water waste essay

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• Published: 30 April 2020

Contributions of recycled wastewater to clean water and sanitation Sustainable Development Goals

• Cecilia Tortajada 1  

npj Clean Water volume  3 , Article number:  22 ( 2020 ) Cite this article

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• Social policy
• Water resources

Water resources are essential for every development activity, not only in terms of available quantity but also in terms of quality. Population growth and urbanisation are increasing the number of users and uses of water, making water resources scarcer and more polluted. Changes in rainfall patterns threaten to worsen these effects in many areas. Water scarcity, due to physical lack or pollution, has become one of the most pressing issues globally, a matter of human, economic and environmental insecurity. Wastewater, whose value had not been appreciated until recently, is increasingly recognised as a potential ‘new’ source of clean water for potable and non-potable uses, resulting in social, environmental and economic benefits. This paper discusses the potential of recycled wastewater (also known as reused water) to become a significant source of safe water for drinking purposes and improved sanitation in support of the Sustainable Development Goals.

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Introduction.

The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are the most recent attempt by the international community to mobilise government, private and non-governmental actors at national, regional and local levels to improve the quality of life of billions of people in the developed and developing worlds. The goals are an ambitious, challenging and much-needed action plan for “people, planet and prosperity” until the year 2030 1 .

Of the 17 SDGs, the sixth goal is to “ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all”. The achievement of this goal, even if partially, would greatly benefit humankind, given the importance of clean water for overall socio-economic development and quality of life, including health and environmental protection.

In 2000, the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) aimed at reducing by half the proportion of the population without sustainable access to safe drinking water and sanitation by 2015. This objective, however, did not take into consideration water quality or wastewater management aspects, which represented a main limitation for its achievement 2 . This omission has been rectified in the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), where one of the goals (SDG 6) calls for clean water and sanitation for all people by ensuring “availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all”. Among other aspects, it considers improvement of water quality by reducing by half the amount of wastewater that is not treated, and increasing recycling and safe reuse globally. This will result in the availability of more clean water for all uses, and on an enormous progress on sanitation and wastewater management. This target unequivocally indicates the close interrelation between clean water, sanitation and wastewater management, giving these two last aspects the importance they deserve. No government of any human settlement irrespective of its size, be it a megacity, mid-size city or large or small town, can provide clean water without concurrently considering sanitation and wastewater management. Clean water is not, and will never be possible, if wastewater is not collected, treated and disposed properly for the intended uses.

Constraints for the provision of clean water and sanitation for all are complex, and depend on decisions of actors at all levels of government, private sector, non-governmental organisations and the public. They are also determined by broad development policies that may or may not prioritise provision of these services over the long-term, national and local action plans that, even when properly formulated, are often not adequately implemented due to short-term planning, lack of managerial, financial and/or man-power capacity and water needs of other sectors such as the energy or agriculture sectors on which the water sector has limited say or control. The most damaging limitation is often political will that is not sustained and that depends on political interests and electoral cycles. These aspects as well as many others that hampered the progress of the MDGs and represent serious constraints for the SDGs include discrepancy between global goals and national and local limitations, lack of continuity in decisions, policies and investments from one administration to the other, poor or inexistent data that inform decision-making or disadvantaged populations that do not have access to appropriate water and sanitation services 3 .

In most developing countries, provision of clean water and, to a certain degree, also sanitation services, are prioritised over other services. Nevertheless, this prioritisation is not always accompanied by sustained support, resources, or interest. Regarding wastewater management, this is simply left behind. There does not seem to be appreciation of the numerous negative impacts wastewater and related pollution have for provision of clean water, and how much they adversely affect human health and the environment.

It is a fact that water resources globally are under pressure from economic development, population growth, urbanisation, and more recently, climate variability and change; however, it is also pollution to a large extent what is restricting the availability of water for all people for all uses in quantity and quality. It is difficult to find a solution because, as discussed earlier, this depends on numerous technical and non-technical decisions that are taken without analysing their implications on water availability. The situations are further exacerbated by legal and regulatory frameworks that are not implementable, absence of long-term planning, inadequate management and governance, government capability, neglect of demand-side practices (pricing and non-pricing measures), disregard of awareness building including attitudes and behaviour, and poor intersectoral collaboration. Adequate consideration of these aspects depends on economic, social, environmental, cultural and political contexts and institutional capabilities of the places where they are implemented. Properly pursuing SDGs in general, and SDG 6 in particular, have the potential to improve not only access to water and sanitation and quality of life of billions of people, but also contributing towards better capacities of national and local governments.

SDGs main targets of reducing by half the amount of wastewater that is not treated, and increasing recycling and safe reuse present the distinct possibility of producing ‘new’ sources of clean water for all uses that would not be available otherwise. It would further mean that wastewater discharged to water bodies would be cleaner and safer than what it is at present, and that source water for communities downstream would be of much better quality. It would further contribute to improvements in aquatic environments.

Potable water reuse is not new. However, what has made it more relevant at local and also at national levels such as in Singapore, and now potentially in United States, is growing water scarcity and pollution that is reducing water resources available for larger populations and more uses.

The rest of the paper presents the poor status of water quality globally, and discusses the distinct potential wastewater treatment and reuse have to produce new sources of clean water, as well as to improve sanitation and wastewater management, supporting the UN’s development goal of clean water and sanitation for all. This would also contribute, at least partially, to the progress of several others non-water related SDGs such as poverty alleviation, good health and well-being, and improved education and gender equality. Examples of projects that produce reused water for potable purposes are presented including their benefits, as well as the views of the local populations. Finally, challenges to implement potable water reuse more extensively are discussed.

Results and Discussion

Water pollution and impacts on human health and environment.

