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Understanding the Case Study Method in Sociology

In the field of sociology, researchers employ various methods to study and understand social phenomena. One such method is the case study. A case study is an in-depth investigation of a particular individual, group, or event, aiming to provide a comprehensive understanding of the subject matter. In this article, we will outline and explain the case study method in sociology and its significance in social research.

Defining the Case Study Method

The case study method involves the detailed examination of a single case or a small number of cases. It is a qualitative research method that focuses on understanding the complexities and intricacies of a particular social phenomenon. Researchers using the case study method collect and analyze a wide range of data, including interviews, observations, documents, and artifacts, to gain a holistic understanding of the case under investigation.

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Case studies can be conducted in various social contexts, such as educational institutions, communities, organizations, or even entire societies. The subjects of study can be individuals, groups, or events that are considered representative or unique in some way.

Purposes of Case Studies in Sociology

Case studies serve several purposes in sociological research:

1. Exploratory Purposes

Case studies can be used to explore new or emerging social phenomena that have not been extensively studied before. By conducting in-depth investigations, researchers can generate new insights and theories about the subject matter.

2. Descriptive Purposes

Case studies can provide rich and detailed descriptions of specific social situations or events. They allow researchers to capture the complexity and uniqueness of a case, providing a comprehensive account of the social dynamics at play.

3. Explanatory Purposes

Case studies can help researchers understand the underlying causes and mechanisms behind social phenomena. By analyzing various aspects of a case, researchers can identify patterns, relationships, and factors that contribute to the observed outcomes.

4. Theory Testing and Development

Case studies can be used to test existing sociological theories or develop new ones. By examining a specific case in light of theoretical frameworks, researchers can evaluate the applicability and validity of these theories.

Steps Involved in Conducting a Case Study

The process of conducting a case study in sociology typically involves the following steps:

1. Selecting a Case

Researchers must carefully choose a case that is relevant to their research question and aligns with their research objectives. The case should provide sufficient depth and complexity to explore the desired aspects of the social phenomenon under investigation.

2. Collecting Data

Data collection in case studies involves a combination of methods, including interviews, observations, and document analysis. Researchers may conduct interviews with key individuals involved in the case, observe the case in its natural setting, and analyze relevant documents and artifacts.

3. Analyzing Data

Once the data is collected, researchers analyze it to identify patterns, themes, and relationships. They may use various analytical frameworks, such as content analysis or thematic analysis, to make sense of the data and draw meaningful conclusions.

4. Drawing Conclusions

Based on the analysis of the data, researchers draw conclusions about the case under investigation. These conclusions should be supported by evidence and contribute to the existing body of sociological knowledge.

5. Generalizing Findings

While case studies focus on specific cases, researchers may attempt to generalize their findings to broader contexts or populations. However, it is important to note that generalizability in case studies is limited, and findings are often context-specific.

Advantages and Limitations of Case Studies

Case studies offer several advantages in sociological research:

• They provide rich and detailed insights into complex social phenomena.
• They allow researchers to explore new or unique cases.
• They facilitate theory testing and development.
• They offer a holistic and in-depth understanding of the subject matter.

However, case studies also have limitations:

• They are time-consuming and resource-intensive.
• They may suffer from researcher bias or subjectivity.
• Their findings may lack generalizability to broader populations.
• They do not provide causal explanations but rather focus on descriptive and explanatory aspects.

The case study method is a valuable tool in sociology for exploring, describing, explaining, and testing social phenomena. By conducting in-depth investigations of specific cases, researchers can gain a comprehensive understanding of the complexities and dynamics of the social world. While case studies have their limitations, they offer unique insights that contribute to the broader field of sociological knowledge.

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Now imagine that your neighbour, on their birthday, cuts into a large apple pie instead of a cake. Everyone on your street gets cakes on their birthday except this one neighbour. This intrigues you and you start researching this unusual tradition. Why not a birthday cake? Is there some cultural or historical significance behind celebrating with a pie? If so, why is it an apple pie? Would having a cherry pie, for example, hold the same meaning?

The point of this (seemingly random) scenario is to understand why researchers may choose to use case studies in their research. To give you a good understanding of case studies, we will be looking at:

• In this explanation, we will explore the definition of case study research
• Next, we'll go over a description of how case studies are used
• After this, we'll explore the methodology of case studies
• Then, we'll take a look at some examples of case studies
• Finally, we'll take a look at the advantages and disadvantages of the case study method in sociology

Definition of case study research

Case studies are a research method sometimes used by sociologists. Research that takes the form of a case study can also be called a case study design. Let's examine the definition of a case study.

• Case studies are in-depth investigations focused on an individual person, group, community, organisation, situation, or event.

Description of case studies

Case studies are used in a wide range of academic research areas. For instance, they can be used to study the intricacies of a particular medical phenomenon or to investigate a certain historical event.

In social research, such as in sociology , case studies are a good way to investigate social phenomena or to understand how certain processes and groups within society operate.

A researcher could study the details of a serial killer's deviance (focusing on one individual) or explore the integration of asylum seekers and refugees in a particular neighbourhood (focusing on a specific group of people).

Let's consider some common features or characteristics of case studies.

Methodology of case studies

Case studies can use methodological pluralism (using a wide range of research methods) to achieve triangulation (cross-checking of data to increase validity).

Due to the use of methodological pluralism, case studies can produce both quantitative and qualitative data.

Case studies can sometimes also be longitudinal studies (researchers studying the data at regular intervals over a long period of time).

The sample of the case study (the person, group, event, etc that is being studied) is often chosen because they are unique or exceptional in some way, and researchers want to learn more. For instance, researchers may choose to study a group of 15 delinquent children in a certain school because they deviate from behavioural norms.

Data found from case studies can be used to formulate new social theories or to test the validity of existing theories.

Check out Longitudinal Studies for more information.

Because case studies have a narrow focus , they are not used to make wider claims about populations. However, although the focus is narrow, the scope of the project can be very extensive, e.g. if a researcher is studying a person's social development throughout childhood and adolescence.

Using case studies with other research methods

Case studies can be used to follow up on a survey to provide more depth to the investigation. A case study can also precede a survey to establish whether a phenomenon merits further research.

Methodological pluralism in case studies

Researchers can use methodological pluralism in case studies to obtain a wide range of data using a wide range of research methods. Although the research methods used vary from case to case, they may include the following:

Questionnaires

Observations

Examining videos and photos

Studying documents such as historical records or letters

Examples of case studies

Case studies are relevant not only to sociology but to many different fields, including history, politics, economics, law, and the media . Some well-known examples of case studies include research on:

A community

Karen O'Reilly's (2000) and Michaela Benson's (2011) research of expatriate Briton communities in Costa del Sol, Spain. They examined groups of British people in Spain, who were notorious for being drunkards.

Researchers dove behind the stereotypes of British expatriates in Costa del Sol and studied their everyday experiences. They also studied expats' reasons for migrating to Spain and found complex accounts of expatriate life through interviews .

Stephen Ball's (1981) study into underperforming working-class students at Beachside Comprehensive examined in detail why working-class students were not performing well in school. Ball carried out participant observation at the school for three years. Upon observing two groups of students, he found there was some differentiation between students, which harmed working-class students' education.

An organisation

Simon Holdaway's (1982, 1983) study of police service, w hilst serving as a sergeant. Holdaway carried out a covert ethnographic study of police work in the London Metropolitan Police Service.

The study is considered ground-breaking. Holdaway is referred to by some sociologists as a police research pioneer.

Graham Allison's (1971) study of the Cuban Missile Crisis. He wrote the ' Essence of Decision: Explaining the Cuban Missile Crisis ', analysing the historical events of 1962.

It was used as a case study to study governmental and political decision-making in further detail. The book is well-known in the study of international relations.

Advantages and disadvantages of case study method in sociology

Gauging the suitability of a case study for a research project depends on several considerations.

Advantages of case studies

Interpretivist sociologists favour case studies because they generate detailed, qualitative data and bring in-depth insights to the investigation.

Case studies that use methodological pluralism are highly valid as they have achieved triangulation.

Researchers can gather both qualitative and quantitative data.

It is comparably cheaper to study a small sample compared to researching a large sample.

Disadvantages of case studies

Case studies are criticised by positivists for small and unrepresentative sample sizes, meaning that findings cannot be generalised to the wider population.

Positivists also state case studies are difficult to replicate because of the unique circumstances of each case study.

Researcher bias and influence may affect the validity of the findings.

It can still be expensive and time-consuming to carry out a case study.

Depending on the nature of the case study, there may be ethical concerns , especially around sensitive information.

Case Studies - Key takeaways

• Case studies can use methodological pluralism to achieve triangulation. Methodological pluralism in case studies can include using questionnaires, interviews, observations, photos, videos, and documents to carry out research.
• Although the focus of case studies is narrow, their scope is extensive.
• The advantages of case studies include in-depth qualitative data, high validity, and cheaper costs.
• The disadvantages of case studies include unrepresentative sample sizes, lack of generalisability and replicability, researcher bias, and cost. They can also be time-consuming and potentially unethical.

Frequently Asked Questions about Case Studies

--> what is a case study.

A case study is an in-depth investigation focused on an individual person, group, community, organisation, situation, or event. 

--> What is the purpose of case study research?

Case studies are used in a wide range of academic research areas. For instance, they can be used to study the intricacies of a particular medical phenomenon or to investigate a certain historical event. 

--> What is case study research?

Case study research is research obtained through the case study design. A case study design is a research method.

--> Why is the case study method used in sociology?

In social research, such as in sociology, case studies are a good way to investigate social phenomena or to understand how certain processes and groups within society operate.

--> How do you write a case study?

To write a case study, one must choose a topic, pick a methodology, choose a sample, conduct the study, analyse their data, and write up their findings.

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Why do case studies use methodological pluralism?

Case studies can only produce qualitative data. True or false?

Case studies have a ____ focus but ____ scope.

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What are case studies?

Case studies are in-depth investigations focused on an individual person, group, community, organisation, situation, or event.  

Research that takes the form of a case study can also be called a _____.

Case study design

What is methodological pluralism?

Methodological pluralism is the use of a wide range of research methods.

To achieve triangulation.

How can data from case studies be used?

Data found from case studies can be used to formulate new social theories of to test the validity of existing theories.

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2.2 Research Methods

Learning objectives.

By the end of this section, you should be able to:

• Recall the 6 Steps of the Scientific Method
• Differentiate between four kinds of research methods: surveys, field research, experiments, and secondary data analysis.
• Explain the appropriateness of specific research approaches for specific topics.

Sociologists examine the social world, see a problem or interesting pattern, and set out to study it. They use research methods to design a study. Planning the research design is a key step in any sociological study. Sociologists generally choose from widely used methods of social investigation: primary source data collection such as survey, participant observation, ethnography, case study, unobtrusive observations, experiment, and secondary data analysis , or use of existing sources. Every research method comes with plusses and minuses, and the topic of study strongly influences which method or methods are put to use. When you are conducting research think about the best way to gather or obtain knowledge about your topic, think of yourself as an architect. An architect needs a blueprint to build a house, as a sociologist your blueprint is your research design including your data collection method.

When entering a particular social environment, a researcher must be careful. There are times to remain anonymous and times to be overt. There are times to conduct interviews and times to simply observe. Some participants need to be thoroughly informed; others should not know they are being observed. A researcher wouldn’t stroll into a crime-ridden neighborhood at midnight, calling out, “Any gang members around?”

Making sociologists’ presence invisible is not always realistic for other reasons. That option is not available to a researcher studying prison behaviors, early education, or the Ku Klux Klan. Researchers can’t just stroll into prisons, kindergarten classrooms, or Klan meetings and unobtrusively observe behaviors or attract attention. In situations like these, other methods are needed. Researchers choose methods that best suit their study topics, protect research participants or subjects, and that fit with their overall approaches to research.

As a research method, a survey collects data from subjects who respond to a series of questions about behaviors and opinions, often in the form of a questionnaire or an interview. The survey is one of the most widely used scientific research methods. The standard survey format allows individuals a level of anonymity in which they can express personal ideas.

At some point, most people in the United States respond to some type of survey. The 2020 U.S. Census is an excellent example of a large-scale survey intended to gather sociological data. Since 1790, United States has conducted a survey consisting of six questions to received demographical data pertaining to residents. The questions pertain to the demographics of the residents who live in the United States. Currently, the Census is received by residents in the United Stated and five territories and consists of 12 questions.

Not all surveys are considered sociological research, however, and many surveys people commonly encounter focus on identifying marketing needs and strategies rather than testing a hypothesis or contributing to social science knowledge. Questions such as, “How many hot dogs do you eat in a month?” or “Were the staff helpful?” are not usually designed as scientific research. The Nielsen Ratings determine the popularity of television programming through scientific market research. However, polls conducted by television programs such as American Idol or So You Think You Can Dance cannot be generalized, because they are administered to an unrepresentative population, a specific show’s audience. You might receive polls through your cell phones or emails, from grocery stores, restaurants, and retail stores. They often provide you incentives for completing the survey.

Sociologists conduct surveys under controlled conditions for specific purposes. Surveys gather different types of information from people. While surveys are not great at capturing the ways people really behave in social situations, they are a great method for discovering how people feel, think, and act—or at least how they say they feel, think, and act. Surveys can track preferences for presidential candidates or reported individual behaviors (such as sleeping, driving, or texting habits) or information such as employment status, income, and education levels.

A survey targets a specific population , people who are the focus of a study, such as college athletes, international students, or teenagers living with type 1 (juvenile-onset) diabetes. Most researchers choose to survey a small sector of the population, or a sample , a manageable number of subjects who represent a larger population. The success of a study depends on how well a population is represented by the sample. In a random sample , every person in a population has the same chance of being chosen for the study. As a result, a Gallup Poll, if conducted as a nationwide random sampling, should be able to provide an accurate estimate of public opinion whether it contacts 2,000 or 10,000 people.

After selecting subjects, the researcher develops a specific plan to ask questions and record responses. It is important to inform subjects of the nature and purpose of the survey up front. If they agree to participate, researchers thank subjects and offer them a chance to see the results of the study if they are interested. The researcher presents the subjects with an instrument, which is a means of gathering the information.

A common instrument is a questionnaire. Subjects often answer a series of closed-ended questions . The researcher might ask yes-or-no or multiple-choice questions, allowing subjects to choose possible responses to each question. This kind of questionnaire collects quantitative data —data in numerical form that can be counted and statistically analyzed. Just count up the number of “yes” and “no” responses or correct answers, and chart them into percentages.

Questionnaires can also ask more complex questions with more complex answers—beyond “yes,” “no,” or checkbox options. These types of inquiries use open-ended questions that require short essay responses. Participants willing to take the time to write those answers might convey personal religious beliefs, political views, goals, or morals. The answers are subjective and vary from person to person. How do you plan to use your college education?

Some topics that investigate internal thought processes are impossible to observe directly and are difficult to discuss honestly in a public forum. People are more likely to share honest answers if they can respond to questions anonymously. This type of personal explanation is qualitative data —conveyed through words. Qualitative information is harder to organize and tabulate. The researcher will end up with a wide range of responses, some of which may be surprising. The benefit of written opinions, though, is the wealth of in-depth material that they provide.

