect to the phenomenological characteristics, we used the Pearson chi-square test. Given the exploratory nature of these analyses, we did not correct for multiple comparisons, limiting the risk of false negative results. Statistical analyses were performed using SPSS V23.0 [ 32 ].

A lexicometric analysis was performed on participants’ responses to the open question. Iramuteq software [ 33 ] was used for frequency analysis, similarity analysis and the Descending Hierarchical Classification (DHC) method. The statistical procedure of DHC was chosen for the cluster method of lexical classes [ 34 ], allowing us to show the distribution of lexemes (i.e. units of meaning) associated with relevant areas of textual content across the overall corpus of data.

1. Use of visual mental representations

Regarding the use of visual mental representations, the seven questions had a satisfactory covariance (α = .81), thus a score for the use of visual mental representations was computed with the sum of the seven scores. The higher the score (max = 14), the more frequent and extended the use of visual mental representations in everyday life.

The median score for the use of visual mental representations was 10 (IQR = 7.5–13) for the autistic group and 8 (IQR = 6–10) for the control group. The frequency of use of visual mental representations was significantly higher in autistic individuals than in controls (U = 1031.1, p = .001 one-tailed) (see Fig 1 ). The Glass rank biserial correlation coefficient r g = .34 indicated a medium effect size.

• PPT PowerPoint slide
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• TIFF original image

The higher the score, the more frequent and extended the use of visual mental representations.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0255039.g001

At the individual level, 5 control participants (6.2%) reported using images only (indicated by a score of 14) and 1 control participant reported using words only (indicated by a score of 0). In contrast, 6 autistic participants (15%) reported using images only and none reported using words only.

As there were a large number of women in our participants, we explored a potential gender effect in the use of visual mental representations. In the control group, the median score for the use of visual mental representations was 7.5 (IQR = 7–11.25) for men and 8 (IQR = 5–10) for women, this difference was not significant (U = 589.5, p = .383 two-tailed). In the autistic group, the median score for the use of visual mental representations was 9 (IQR = 7.5–12.5) for men and 11 (IQR = 7.75–13) for women, this difference was also not significant (U = 124.5, p = .363 two-tailed).

2. Phenomenological characteristics of visual mental representations

One control participant who reported having no visual mental representations was excluded from the following analyses.

The use of visual mental representations was more frequent in the autistic group but we also wanted to explore whether the basic characteristics of these representations were experienced differently across groups. Visual mental representations were more frequently reported as detailed among autistic individuals, with 66.7% of autistic participants reporting detailed mental images versus 43.8% of control participants (χ 2 (1) = 5.51, p = .019). Visual mental representations were not more frequently reported as persistent among autistic individuals (35.9% vs. 20%), χ 2 (1) = 3.51, p = .051. Regarding the ability to manipulate mental images, the proportion of participants who reported always being able to manipulate their images did not differ between groups either (56.4% vs. 46.3%), χ 2 (1) = 1.08, p = .298.

3. Open question

According to the frequency analysis, the answers of autistic individuals were as detailed as those of control participants with the same degree of use of descriptive adjectives (relative frequency of use of adjectives was 59.65 for controls and 53.83 for autistic individuals). The most frequently reported forms (or words) by the controls were: “ville” ( city ) (33 occurrences), “souvenirs” ( memories ) (26 occurrences) and “lieu” ( place ) (21 occurrences). The most frequently reported forms by autistic individuals were: “image” ( image ) (16 occurrences), “voir” ( see ) (13 occurrences), “ville” ( city ) (13 occurrences) and “visualiser” ( visualize ) (9 occurrences) (see Figs 2 and 3 ).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0255039.g002

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0255039.g003

A similarity analysis was also performed. The similarity index corresponds to the co-occurrence (simultaneous appearance) of forms in the same text segment (the higher the index, the more present the link between concepts). In controls, the word “ville” ( city ) was the most frequently used and was often associated with “lieu” ( place ) (with a co-occurrence index of 8). “Lieu” (place) was frequently associated with “souvenirs” ( memories ) (co-occurrence of 7), which was associated with “personnes” ( people ) (co-occurrence of 5) and “sensations” ( sensations ) (co-occurrence of 5). In autistic individuals, “image” ( image ) was the central word and was associated, in order of importance, with “ville” ( city ), “voir” ( see ), “odeurs” ( smells ) and “couleur” ( color ) (co-occurrence indices were respectively: 6, 6, 4 and 3).