Worsening water pollution affects both developed and developing countries. In developing countries, it is mostly due to rapid population growth and urbanisation, increased industrial and other economic activities, and intensification and expansion of agriculture, coupled with lack of local and national legal and institutional capacities (managerial, technical, financial, enforcement, etc.) and political and public apathy to improve and maintain water and wastewater management processes in the long-term. Much attention is given to sanitation, specially to construction of toilets and wastewater treatment plants, but their construction alone will not improve water quality over medium- and long-terms unless commensurate attention is given to significantly improving institutional capacity for planning, management, and implementation 4 .

Water pollution has increased significantly in most rivers in Africa, Asia and Latin America since 1990. Pathogenic and organic pollution has worsened in more than half of river stretches, severely limiting their use. These findings are based on measurements of parameters that indicate pathogen pollution (faecal coliform bacteria), organic pollution (biochemical oxygen demand), and salinity (total dissolved solids) 5 . Although sanitation coverage and wastewater treatment have improved in some countries, they have not been enough to reduce the faecal coliform pollution reaching surface waters 6 . This does not include contamination due to industrial and agricultural wastewater which discharges contain hazardous chemicals, heavy metals, and other inorganic pollutants. Consequently, an estimated 2 billion people use drinking water sources that are contaminated, making millions sick.

According to the Global Burden of Disease studies 7 , between 1990 and 2017, the worst deterioration of water quality was in Southeast Asia, East Asia, and Oceania (86% increase in the parameters measured), North Africa and the Middle East (58% increase), and South Asia (56% increase). Parameters used to estimate unsafe water sources include proportion of individuals globally with access to different water sources (unimproved, improved except for piped supply, or piped water supply), and who have reported use of household water treatment methods such as boiling, filtering, chlorinating or solar filtering (or none of these). For unsafe sanitation, the parameters used are the proportion of individuals with access to different sanitation facilities (unimproved, improved except sewer, or sewer connection).

In developed countries, people’s access to safe sources of water and to sanitation and wastewater services has improved. However, these services still lag behind for people in poor urban, peri-urban, and rural areas, showing inequality among and within communities and regions, with the poorest people generally being in the most difficult situations 8 . Water quality has also improved in general, but pollutants have multiplied and diversified, putting pressure on governments and utilities to improve treatment processes for both drinking water and wastewater 9 .

United States, for example, acknowledges new and long-standing problems. These include a combination of point sources of pollution (such as toxic substances discharged from factories or wastewater treatment plants) and non-point sources (such as runoff from city streets and agricultural sources like farms and ranches). Another problem has been insufficient financial support for municipal wastewater treatment plants 10 . In 2009, according to data reported by the EPA (2009) 11 and the states, 44% of river and stream miles assessed, and 64% of lake acres assessed, did not meet applicable water quality standards and were not apt for one or more intended uses. In 2019, an assessment of lakes at the national level found that ~20% of them had high levels of phosphorus and nitrogen 12 . Although more work is necessary, the United States has the advantage of robust legal and institutional frameworks that have fostered progress in improving quality in drinking water and bodies of water.

Europe is not without problems. According to the European Environment Agency 13 , good chemical status has been achieved for only 38% of surface waters and 74% of groundwater in the EU member states. Surface water bodies are affected mostly by hydromorphological pressures (40%), non-point sources of pollution (38%, mostly agricultural), atmospheric deposition (38%, mainly mercury), point sources of pollution (18%) and water abstraction (7%). In England, only 14% of rivers meet the minimum good status standard; France, Germany, and Greece have been fined by the European Court of Justice for violating regulatory limits on nitrates, with almost a third of monitoring stations in Germany showing levels of nitrates exceeding EU limits.

Risks posed by emerging contaminants such as pharmaceuticals and microplastics are still poorly understood, and thus cannot be adequately incorporated in planning and management of potable water supply. Current and future research on emerging contaminants and their impacts is necessary to fully understand the best management and treatment processes.

Safe reuse for additional sources of safe water

Safe reuse of water resources (using them more than once) is a radical contribution to the old paradigm of water resources management, which seldom considered the value of recycled wastewater and its reuse for potable uses. Larger populations that require more water and produce more wastewater that is not always treated properly, current and projected water scarcity and degradation and water-related health and environmental concerns have led a growing number of cities to treat municipal wastewater to higher quality, and either reusing it for potable and non-potable purposes or discharging it (now cleaner) to the environment. Appropriate regulations, improved technology, more reliable monitoring and control systems, and considerations of public views have made it a feasible alternative to increase the amount of clean water available for potable purposes 14 .

Augmentation of water resources for potable purposes with reused water can be done either directly or indirectly. Terminology varies, but generally, in indirect potable reuse (IPR), reused water is introduced into an environmental buffer (reservoir, river, lake or aquifer) and then treated again as part of the standard supply process. In direct potable reuse (DPR), reused water is sent to a drinking water treatment plant for direct distribution without going through an environmental buffer.

Potable water reuse projects have been implemented in cities in the United States, Namibia, Australia, Belgium, United Kingdom and South Africa, as well as in Singapore 15 . The common denomination in all cases for project development has been water scarcity. All projects have prioritised public health and the environment and risk management. Because water reuse diversifies the water resources available, its value has become more evident during droughts, when surface and groundwater are more limited for all uses.

Local experiences considered successful

This section refers to potable water reuse in several cities, with emphasis on United States because of its current progress in this area.

United States has developed the largest number of water reuse projects of any country, supported by policies and regulations that promote safe reuse of water from recycled wastewater (in 2017, 14 states had policies to address indirect potable reuse and three to address direct potable reuse, compared with eight and none, respectively, in 2012). Measures have been taken to improve use and management of freshwater resources, developing water management tools and drought preparedness plans, conservation actions, addressing dependence on expensive inter-basin water transfers, assessing climate change, and revising water reuse from the knowledge, management, technological, financial, and public-opinion viewpoints.