An interview is a one-on-one conversation between the researcher and the subject, and it is a way of conducting surveys on a topic. However, participants are free to respond as they wish, without being limited by predetermined choices. In the back-and-forth conversation of an interview, a researcher can ask for clarification, spend more time on a subtopic, or ask additional questions. In an interview, a subject will ideally feel free to open up and answer questions that are often complex. There are no right or wrong answers. The subject might not even know how to answer the questions honestly.

Questions such as “How does society’s view of alcohol consumption influence your decision whether or not to take your first sip of alcohol?” or “Did you feel that the divorce of your parents would put a social stigma on your family?” involve so many factors that the answers are difficult to categorize. A researcher needs to avoid steering or prompting the subject to respond in a specific way; otherwise, the results will prove to be unreliable. The researcher will also benefit from gaining a subject’s trust, from empathizing or commiserating with a subject, and from listening without judgment.

Surveys often collect both quantitative and qualitative data. For example, a researcher interviewing people who are incarcerated might receive quantitative data, such as demographics – race, age, sex, that can be analyzed statistically. For example, the researcher might discover that 20 percent of incarcerated people are above the age of 50. The researcher might also collect qualitative data, such as why people take advantage of educational opportunities during their sentence and other explanatory information.

The survey can be carried out online, over the phone, by mail, or face-to-face. When researchers collect data outside a laboratory, library, or workplace setting, they are conducting field research, which is our next topic.

Field Research

The work of sociology rarely happens in limited, confined spaces. Rather, sociologists go out into the world. They meet subjects where they live, work, and play. Field research refers to gathering primary data from a natural environment. To conduct field research, the sociologist must be willing to step into new environments and observe, participate, or experience those worlds. In field work, the sociologists, rather than the subjects, are the ones out of their element.

The researcher interacts with or observes people and gathers data along the way. The key point in field research is that it takes place in the subject’s natural environment, whether it’s a coffee shop or tribal village, a homeless shelter or the DMV, a hospital, airport, mall, or beach resort.

While field research often begins in a specific setting , the study’s purpose is to observe specific behaviors in that setting. Field work is optimal for observing how people think and behave. It seeks to understand why they behave that way. However, researchers may struggle to narrow down cause and effect when there are so many variables floating around in a natural environment. And while field research looks for correlation, its small sample size does not allow for establishing a causal relationship between two variables. Indeed, much of the data gathered in sociology do not identify a cause and effect but a correlation .

Sociology in the Real World

Beyoncé and lady gaga as sociological subjects.

Sociologists have studied Lady Gaga and Beyoncé and their impact on music, movies, social media, fan participation, and social equality. In their studies, researchers have used several research methods including secondary analysis, participant observation, and surveys from concert participants.

In their study, Click, Lee & Holiday (2013) interviewed 45 Lady Gaga fans who utilized social media to communicate with the artist. These fans viewed Lady Gaga as a mirror of themselves and a source of inspiration. Like her, they embrace not being a part of mainstream culture. Many of Lady Gaga’s fans are members of the LGBTQ community. They see the “song “Born This Way” as a rallying cry and answer her calls for “Paws Up” with a physical expression of solidarity—outstretched arms and fingers bent and curled to resemble monster claws.”

Sascha Buchanan (2019) made use of participant observation to study the relationship between two fan groups, that of Beyoncé and that of Rihanna. She observed award shows sponsored by iHeartRadio, MTV EMA, and BET that pit one group against another as they competed for Best Fan Army, Biggest Fans, and FANdemonium. Buchanan argues that the media thus sustains a myth of rivalry between the two most commercially successful Black women vocal artists.

Participant Observation

In 2000, a comic writer named Rodney Rothman wanted an insider’s view of white-collar work. He slipped into the sterile, high-rise offices of a New York “dot com” agency. Every day for two weeks, he pretended to work there. His main purpose was simply to see whether anyone would notice him or challenge his presence. No one did. The receptionist greeted him. The employees smiled and said good morning. Rothman was accepted as part of the team. He even went so far as to claim a desk, inform the receptionist of his whereabouts, and attend a meeting. He published an article about his experience in The New Yorker called “My Fake Job” (2000). Later, he was discredited for allegedly fabricating some details of the story and The New Yorker issued an apology. However, Rothman’s entertaining article still offered fascinating descriptions of the inside workings of a “dot com” company and exemplified the lengths to which a writer, or a sociologist, will go to uncover material.

Rothman had conducted a form of study called participant observation , in which researchers join people and participate in a group’s routine activities for the purpose of observing them within that context. This method lets researchers experience a specific aspect of social life. A researcher might go to great lengths to get a firsthand look into a trend, institution, or behavior. A researcher might work as a waitress in a diner, experience homelessness for several weeks, or ride along with police officers as they patrol their regular beat. Often, these researchers try to blend in seamlessly with the population they study, and they may not disclose their true identity or purpose if they feel it would compromise the results of their research.

At the beginning of a field study, researchers might have a question: “What really goes on in the kitchen of the most popular diner on campus?” or “What is it like to be homeless?” Participant observation is a useful method if the researcher wants to explore a certain environment from the inside.

Field researchers simply want to observe and learn. In such a setting, the researcher will be alert and open minded to whatever happens, recording all observations accurately. Soon, as patterns emerge, questions will become more specific, observations will lead to hypotheses, and hypotheses will guide the researcher in analyzing data and generating results.

In a study of small towns in the United States conducted by sociological researchers John S. Lynd and Helen Merrell Lynd, the team altered their purpose as they gathered data. They initially planned to focus their study on the role of religion in U.S. towns. As they gathered observations, they realized that the effect of industrialization and urbanization was the more relevant topic of this social group. The Lynds did not change their methods, but they revised the purpose of their study.

This shaped the structure of Middletown: A Study in Modern American Culture , their published results (Lynd & Lynd, 1929).

The Lynds were upfront about their mission. The townspeople of Muncie, Indiana, knew why the researchers were in their midst. But some sociologists prefer not to alert people to their presence. The main advantage of covert participant observation is that it allows the researcher access to authentic, natural behaviors of a group’s members. The challenge, however, is gaining access to a setting without disrupting the pattern of others’ behavior. Becoming an inside member of a group, organization, or subculture takes time and effort. Researchers must pretend to be something they are not. The process could involve role playing, making contacts, networking, or applying for a job.

Once inside a group, some researchers spend months or even years pretending to be one of the people they are observing. However, as observers, they cannot get too involved. They must keep their purpose in mind and apply the sociological perspective. That way, they illuminate social patterns that are often unrecognized. Because information gathered during participant observation is mostly qualitative, rather than quantitative, the end results are often descriptive or interpretive. The researcher might present findings in an article or book and describe what he or she witnessed and experienced.

This type of research is what journalist Barbara Ehrenreich conducted for her book Nickel and Dimed . One day over lunch with her editor, Ehrenreich mentioned an idea. How can people exist on minimum-wage work? How do low-income workers get by? she wondered. Someone should do a study . To her surprise, her editor responded, Why don’t you do it?

That’s how Ehrenreich found herself joining the ranks of the working class. For several months, she left her comfortable home and lived and worked among people who lacked, for the most part, higher education and marketable job skills. Undercover, she applied for and worked minimum wage jobs as a waitress, a cleaning woman, a nursing home aide, and a retail chain employee. During her participant observation, she used only her income from those jobs to pay for food, clothing, transportation, and shelter.

She discovered the obvious, that it’s almost impossible to get by on minimum wage work. She also experienced and observed attitudes many middle and upper-class people never think about. She witnessed firsthand the treatment of working class employees. She saw the extreme measures people take to make ends meet and to survive. She described fellow employees who held two or three jobs, worked seven days a week, lived in cars, could not pay to treat chronic health conditions, got randomly fired, submitted to drug tests, and moved in and out of homeless shelters. She brought aspects of that life to light, describing difficult working conditions and the poor treatment that low-wage workers suffer.

The book she wrote upon her return to her real life as a well-paid writer, has been widely read and used in many college classrooms.

Ethnography

Ethnography is the immersion of the researcher in the natural setting of an entire social community to observe and experience their everyday life and culture. The heart of an ethnographic study focuses on how subjects view their own social standing and how they understand themselves in relation to a social group.

An ethnographic study might observe, for example, a small U.S. fishing town, an Inuit community, a village in Thailand, a Buddhist monastery, a private boarding school, or an amusement park. These places all have borders. People live, work, study, or vacation within those borders. People are there for a certain reason and therefore behave in certain ways and respect certain cultural norms. An ethnographer would commit to spending a determined amount of time studying every aspect of the chosen place, taking in as much as possible.

A sociologist studying a tribe in the Amazon might watch the way villagers go about their daily lives and then write a paper about it. To observe a spiritual retreat center, an ethnographer might sign up for a retreat and attend as a guest for an extended stay, observe and record data, and collate the material into results.

Institutional Ethnography

Institutional ethnography is an extension of basic ethnographic research principles that focuses intentionally on everyday concrete social relationships. Developed by Canadian sociologist Dorothy E. Smith (1990), institutional ethnography is often considered a feminist-inspired approach to social analysis and primarily considers women’s experiences within male- dominated societies and power structures. Smith’s work is seen to challenge sociology’s exclusion of women, both academically and in the study of women’s lives (Fenstermaker, n.d.).

Historically, social science research tended to objectify women and ignore their experiences except as viewed from the male perspective. Modern feminists note that describing women, and other marginalized groups, as subordinates helps those in authority maintain their own dominant positions (Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada n.d.). Smith’s three major works explored what she called “the conceptual practices of power” and are still considered seminal works in feminist theory and ethnography (Fensternmaker n.d.).

Sociological Research

The making of middletown: a study in modern u.s. culture.

In 1924, a young married couple named Robert and Helen Lynd undertook an unprecedented ethnography: to apply sociological methods to the study of one U.S. city in order to discover what “ordinary” people in the United States did and believed. Choosing Muncie, Indiana (population about 30,000) as their subject, they moved to the small town and lived there for eighteen months.

Ethnographers had been examining other cultures for decades—groups considered minorities or outsiders—like gangs, immigrants, and the poor. But no one had studied the so-called average American.

Recording interviews and using surveys to gather data, the Lynds objectively described what they observed. Researching existing sources, they compared Muncie in 1890 to the Muncie they observed in 1924. Most Muncie adults, they found, had grown up on farms but now lived in homes inside the city. As a result, the Lynds focused their study on the impact of industrialization and urbanization.

They observed that Muncie was divided into business and working class groups. They defined business class as dealing with abstract concepts and symbols, while working class people used tools to create concrete objects. The two classes led different lives with different goals and hopes. However, the Lynds observed, mass production offered both classes the same amenities. Like wealthy families, the working class was now able to own radios, cars, washing machines, telephones, vacuum cleaners, and refrigerators. This was an emerging material reality of the 1920s.

As the Lynds worked, they divided their manuscript into six chapters: Getting a Living, Making a Home, Training the Young, Using Leisure, Engaging in Religious Practices, and Engaging in Community Activities.

When the study was completed, the Lynds encountered a big problem. The Rockefeller Foundation, which had commissioned the book, claimed it was useless and refused to publish it. The Lynds asked if they could seek a publisher themselves.

Middletown: A Study in Modern American Culture was not only published in 1929 but also became an instant bestseller, a status unheard of for a sociological study. The book sold out six printings in its first year of publication, and has never gone out of print (Caplow, Hicks, & Wattenberg. 2000).

Nothing like it had ever been done before. Middletown was reviewed on the front page of the New York Times. Readers in the 1920s and 1930s identified with the citizens of Muncie, Indiana, but they were equally fascinated by the sociological methods and the use of scientific data to define ordinary people in the United States. The book was proof that social data was important—and interesting—to the U.S. public.

Sometimes a researcher wants to study one specific person or event. A case study is an in-depth analysis of a single event, situation, or individual. To conduct a case study, a researcher examines existing sources like documents and archival records, conducts interviews, engages in direct observation and even participant observation, if possible.

Researchers might use this method to study a single case of a foster child, drug lord, cancer patient, criminal, or rape victim. However, a major criticism of the case study as a method is that while offering depth on a topic, it does not provide enough evidence to form a generalized conclusion. In other words, it is difficult to make universal claims based on just one person, since one person does not verify a pattern. This is why most sociologists do not use case studies as a primary research method.

However, case studies are useful when the single case is unique. In these instances, a single case study can contribute tremendous insight. For example, a feral child, also called “wild child,” is one who grows up isolated from human beings. Feral children grow up without social contact and language, which are elements crucial to a “civilized” child’s development. These children mimic the behaviors and movements of animals, and often invent their own language. There are only about one hundred cases of “feral children” in the world.

As you may imagine, a feral child is a subject of great interest to researchers. Feral children provide unique information about child development because they have grown up outside of the parameters of “normal” growth and nurturing. And since there are very few feral children, the case study is the most appropriate method for researchers to use in studying the subject.

At age three, a Ukranian girl named Oxana Malaya suffered severe parental neglect. She lived in a shed with dogs, and she ate raw meat and scraps. Five years later, a neighbor called authorities and reported seeing a girl who ran on all fours, barking. Officials brought Oxana into society, where she was cared for and taught some human behaviors, but she never became fully socialized. She has been designated as unable to support herself and now lives in a mental institution (Grice 2011). Case studies like this offer a way for sociologists to collect data that may not be obtained by any other method.

Experiments

You have probably tested some of your own personal social theories. “If I study at night and review in the morning, I’ll improve my retention skills.” Or, “If I stop drinking soda, I’ll feel better.” Cause and effect. If this, then that. When you test the theory, your results either prove or disprove your hypothesis.

One way researchers test social theories is by conducting an experiment , meaning they investigate relationships to test a hypothesis—a scientific approach.

There are two main types of experiments: lab-based experiments and natural or field experiments. In a lab setting, the research can be controlled so that more data can be recorded in a limited amount of time. In a natural or field- based experiment, the time it takes to gather the data cannot be controlled but the information might be considered more accurate since it was collected without interference or intervention by the researcher.

As a research method, either type of sociological experiment is useful for testing if-then statements: if a particular thing happens (cause), then another particular thing will result (effect). To set up a lab-based experiment, sociologists create artificial situations that allow them to manipulate variables.

Classically, the sociologist selects a set of people with similar characteristics, such as age, class, race, or education. Those people are divided into two groups. One is the experimental group and the other is the control group. The experimental group is exposed to the independent variable(s) and the control group is not. To test the benefits of tutoring, for example, the sociologist might provide tutoring to the experimental group of students but not to the control group. Then both groups would be tested for differences in performance to see if tutoring had an effect on the experimental group of students. As you can imagine, in a case like this, the researcher would not want to jeopardize the accomplishments of either group of students, so the setting would be somewhat artificial. The test would not be for a grade reflected on their permanent record of a student, for example.

And if a researcher told the students they would be observed as part of a study on measuring the effectiveness of tutoring, the students might not behave naturally. This is called the Hawthorne effect —which occurs when people change their behavior because they know they are being watched as part of a study. The Hawthorne effect is unavoidable in some research studies because sociologists have to make the purpose of the study known. Subjects must be aware that they are being observed, and a certain amount of artificiality may result (Sonnenfeld 1985).