These analyses suggest the use of different lexical fields in the control group relative to the autistic group. To go further, we then carried out a Descending Hierarchical Classification (DHC), with answers from all participants, in order to group together the common lexical fields and to highlight the different themes appearing in the individuals’ answers (see Fig 4 ).

Class 1 = recall class, class 2 = visual representation class, class 3 = perceptive details class (the original French dendrogram is available in supplementary data).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0255039.g004

The DHC was able to classify 94.51% of the text segments, and distinguished 3 classes among these segments. Class 1 contained 27.1% of the data, the second class 45.2% and the third class 27.7%. Two subsets of classes stand out: classes 1 and 2 on the one hand and class 3 on the other. The dendrogram provides a list of the forms most closely associated with each class (see Fig 4 ).

Class 3 seems related to the theme of perception with many perceptive details reported by participants (sun, water, color, noises, light, etc.). We named class 3 the “perceptive details class”.

Class 2 is more specifically associated with representative and visual terms (see, image, map, plan, etc.). Here are some examples of a characteristic text segment associated with class 2: “Je visualise précisément, comme des cartes postales, des images de lieux que je connais […]” ( I visualize precisely , like postcards , images of places I know […]) . “[…] un plan d’ensemble d’un lieu emblématique […] l’architecture globale et l’allure des bâtiments. Un point de vue souvent impersonnel, un peu comme une image de carte postale.” ([…] an overall map of an emblematic place […] the overall architecture and the shape of the buildings . An often impersonal point of view , a bit like a postcard image) . We named class 2 the “visual representation class”.

Class 1 was associated with the theme of description of events and memories (memories, live, sensations, family, etc.). An example of a characteristic text segment associated with class 1 is: “[…] les villes ressortiront plus pour les rencontres et les expériences dans ces villes, et donc les souvenirs et sensations plus que la ville en elle-même” ( […]cities will stand out more for the encounters and experiences in these cities , so the memories and sensations more than the city itself ). We named class 1 the “recall class”.

Text segments associated with the “recall class” were significantly more frequently reported by control participants (χ 2 = 13.33, p < .001), whereas text segments associated with the “visual representation class” were significantly more frequently reported by autistic participants (χ 2 = 10.86, p < .001). The “perceptive details class” was not specifically associated with either group.

Altogether, these lexicometric analyses indicate that control participants were more likely to use the themes of recall and memories, while autistic participants tended to use visual representation terms with, for example, the word “image” ( image ) which was significantly associated with the “visual representation class” (χ 2 = 14.11, p < .001).

The aim of this study was to investigate the use of visual mental representations and explore their phenomenological characteristics in autistic individuals.

Consistent with our hypothesis, autistic participants as a group reported a more frequent and extended use of visual mental representations for different types of everyday life situations (recollection, problem solving, anticipation, decision making, planning, comprehension and memorization) than control participants. This more frequent use of visual representations is consistent with what Hurlburt et al. [ 23 ] reported on the first attempt to investigate the inner experience of three participants with Asperger syndrome. Our results are also in agreement with Hare et al.’s findings that the most frequent forms of thoughts in autistic individuals are images [ 24 ]. A possible explanation for this greater use of visual representations is that autistic cognition relies more on an enhanced visual, perceptual functioning [ 35 – 37 ]. Though these questions remain open, there might be a link between the particular sensory / perceptual functioning in autism and the use of visual strategies. A greater use of visual mental imagery in participants with autism is mechanistically accompanied by a lower use of words / verbal representations in comparison to control participants. Indeed, typical individuals more frequently reported thoughts as if they were talking to themselves [ 24 ], a form of inner speech. Therefore, another possibility is that autistic individuals may rely relatively less on words and consequently more on visual representations because of an impaired “inner speech” (see Williams et al.’s review on inner speech in autism [ 10 ]). In this study, we did not collect information about inner speech. This latter possibility thus remains to be investigated in future studies.

Our results extend prior reports by suggesting that autistic individuals differed from control individuals not only in the frequency of use of visual mental representations but also in some phenomenological characteristics. Autistic participants were more likely than control participants to define their mental images as detailed. Previous studies also revealed that autistic individuals show enhanced performances in both low- and high-level visual perception tasks and are generally better at detecting purely perceptual changes [ 35 – 37 ]. Given that perception and mental visual representations activate the same neural networks and rely on the same representations [ 38 ], it is very likely that the attention to visual details in autistic individuals at the perceptual level is mirrored at the level of visual mental representations. Regarding the persistence and the manipulation of the visual mental representations, findings were not clear and would require further investigation.