In US, there are no specific federal regulations for potable water reuse; however, all potable water should meet federal and state water quality regulations, such as the Safe Drinking Water Act and the Clean Water Act. In parallel to these Acts, several states have developed their own regulations or guidelines governing indirect potable reuse, while direct potable reuse facilities are currently considered on a case-by-case basis. In Big Spring and Wichita Falls, Texas, direct potable reuse has been implemented as the most effective, or the only feasible way to provide clean water 16 .

California is the most progressive state regarding indirect potable water reuse, with the most developed regulatory frameworks. For more than 50 years, several cities have implemented planned replenishment of groundwater basins with reused water. Regulations were adopted in 1978 and revised in 2014. In 2018, indirect potable reuse regulations of surface water augmentation were adopted. They allow reused water to be added to surface water reservoirs that are used as sources of drinking water 17 . No project has been implemented yet but the first two (in San Diego County) are expected to be completed by 2022.

The state does not have regulations for direct potable reuse at present. However, the State Water Board is working on a Proposed Framework for Regulating Direct Potable Reuse to develop uniform water recycling criteria that will protect public health, and avoid “discontinuities” in the risk assessment/risk management approach as progressively more difficult conditions are addressed 18 .

The best-known potable reuse project in California, in the country, and internationally, is the Orange Country Groundwater Replenishment System. Indirect potable reuse has been the long-term response of the district (as has been for the state) to provide clean water for growing human and environmental needs. The system supplies potable reused water for ~850,000 people. Reused water is for recharging the groundwater basin to protect it from seawater intrusion. A final expansion project will increase the system’s treatment capacity, enabling the district to continue protecting the groundwater basin and providing clean water to its growing population 19 . The project is considered a precursor and benchmark for subsequent water reuse projects in El Paso, Texas, the West Basin Water Recycling Plant in California and the Scottsdale Water Campus in Arizona.

A recent initiative of the EPA, the National Water Reuse Action Plan, has the potential to implement water reuse at the national level. This Action Plan, announced in February 2020, has the objective to secure the country’s water future for all uses by improving security, sustainability, and resilience of water resources through water reuse and identify types of collaboration between governmental and nongovernmental organisations to make this possible. The plan also aims to address policy, programmatic issues, and science and technology gaps to better inform related regulations and policies 20 .

Reused water has also been produced in Windhoek and Singapore. Windhoek is the first example of direct potable reuse globally from 1968, as the best, and only alternative to water scarcity, exacerbated by recurrent droughts 21 . Given its importance for water security, potable reuse has been considered for decades as a strategic component of water resources management. During the very severe drought in 2015–2017, surface water (the main water source) fell to 2% of supply from the normal 75%, putting enormous pressure on the water system and on the domestic, commercial and industrial sectors. Most of the water used to replace the surface water was drawn from the local aquifer, and potable reused water increased to 30% of supply 22 . Potable water reuse additional domestic supplies and domestic water rationing was not necessary. From October 2019 and through the writing of this article in early 2020, Windhoek faced another very severe drought during which potable water reuse also represented an essential source of clean water for potable purposes, until it finally rained.

In Singapore, production of NEWater (as reused water is known) started in 2003 as part of a long-term strategy to diversify water resources and reduce Singapore’s dependence on water imported from Johor, Malaysia, with a goal of resilience and self-sufficiency by 2060. Reused water meets ~40% of Singapore’s daily water needs and will cover ~55% by 2060. During dry months, NEWater is added to the reservoirs to blend with raw water before undergoing treatment and being supplied for potable use 23 . While water reuse was not a new concept in 2003, what has been significant in this case is its large-scale implementation and the wide public acceptance of indirect potable and direct non-potable reuse due comprehensive education and communication strategies 24 . These emphasise the water-scarcity reality in the city-state and the importance of water reuse to produce the water that is needed for overall development.

In Europe, the EU recognises the importance of reducing pressures on the water environment due to water scarcity, and encourages efficient resource use. Its policy on water reuse does not include potable uses, leaving this decision to the member states; it refers only to non-potable uses, with focus on irrigation for agriculture 25 .

Within this framework, the only two projects that have been developed in the region so far are the Langford Recycling Scheme in United Kingdom and Torrelle plant in Belgium. Both produce water to be used indirectly for drinking water supplies. The Langford Recycling Scheme operates only when the flow of the River Chelmer is low, supplying up to 70% of the flow during drought periods. The highest production has been during drought periods in 2005–2006 and 2010–2011 26 . In Belgium, Torrelle plant supplies safe drinking water to nearby communities, ~60,000 people in 2012, and is also used for artificial recharge of the dune aquifer of Saint-André preventing seawater intrusion 27 .

Table 1 presents an overview of the projects mentioned above 28 . In the decades over which these projects have supplied drinking water, no negative health effects have been documented.

Local experiences where challenges remain

The most recent potable reuse projects that have been stopped are in Australia. The country has robust legal and regulatory frameworks to support potable reuse 29 , but so far only one project has been successfully implemented, in Perth, Western Australia 30 . Two potable water reuse projects in Queensland have been halted due to health concerns, poor communication and public opposition in one case (Toowoomba 31 ), and on lack of political support in the other case (Western Corridor Recycled Water Project) 32 . In both cases, decisions were taken even when there were concerns on the impacts of climate change in the region and the possibility that rainfall patterns might not be appropriate for future purposes.

Acceptance of potable water reuse requires robust regulations and advanced technology; however, it also requires serious consideration of the soft-aspects such as education, communication and engagement of politicians, decision-makers and the public, and emotional response and trust 33 . Messages should not be limited to the benefits of the projects. They should also discuss aspects such as water quality and safety, water supply alternatives and their feasibility and costs, risk management, and implications for those who will consume the water 34 .