A real-life example will help illustrate the process. In 1971, Frances Heussenstamm, a sociology professor at California State University at Los Angeles, had a theory about police prejudice. To test her theory, she conducted research. She chose fifteen students from three ethnic backgrounds: Black, White, and Hispanic. She chose students who routinely drove to and from campus along Los Angeles freeway routes, and who had had perfect driving records for longer than a year.

Next, she placed a Black Panther bumper sticker on each car. That sticker, a representation of a social value, was the independent variable. In the 1970s, the Black Panthers were a revolutionary group actively fighting racism. Heussenstamm asked the students to follow their normal driving patterns. She wanted to see whether seeming support for the Black Panthers would change how these good drivers were treated by the police patrolling the highways. The dependent variable would be the number of traffic stops/citations.

The first arrest, for an incorrect lane change, was made two hours after the experiment began. One participant was pulled over three times in three days. He quit the study. After seventeen days, the fifteen drivers had collected a total of thirty-three traffic citations. The research was halted. The funding to pay traffic fines had run out, and so had the enthusiasm of the participants (Heussenstamm, 1971).

Secondary Data Analysis

While sociologists often engage in original research studies, they also contribute knowledge to the discipline through secondary data analysis . Secondary data does not result from firsthand research collected from primary sources, but are the already completed work of other researchers or data collected by an agency or organization. Sociologists might study works written by historians, economists, teachers, or early sociologists. They might search through periodicals, newspapers, or magazines, or organizational data from any period in history.

Using available information not only saves time and money but can also add depth to a study. Sociologists often interpret findings in a new way, a way that was not part of an author’s original purpose or intention. To study how women were encouraged to act and behave in the 1960s, for example, a researcher might watch movies, televisions shows, and situation comedies from that period. Or to research changes in behavior and attitudes due to the emergence of television in the late 1950s and early 1960s, a sociologist would rely on new interpretations of secondary data. Decades from now, researchers will most likely conduct similar studies on the advent of mobile phones, the Internet, or social media.

Social scientists also learn by analyzing the research of a variety of agencies. Governmental departments and global groups, like the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics or the World Health Organization (WHO), publish studies with findings that are useful to sociologists. A public statistic like the foreclosure rate might be useful for studying the effects of a recession. A racial demographic profile might be compared with data on education funding to examine the resources accessible by different groups.

One of the advantages of secondary data like old movies or WHO statistics is that it is nonreactive research (or unobtrusive research), meaning that it does not involve direct contact with subjects and will not alter or influence people’s behaviors. Unlike studies requiring direct contact with people, using previously published data does not require entering a population and the investment and risks inherent in that research process.

Using available data does have its challenges. Public records are not always easy to access. A researcher will need to do some legwork to track them down and gain access to records. To guide the search through a vast library of materials and avoid wasting time reading unrelated sources, sociologists employ content analysis , applying a systematic approach to record and value information gleaned from secondary data as they relate to the study at hand.

Also, in some cases, there is no way to verify the accuracy of existing data. It is easy to count how many drunk drivers, for example, are pulled over by the police. But how many are not? While it’s possible to discover the percentage of teenage students who drop out of high school, it might be more challenging to determine the number who return to school or get their GED later.

Another problem arises when data are unavailable in the exact form needed or do not survey the topic from the precise angle the researcher seeks. For example, the average salaries paid to professors at a public school is public record. But these figures do not necessarily reveal how long it took each professor to reach the salary range, what their educational backgrounds are, or how long they’ve been teaching.

When conducting content analysis, it is important to consider the date of publication of an existing source and to take into account attitudes and common cultural ideals that may have influenced the research. For example, when Robert S. Lynd and Helen Merrell Lynd gathered research in the 1920s, attitudes and cultural norms were vastly different then than they are now. Beliefs about gender roles, race, education, and work have changed significantly since then. At the time, the study’s purpose was to reveal insights about small U.S. communities. Today, it is an illustration of 1920s attitudes and values.

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Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Assignments

• Annotated Bibliography
• Analyzing a Scholarly Journal Article
• Group Presentations
• Dealing with Nervousness
• Using Visual Aids
• Grading Someone Else's Paper
• Types of Structured Group Activities
• Group Project Survival Skills
• Leading a Class Discussion
• Multiple Book Review Essay
• Reviewing Collected Works
• Writing a Case Analysis Paper
• Writing a Case Study
• About Informed Consent
• Writing Field Notes
• Writing a Policy Memo
• Writing a Reflective Paper
• Writing a Research Proposal
• Generative AI and Writing
• Acknowledgments

A case study research paper examines a person, place, event, condition, phenomenon, or other type of subject of analysis in order to extrapolate  key themes and results that help predict future trends, illuminate previously hidden issues that can be applied to practice, and/or provide a means for understanding an important research problem with greater clarity. A case study research paper usually examines a single subject of analysis, but case study papers can also be designed as a comparative investigation that shows relationships between two or more subjects. The methods used to study a case can rest within a quantitative, qualitative, or mixed-method investigative paradigm.

Case Studies. Writing@CSU. Colorado State University; Mills, Albert J. , Gabrielle Durepos, and Eiden Wiebe, editors. Encyclopedia of Case Study Research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010 ; “What is a Case Study?” In Swanborn, Peter G. Case Study Research: What, Why and How? London: SAGE, 2010.

How to Approach Writing a Case Study Research Paper

General information about how to choose a topic to investigate can be found under the " Choosing a Research Problem " tab in the Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper writing guide. Review this page because it may help you identify a subject of analysis that can be investigated using a case study design.

However, identifying a case to investigate involves more than choosing the research problem . A case study encompasses a problem contextualized around the application of in-depth analysis, interpretation, and discussion, often resulting in specific recommendations for action or for improving existing conditions. As Seawright and Gerring note, practical considerations such as time and access to information can influence case selection, but these issues should not be the sole factors used in describing the methodological justification for identifying a particular case to study. Given this, selecting a case includes considering the following:

• The case represents an unusual or atypical example of a research problem that requires more in-depth analysis? Cases often represent a topic that rests on the fringes of prior investigations because the case may provide new ways of understanding the research problem. For example, if the research problem is to identify strategies to improve policies that support girl's access to secondary education in predominantly Muslim nations, you could consider using Azerbaijan as a case study rather than selecting a more obvious nation in the Middle East. Doing so may reveal important new insights into recommending how governments in other predominantly Muslim nations can formulate policies that support improved access to education for girls.
• The case provides important insight or illuminate a previously hidden problem? In-depth analysis of a case can be based on the hypothesis that the case study will reveal trends or issues that have not been exposed in prior research or will reveal new and important implications for practice. For example, anecdotal evidence may suggest drug use among homeless veterans is related to their patterns of travel throughout the day. Assuming prior studies have not looked at individual travel choices as a way to study access to illicit drug use, a case study that observes a homeless veteran could reveal how issues of personal mobility choices facilitate regular access to illicit drugs. Note that it is important to conduct a thorough literature review to ensure that your assumption about the need to reveal new insights or previously hidden problems is valid and evidence-based.
• The case challenges and offers a counter-point to prevailing assumptions? Over time, research on any given topic can fall into a trap of developing assumptions based on outdated studies that are still applied to new or changing conditions or the idea that something should simply be accepted as "common sense," even though the issue has not been thoroughly tested in current practice. A case study analysis may offer an opportunity to gather evidence that challenges prevailing assumptions about a research problem and provide a new set of recommendations applied to practice that have not been tested previously. For example, perhaps there has been a long practice among scholars to apply a particular theory in explaining the relationship between two subjects of analysis. Your case could challenge this assumption by applying an innovative theoretical framework [perhaps borrowed from another discipline] to explore whether this approach offers new ways of understanding the research problem. Taking a contrarian stance is one of the most important ways that new knowledge and understanding develops from existing literature.
• The case provides an opportunity to pursue action leading to the resolution of a problem? Another way to think about choosing a case to study is to consider how the results from investigating a particular case may result in findings that reveal ways in which to resolve an existing or emerging problem. For example, studying the case of an unforeseen incident, such as a fatal accident at a railroad crossing, can reveal hidden issues that could be applied to preventative measures that contribute to reducing the chance of accidents in the future. In this example, a case study investigating the accident could lead to a better understanding of where to strategically locate additional signals at other railroad crossings so as to better warn drivers of an approaching train, particularly when visibility is hindered by heavy rain, fog, or at night.
• The case offers a new direction in future research? A case study can be used as a tool for an exploratory investigation that highlights the need for further research about the problem. A case can be used when there are few studies that help predict an outcome or that establish a clear understanding about how best to proceed in addressing a problem. For example, after conducting a thorough literature review [very important!], you discover that little research exists showing the ways in which women contribute to promoting water conservation in rural communities of east central Africa. A case study of how women contribute to saving water in a rural village of Uganda can lay the foundation for understanding the need for more thorough research that documents how women in their roles as cooks and family caregivers think about water as a valuable resource within their community. This example of a case study could also point to the need for scholars to build new theoretical frameworks around the topic [e.g., applying feminist theories of work and family to the issue of water conservation].

Eisenhardt, Kathleen M. “Building Theories from Case Study Research.” Academy of Management Review 14 (October 1989): 532-550; Emmel, Nick. Sampling and Choosing Cases in Qualitative Research: A Realist Approach . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2013; Gerring, John. “What Is a Case Study and What Is It Good for?” American Political Science Review 98 (May 2004): 341-354; Mills, Albert J. , Gabrielle Durepos, and Eiden Wiebe, editors. Encyclopedia of Case Study Research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010; Seawright, Jason and John Gerring. "Case Selection Techniques in Case Study Research." Political Research Quarterly 61 (June 2008): 294-308.

Structure and Writing Style

The purpose of a paper in the social sciences designed around a case study is to thoroughly investigate a subject of analysis in order to reveal a new understanding about the research problem and, in so doing, contributing new knowledge to what is already known from previous studies. In applied social sciences disciplines [e.g., education, social work, public administration, etc.], case studies may also be used to reveal best practices, highlight key programs, or investigate interesting aspects of professional work.

In general, the structure of a case study research paper is not all that different from a standard college-level research paper. However, there are subtle differences you should be aware of. Here are the key elements to organizing and writing a case study research paper.

I.  Introduction

As with any research paper, your introduction should serve as a roadmap for your readers to ascertain the scope and purpose of your study . The introduction to a case study research paper, however, should not only describe the research problem and its significance, but you should also succinctly describe why the case is being used and how it relates to addressing the problem. The two elements should be linked. With this in mind, a good introduction answers these four questions:

• What is being studied? Describe the research problem and describe the subject of analysis [the case] you have chosen to address the problem. Explain how they are linked and what elements of the case will help to expand knowledge and understanding about the problem.
• Why is this topic important to investigate? Describe the significance of the research problem and state why a case study design and the subject of analysis that the paper is designed around is appropriate in addressing the problem.
• What did we know about this topic before I did this study? Provide background that helps lead the reader into the more in-depth literature review to follow. If applicable, summarize prior case study research applied to the research problem and why it fails to adequately address the problem. Describe why your case will be useful. If no prior case studies have been used to address the research problem, explain why you have selected this subject of analysis.
• How will this study advance new knowledge or new ways of understanding? Explain why your case study will be suitable in helping to expand knowledge and understanding about the research problem.

Each of these questions should be addressed in no more than a few paragraphs. Exceptions to this can be when you are addressing a complex research problem or subject of analysis that requires more in-depth background information.

II.  Literature Review

The literature review for a case study research paper is generally structured the same as it is for any college-level research paper. The difference, however, is that the literature review is focused on providing background information and  enabling historical interpretation of the subject of analysis in relation to the research problem the case is intended to address . This includes synthesizing studies that help to:

• Place relevant works in the context of their contribution to understanding the case study being investigated . This would involve summarizing studies that have used a similar subject of analysis to investigate the research problem. If there is literature using the same or a very similar case to study, you need to explain why duplicating past research is important [e.g., conditions have changed; prior studies were conducted long ago, etc.].
• Describe the relationship each work has to the others under consideration that informs the reader why this case is applicable . Your literature review should include a description of any works that support using the case to investigate the research problem and the underlying research questions.
• Identify new ways to interpret prior research using the case study . If applicable, review any research that has examined the research problem using a different research design. Explain how your use of a case study design may reveal new knowledge or a new perspective or that can redirect research in an important new direction.
• Resolve conflicts amongst seemingly contradictory previous studies . This refers to synthesizing any literature that points to unresolved issues of concern about the research problem and describing how the subject of analysis that forms the case study can help resolve these existing contradictions.
• Point the way in fulfilling a need for additional research . Your review should examine any literature that lays a foundation for understanding why your case study design and the subject of analysis around which you have designed your study may reveal a new way of approaching the research problem or offer a perspective that points to the need for additional research.
• Expose any gaps that exist in the literature that the case study could help to fill . Summarize any literature that not only shows how your subject of analysis contributes to understanding the research problem, but how your case contributes to a new way of understanding the problem that prior research has failed to do.
• Locate your own research within the context of existing literature [very important!] . Collectively, your literature review should always place your case study within the larger domain of prior research about the problem. The overarching purpose of reviewing pertinent literature in a case study paper is to demonstrate that you have thoroughly identified and synthesized prior studies in relation to explaining the relevance of the case in addressing the research problem.

III.  Method

In this section, you explain why you selected a particular case [i.e., subject of analysis] and the strategy you used to identify and ultimately decide that your case was appropriate in addressing the research problem. The way you describe the methods used varies depending on the type of subject of analysis that constitutes your case study.

If your subject of analysis is an incident or event . In the social and behavioral sciences, the event or incident that represents the case to be studied is usually bounded by time and place, with a clear beginning and end and with an identifiable location or position relative to its surroundings. The subject of analysis can be a rare or critical event or it can focus on a typical or regular event. The purpose of studying a rare event is to illuminate new ways of thinking about the broader research problem or to test a hypothesis. Critical incident case studies must describe the method by which you identified the event and explain the process by which you determined the validity of this case to inform broader perspectives about the research problem or to reveal new findings. However, the event does not have to be a rare or uniquely significant to support new thinking about the research problem or to challenge an existing hypothesis. For example, Walo, Bull, and Breen conducted a case study to identify and evaluate the direct and indirect economic benefits and costs of a local sports event in the City of Lismore, New South Wales, Australia. The purpose of their study was to provide new insights from measuring the impact of a typical local sports event that prior studies could not measure well because they focused on large "mega-events." Whether the event is rare or not, the methods section should include an explanation of the following characteristics of the event: a) when did it take place; b) what were the underlying circumstances leading to the event; and, c) what were the consequences of the event in relation to the research problem.

If your subject of analysis is a person. Explain why you selected this particular individual to be studied and describe what experiences they have had that provide an opportunity to advance new understandings about the research problem. Mention any background about this person which might help the reader understand the significance of their experiences that make them worthy of study. This includes describing the relationships this person has had with other people, institutions, and/or events that support using them as the subject for a case study research paper. It is particularly important to differentiate the person as the subject of analysis from others and to succinctly explain how the person relates to examining the research problem [e.g., why is one politician in a particular local election used to show an increase in voter turnout from any other candidate running in the election]. Note that these issues apply to a specific group of people used as a case study unit of analysis [e.g., a classroom of students].