Finally, inspired by preexisting interviews on inner representations [ 23 , 30 ], we investigated how participants described their inner experiences when reporting what came to their mind when they heard the name of a city. We found that autistic and control participants did not use the same lexical field in their answers. Autistic participants tended to use the themes of visual representations and perception whereas control participants mostly used the themes of recall and memories, a result consistent with a thinking in picture hypothesis manifested as a greater use of visual mental representations. Alternatively, autistic individuals may not instinctively report memories possibly due to autobiographical memory difficulties. Studies have shown that autistic individuals generate fewer specific autobiographical memories than typical adults and take significantly longer to do so [ 39 ], which could also explain our results.

Overall these findings are consistent with a thinking in pictures cognitive style in autism [ 3 ] and extend this in some way to everyday life situations. However, it is also important to recognize the variability in responses across the autistic group. Although a predominance of visual mental representations is observed at the group level, several participants reported a limited use of visual mental representations in everyday life situations. Characterizing this variability and exploring inter-individual differences will be important for future studies [ 40 ]. Further investigation will also be needed to understand how a thinking in pictures cognitive style might interfere with social cognition in autism. One of the challenges that is potentially posed by “thinking in pictures” is that pictures are detailed and context-specific. Thinking in pictures could thus make social abstractions more difficult.

Another important avenue for future research will be to study the potential implications of such a thinking in pictures cognitive style. For example, Höffler et al. demonstrated that high visualizers outperform low visualizers when learning from pictures and that cognitive style influences learning preferences [ 41 ]. Enhanced performances are commonly reported among autistic individuals in tasks in which the information is presented in a visual, structured and simultaneous manner, such as Raven’s Progressive Matrices or the Wechsler Block Design task [ 42 – 44 ]. In autism, the visuo-spatial presentation of structured information is thus likely to support learning. A thinking in pictures cognitive style might also have clinical implications. Mental imagery plays a pivotal role in the onset and maintenance of mental disorders, and higher prevalence rates of mental disorders, such as anxiety, depression or post-traumatic stress disorder, are increasingly documented in the autistic population [ 45 ]. Although the exact nature of a potential link between a visual cognitive style and the onset/maintenance of mental disorders has not been studied yet, Ozsivadjian et al. found that autistic children have a greater propensity towards experiencing anxious imagery when compared to their non-autistic counterparts, even if they were not anxious [ 46 ].

Limitations

Our study has several limitations. First and foremost, the relatively small number of autistic participants included clearly limits the generalization of the results. In the context of an online study, the selection of individuals and diagnosis confirmation are complex issues. We requested details about diagnosis and the diagnostic process (where the diagnosis was given, what diagnostic tools were used, etc.) and excluded participants who did not provide complete information, resulting in a smaller but higher quality sample. A relatively high attrition rate from initiation to survey completion was also observed, which poses the risk of sampling error. In particular, we cannot discard the possibility that the results apply only to a sub-group of individuals who were more inclined to complete the questionnaire because they do actually use visual strategies in daily life. A replication of these results in a larger and more representative sample is needed. Another limitation of our study is the rather high women to men ratio (2 to 3 women for 1 man). A high ratio of women is often reported in studies using online questionnaires [ 47 ]. Of note, the autistic and control groups were matched on gender (thus we have the same ratio in the autistic and control groups) and we did not find a significant gender effect in the use of visual mental representations in either group. Clearly, further studies will be needed to explore potential gender differences in the use of visual strategies in daily life.

Finally, although online questionnaires should allow for a relatively more extensive recruitment, they do not allow for an in-depth investigation of inner experiences as the DES or ESM methods can allow. Nevertheless, online questionnaires foster the participation of a wider variety of autistic individuals, including those less comfortable with face-to-face interviews or who are less willing to take part in research involving labor-intensive procedures such as the DES [ 23 ] or ESM [ 24 ] methods. We argue that these two approaches are complementary and will be important to further explore and characterize the form and phenomenological characteristics of mental representations in autistic individuals in daily life.

In conclusion, this study suggests a greater use of visual mental representations in everyday life situations in autism as a group, a result consistent with a thinking in pictures account. Further investigations will be necessary to replicate the present findings in larger and more representative samples and with different methodologies, as well as to deepen the exploration of phenomenological characteristics, inter-individual variability and functional consequences in everyday life.

Supporting information

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0255039.s001

S1 Appendix.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0255039.s002

S2 Appendix.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0255039.s003

S3 Appendix.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0255039.s004

Acknowledgments

We thank the participants for their time and commitment and the anonymous reviewers for their comments.

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