In the developing world, cities in Brazil, Mexico, Kuwait, and India have constructed or are planning projects, for potable water reuse. Their possibilities to succeed are limited as projects would have to be implemented within regulatory, institutional, governance, management, financial and technological frameworks that are robust and promote innovation, and utilities would have to ensure technical, managerial and financial capacities in the long-term. A serious limitation is that water management in general, and collection and conventional treatment of municipal and industrial wastewater in particular, are still challenging; often water quality standards and monitoring are poorly enforced, and risk assessment frameworks are lacking. Irrespective of how important potable water reuse is for clean water and sanitation goals at local, regional and national levels, challenges remain for its extended implementation.

Knowledge gaps and research needs

Protection of human health and the environment is paramount for any source of drinking water, be it reused water or not. To ensure reused water is safe for potable purposes, it is crucial that it meets standards for pathogens and chemicals (federal, state and local), monitoring is robust, comprehensive and continuous, reporting and independent auditing are performed and knowledge gaps and research needs are addressed 35 .

Overall, types of research needed include further evaluations of common drinking water treatment processes and their inactivation and/or removal efficiency, regulated and unregulated contaminants and their expected presence in reused water, microbial, chemical, radiological and emerging contaminants, monitoring of the influents and effluents of water treatment plants and real-time monitoring of water as it passes through the treatment train. This will facilitate rapid responses, immediately identifying any changes in the water quality due to pathogens or chemical pollutants, detect their types and amounts, and decide on the most appropriate response 36 . General risks can also be reduced through wastewater source control, water source diversification and allocation of risks, so that each party can manage the different risks.

A growing area of concern is the presence of commonly used chemicals and emerging contaminants, their mixture even at low doses, and their effect in human health and ecosystems. This is particularly important if they are detected more often in advanced treated water as they can cause acute or chronic diseases. Better regulations, and improved treatment and monitoring have been identified as key to address the above issues and comply with potable water quality parameters 37 . Web-based data analytics and a system for population water reporting are also important as they will enhance data collection, and increase information accessibility.

To further understand risks of emerging contaminants, major research efforts based on toxicological and epidemiological studies have been carried out. At present, however, health and environmental protection relies in the measurement of chemical and microbiological parameters and the application of formal processes of risk assessment. The objective is that identification, quantification and use of risk information informs decision-making on social and environmental impacts and benefits, as well as on financial costs 38 . Effects on vulnerable groups like infants, elderly, pregnant women, and persons who are already ill, are less understood and thus require additional research.

In direct potable reuse, the absence of an environmental buffer means shorter failure response times, which may affect the ability of plant operators to stop operations if off-specification water is detected. In these cases, supplementary treatment, monitoring, and engineered buffers are expected to provide equivalent protection of public health and response time if water quality specifications are not met 39 .

Table 2 lists benefits and challenges related to potable water reuse. It does not intend to be exhaustive, but to indicate the most relevant issues in both cases.

Potable water reuse schemes are subject to stringent regulations. They follow risk assessment and drinking water safety plans, which include pilot studies, process control considerations, standards, monitoring and auditing of water quality, consideration of stakeholders and public perceptions and risk minimisation, among other factors. Treatment technologies used are advanced and require membrane filtration and ultraviolet disinfection to remove or destroy viruses, bacteria, chemicals, and other constituents of concern as part of the process of converting wastewater into a clean, safe source of municipal drinking water. Reused water is thus cleaner, and safer, than river flows in many cities, especially in the developing world, where improperly treated (or, more commonly, untreated) wastewater is normally discharged.

Potable water reuse and the SDG for water and sanitation

Proper treatment of wastewater and safe reuse are prerequisites if the main targets of Goal 6 are to be reached by 2030. Failure to achieve this goal will mean that health and living conditions of billions of people will suffer, as they have suffered until now, or even more, as populations are growing and water resources are scarcer and more polluted.

Wastewater that is treated and safely reused for potable purposes becomes a new source of water that can be supplied to growing populations. Examples mentioned earlier show that there are thousands of people with access to clean water due to potable water reuse. This is water that would not be available otherwise. Potable water reuse has become more relevant during drought periods when populations with access to reused water have not suffered of water rationing, while people elsewhere without this alternative have not had the same opportunity.

Potable water reuse represents a reliable alternative way to produce safe water, improve the quality of water in receiving water bodies, and mitigate water scarcity for all uses, contributing to the SDG on clean water and sanitation. More broadly, to improve overall quality of life. However, such projects alone cannot enable the achievement of SDG 6, and produce all the safe water the world is running short of at present and will need in the future. As argued earlier, water reuse is part of comprehensive water planning and management strategies.

Water scarcity needs to be approached holistically. At present and looking towards the future, when demands for safe water will be more pressing and water resources will be less available than now, all alternatives for water supply must be considered, potable water reuse included.

The study followed a three-method approach. The first was literature review and analysis to understand the range of issues that determine the extent of the contributions of water reuse towards the realisation of clean water and sanitation Sustainable Development Goals in specific, and to the progress of several other non-water related SDGs positively influencing quality of life. Following the review and analysis, the second approach was the discussion of water reuse projects that have been operational for decades and that have rendered numerous benefits to the population in terms of safe water and sanitation, as well as projects that have been halted due to health concerns and insufficient involvement of the public. Finally, the most recent initiatives to strengthen and diversity the water resources available at the national level, e.g., United States, are presented to emphasise the fundamental role of water reuse towards fulfilment of the SDGs on clean water and sanitation.

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Water Environment Federation (WEF). Water Reuse Roadmap Primer , https://www.wef.org/globalassets/assets-wef/direct-download-library/public/03---resources/wef_water_reuse_roadmap_primer.pdf (2016).

UK Water Industry Research Limited. A Protocol for Developing Water Reuse Criteria with Reference for Drinking Water Supplies , https://www.waterboards.ca.gov/water_issues/programs/grants_loans/water_recycling/research/02_011.pdf (2005).