If your subject of analysis is a place. In general, a case study that investigates a place suggests a subject of analysis that is unique or special in some way and that this uniqueness can be used to build new understanding or knowledge about the research problem. A case study of a place must not only describe its various attributes relevant to the research problem [e.g., physical, social, historical, cultural, economic, political], but you must state the method by which you determined that this place will illuminate new understandings about the research problem. It is also important to articulate why a particular place as the case for study is being used if similar places also exist [i.e., if you are studying patterns of homeless encampments of veterans in open spaces, explain why you are studying Echo Park in Los Angeles rather than Griffith Park?]. If applicable, describe what type of human activity involving this place makes it a good choice to study [e.g., prior research suggests Echo Park has more homeless veterans].

If your subject of analysis is a phenomenon. A phenomenon refers to a fact, occurrence, or circumstance that can be studied or observed but with the cause or explanation to be in question. In this sense, a phenomenon that forms your subject of analysis can encompass anything that can be observed or presumed to exist but is not fully understood. In the social and behavioral sciences, the case usually focuses on human interaction within a complex physical, social, economic, cultural, or political system. For example, the phenomenon could be the observation that many vehicles used by ISIS fighters are small trucks with English language advertisements on them. The research problem could be that ISIS fighters are difficult to combat because they are highly mobile. The research questions could be how and by what means are these vehicles used by ISIS being supplied to the militants and how might supply lines to these vehicles be cut off? How might knowing the suppliers of these trucks reveal larger networks of collaborators and financial support? A case study of a phenomenon most often encompasses an in-depth analysis of a cause and effect that is grounded in an interactive relationship between people and their environment in some way.

NOTE:   The choice of the case or set of cases to study cannot appear random. Evidence that supports the method by which you identified and chose your subject of analysis should clearly support investigation of the research problem and linked to key findings from your literature review. Be sure to cite any studies that helped you determine that the case you chose was appropriate for examining the problem.

IV.  Discussion

The main elements of your discussion section are generally the same as any research paper, but centered around interpreting and drawing conclusions about the key findings from your analysis of the case study. Note that a general social sciences research paper may contain a separate section to report findings. However, in a paper designed around a case study, it is common to combine a description of the results with the discussion about their implications. The objectives of your discussion section should include the following:

Reiterate the Research Problem/State the Major Findings Briefly reiterate the research problem you are investigating and explain why the subject of analysis around which you designed the case study were used. You should then describe the findings revealed from your study of the case using direct, declarative, and succinct proclamation of the study results. Highlight any findings that were unexpected or especially profound.

Explain the Meaning of the Findings and Why They are Important Systematically explain the meaning of your case study findings and why you believe they are important. Begin this part of the section by repeating what you consider to be your most important or surprising finding first, then systematically review each finding. Be sure to thoroughly extrapolate what your analysis of the case can tell the reader about situations or conditions beyond the actual case that was studied while, at the same time, being careful not to misconstrue or conflate a finding that undermines the external validity of your conclusions.

Relate the Findings to Similar Studies No study in the social sciences is so novel or possesses such a restricted focus that it has absolutely no relation to previously published research. The discussion section should relate your case study results to those found in other studies, particularly if questions raised from prior studies served as the motivation for choosing your subject of analysis. This is important because comparing and contrasting the findings of other studies helps support the overall importance of your results and it highlights how and in what ways your case study design and the subject of analysis differs from prior research about the topic.

Consider Alternative Explanations of the Findings Remember that the purpose of social science research is to discover and not to prove. When writing the discussion section, you should carefully consider all possible explanations revealed by the case study results, rather than just those that fit your hypothesis or prior assumptions and biases. Be alert to what the in-depth analysis of the case may reveal about the research problem, including offering a contrarian perspective to what scholars have stated in prior research if that is how the findings can be interpreted from your case.

Acknowledge the Study's Limitations You can state the study's limitations in the conclusion section of your paper but describing the limitations of your subject of analysis in the discussion section provides an opportunity to identify the limitations and explain why they are not significant. This part of the discussion section should also note any unanswered questions or issues your case study could not address. More detailed information about how to document any limitations to your research can be found here .

Suggest Areas for Further Research Although your case study may offer important insights about the research problem, there are likely additional questions related to the problem that remain unanswered or findings that unexpectedly revealed themselves as a result of your in-depth analysis of the case. Be sure that the recommendations for further research are linked to the research problem and that you explain why your recommendations are valid in other contexts and based on the original assumptions of your study.

V.  Conclusion

As with any research paper, you should summarize your conclusion in clear, simple language; emphasize how the findings from your case study differs from or supports prior research and why. Do not simply reiterate the discussion section. Provide a synthesis of key findings presented in the paper to show how these converge to address the research problem. If you haven't already done so in the discussion section, be sure to document the limitations of your case study and any need for further research.

The function of your paper's conclusion is to: 1) reiterate the main argument supported by the findings from your case study; 2) state clearly the context, background, and necessity of pursuing the research problem using a case study design in relation to an issue, controversy, or a gap found from reviewing the literature; and, 3) provide a place to persuasively and succinctly restate the significance of your research problem, given that the reader has now been presented with in-depth information about the topic.

Consider the following points to help ensure your conclusion is appropriate:

• If the argument or purpose of your paper is complex, you may need to summarize these points for your reader.
• If prior to your conclusion, you have not yet explained the significance of your findings or if you are proceeding inductively, use the conclusion of your paper to describe your main points and explain their significance.
• Move from a detailed to a general level of consideration of the case study's findings that returns the topic to the context provided by the introduction or within a new context that emerges from your case study findings.

Note that, depending on the discipline you are writing in or the preferences of your professor, the concluding paragraph may contain your final reflections on the evidence presented as it applies to practice or on the essay's central research problem. However, the nature of being introspective about the subject of analysis you have investigated will depend on whether you are explicitly asked to express your observations in this way.

Problems to Avoid

Overgeneralization One of the goals of a case study is to lay a foundation for understanding broader trends and issues applied to similar circumstances. However, be careful when drawing conclusions from your case study. They must be evidence-based and grounded in the results of the study; otherwise, it is merely speculation. Looking at a prior example, it would be incorrect to state that a factor in improving girls access to education in Azerbaijan and the policy implications this may have for improving access in other Muslim nations is due to girls access to social media if there is no documentary evidence from your case study to indicate this. There may be anecdotal evidence that retention rates were better for girls who were engaged with social media, but this observation would only point to the need for further research and would not be a definitive finding if this was not a part of your original research agenda.

Failure to Document Limitations No case is going to reveal all that needs to be understood about a research problem. Therefore, just as you have to clearly state the limitations of a general research study , you must describe the specific limitations inherent in the subject of analysis. For example, the case of studying how women conceptualize the need for water conservation in a village in Uganda could have limited application in other cultural contexts or in areas where fresh water from rivers or lakes is plentiful and, therefore, conservation is understood more in terms of managing access rather than preserving access to a scarce resource.

Failure to Extrapolate All Possible Implications Just as you don't want to over-generalize from your case study findings, you also have to be thorough in the consideration of all possible outcomes or recommendations derived from your findings. If you do not, your reader may question the validity of your analysis, particularly if you failed to document an obvious outcome from your case study research. For example, in the case of studying the accident at the railroad crossing to evaluate where and what types of warning signals should be located, you failed to take into consideration speed limit signage as well as warning signals. When designing your case study, be sure you have thoroughly addressed all aspects of the problem and do not leave gaps in your analysis that leave the reader questioning the results.

Case Studies. Writing@CSU. Colorado State University; Gerring, John. Case Study Research: Principles and Practices . New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007; Merriam, Sharan B. Qualitative Research and Case Study Applications in Education . Rev. ed. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 1998; Miller, Lisa L. “The Use of Case Studies in Law and Social Science Research.” Annual Review of Law and Social Science 14 (2018): TBD; Mills, Albert J., Gabrielle Durepos, and Eiden Wiebe, editors. Encyclopedia of Case Study Research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010; Putney, LeAnn Grogan. "Case Study." In Encyclopedia of Research Design , Neil J. Salkind, editor. (Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010), pp. 116-120; Simons, Helen. Case Study Research in Practice . London: SAGE Publications, 2009;  Kratochwill,  Thomas R. and Joel R. Levin, editors. Single-Case Research Design and Analysis: New Development for Psychology and Education .  Hilldsale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1992; Swanborn, Peter G. Case Study Research: What, Why and How? London : SAGE, 2010; Yin, Robert K. Case Study Research: Design and Methods . 6th edition. Los Angeles, CA, SAGE Publications, 2014; Walo, Maree, Adrian Bull, and Helen Breen. “Achieving Economic Benefits at Local Events: A Case Study of a Local Sports Event.” Festival Management and Event Tourism 4 (1996): 95-106.

Writing Tip

At Least Five Misconceptions about Case Study Research

Social science case studies are often perceived as limited in their ability to create new knowledge because they are not randomly selected and findings cannot be generalized to larger populations. Flyvbjerg examines five misunderstandings about case study research and systematically "corrects" each one. To quote, these are:

Misunderstanding 1 :  General, theoretical [context-independent] knowledge is more valuable than concrete, practical [context-dependent] knowledge. Misunderstanding 2 :  One cannot generalize on the basis of an individual case; therefore, the case study cannot contribute to scientific development. Misunderstanding 3 :  The case study is most useful for generating hypotheses; that is, in the first stage of a total research process, whereas other methods are more suitable for hypotheses testing and theory building. Misunderstanding 4 :  The case study contains a bias toward verification, that is, a tendency to confirm the researcher’s preconceived notions. Misunderstanding 5 :  It is often difficult to summarize and develop general propositions and theories on the basis of specific case studies [p. 221].

While writing your paper, think introspectively about how you addressed these misconceptions because to do so can help you strengthen the validity and reliability of your research by clarifying issues of case selection, the testing and challenging of existing assumptions, the interpretation of key findings, and the summation of case outcomes. Think of a case study research paper as a complete, in-depth narrative about the specific properties and key characteristics of your subject of analysis applied to the research problem.

Flyvbjerg, Bent. “Five Misunderstandings About Case-Study Research.” Qualitative Inquiry 12 (April 2006): 219-245.

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Exploring Real-life Contexts: Types and Applications of Case Studies

Table of Contents

Have you ever wondered how researchers uncover the intricate details of real-world phenomena? They often use a powerful tool called the case study . This method is like a high-resolution camera, zooming in on a subject to capture its essence in vivid detail. Case studies allow researchers to explore, explain, or describe a subject within its real-life context, revealing insights that might otherwise be lost in broader surveys or experiments. But not all case studies are created equal. They come in different types, each with a unique focus and purpose. Let’s dive into the world of case studies and discover how they help us understand complex issues one case at a time.

What is a case study?

At its core, a case study is an in-depth investigation of a single person, group, event, or community. It’s a research strategy that unpacks the dynamics of a case within its natural environment, often employing multiple sources of evidence. Case studies are particularly useful when the boundaries between the phenomenon being studied and its context are not clearly evident. They can offer a rich understanding of a subject, providing a nuanced perspective that quantitative methods may not capture.

Types of case studies

Case studies are not a one-size-fits-all approach. Depending on the research question and objectives, a case study can be classified into three main types: exploratory, explanatory, and descriptive. Each serves a distinct purpose, and choosing the right type is critical for achieving the research goals.

Exploratory case studies

Setting the stage for further research: Exploratory case studies are like the scouts of the research world. They are conducted when a researcher has identified a potential area of study but needs more information before developing a detailed research plan. These case studies help to identify questions, select measurement constructs, and develop hypotheses.

• When to use: Ideal in the early stages of a research project.
• Methods: Typically involves a flexible research design that can adapt as understanding deepens.
• Examples: A preliminary study of a start-up’s organizational culture or an initial look at a community affected by a new policy.

Explanatory case studies

Unraveling complexities: Explanatory case studies dig deeper into the causes and effects within a case. They are instrumental when a situation is too complex to be understood through a simple cause-and-effect analysis, and they typically address ‘how’ and ‘why’ questions.

• When to use: Suitable for clarifying complex interventions or processes.
• Methods: May employ longitudinal studies to observe outcomes over time.
• Examples: Investigating the success factors of a long-standing social program or analyzing the failure of a major construction project.

Descriptive case studies

Painting a detailed picture: Descriptive case studies are aptly named for their focus on describing the characteristics of a case within its context. These studies follow a structured protocol to ensure comprehensive coverage of all relevant aspects of the case.

• When to use: Ideal for providing a complete, systematic description of a phenomenon.
• Methods: Involves a detailed and in-depth approach, often with predefined data collection methods.
• Examples: A detailed account of a company’s approach to corporate social responsibility or the stages of development in a community-led conservation effort.

Conducting a case study

Embarking on a case study research project is not a decision to be taken lightly. It requires a systematic approach and a clear understanding of the research question. Here are the typical steps a researcher would follow:

Define and select the case

The first step is to identify and define the case that will be studied. This could be based on a unique characteristic, a representative quality, or a particular relevance to the research question. Once the case is selected, the researcher needs to explain why this case is important and what it can reveal about the larger issue.

Develop a theoretical framework

Next, a theoretical framework helps to guide the research. This involves reviewing the literature, identifying relevant theories, and formulating hypotheses or questions that the case study will address. This framework provides a lens through which the data will be interpreted.

Collect data

Data collection is a critical phase in case study research. Researchers may use interviews, observations, documents, and other sources to gather a full picture of the case. The data should be collected systematically and ethically, with a clear record of all sources and methods.

Analyze and interpret data

Once the data is collected, the researcher must organize, sift through, and make sense of it. This involves identifying patterns, crafting narratives, and drawing conclusions. The researcher must remain open to where the data leads, avoiding preconceived notions or biases.

Report findings

The final step is to communicate the findings to a broader audience. This involves crafting a narrative that is compelling and accessible, with clear explanations of how the data led to the conclusions. Visual aids, such as charts or diagrams, can help illustrate complex ideas.

Applications in various fields

Case studies are versatile and can be applied across numerous disciplines. In business, they can shed light on management practices or corporate strategies. In education, they can illustrate pedagogical approaches. In social sciences, they can offer insights into societal issues. And in health sciences, they can help understand patient experiences or treatment outcomes.

Challenges and considerations

While case studies are a valuable research method, they come with their own set of challenges. The depth of analysis required can be time-consuming and resource-intensive. Additionally, the findings from a single case may not be generalizable to other cases. Researchers must be careful to acknowledge these limitations and avoid overgeneralizations.

Case studies are a window into the complexities of real-life situations. They offer a depth of understanding that is invaluable for researchers across various fields. By selecting the appropriate type of case study and following a rigorous methodology, researchers can uncover the nuances and richness of any phenomenon they choose to explore.

What do you think? How might the insights gained from a well-conducted case study influence decisions in your field of interest? Can you think of a situation where a case study would be the ideal research approach?