California Water Resources Control Boards. Recommendations of the Advisory Group on the Feasibility of Developing Uniform Water Criteria for Direct Potable Reuse , https://www.waterboards.ca.gov/drinking_water/certlic/drinkingwater/rw_dpr_criteria.html (2020).

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Acknowledgements

This research was funded by the Institute of Water Policy, Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy, National University of Singapore. Grant R-603-000-289-490.

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Home — Essay Samples — Science — Agriculture — Steps of the Wastewater Treatment Process

Steps of The Wastewater Treatment Process

• Categories: Agriculture Water Pollution Water Quality

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Words: 1105 |

Published: Dec 5, 2018

Words: 1105 | Pages: 2 | 6 min read

Table of contents

Introduction, the steps of the wastewater treatment process, the environmental and health significance, the role of technological advancements.

• Preliminary Treatment : The first step involves the removal of large objects and debris, such as sticks, leaves, and plastics, through screens or gratings. This helps protect downstream equipment from damage and ensures that smaller particles can be effectively removed in subsequent treatment stages.
• Primary Treatment : In this phase, the wastewater is allowed to settle in large tanks, allowing solids to settle at the bottom and form sludge. This sludge is then removed and further treated or disposed of. Although primary treatment removes a significant portion of suspended solids, it is not effective in eliminating dissolved contaminants.
• Secondary Treatment : Secondary treatment is designed to remove dissolved and suspended biological matter, such as organic materials and bacteria. It relies on microorganisms to break down these pollutants into less harmful substances. Common methods include activated sludge processes and trickling filters, which provide a habitat for beneficial bacteria to thrive and purify the water.
• Tertiary Treatment : Also known as advanced treatment, this stage goes beyond secondary treatment to further polish the water quality. It involves additional processes like filtration, chemical treatment, and disinfection to remove remaining contaminants, including nutrients (e.g., nitrogen and phosphorus), pathogens, and trace chemicals. The treated water is now safe for release into the environment or for reuse.
• Metcalf & Eddy, Inc., & Tchobanoglous, G. (2002). Wastewater Engineering: Treatment and Reuse. McGraw-Hill Education.
• Cheremisinoff, N. P. (2019). Handbook of Water and Wastewater Treatment Technologies. Butterworth-Heinemann.
• Tchobanoglous, G., Burton, F. L., & Stensel, H. D. (2002). Wastewater Engineering: Treatment and Reuse (Metropolitan Los Angeles Edition). McGraw-Hill.
• Mara, D., & Horan, N. (2003). Handbook of Water and Wastewater Microbiology. Elsevier.
• Khan, S. R., Tawabini, B. S., & Al-Zahrani, M. A. (2019). Advanced Technologies in Water and Wastewater Management. Springer.
• US Environmental Protection Agency. (n.d.). Wastewater Technology Fact Sheet: Membrane Bioreactors.
• World Health Organization. (2011). Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality. World Health Organization.

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Water Recycling Essay

Introduction, the safety of drinking recycled water, risks associated with using reclaimed water, recycled water saves fresh potable water, reference list.

Recycled water is obtained from waste water and contaminated water that has been subjected to thorough treatment to ensure that it is proper for use for different purposes. A major benefit of recycled water is offering a sustainable and dependable source of water while decreasing demands on water provision that is brought about by the rising population (Hurlimann 2011).

To make sure that the rising population gets adequate water to satisfy all their requirements, there is a need for recycling of water and enlarging the application of reclaimed water. This paper seeks to determine if recycled water is safe for drinking.

• It is assessed to avoid risk for human health. If the right procedure is followed, recycling of water makes it safe for drinking (Mankad & Tapsuwan 2011). Regular checking and treatment is necessary to make sure that recycled water is suitable for human consumption. For instance, the designated regulatory bodies in every Australian state endorse water systems to guarantee its safety for the intended purpose. The regulatory bodies are typically the departments accountable for safety and environment. They evaluate the degree of danger to human beings and the surroundings to establish whether a water recycling plan should be endorsed.
• There is no instance where thoroughly recycled water caused illness. Reclaimed water has not brought about any disease anywhere across the globe. This has paved way for Australia as well as other countries to boost their dependence on recycled water (Burton et al. 2007).
• Current methods make recycled water safe for drinking. Contemporary water recycling practices have eradicated microbial organisms to a degree that they are harmless to humans. On this note, there is a high chance of applying recycled water for different purposes in addition to drinking. Currently, science is concentrating on boosting the effectiveness of water recycling practices through reduction of costs, as well as greenhouse gases (Pelusey & Pelusey 2006).
• Doubt. For a long time, it has been possible to convert sewage to safe, drinking water and this has acted as an excellent solution for water-scarce areas (Brown, Farrelly & Keath 2009). Nevertheless, this technology is not extensively applied, and even in some areas where it is applied, nobody in reality drinks the recycled water, not directly in any case. Many people still doubt the safety of recycled water for drinking.
• Psychological point of view. The psychological aspect is what makes people not directly drink recycled water, since people are hesitant to consume anything that they know has come from the toilet. Though recycled water may not be harmful, it may not auger well with people’s mindset after knowing that they have for once drunk it (Dolnicar & Hurlimann 2011). Even though recycling of water removes the contaminants, it is not able to detach its initial uniqueness as sewage.
• Recycled water is meant for non-potable functions. Reclaimed water is former sewage with contaminants removed and is employed for applications like irrigation. The aim of recycling is water conservation and not releasing recycled water for human consumption.
• Presence of pathogens. The description of recycled water as applied by Friedler and Hadari (2006) is the outcome of sewage reclamation that satisfies water value necessities for eco-friendly substance, suspended stuff, and pathogens. In other conventional application, recycled water denotes water that has not been highly purified with the purpose of providing a means of conserving potable water; this water is instead used for agriculture and other uses like laundry (Hurlimann & McKay 2007).
• Poor assessment standards. The states regulate recycled water and not the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Recent studies have proved that recycled water poses stern public health issues concerning pathogens in it that are not detected by the presently employed tests (Birks & Hills 2007). Moreover, the present tests fail to regard connections of heavy metals and pharmaceutics, which could promote the development of drug resistant microbes in recycled water obtained from sewage.
• Cost. The outlay on recycling water surpasses that of treating fresh water in different areas across the globe, where there is plenty of water (Kemp et al. 2012). Nevertheless, recycled water is normally distributed to people at a lower cost to persuade them to make use of it. Though, in most cases, recycled water is not used for drinking, it saves drinking water that could otherwise have been used for other purposes as little or no potable water will be employed for non-drinking purposes.
• Rich in nutrients. In most instances, recycled water is rich in nutrients like phosphorus and nitrogen that supports the growing crops in cases of its use in irrigation (Jarwal 2006). In this case, it turns out better and replaces drinking water that could otherwise have been used.

Breaking the characteristic of recycled water as water obtained from sewage and minimizing the difference between recycled water and fresh tap water may assist in the acceptance of recycled water even for potable purposes (Binnie, Kimber & Water 2009). Moreover, a different solution could be sending of properly tested recycled water into people’s taps for their use without initially informing them.

If people are then taught of its safety and it is proved to them through testing it, they may accept it without doubt. Nevertheless, recycled water must undergo thorough assessment and testing to make sure that it is suitable for drinking before it can be released for human consumption. To sum it up, whether recycled water is used for potable or non-potable purposes, its benefits cannot be underestimated (Upadhyaya & Moore 2012).

Binnie, C, Kimber, M & Water, A 2009, Basic water treatment , 4th edn, Thomas Telford, London. Web.

Birks, R & Hills, S 2007, ‘Characterisation of indicator organisms and pathogens in domestic greywater for recycling’, Environmental monitoring and assessment , vol. 129, no. 3, pp. 61-69. Web.

Brown, R, Farrelly, M & Keath, N 2009, ‘Practitioner perceptions of social and institutional barriers to advancing a diverse water source approach in Australia’, Water Resources Development , vol. 25, no. 1, pp. 15-28. Web.

Burton, F, Leverenz, H, Tsuchihashi, R & Tchobanoglous, G 2007, Water reuse: issues, technologies, and applications , McGraw-Hill, New York. Web.

Dolnicar, S & Hurlimann, A 2011, ‘Water alternatives—who and what influences public acceptance?’, Journal of Public Affairs , vol. 11, no. 1, pp. 49-59. Web.

Friedler, E & Hadari, M 2006, ‘Economic feasibility of on-site greywater reuse in multi-storey buildings’, Desalination , vol. 190 no. 1, pp. 221-234. Web.

Hurlimann, A 2011, ‘Household use of and satisfaction with alternative water sources in Victoria Australia’, Journal of environmental management , vol. 92 no. 10, pp. 2691-2697. Web.

Hurlimann, A & McKay, J 2007, ‘Urban Australians using recycled water for domestic non-potable use—An evaluation of the attributes price, saltiness, colour and odour using conjoint analysis’, Journal of Environmental Management , vol. 83 no. 1, pp. 93-104. Web.

Jarwal, S 2006, Using recycled water in horticulture: a grower’s guide , Dept of Primary Industries, Melbourne. Web.

Kemp, B, Randle, M, Hurlimann, A & Dolnicar, S 2012, ‘Community acceptance of recycled water: can we inoculate the public against scare campaigns?’, Journal of Public Affairs , vol. 12, no.4, pp. 337-346. Web.

Mankad, A & Tapsuwan, S 2011, ‘Review of socio-economic drivers of community acceptance and adoption of decentralised water systems’, Journal of Environmental Management , vol. 92, no. 3, pp. 380-391. Web.

Pelusey, M & Pelusey, J 2006, Recycled Water , Macmillan Education AU, South Yarra, Victoria. Web.

Upadhyaya, J. K & Moore, G 2012, ‘Sustainability indicators for wastewater reuse systems and their application to two small systems in rural Victoria, Australia’, Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering , vol. 39, no. 6, pp. 674-688. Web.

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• Water Pollution Essay

Water Pollution and How it Harms the Environment

Global pollution is a problem. Pollution can spread to remote areas where no one lives, despite the fact that urban areas are typically more polluted than the countryside. Air pollution, water pollution, and land pollution are the three main categories of pollution. Some contaminated water has a terrible smell, a muddy appearance, and floating trash. Some contaminated water appears clean, but it contains dangerous substances that you can't see or smell.

Together, developed and developing nations must fight to conserve the environment for present and future generations. Today, we dig deep into the subject of Water Pollution. This article can be an introduction to water pollution for kids as we will read many things such as the causes of water pollution further in the article.

What is Water Pollution?

Water contamination occurs when pollutants pollute water sources and make the water unfit for use in drinking, cooking, cleaning, swimming, and other activities. Chemicals, garbage, bacteria, and parasites are examples of pollutants. Water is eventually damaged by all types of pollution. Lakes and oceans become contaminated by air pollution. Land contamination may contaminate an underground stream, a river, and ultimately the ocean. As a result, trash thrown on an empty lot can eventually contaminate a water source.

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Water Pollution

The water cycle, called  the hydrological cycle, involves the following steps:

Evaporation- Because of the sun's heat, the water bodies such as oceans, lakes, seas etc., get heated up, and water evaporates in the air, forming water vapours.

Transpiration- Like evaporation, the plants and trees also lose water from them which goes to the atmosphere. This process is called transpiration.

Condensation- As the water evaporates, it starts to become cool because of the cold atmosphere in the air and because of this cooling down of water leads to the formation of clouds.