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Research Methodologies & Methods

1 Logic of Inquiry in Social Research

• A Science of Society
• Comte’s Ideas on the Nature of Sociology
• Observation in Social Sciences
• Logical Understanding of Social Reality

2 Empirical Approach

• Empirical Approach
• Rules of Data Collection
• Cultural Relativism
• Problems Encountered in Data Collection
• Difference between Common Sense and Science
• What is Ethical?
• What is Normal?
• Understanding the Data Collected
• Managing Diversities in Social Research
• Problematising the Object of Study
• Conclusion: Return to Good Old Empirical Approach

3 Diverse Logic of Theory Building

• Concern with Theory in Sociology
• Concepts: Basic Elements of Theories
• Why Do We Need Theory?
• Hypothesis Description and Experimentation
• Controlled Experiment
• Designing an Experiment
• How to Test a Hypothesis
• Sensitivity to Alternative Explanations
• Rival Hypothesis Construction
• The Use and Scope of Social Science Theory
• Theory Building and Researcher’s Values

4 Theoretical Analysis

• Premises of Evolutionary and Functional Theories
• Critique of Evolutionary and Functional Theories
• Turning away from Functionalism
• What after Functionalism
• Post-modernism
• Trends other than Post-modernism

5 Issues of Epistemology

• Some Major Concerns of Epistemology
• Rationalism
• Phenomenology: Bracketing Experience

6 Philosophy of Social Science

• Foundations of Science
• Science, Modernity, and Sociology
• Rethinking Science
• Crisis in Foundation

7 Positivism and its Critique

• Heroic Science and Origin of Positivism
• Early Positivism
• Consolidation of Positivism
• Critiques of Positivism

8 Hermeneutics

• Methodological Disputes in the Social Sciences
• Tracing the History of Hermeneutics
• Hermeneutics and Sociology
• Philosophical Hermeneutics
• The Hermeneutics of Suspicion
• Phenomenology and Hermeneutics

9 Comparative Method

• Relationship with Common Sense; Interrogating Ideological Location
• The Historical Context
• Elements of the Comparative Approach

10 Feminist Approach

• Features of the Feminist Method
• Feminist Methods adopt the Reflexive Stance
• Feminist Discourse in India

11 Participatory Method

• Delineation of Key Features

12 Types of Research

• Basic and Applied Research
• Descriptive and Analytical Research
• Empirical and Exploratory Research
• Quantitative and Qualitative Research
• Explanatory (Causal) and Longitudinal Research
• Experimental and Evaluative Research
• Participatory Action Research

13 Methods of Research

• Evolutionary Method
• Comparative Method
• Historical Method
• Personal Documents

14 Elements of Research Design

• Structuring the Research Process

15 Sampling Methods and Estimation of Sample Size

• Classification of Sampling Methods
• Sample Size

16 Measures of Central Tendency

• Relationship between Mean, Mode, and Median
• Choosing a Measure of Central Tendency

17 Measures of Dispersion and Variability

• The Variance
• The Standard Deviation
• Coefficient of Variation

18 Statistical Inference- Tests of Hypothesis

• Statistical Inference
• Tests of Significance

19 Correlation and Regression

• Correlation
• Method of Calculating Correlation of Ungrouped Data
• Method Of Calculating Correlation Of Grouped Data

20 Survey Method

• Rationale of Survey Research Method
• History of Survey Research
• Defining Survey Research
• Sampling and Survey Techniques
• Operationalising Survey Research Tools
• Advantages and Weaknesses of Survey Research

21 Survey Design

• Preliminary Considerations
• Stages / Phases in Survey Research
• Formulation of Research Question
• Survey Research Designs
• Sampling Design

22 Survey Instrumentation

• Techniques/Instruments for Data Collection
• Questionnaire Construction
• Issues in Designing a Survey Instrument

23 Survey Execution and Data Analysis

• Problems and Issues in Executing Survey Research
• Data Analysis
• Ethical Issues in Survey Research

24 Field Research – I

• History of Field Research
• Ethnography
• Theme Selection
• Gaining Entry in the Field
• Key Informants
• Participant Observation

25 Field Research – II

• Interview its Types and Process
• Feminist and Postmodernist Perspectives on Interviewing
• Narrative Analysis
• Interpretation
• Case Study and its Types
• Life Histories
• Oral History
• PRA and RRA Techniques

26 Reliability, Validity and Triangulation

• Concepts of Reliability and Validity
• Three Types of “Reliability”
• Working Towards Reliability
• Procedural Validity
• Field Research as a Validity Check
• Method Appropriate Criteria
• Triangulation
• Ethical Considerations in Qualitative Research

27 Qualitative Data Formatting and Processing

• Qualitative Data Processing and Analysis
• Description
• Classification
• Making Connections
• Theoretical Coding
• Qualitative Content Analysis

28 Writing up Qualitative Data

• Problems of Writing Up
• Grasp and Then Render
• “Writing Down” and “Writing Up”
• Write Early
• Writing Styles
• First Draft

29 Using Internet and Word Processor

• What is Internet and How Does it Work?
• Internet Services
• Searching on the Web: Search Engines
• Accessing and Using Online Information
• Online Journals and Texts
• Statistical Reference Sites
• Data Sources
• Uses of E-mail Services in Research

30 Using SPSS for Data Analysis Contents

• Introduction
• Starting and Exiting SPSS
• Creating a Data File
• Univariate Analysis
• Bivariate Analysis

31 Using SPSS in Report Writing

• Why to Use SPSS
• Working with SPSS Output
• Copying SPSS Output to MS Word Document

32 Tabulation and Graphic Presentation- Case Studies

• Structure for Presentation of Research Findings
• Data Presentation: Editing, Coding, and Transcribing
• Case Studies
• Qualitative Data Analysis and Presentation through Software
• Types of ICT used for Research

33 Guidelines to Research Project Assignment

• Overview of Research Methodologies and Methods (MSO 002)
• Research Project Objectives
• Preparation for Research Project
• Stages of the Research Project
• Supervision During the Research Project
• Submission of Research Project
• Methodology for Evaluating Research Project

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Case Study

A case study is where sociologists investigate in great detail a particular individual or group, as opposed to trying to gather a representative sample from the target population. Normally a case study will feature methodological pluralism (using a range of research methods to achieve triangulation ) and they are often longitudinal studies (the researcher regularly revisiting the case over a long period of time).

Advantages of case studies include the ability to gather qualitative and quantitative data and the comparative lack of expense compared with attempting the same research with a large sample.

Disadvantages would be the inability to ensure the reliability of the data and the extent to which it could be generalisable.

An example of a Case Study is Paul Willis’ ‘Learning to Labour’ which involved an in-depth study of a group of male students from a school in Wolverhampton. Another is Heelas and Woodhead’s case study of spirituality in Kendal (the Kendal Project).

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Study Notes

Research Methods: Questionnaires

Research design: choice of research method, research methods - "card drop" activity.

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Case Studies

Case studies and life histories.

Both case studies and life histories are favoured by interpretivist researchers and tend to yield qualitative data.

Case studies & life histories

• For example, Willis’s study of specific counter-school sub-cultures tried to explore using interviews at schools why children from certain social backgrounds got certain types of jobs.
• Life histories are specific kind of case study that looks at the overall life of one individual or small group, often using in-depth unstructured interviews supported by personal documents, such as diaries and letters.

• They can be useful to test wider theories, such as working class boys’ attitudes towards education.
• They can be useful for generating new hypotheses or testing in further research or as an adjunct to other types of research.

Advantages cont.

• They provide more valid in-depth detail and understanding from the point of view of the individual or group than can be obtained by positivist methods such as surveys and questionnaires.

Disadvantages

• They are not representative of the larger population, so findings cannot be generalised.
• They may not be valid; life histories, for example, view the past from the standpoint of the present and facts might be misremembered.

1 Theory & Methods

1.1 Sociological Theories

1.1.1 Marxism

1.1.2 Feminism

1.1.3 Social Action Theories

1.2 Sociological Methods

1.2.1 Types of Data

1.2.2 Positivism & Interpretivism

1.2.3 Research Design

1.2.4 Research Considerations

1.2.5 Values in Research

1.2.6 Modernity & Post-Modernity

1.2.7 Sociology as a Science

1.2.8 Sociology & Social Policy

1.2.9 End of Topic Test - Sociology Methods & Theories

1.3 Sources of Data

1.3.1 Introduction

1.3.2 Experiments

1.3.3 Surveys

1.3.4 Longitudinal Studies

1.3.5 Questionnaires

1.3.6 Types of Questionnaires

1.3.7 Interviews

1.3.8 Observation

1.3.9 Case Studies

1.3.10 Documents

1.3.11 Official Statistics

1.3.12 End of Topic Test - Sources of Data

2 Education with Methods in Context

2.1 Role & Function of the Education System

2.1.1 Introduction

2.1.2 Functionalist Theories

2.1.3 Marxist & Feminist Theories

2.1.4 The New Right

2.2 Educational Achievement

2.2.1 Social Class: Internal Factors

2.2.2 Social Class: External Factors

2.2.3 Social Class: Attitudes to Education

2.2.4 Social Class: Difference in Achievement

2.2.5 Gender

2.2.6 Ethnicity

2.3 Relationships & Processes Within Schools

2.3.1 Processes

2.3.2 Labelling

2.3.3 Categorisations

2.3.4 Student Experience

2.3.5 End of Topic Test -Education with Methods

2.4 Educational Policies

2.4.1 Equality

2.4.2 Privatisation

2.4.3 Marketisation

2.4.4 Government Policies by Party

2.4.5 Globalisation

2.4.6 End of Topic Test- Educational Policies

2.4.7 Practice Exam Question - Social Policies

3 Option 1: Culture & Identity

3.1 Conceptions of Culture

3.1.1 Culture

3.1.2 Mass Culture

3.1.3 Popular Culture

3.1.4 Global Culture

3.1.5 End of Topic Test - Culture and Identity

3.2 Identity & Socialisation

3.2.1 Identities

3.2.2 Socialisation

3.2.3 Secondary Socialisation

3.2.4 Theories of Socialisation

3.2.5 End of Topic Test - Identity

3.2.6 Practice Exam Question - Socialisation & Equality

3.3 Social Identity

3.3.1 Social Class

3.3.2 Upper & Middle Class

3.3.3 Working & Underclass

3.3.4 Social Class Evaluation

3.3.5 Gender

3.3.6 Changing Gender Identities

3.3.7 Ethnicity

3.3.9 Disability

3.3.10 Nationality

3.3.11 End of Topic Test - Social Identity

3.4 Production, Consumption & Globalisation

3.4.1 Production & Consumption

3.4.2 Globalisation

3.4.3 Evaluation

3.4.4 End of Topic Test - Production

4 Option 1: Families & Households

4.1 Families & Households

4.1.1 Definitions

4.1.2 Functionalist & New Right Perspectives

4.1.3 Marxist & Feminist Perspectives

4.1.4 Postmodernist Perspective

4.1.5 End of Topic Test - Families & Households

4.1.6 Practice Exam Question - Function of Family

4.2 Changing Patterns

4.2.1 Marriage

4.2.2 Divorce

4.2.3 LAT Relationships

4.2.4 Child-Bearing

4.2.5 Lone Parenthood

4.2.6 Diversity

4.2.7 The Sociology of Personal Life

4.2.8 Government Policies Post-WW2

4.2.9 End of Topic Test - Changing Patterns

4.3 The Symmetrical Family

4.3.1 The Symmetrical Family

4.3.2 Evaluation

4.4 Children & Childhood

4.4.1 Childhood

4.4.2 Childhood in the UK

4.4.3 Childhood as a Social Construct

4.4.4 The Disappearance of Childhood

4.4.5 Child Abuse

4.4.6 Domestic Violence

4.4.7 End of Topic Test - Family & Childhood

4.5 Demographic Trends UK

4.5.1 Introduction

4.5.2 Birth Rates

4.5.3 Death Rates

4.5.4 The Ageing Population

4.5.5 Studies on the Ageing Population

4.5.6 Migration

4.5.7 Globalisation

4.5.8 End of Topic Test - Demographics UK

5 Option 1: Health

5.1 Social Constructions

5.1.1 The Body

5.1.2 Health, Illness & Disease

5.1.3 Disability

5.1.4 Models of Health & Illness

5.1.5 End of Topic Test - Social Constructions

5.2 Social Distribution of Healthcare

5.2.1 Social Class

5.2.2 Gender

5.2.3 Ethnicity

5.2.4 Regional

5.3 Provision & Access to Healthcare

5.3.1 The NHS

5.3.2 Inequalities in Provision

5.3.3 Sociological Explanations

5.3.4 Inequalities in Access

5.3.5 Inequalities in Access 2

5.3.6 End of Topic Test - Distribution Health

5.4 Mental Health

5.4.1 The Biomedical Approach

5.4.2 Social Patterns

5.4.3 Social Constructionist Approach

5.5 The Globalised Health Industry

5.5.1 The Functionalist Approach

5.5.2 The Postmodernist Approach

5.5.3 The Globalised Health Industry

5.5.4 End of Topic Test - Mental Health & Globalisation

6 Option 1: Work, Poverty & Welfare

6.1 Poverty & Wealth

6.1.1 Types of Poverty

6.1.2 Types of Poverty 2

6.1.3 Distribution of Wealth UK

6.1.4 Sociological Theories

6.1.5 Sociological Theories 2

6.1.6 Distribution of Poverty UK

6.1.7 End of Topic Test - Poverty & Wealth

6.2 Welfare

6.2.1 The Welfare State

6.2.2 Theoretical Approaches to Welfare

6.3 Labour Process

6.3.1 Nature of Work

6.3.2 Technology & Control

6.3.3 Work & Life

6.3.4 The Effects of Globalisation

6.3.5 Globalisation & Worklessness

6.3.6 End of Topic Test - Welfare & Labour

7 Option 2: Beliefs in Society

7.1 Ideology, Science & Religion

7.1.1 Types of Religion

7.1.2 Ideology & Belief Systems

7.1.3 Social Stability & Religion

7.1.4 Social Change & Religion

7.1.5 End of Topic Test - Ideology, Science & Religion

7.2 Religious Movements

7.2.1 Religious Organisations

7.2.2 New Religious Movements

7.2.3 New Age Movements

7.2.4 Practice Exam Question - Growth of NRMs

7.3 Society & Religion

7.3.1 Social Groups & Religion

7.3.2 Gender & Religion

7.3.3 End of Topic Test- Religious Movements & Society

7.4 Contemporary Religion

7.4.1 Secularisation UK

7.4.2 Against Secularisation

7.4.3 Secularisation US

7.4.4 Fundamentalism

7.4.5 Economic Development & Religion

7.4.6 End of Topic - Contemporary Religion

8 Option 2: Global Development

8.1 Development, Underdevelopment & Global Inequality

8.1.1 Development

8.1.2 Underdevelopment & Global Inequality

8.2 Globalisation & Global Organisations

8.2.1 Globalisation

8.2.2 Transnational Corporations & International Agency

8.2.3 Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs)

8.3 Aid, Trade, Industrialisation, Urbanisation

8.3.1 Development: Aid & Trade

8.3.2 Development: Industrialisation & Urbanisation

8.3.3 Development: Environment & War

9 Option 2: The Media

9.1 Contemporary Media

9.1.1 New Media

9.1.2 Control of the Media

9.1.3 Sociological Approaches: New Media

9.1.4 Globalisation

9.1.5 News Selection

9.1.6 Moral Panics

9.1.7 End of Topic Test - Contemporary Media

9.2 Media Representations

9.2.2 Social Class & Ethnicity

9.2.3 Gender

9.2.4 Sexuality & Disability

9.2.5 Practice Exam Questions - Presentation of Women

9.3 Audiences

9.3.1 Media Theories

9.3.2 Media Theories 2

9.3.3 Media Representations & Audiences

10 Crime & Deviance

10.1 Crime & Society

10.1.1 Functionalism

10.1.2 Subcultural Theory

10.1.3 Marxism

10.1.4 Realism

10.1.5 Other Approaches

10.1.6 End of Topic Test - Crime & Society

10.1.7 Practice Exam Questions - Social Construction

10.2 Social Distribution of Crime

10.2.1 Ethnicity

10.2.2 Gender

10.2.3 Globalisation & Crime

10.2.4 Media & Crime

10.2.5 Types of Crimes

10.2.6 End of Topic Test - Social Distribution of Crime

10.3 Prevention & Punishment

10.3.1 Surveillance

10.3.2 Prevention

10.3.3 Punishment

10.3.4 Victimology

10.3.5 End of Topic Test - Prevention & Punishment

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Observation

Open Education Sociology Dictionary

Table of Contents

Definition of Case Study

( noun ) A detailed and in-depth study of a single case , involving an event,  group , individual, or organization .

Examples of Case Study

• An in-depth research project of male allies that try to prevent violence against women completed through interviews and surveys .
• Street Corner Society: The Social Structure of an Italian Slum (1943) by William Foote Whyte (1914–2000)
• Streetwise: Race, Class, and Change in an Urban Community (1990) by Elijah Anderson (born 1943)

Case Study Pronunciation

Pronunciation Usage Guide

Syllabification : case stud·y

Audio Pronunciation

Phonetic Spelling

• American English – /kAYs stUHd-ee/
• British English – /kAYs stUHd-ee/

International Phonetic Alphabet

• American English – /keɪs ˈstʌdi/
• British English – /keɪs ˈstʌdi/

Usage Notes

• Plural: case studies
• The term refers to both the subject and  method of study .
• Case studies are often based on ethnographic research and conducted through participant observation , instead of aggregate  data such as a sample of a population .
• Variant spelling: case-study
• Also called case report .

Additional Information

• Qualitative Research Resources – Books, Journals, and Helpful Links
• Quantitative Research Resources – Books, Journals, and Helpful Links
• Word origin of “case” and “study” – Online Etymology Dictionary: etymonline.com
• Feagin, Joe R., Anthony M. Orum, and Gideon Sjoberg, eds. 1991. A Case for the Case Study . Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press.
• Gerring, John. 2009. Case Study Research: Principles and Practices . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Thomas, Gary. 2011. How to Do Your Case Study: A Guide for Students and Researchers . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.

Related Terms

• cohort study
• generalizability
• longitudinal study
• qualitative research
• quantitative research
• reliability
• symbolic interactionism

Works Consulted

Bilton, Tony, Kevin Bonnett, Pip Jones, David Skinner, Michelle Stanworth, and Andrew Webster. 1996. Introductory Sociology . 3rd ed. London: Macmillan.

Crooks, Robert, and Karla Baur. 2014. Our Sexuality . 12th ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning.

Ferrante, Joan. 2011. Seeing Sociology: An Introduction . Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

Griffiths, Heather, Nathan Keirns, Eric Strayer, Susan Cody-Rydzewski, Gail Scaramuzzo, Tommy Sadler, Sally Vyain, Jeff Bry, Faye Jones. 2016. Introduction to Sociology 2e . Houston, TX: OpenStax.

Henslin, James M. 2012. Sociology: A Down-to-Earth Approach . 10th ed. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

Marsh, Ian, and Mike Keating, eds. 2006.  Sociology: Making Sense of Society . 3rd ed. Harlow, England: Pearson Education.

Oxford University Press. (N.d.) Oxford Dictionaries . ( https://www.oxforddictionaries.com/ ).

Shepard, Jon M. 2010. Sociology . 11th ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

Shepard, Jon M., and Robert W. Greene. 2003.  Sociology and You . New York: Glencoe.

Thompson, William E., and Joseph V. Hickey. 2012. Society in Focus: An Introduction to Sociology . 7th ed. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

Wikipedia contributors. (N.d.) Wiktionary, The Free Dictionary . Wikimedia Foundation. ( http://en.wiktionary.org ).

Cite the Definition of Case Study

ASA – American Sociological Association (5th edition)

Bell, Kenton, ed. 2013. “case study.” In Open Education Sociology Dictionary . Retrieved May 15, 2024 ( https://sociologydictionary.org/case-study/ ).

APA – American Psychological Association (6th edition)

case study. (2013). In K. Bell (Ed.), Open education sociology dictionary . Retrieved from https://sociologydictionary.org/case-study/

Chicago/Turabian: Author-Date – Chicago Manual of Style (16th edition)

Bell, Kenton, ed. 2013. “case study.” In Open Education Sociology Dictionary . Accessed May 15, 2024. https://sociologydictionary.org/case-study/ .

MLA – Modern Language Association (7th edition)

“case study.” Open Education Sociology Dictionary . Ed. Kenton Bell. 2013. Web. 15 May. 2024. < https://sociologydictionary.org/case-study/ >.

ReviseSociology

A level sociology revision – education, families, research methods, crime and deviance and more!

Seven Examples of Field Experiments for Sociology

Details of the Hawthorne experiment, Rosenthal and Jacobsens’ self-fulfilling prophecy experiment, and the Stanford experiment, and some more contemporary popular examples up to 2014.

Table of Contents

Last Updated on June 12, 2023 by Karl Thompson

Field experiments aren’t the most widely used research method in Sociology, but the examiners seem to love asking questions about them – below are seven examples of this research method.

Looked at collectively, the results of the field experiments below reveal punishingly depressing findings about human action –  they suggest that people are racist, sexist, shallow, passive, and prepared to commit violence when ordered to do so by authority figures.

The experiments are outlined in the form of a timeline, with the most recent first providing contemporary examples of field experiments, and those towards the end the more classic examples I’m sure everyone’s has heard of (Rosenthal and Jacobsen for example).

2014 – The Domestic Abuse in the Lift Experiment

A Swedish social experiment recently showed only one person of 53 reacting to what seemed like a scene of domestic abuse in a lift.

Researchers set up a hidden camera in a lift while members of the group played an abusive boyfriend and his victim. The male actors swore at the women and physically assaulted them while members of the public were in the lift

Most of the lift’s passengers ignored the abuse, while only one out of 53 people intervened in an attempt to stop it.

The experiment was organised by   STHLM Panda , which describes itself as “doing social experiments, joking with people and documenting the society we live in”.

2010 – The Ethnicity/ Gender and Bike Theft Experiment

In this experiment two young male actors, dressed in a similar manner, one white the other black take it in turns to act out stealing a bike which is chained to a post in a public park. The two actors (one after the other) spend an hour hacksawing/ bolt-cuttering their way through the bike lock (acting this out several times over) as about 100 people walk by in each case.

The findings – when the white actor acts out the bike-theft, only 1/100 step in and take immediate action. Several people actually casually ask ‘is that your bike’, but just laugh it off when the actor tells them it isn’t.

When the black actor acts out the same thing, within seconds, a crowd of people has gathered to stop him, with many whipping out their mobiles to phone the police. When the experiment is reset, the same thing happens again.

Towards the end of the film, a third actor steps in – an attractive young, blonde female – people actually help her to steal the bike!

This experiment seems to have quite good reliability – there are some examples of similar experiments which get similar results…

The ‘Social Misfits’ experiment where a white guy then a black guy act out a car theft on a public road – the white guy lasts 30 mins and ‘no one cares’, but not so with the black-guy.

2009 – The Ethnicity and Job Application Experiment

Researchers sent nearly 3,000 job applications under false identities in an attempt to discover if employers were discriminating against jobseekers with foreign names.

They found that an applicant who appeared to be white would send 9 applications before receiving a positive response of either an invitation to an interview or an encouraging telephone call. Minority candidates with the same qualifications and experience had to send 16 applications before receiving a similar response .

Researchers from the National Centre for Social Research , commissioned by the Department for Work and Pension (DWP), sent three different applications for 987 actual vacancies between November 2008 and May 2009. Using names recognisably from three different communities – Nazia Mahmood, Mariam Namagembe and Alison Taylor – false identities were created with similar experience and qualifications. Every false applicant had British education and work histories.  Nine occupations were chosen, ranging from highly qualified positions such as accountants and IT technicians to less well-paid positions such as care workers and sales assistants.  

All the job vacancies were in the private, public and voluntary sectors and were based in Birmingham, Bradford, Bristol, Glasgow, Leeds, London and Manchester. The report concludes that there was no plausible explanation for the difference in treatment found between white British and ethnic minority applicants other than racial discrimination .

It also found that public sector employers were less likely to have discriminated on the grounds of race than those in the private sector (a handy argument against privatisation and neoliberalism here, at least if you’re not racist!)

2008 – The £5 Note Theft and Social Disorder Experiment

In this (slightly bizarre sounding) experiment an envelope containing a £5 note was left poking out a letterbox, in such a way that the £5 note was easily visible. The researchers did this first of all with a tidy garden, and later on (similar time of day) with litter in the garden – on the first occasion 13% of people took the envelope, on the second, the percentage doubled to 25% – suggesting that signs of physical disorder such as littering encourage deviant behaviour.

The experiment was actually a bit more complex – for the full details see the Keizer et al source below – this was also actually one of six experiments designed to test out Wilson and Kelling’s 1996 ‘broken windows theory’.

1971 – The Stanford Prison Experiment

In which college students take on the role of either prison guards or prisoners and spend time in an artificial prison. The Stanford Prison Experiment was meant to last 14 days, it had to be stopped after just six because the ‘guards’ became abusive and the ‘prisoners’ began to show signs of extreme stress and

In 1971, psychologist Philip Zimbardo and his colleagues set out to create an experiment that looked at the impact of becoming a prisoner or prison guard. The researchers set up a mock prison in the basement of Standford University’s psychology building, and then selected 24 undergraduate students to play the roles of both prisoners and guards.

The simulated prison included three six by nine foot prison cells. Each cell held three prisoners and included three cots. Other rooms across from the cells were utilized for the prison guards and warden. One very small space was designated as the solitary confinement room, and yet another small room served as the prison yard.

The 24 volunteers were then randomly assigned to either the prisoner group or the guard group. Prisoners were to remain in the mock prison 24-hours a day for the duration of the study. Guards, on the other hand, were assigned to work in three-man teams for eight-hour shifts. After each shift, guards were allowed to return to their homes until their next shift. Researchers were able to observe the behavior of the prisoners and guards using hidden cameras and microphones.

While the prisoners and guards were allowed to interact in any way they wanted, the interactions were generally hostile or even dehumanizing. The guards began to behave in ways that were aggressive and abusive toward the prisoners, while the prisoners became passive and depressed. Five of the prisoners began to experience such severe negative emotions, including crying and acute anxiety, that they had to be released from the study early.

The Stanford Prison Experiment demonstrates the powerful role that the situation can play in human behaviour. Because the guards were placed in a position of power, they began to behave in ways they would not normally act in their everyday lives or in other situations. The prisoners, placed in a situation where they had no real control, became passive and depressed.

1968 – Rosenthal and Jacobson’s ‘Self-Fulfilling Prophecy’ Experiment

The aim of this research was to isolate and measure the effect of high teacher expectation on the educational performance of pupils.

Rosenthal and Jacobson carried out their research in a California primary school they called ‘Oak School’. Pupils were given an IQ test and on the basis of this R and J informed teachers that 20% of the pupils were likely ‘spurt’ academically in the next year. In reality, however, the 20% were randomly selected.

All of the pupils were re-tested 8 months later and he spurters had gained 12 IQ points compared to an average of 8.

Rosenthal and Jacobsen concluded that higher teacher expectations were responsible for this difference in achievement, providing supporting evidence for labelling theory and the ‘self-fulfilling prophecy’.

1924-32 The Hawthorne Factory Experiments

The Hawthorne Electricity Factory Works  in Chicago commissioned a study to see if their workers would become more productive in response to various changes in their working environment – such as lighting levels, cleanliness of the factory and relocating work stations.

The workers’ productivity seemed to improve with any changes made, and slumped when the study ended. It was suggested that the productivity gain occurred because the workers were more motivated due to the increased interest being shown in them during the experiments.

The study gave rise to the term ‘The Hawthorne Effect’ which refers to any short-term changes in behaviour which result from participants knowing they are taking part in an experiment (rather than changes in behaviour being a result of changes to independent variables).

NB – As the video outlines, this study was huge – really more than just a ‘field experiment’ it involved the workers being interviewed about their feelings about work. 

Related Posts 

Field Experiments in Sociology  – covers the strengths and limitations of the method

An Introduction to Experiments – covering key terms related to experiments, such as hypotheses, and dependent and independent variables.

Field Experiments are an important research method within sociology.

Swedish social experiment shows people ignoring domestic abuse in a lift – The Guardian

Double standard bike thief experiment highlights racism – The Root

Undercover job hunters reveal huge race bias in Britain’s workplaces – The Guardian

Keizer et al – The Spreading of Disorder – Science Express Report

The Stanford Prison Experiment – The official web site of the experiment (possibly the only experiment that’s also a celebrity?!)

The Pygmalion Effect (details of Rosenthal and Jacobson’s study) – Wikipedia

The Hawthorne Effect – Wikipedia

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6 thoughts on “Seven Examples of Field Experiments for Sociology”

Many are but there is overlap between psychology and sociology, there are so few within sociology we have to draw on our sister subject!

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A-Level Sociology: Exam Techniques and Case Studies

Sociology at the A Level is an exciting and intellectually stimulating subject that delves into the study of human society, its structures, behaviors, and the factors that shape them. The A Level Sociology exam is the culmination of your study, and it's essential to be well-prepared with effective exam techniques and case studies to excel. In this article, we'll explore strategies to succeed in your A-level sociology exams and provide some case study examples to bolster your understanding.

Exam Techniques for A-Level Sociology

A-level sociology exams are not just about regurgitating facts; they require critical thinking, analysis, and effective communication of sociological concepts and theories. Here are some valuable exam techniques to help you navigate the exam effectively:

1. Understand the Exam Format

Before you start preparing, familiarize yourself with the structure of the exam. A-level sociology exams usually consist of multiple-choice questions, short-answer questions, and essay questions. Understanding the format will help you allocate your time wisely during the exam.

2. Develop Strong Writing Skills

Essays are a crucial part of the A-level sociology exam. Practice constructing well-structured and coherent essays that demonstrate your understanding of sociological concepts. Be sure to make clear points and support them with evidence.