Precipitation- Because of the high movements of the wings, the clouds start to collide and then fall back to the earth’s surface in the form of rain. Sometimes they also fall back in the form of snow, hail, sleet etc., depending upon the temperature.

Runoff or Infiltration- After precipitation, the water either flows to the water bodies called runoff or is absorbed into the soil, called infiltration.

Causes of Water Pollution

There are many reasons for water pollution. Some of the reasons are directly affected by water pollution and some indirectly. Many factories and industries are dumping contaminated water, chemicals, and heavy metals into major waterways as a result of direct water pollution. 

One more reason for water pollution is the use of modern techniques in farms. Farmers apply nutrients such as phosphorus, nitrogen, and potassium in the form of chemical fertilizers, manure, and sludge. It causes farms to discharge large quantities of agrochemicals, organic matter, and saline drainage into water bodies. It indirectly affects water pollution.

Pollutants can be of various types such as organic, inorganic, radioactive etc. Water pollutants are discharged either from one point from pipes, channels etc., which are called point sources or from various other sources. They can be agricultural areas, industries etc., called dispersed sources. 

Some of the major forms of water pollutants are as follows:

Sewage- Domestic sewage from homes contains various forms of pathogens that threaten the human body. Sewage treatment reduces the risk of pathogens, but this risk is not eliminated. 

Domestic sewage majorly contains nitrates and phosphates, and excess of these substances allows the algae to grow on the surface of water bodies. Due to this, the clean water bodies become nutrient-rich water body and then slowly, the oxygen level of water bodies reduces. This is called eutrophication or cultural eutrophication (if this step rapidly takes place by the activities of humans). This leads to the early death of water bodies.

Toxins- The industrial or factory wastes that are not disposed of properly and contain chemicals such as mercury and lead are disposed of in the water bodies making the bodies toxic, radioactive, explosive and cancerous.

Sediments- Sediments are the result of soil erosion that is formed in the water bodies. These sediments imbalances the water bodies ecologically. They also interfere in the reproductive cycle of various aquatic animals living in the water.

Thermal pollution- Water bodies get polluted because of heat, and excess heat reduces the oxygen level of the water bodies. Some of the species of fish cannot live in such water bodies with very low oxygen levels. The disposal of cold waters from the power plants leads to increased thermal pollution in the water bodies.

Petroleum oil pollution- The runoff of oil into the water bodies, either accidentally as happened in 2010 in the Gulf of Mexico, or intentionally, leads to an increase in water pollution.

As water is an important element of human health, polluted water directly affects the human body. Water pollution causes various diseases like typhoid, cholera, hepatitis, cancer, etc. Water pollution damages the plants and aquatic animals present in the river by reducing the oxygen content from the water. Polluted water washes the essential nutrients which plants need out of the soil and also leaves large amounts of aluminium in the soil, which can be harmful to plants. 

Wastewater and sewage are a by-product of daily life and thus produced by each household through various activities like using soap, toilets, and detergents. Such sewage contains chemicals and bacteria which are harmful to human life and environmental health. Water pollution also leads to an imbalance in our ecosystem. Lastly, it also affects the food chain as the toxins in the water bodies are consumed by aquatic animals like fish, crabs etc., and then humans consume those animals forming turmoil. 

Sometimes our tradition also becomes a cause for water pollution. Some people throw the statues of deities, flowers, pots, and ashes in rivers.

There are various standards to define water quality standards. Water meant for swimming may not be clean enough for drinking, or water meant for bathing may not be good for cooking. Therefore, there are different water standards for defined:

Stream standards- Standards that define streams, lakes, oceans or seas based on their maximum use.

Effluent standards- Define the specific standards for the level of contaminants or effluents allowed during the final discharge of those into the water bodies.

Drinking water standards- Define the level of contamination allowed in water that will be supplied for drinking or cooking in the domestic areas.

Different countries regulate their water quality standards through different acts and amendments.

While many of the solutions for water pollution need to be applied on a broader macro-level for that individual, companies, and communities can have a significant and responsible impact on the water quality. Companies, factories have to dispose of leftover chemicals and containers properly as per the product instructions. Farmers also have to reduce the use of nitrates and phosphates from fertilizers, pesticides, and contamination of groundwater. 

The Swachh Bharat Mission of the government had led to reduced groundwater contamination. Under the Namami Ganga program, the government has initiated several major projects to clean Ganga. Along with all these steps, conservation of water is the very basic and important step towards water conservation and should be followed globally, treatment of sewage before their disposal in the water bodies and using environment-friendly products that do not form toxins when dissolved in water. These are some small steps that have to be taken into consideration by every human being.

As we all know, “Water is life’s matter and matrix, mother and medium. There is no life without water.” We have to save water. We must keep the water clean. If everyone will follow their responsibility against water to protect it from getting polluted then it will be easy to get clean and healthy drinking water. Clean water is a must for us and our kids' present, future, and healthy environment. 

We cannot just live with contaminated waters filled with toxins and no oxygen. We cannot see our wildlife being destroyed and therefore, immediate steps have to be taken by groups of people to first clean the already contaminated water bodies and then keep a check on all the surrounding water bodies. Small steps by every individual can make a huge difference in controlling water pollution.

Water Pollution Prevention

Conserve Water 

Our first priority should be to conserve water. Water wasting could be a big problem for the entire world, but we are just now becoming aware of it.

Sewage Treatment 

Cleaning up waste materials before disposing of them in waterways reduces pollution on a large scale. By lowering its dangerous elements, this wastewater will be used in other sectors or in agriculture.

Usage of Eco-Friendly Materials

We will reduce the amount of pollution produced by choosing soluble products that do not alter to become pollutants.

Water contamination is the discharge of pollutants into the water body, where they dissolve, are suspended, are deposited on the bottom, and collect to the point where they hinder the aquatic ecosystem's ability to function. Water contamination is brought on by toxic compounds that easily dissolve and combine with it and come from factories, municipalities, and farms.