3. Revise Key Concepts and Theories

Ensure you have a solid grasp of essential sociological concepts and theories. Revise key figures like Durkheim, Marx, Weber, and other sociological thinkers. Understand their contributions and how they relate to different aspects of society.

4. Case Studies and Examples

Incorporate relevant case studies and real-world examples into your answers. This not only adds depth to your response but also demonstrates your ability to apply sociological theories to practical situations.

5. Answer the Question

Read each question carefully and ensure that your response directly addresses the question asked. It's easy to go off on tangents, so stay focused on the specific points the question is probing.

6. Analyze and Evaluate

A-level sociology exams often require you to analyze and evaluate sociological issues. When discussing a topic, go beyond describing it and delve into analyzing its causes, consequences, and implications.

7. Time Management

Allocate your time wisely during the exam. Start with questions you're most confident about, and then move on to more challenging ones. Don't spend too much time on any single question.

8. Use Proper Terminology

Employ sociological terminology correctly. Examiners look for a good grasp of subject-specific vocabulary and concepts.

A Level Sociology Case Studies

Case studies are an effective way to illustrate your understanding of sociological concepts and theories. Here are a few case studies that you can use to bolster your A Level Sociology exam answers:

1. The Stanford Prison Experiment

Use the Stanford Prison Experiment to discuss the impact of authority and social roles on human behavior. This case study, conducted by Philip Zimbardo, illustrates how people can conform to roles and engage in abusive behavior when placed in positions of power.

2. The McDonaldization of Society

The concept of "McDonaldization," developed by George Ritzer, can be applied to discuss the homogenization and rationalization of modern society. You can use this case study to explore the impact of fast-food culture on various aspects of contemporary life.

3. The Hawthorne Studies

Elton Mayo's Hawthorne Studies is an excellent example to discuss the importance of social factors in the workplace. These studies show how social interactions and group dynamics can influence worker productivity and satisfaction.

4. The Gender Pay Gap

To explore gender inequalities in the workplace, use real-world statistics on the gender pay gap. Analyze the causes and consequences of this gap, and apply relevant sociological theories to explain why it persists.

5. The Arab Spring

Discuss the Arab Spring as a case study to examine the impact of social media on political movements and revolutions. This case can be used to explore the role of technology in shaping modern societies and social change.

6. The Obedience Experiments

Stanley Milgram's obedience experiments are a powerful case study for discussing obedience to authority figures. You can use these experiments to delve into ethical considerations and their relevance to real-world situations.

Incorporating these case studies into your exam answers can make your responses more engaging and relevant, showing the examiner your ability to apply sociological theories to real-life scenarios.

In Conclusion

A-level sociology exams require a deep understanding of sociological concepts, critical thinking, and effective communication of ideas. Utilize these exam techniques and case studies to enhance your preparation and excel in your A-level sociology exams. Remember to practice, stay focused, and always answer the question directly, demonstrating your sociological knowledge and analytical skills. Good luck with your exams!

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Free Resources

15 Major Sociological Studies and Publications

From Research to Theory to Political Declarations

• Key Concepts
• Major Sociologists
• News & Issues
• Research, Samples, and Statistics
• Recommended Reading
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The following titles are considered extremely influential and are widely taught. From theoretical works to case studies and research experiments to political treatises, read on to discover some of the major sociological works that have helped define and shape the fields of sociology and the social sciences.

'The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism'

Considered a seminal text in both economic sociology and sociology in general, German sociologist/economist Max Weber  wrote "The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism" between 1904 and 1905. (The work was translated into English in 1930.) In it, Weber examines the ways in which Protestant values and early capitalism intersected to foster the particular style of capitalism that's since become synonymous with the cultural identity of the United States.

The Asch Conformity Experiments

The Asch Conformity Experiments (also known as the Asch Paradigm) conducted by Solomon Asch in the 1950s demonstrated the power of conformity in groups and showed that even simple objective facts cannot withstand the distorting pressure of group influence.

'The Communist Manifesto'

" The Communist Manifesto " written by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels in 1848 has since been recognized as one of the world’s most influential political texts. In it, Marx and Engels present an analytical approach to class struggle and the problems of capitalism, along with theories about the nature of society and politics.

'Suicide: A Study in Sociology'

French sociologist Émile Durkheim published "Suicide: A Study in Sociology" in 1897. This groundbreaking work in the field of sociology details a case study in which Durkheim illustrates how social factors affect the suicide rate. The book and study served as an early prototype for what a sociological monograph should look like.

'The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life'

"The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life" by sociologist Erving Goffman (published in 1959) uses the metaphor of theater and stage acting to demonstrate the subtle nuances of human action and social interaction and how they shape everyday life.

'The McDonaldization of Society'

First published in 2014, "The McDonaldization of Society" is a more recent work, but is considered influential nonetheless. In it, sociologist George Ritzer takes the central elements of Max Weber’s work and expands and updates them for the contemporary age, dissecting the principles behind the economic and cultural dominance of fast-food restaurants that's seeped into almost every aspect of our daily lives—much to our detriment.

'Democracy in America'

Alexis de Tocqueville's "Democracy in America" was published in two volumes, the first in 1835, and the second in 1840. Available in both English and the original French ("De La Démocratie en Amérique"), this pioneering text is considered one of the most comprehensive and insightful examinations of American culture ever written. Focusing on a variety of topics including religion, the press, money, class structure , racism , the role of government, and the judicial system, the issues it examines are just as relevant today as they were it was first published.

'The History of Sexuality'

"The History of Sexuality" is a three-volume series written between 1976 and 1984 by French sociologist  Michel Foucault whose main goal was to disprove the notion that Western society has repressed sexuality since the 17th century. Foucault raised important questions and presented provocative and lasting theories to counter those assertions.

'Nickel and Dimed: On Not Getting By In America'

Originally published in 2001, Barbara Ehrenreich's "Nickel and Dimed: On Not Getting By In America" is based on her ethnographic research on low-wage jobs. Inspired in part by conservative rhetoric surrounding welfare reform, Ehrenreich decided to immerse herself ​in the world of low-wage earning Americans to give readers and policymakers a better understanding of the realities regarding the day-to-day subsistence of working-class wage earners and their families living at or below the poverty line.

'The Division of Labor in Society'

"The Division of Labor in Society" was penned by Émile Durkheim in 1893. His first major published work, it's the one in which Durkheim introduces the concept of anomie  or the breakdown of the influence of social norms on individuals within a society.

'The Tipping Point'

In his 2000 book, "The Tipping Point," Malcolm Gladwell examines how small actions at the right time, in the right place, and with the right people can create a "tipping point" for anything from a product to an idea to a trend that can be adopted on a mass scale to become part of mainstream society.

'Stigma: Notes on the Management of Spoiled Identity'

Erving Goffman's "Stigma: Notes on the Management of Spoiled Identity" (published in 1963) centers on the concept of stigma and what it's is like to live as a stigmatized person. It's a look into the world of individuals who, regardless of how great or small the stigma they've experienced, are considered to be outside societal norms at least on some level.

'Savage Inequalities: Children in America's Schools'

First published in 1991, Jonathan Kozol's "Savage Inequalities: Children in America’s Schools" examines the American educational system and the inequalities that exist between poor inner-city schools and more affluent suburban schools. It's considered a must-read for anyone interested in socio-economic inequality or the sociology of education .

'The Culture of Fear'

"The Culture of Fear" ​was written in 1999 by Barry Glassner, a sociology professor at the University of Southern California. The book presents compelling evidence that attempts to explain why Americans are so engrossed with "fear of the wrong things." Glassner examines and exposes the people and organizations that manipulate Americans’ perceptions and profit from the often baseless anxieties they cultivate and encourage.

'The Social Transformation of American Medicine'

Published in 1982, Paul Starr's "The Social Transformation of American Medicine" focuses on medicine and healthcare in the United States. In it, Starr examines the evolution of the culture and practice of medicine in America from the colonial era through the last quarter of the 20th century.

Updated by Nicki Lisa Cole, Ph.D.

• What You Need to Know About Economic Inequality
• Famous Sociologists
• A Biography of Erving Goffman
• The Sociology of Consumption
• Stigma: Notes on the Management of Spoiled Identity
• Max Weber's Key Contributions to Sociology
• Max Weber's Three Biggest Contributions to Sociology
• Karl Marx's Greatest Hits
• Sociology Of Religion
• The Sociology of Education
• All About Marxist Sociology
• The Major Theoretical Perspectives of Sociology
• Biography of Max Weber
• A Brief Biography of Pierre Bourdieu
• Introduction to Sociology
• Sociology of Work and Industry

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Sociology Case Studies Samples For Students

1015 samples of this type

While studying in college, you will certainly need to craft a lot of Case Studies on Sociology. Lucky you if linking words together and transforming them into meaningful content comes easy to you; if it's not the case, you can save the day by finding a previously written Sociology Case Study example and using it as a model to follow.

This is when you will definitely find WowEssays' free samples database extremely helpful as it contains numerous professionally written works on most various Sociology Case Studies topics. Ideally, you should be able to find a piece that meets your criteria and use it as a template to develop your own Case Study. Alternatively, our competent essay writers can deliver you a unique Sociology Case Study model crafted from scratch according to your individual instructions.

Free Search Engine Optimization Case Study Sample

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Search engine optimization (SEO) is the process of optimizing a website so that it easier for search engines like Yahoo, Google to find and rank them. The whole aim of SEO is to come on the first ten results for a search term. In other words, when people are looking for linen table clothes, then Linentablecloth.com should come in the first ten results in Google and/or Yahoo. SEO is fundamental to the success of any online business.

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Introduction Sephora was started in France in 1969 as a single perfume shop. By 2010, Sephora had nearly 1000 stores in 23 countries, of which 450 were in the US and Canada. It has a retail presence in 36 states.

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Case Study On The Need For Social Capital

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Complexity and overwhelming nature of issues to be coped with in some countries of the world calls forth the need to add extra dimensions to state’s combating the issues in terms of implementing its functions, and change existing systems and institutions. Social entrepreneurship represents a process by which citizens can either create or transform institutions to advance solutions to such issues, as poverty, illnesses, environment pollution, corruption and human rights abuses (Bornstein&Davis 1-2).

Example Of Case Study On What Is Culture

Irish Americans have a rich culture, which is rated among the oldest cultures in the globe. The Irish Americans trace their origin from Ireland and they form up to 11% of the American population. They possess a rich culture judging by their education, religious beliefs, and there social life in general. Their Unique culture and strong religious background have influenced the values of ordinary Americans over the years.

Irish Americans cultural Values

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The topic of the paper is murder, and its mission is to discuss the crimes of Jeffrey Dahmer and relating this crime with the three categories of crime causation. Murder is the deliberate taking of another person life. Murder can be first-degree and second-degree murder where in the first degree both the intention and the killing is planned (Brown et al, 2010). This paper will also discuss how Jeffery Dahmer killed people deliberately out of ill will.

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25 Famous Sociology Theories: Examples and Applications

Sociological theory refers to the conceptual frameworks sociologists use to understand, explain, and predict human behavior within the context of social structures and systems.

We can generally divide sociological theories into two rough buckets. The two buckets are:

• Macrosociology : Macrosociology explores large-scale social structures, long-term processes, and societal trends. For instance, conflict theory posits that social life is a struggle between groups to gain control of resources, thus causing social inequalities (Robinson, 2014). Theorists such as Marx and Weber elaborate on how overarching structures like the economy drive social behaviors and patterns. 
• Microsociology : Microsociology studies the intimate social interactions and everyday behaviors of individuals and small groups, with an intrest in individual agency. For instance, symbolic interactionism, a micro sociological theory, explicates how people use symbols (like words or gestures) to create meaning and communicate with each other (Jeon, 2017).
• Mesosociology: Mesosociology examines the in-between social forces and factors, such as examining local communities, ageism, race and ethnicity, and so on, on regional levels, without the explicit focus on only social institutions (e.g. educational institutions) or specific individuals.

Below are the 25 most famous sociological theories from both macro and micro perspectives.

Sociology Theory Examples

1. conflict theory.

Type of Theory: Macrosociology

Conflict Theory proposes that society is marked by ongoing struggles for resources and power, resulting in social inequalities.

This theory, originally formulated by Karl Marx, asserts that social life is fundamentally about contestations between groups with differing interests (Robinson, 2014).

It highlights how those with more resources often wield greater power, having the ability to shape society to maintain their privileges.

Consequently, it posits that conflicts may arise because of power dynamics and these disagreements drive social change . 

Example of Conflict Theory The persistent wage gap between men and women in many societies can be seen as an illustration of conflict theory, showcasing how power plays maintain social disparities (Blau & Kahn, 2017). It suggests that the gender wage gap is a reflection not solely of individuals’ choices but also of broader societal structures and power dynamics.

2. Functionalism

Definition: Functionalism considers society as a complex system of interdependent parts, each having a function fulfilling societal stability.

This sociological perspective, rooted in the works of Emile Durkheim , perceives each segment of society as vital for its overall functioning — much akin to the organs in a body (Parsons, 2010).

Maintaining harmony is crucial, as per this paradigm, with every part, be it family, education, or law, contributing towards societal equilibrium. Disruptions to this balance, such as social changes or conflicts, are seen as temporary disturbances that society works to resolve.

Example of Functionalism An example from functionalism could be the educational system, which not only provides knowledge (manifest function) but also serves to integrate individuals into societal norms and expectations (latent function) (Meyer, 2011). Here, education is vital for maintaining societal stability and ensuring societal continuity.

3. Symbolic Interactionism

Type of Theory: Microsociology

Symbolic Interactionism emphasizes how individuals use symbols to navigate social interactions and create social worlds.

This theory, developed by George Herbert Mead and further expanded by Herbert Blumer, highlights the subjective meaning of human actions and interactions (Jeon, 2017).

It propounds that people act based on the meanings objects, behaviors, or words have for them, and these meanings emerge from social interactions.

Therefore, society is viewed as being actively and continually constructed and reconstructed through these interactions and the meanings derived from them. 

Example of Symbolic Interactionism An everyday illustration of symbolic interactionism is the use of language, a system of symbols, to convey our thoughts or feelings (Stryker, 2017). The meaning assigned to words isn’t inherent but constructed through our social interactions, and this plays a crucial role in determining our subsequent actions and reactions.

4. Social Exchange Theory

Social Exchange Theory postulates that human relationships and interactions are guided by a cost-benefit analysis and the pursuit of rewards.

Driven by the principles of economics, this theory suggests that individuals engage in social interactions akin to transactions, aiming to maximize their benefits and minimize their costs (Cook, 2013).

Impressions of past exchanges and expectations of future returns inform the decisions to pursue or withdraw from interactions.

The balance of rewards against costs can contribute significantly to the stability of social relationships, or conversely, their dissolution. 

Example of Social Exchange Theory The dynamics of friendships can be viewed through this lens (Molm, 2010), where individuals continue the friendship so long as the perceived emotional support, companionship, and other benefits outweigh the costs, such as time commitment and emotional energy.

5. Feminist Theory

Type of Theory: Macrosociology, Microsociology, and Mesosociology

Feminist Theory is concerned with understanding and challenging the social inequalities and injustices faced by women.

This multidisciplinary set of theories emphasizes the diverse experiences of women, often overlooked in traditional sociological paradigms , shedding light on the interconnectedness of gender with other social structures like race, class, and sexuality (Risman, 2017).

It critically examines the ways in which societal institutions perpetuate gender disparities, seeking to dismantle patriarchal structures.

Feminist theorists assert that meaningful societal change necessitates a paradigm shift in gender relations and the deconstruction of problematic norms and stereotypes. 

Example of Feminist Theory The gender pay gap is an instance where feminist theorists have highlighted systemic injustice (Bobbitt-Zeher, 2011), pointing to discriminatory employment practices and societal norms that value certain types of work over others.

6. Structural Strain Theory

Structural Strain Theory posits that social dysfunctions and deviant behavior arise when there is a discrepancy between societal goals and the means to achieve those goals.

This theory, formulated by Robert K. Merton, suggests that when individuals have limited resources or opportunities to reach socially-approved goals, they might resort to socially unacceptable means, leading to deviance (Agnew, 2011).

Merton conceptualized five adaptation modes to this strain – conformity, innovation, ritualism, retreatism, and rebellion, each reflecting different responses to the experienced disconnection between goals and means.

Example of Structural Strain Theory The incidence of property crime in economically disadvantaged communities reflects this theory (Chamlin & Cochran, 2012), where limited legitimate means to achieve financial success might pressure individuals towards unlawful ways.

7. Labeling Theory

Labeling Theory argues that individuals become deviant not merely due to their actions but rather due to societal reactions and labels attached to their behavior.

It suggests that once a deviant label is applied, it becomes part of the individual’s self-concept, shaping their actions and leading to a ‘self-fulfilling prophecy’ (Tannenbaum, 2019).

Individuals might internalize the label, causing them to act in ways that confirm the societal stereotype.

Hence, this theory challenges the simplistic perception of deviance as an inherent characteristic and instead, underscores the role of social definitions and reactions. 

Example of Labeling Theory Stigmatization of ex-offenders and the subsequent difficulty in reintegrating into society highlight the power of negative labels (Moore, 2016). This societal response often leads to recidivism, validating the label and perpetuating a cycle of deviance.

8. Rational Choice Theory

Rational Choice Theory assumes that individuals make decisions based on their rational calculations, aiming to maximize personal benefit.

This theory applies economic theory to social interactions, suggesting that people behave as rational actors, weighing the costs and benefits of potential actions (Becker, 2013).

While initially focused on economic behavior, the theory has been expanded to understand a broad range of social phenomena, from politics to crime.

Critics, however, question the assumption of perfect rationality, pointing out that humans’ decision-making can often be influenced by emotions, biases, and other non-rational factors.

Example of Rational Choice Theory Choosing whether or not to attend college can be considered in terms of this theory (Dominitz & Manski, 1996) – individuals weigh the immediate costs (tuition fees, loss of potential income from working) and the potential long-term benefits (higher earnings, better employment prospects).

9. Social Disorganization Theory

Social Disorganization Theory suggests that crime rates are higher in neighborhoods where social institutions (like schools and families) are unable to maintain control.

According to Shaw and McKay’s pioneering work in the early 20th century, social disorganization arises due to certain characteristics such as poverty, residential instability, and ethnic diversity (Sampson & Groves, 1989).

These factors hinder the formation of close-knit, cohesive communities, leading to social disorganization.

As a result, these communities struggle to maintain social control , providing fertile ground for criminal behavior.

Example of Social Disorganization Theory High rates of juvenile delinquency in economically disadvantaged neighborhoods exemplify this theory (Kubrin & Weitzer, 2003) – without stable social structures, young people may turn to crime as a means of navigation through disorganized social environments .

10. Social Learning Theory

Social Learning Theory posits that people learn from observing others, with the environment, cognition, and behavior all interplaying to influence learning.

Developed primarily by Albert Bandura, this theory suggests that indirect or vicarious experiences, such as observing others’ behavior and the consequences of such behavior, play a crucial role in human learning (Bandura, 2011).

It posits that individuals are more likely to adopt behaviors if they observe similar people being rewarded for these behaviors.

Conversely, they are less likely to replicate behaviors if they see others being punished for them.

Example of Social Learning Theory The influence of media violence on aggressive behavior is often discussed within this theoretical framework (Anderson & Bushman, 2001) – individuals, particularly children, may replicate aggressive behaviors observed in media, especially when such behavior appears to be rewarded.

11. Critical Theory

Critical Theory seeks to challenge and change society as a whole, rather than simply understand or explain it.

This theory, developed by the Frankfurt School scholars, aims to critique and change society, often seeking to emancipate social groups oppressed by a capitalist, hegemonic society (Horkheimer, 2012).

It is an extension of conflict theory, by inserting a more political and ideological perspective, explicitly advocating for class-based social change.

Critical theorists focus on the role of power in society and how dominant social structures and processes maintain power disparities.

Therefore, it not only aims towards understanding the societal dynamics but also advocates for social justice and equality.

Example of Critical Theory The civil rights movement in the United States exemplified the application of critical theory (Roth, 2019), challenging racial segregation and discrimination laws and advocating for equal rights and social transformation.

12. Postmodern Theory

Postmodern theory in sociology critiques grand theories and ideologies, focusing on the role of language, power relations, and motivations in shaping our understanding of reality. 

Founded in the mid to late 20th century among thinkers like Foucault and Lyotard, Postmodern Theory challenges universal metanarratives, instead advocating for a respect for difference, contradiction, and the indeterminate nature of knowledge. 

It insists that society is too diverse, fragmented, and complex to be fully captured by broad, sweeping theories. 

Therefore, it encourages a more interpretive, localized, and deconstructive approach to understand social realities. 

Example of Postmodernism The questioning of established scientific knowledge and the inclusion of marginalized voices and perspectives can be understood through the Postmodern lens, as in Feminist epistemologies (Harding, 2013).

13. Network Theory

Type of Theory: Mesosociology

Network Theory posits that social actors and their actions are best understood through their relations to one another rather than their individual attributes. 

According to this theory, social patterns and phenomena emerge from the complex web of relations among social actors (Borgatti & Halgin, 2011). 

Whether these actors are individuals, groups, organizations, or even societies, their network connections largely influence their behavior, roles, and opportunities. 

The theory emphasizes the importance of ties and relationships, making it crucial in areas like social networking, organizational studies, and public health. 

Example of Network Theory An example of this theory can be seen in the spread of diseases in epidemiology, such as how HIV/AIDS dissemination was mapped through patients’ social relations (Rothenberg, 2001).

14. Ethnomethodology

Ethnomethodology suggests that individuals use their knowledge of social norms to construct a sense of order and make sense of the world around them. 

Developed by Harold Garfinkel in the 1960s, this approach focuses on the ways people make sense of their everyday world by creating shared understandings of symbols and actions (Rawls, 2013). 

In essence, it attempts to uncover the hidden rules and structures that individuals subconsciously agree upon to coordinate their interactions smoothly. 

These common-sense knowledge rules allow individuals to interpret and predict the behavior of others, thereby facilitating social interactions. 

Example of Ethnomethodology The everyday conversations between friends and how they navigate misunderstandings showcases Ethnomethodology in action, reflecting how we use shared understandings to communicate effectively (Sacks, 1995).

15. Structural Functionalism

Structural Functionalism views society as a complex system, wherein each part works together to promote the stability and survival of the entire system. 

Built upon the works of Émile Durkheim, Auguste Comte, and Herbert Spencer, this theoretical perspective perceives every aspect of society, be it an institution like family or an act like crime, as serving specific functions to maintain societal balance (Turner, 2013). 

This notion of social equilibrium argues that disruptions, like social change or conflict, are typically rectified by society’s compensatory mechanisms. 

However, critics suggest this perspective overlooks social inequalities, ignoring the disadvantages of certain social arrangements. 

Example of Structural Functionalism The way different parts of the educational system from schools to universities serve to maintain social order and ensure the smooth functioning of society reflects principles of Structural Functionalism (Ballantine & Hammack, 2013).

16. Social Phenomenology

Social Phenomenology emphasizes understanding the subjective experiences and interpretations that individuals have of the world. 

Derived from the philosophical tradition of phenomenology, social phenomenologists, like Alfred Schutz, suggest the social world is a human construct, experienced and interpreted through the conscious individuals who inhabit it (Natanson, 2017). 

It is concerned with exploring how individuals ascribe meanings to their experiences, thereby creating their own subjective realities. 

This focus on individual perceptions and interpretations provides a valuable framework for understanding the complexities of social life. 

Example of Social Phenomenology Individual interpretations of a contentious political event could be explored using social phenomenology, revealing how political orientation, social background, and personal experiences shape subjective perceptions and interpretations (Ku, 2016).

17. Cultural Theory

Cultural Theory investigates how culture and societal structures influence individual behaviors, beliefs, and identity.

Central to this perspective is an understanding that culture, as a shared system of meanings, guides human behavior and societal operations (Couldry, 2012). 

These shared meanings, symbols, and practices enable communication and cooperation, foster social cohesion, and influence identity formation.

Culture, therefore, is seen as a collective programming of the mind that distinguishes one group or society from another.

Example of Cultural Theory Cross-cultural differences in general behaviors or business practices could be considered under this theory, highlighting how cultural norms and values shape behaviors (Hofstede, 2011).

18. World Systems Theory

World Systems Theory suggests that societies function within a world economic system that inherently promotes disparity and inequality.

Immanuel Wallerstein, who developed the theory, argued that the world system is characterized by a division of labor leading to the development of core, semi-peripheral, and peripheral nations (Wallerstein, 2011). 

Acknowledging that these differing positions affect societies’ economic and political development, this theory challenges the view that all societies go through similar linear stages of development. 

Instead, it underscores how the interconnected global ecosphere shapes and is shaped by national economies. 

Example of World Systems Theory The persistent economic disparity between developed and developing nations is illustrative of World Systems Theory, revealing how global economic systems contribute to uneven resource distribution (Arrighi, 2010).

19. Social Constructionism

Social Constructionism posits that social phenomena are created, institutionalized, and made into tradition by humans.

Contrary to theories that view social phenomena as objective facts, social constructionists argue that aspects of the social world – such as social roles, symbols, and institutions – are not inherent or static, but are instead constructed and reconstructed by social actors (Berger & Luckmann, 2011). 

Social Constructionism highlights how these constructed realities can have real, tangible effects on human interaction, social structure, and personal identity . 

Example of Social Constructionism Gender roles and expectations serve as a compelling illustration of Social Constructionism, emphasizing how society, not biology, dictates these roles and norms (West & Zimmerman, 2009).

20. Dependency Theory

Dependency Theory argues that global inequality is due to the exploitation of peripheral and semi-peripheral nations by core nations.

This theory originated as a response to modernization theory, offering a critique of the existing capitalist world system and arguing that underdevelopment was fostered by the historical development of the world economic system (Frank, 2011). 

In this view, periphery nations exporting raw materials to the core nations are left in a state of dependency, perpetuating a cycle of poverty and underdevelopment.

Example of Dependency Theory Dependence on commodity exports by many African countries illustrates Dependency Theory, demonstrating how reliance on export earnings from primary commodities can facilitate an exploitative dynamic with more developed nations (Nwoke, 2015).

21. Neo-Marxist Theory

Neo-Marxist Theory extends the classical Marxist theory by incorporating factors such as culture, ideology, and state power into the analysis of societal dynamics. 

Neo-Marxists, such as Antonio Gramsci and Louis Althusser, placed much emphasis on the cultural and ideological superstructure that influences and solidifies the capitalist mode of production (Levitsky, 2013). 

This perspective asserts that power resides not just in economic structures, but also in ideological systems which influence and control societal thought and behavior. 

While upholding the fundamental Marxist tenet of economic determinism, Neo-Marxist theory also recognized the independent impacts of politics, social forces, and ideas in shaping societal relations. 

Example of Neo-Marxist Theory Gramsci’s concept of cultural hegemony, which explains how the dominant class maintains control by shaping cultural norms and values to their advantage, can be considered an application of Neo-Marxist thought (Jones, 2006).

22. Queer Theory

Queer Theory explores identities and experiences that deviate from the normative understandings of sexuality and gender, advocating for the deconstruction of such binaries. 

Rooted in the intellectual traditions of feminist criticism and gay and lesbian studies, Queer Theory critically interrogates the socio-cultural constructs of gender and sexuality, challenging the conceptual rigidity of these categories (Jagose, 2012). 

It posits that identities are not fixed but fluid and questions the societal stigmatization of non-normative sexual identities and practices.

Example of Queer Theory The exploration of non-binary gender identities and the critique of heteronormative structures in society exemplify the application of Queer Theory (Butler, 2011).

23. Intersectionality Theory

Intersectionality Theory examines how various social categories such as race, class, and gender interact to shape individual experiences and systemic inequality.

Patricia Hill Collins and Kimberlé Crenshaw, key contributors to this theory, argue that systems of oppression are interconnected and cannot be examined independently from one another (Crenshaw, 1989).

This multi-faceted approach to social identities underscores that individuals experience discrimination and privilege in varying degrees, depending on their conjoint identities.

Example of Intersectionality Theory The unique challenges faced by women of colour, who contend with both racial and gender discrimination, can be understood through the lens of Intersectionality Theory (Choo & Ferree, 2010).

24. Actor-Network Theory

Type of Theory: Microsociology, Macrosociology

Actor-Network Theory suggests that both human and non-human elements contribute equally to the function of social networks and should be treated as actors or agents within a network.

Developed by sociologists such as Bruno Latour and Michel Callon, Actor-Network Theory illustrates the idea that society is constructed through complex networks of interaction between various actors (Latour, 2005). 

It thus dissolves the boundaries between the social and natural world, viewing both human and non-human entities as possessing agency.

Example of Actor-Network Theory The role of technology in modern social life can be viewed through Actor-Network Theory, reflecting how tech devices shape human behavior and social interaction (Akrich, 1992).

25. Social Identity Theory

Type of Theory: Microsociology, Mesosociology

Social Identity Theory posits that a person’s sense of self is shaped by their membership in social groups and categories.

Developed by Henri Tajfel and John Turner, this theory argues that individuals seek to maintain or enhance their self-esteem by identifying with specific social groups and perceiving these groups in a positive light (Tajfel, 1974).

This identification with in-groups and differentiation from out-groups can lead to bias and discrimination, thereby driving societal dynamics.

Example of Social Identity Theory Football fan behavior, where loyalty to one’s team often involves devaluing rival teams, illustrates the principles of Social Identity Theory (Brown, 2000).

Sociological theories, ranging from macro to micro levels, provide a lens through which you can examine and understand various societal phenomena. These theories indeed facilitate predictive and explanatory capabilities, thus aiding in gaining a more profound, sharper understanding of the complex environ of human society.

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Dr. Chris Drew is the founder of the Helpful Professor. He holds a PhD in education and has published over 20 articles in scholarly journals. He is the former editor of the Journal of Learning Development in Higher Education. [Image Descriptor: Photo of Chris]

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