Healthy ecosystems depend on a complex network of organisms, including animals, plants, bacteria, and fungi, all of which interact with one another either directly or indirectly. In this article, we read about water pollution, its causes and prevention. With this, we have come to the end of our article, in case of any other doubts, feel free to ask in the comments.

FAQs on Water Pollution Essay

1. What are the effects of water pollution?

Water pollution has a great impact on human health. Water pollution kills. It's been recorded that in 2015 nearly 1.8 million people died because of water pollution. People with low income are exposed to contaminated water coming out from the industries. Presence of disease causing pathogens in drinking water are the major cause of illness which includes cholera, giardia, and typhoid. Water pollution not only affects human health but also our environment by causing algal bloom in a lake or marine environment. Water pollution also causes eutrophication which suffocates plants and animals and thus causes dead zones. Chemicals and heavy metals from industrial and municipal wastewater contaminate waterways and harm aquatic life.

2. What are the causes of Water pollution?

Water being a universal solvent is vulnerable to pollution as it dissolves more substances than any other liquid on earth. Therefore, water is easily polluted. Toxic substances from farms, towns, and factories readily dissolve into water and mix with it, resulting in water pollution. Agricultural pollution is one of the major causes of contamination in rivers and streams. The use of excessive fertilizers, pesticides, and animal waste from farms and livestock operations lets the rain wash the nutrients and pathogens—such as bacteria and viruses—into our waterways. The other major cause of water pollution is used water,  termed as wastewater which comes from our sinks, showers, toilets and from commercial, industrial, and agricultural activities. It's been reported that the world's 80% wastewater flows back into the environment without being treated or reused. Oil spills and radioactive waste also cause water pollution to a great extent.

3. How to prevent water pollution?

It is important to keep our water bodies clean so we can take the following preventive measures to prevent from water pollution:

Chemicals like bleach, paint, paint thinner, ammonia, and many chemicals are becoming a serious problem. Dumping toxic chemicals down the drain or flushing them down the toilet can cause water pollution. Thus, proper disposal is important. Also, household chemicals need to be recycled.

Avoid buying products that contain persistent and dangerous chemicals. Buying non-toxic cleaners and biodegradable cleaners and pesticides cut down on water pollution.

Prevent from pouring fats or greasy substances down the drain as it might clog the drain resulting in the dumping of waste into yards or basement which can contaminate the local water bodies.

4. What is the role of medical institutions in polluting the water?

Pharmaceutical pollution affects aquatic life and thus there is a need to take preventive measures. Consumers are responsible for winding up pharmaceutical and personal care products in lakes, rivers, and streams. There's a lot of unused and expired medication that can potentially get into the water if not disposed of properly.

5. What are the major kinds of pollution?

The three main types of pollution are air pollution, water pollution or soil pollution. Some artificial pollution is also there, such as noise pollution. Factors leading to such pollution include:

Air Pollution: Industrial emissions, fires, traffic and transportation, burning of chemical waste, etc.

Water Pollution: No proper sewage disposal, pesticides in farms leaking into water bodies, industrial waste dumped into water bodies, etc.

Soil Pollution:  Oil spills, acid rains, irresponsible disposal of trash, chemical waste, etc.

Noise Pollution: Honking of horns, construction activities, loud parties, etc.

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Water Waste Management (Essay Sample)

Water is one of the most essential needs for a person to have a sustainable life. All creatures need water to progress and produce. Without it no one will exist, because our planet consists of mostly water therefore water gives us life. To have a sufficient supply of water we have to conserve. This is not an easy task especially in today’s era. Everything is commercialized and modernized to the point wherein natural conservation has been set aside. Increase in population is also one of the main reasons why water conservation becomes hard. As the number of people grows, the water becomes more polluted.

This is where water waste management comes in, it is the process of recycling water to be used again in a water system or to be disposed in an environmentally-conscious manner. The major problem in the modernized world is that every now and then infrastructures arise which makes it harder to recycle water because the sewage system becomes small. Sewage treatment is one of the major fields in water waste management. All that comes from your toilet, be it showers, baths, sinks etc. is directly generated into sewage systems. The wastewater that comes from industrial facilities is dangerous because it carries harmful pollutants that and if not handled with care, these pollutants turn into toxins that will cause illness or even death for millions of people on a global scale.

Another problem in the modern management is the small capacity of sewage system. Other cities also tend to direct the rain water into the sewage system that causes overflow in it. If the overflow happens, all the contaminants in the sewage will be spread in all parts of the city which is very harmful to the people. Sewage systems consist of pipes and pumps and have three stages of filtration. The first stage is separating solid waste from the water. Second stage is treating the water and removing microorganisms. Third stage is the process called microfiltration. In this stage the water is being treated and chemical additives are added into the water which eventually treats the liquid and transforms them into drinkable or usable water for our daily use.

Recycling water is no easy task; it takes a lot of time, effort, and investment in doing so. Wasted water will affect so many people’s lives. Dirty water is as harmful as poison when consumed by a person. We can aid in recycling water by researching on how to do simple filtration set-ups, conserve water when not in use, and properly segregate and dispose of garbage so as to not provide toxins in water.

There are two types of wastewater that we can recycle on our own. First is the black water that comes from our toilet. If you want to have your own sewage system, this black water can be regulated in a leach field. Second is the grey water, which comes from our sink. Grey water can be used in watering the plants, washing the tires of your car or even washing your garage. This type of waste water can be used in other chores but is not potable.

In doing your own waste water management at you home you can help the environment be clean. It will also lessen the work of sewage systems and it will save the world a lot of water. In order to live a happy and healthy life we should all take charge of our own cleanliness. Let us not take for granted the small things that will make our lives easier and for future generations who will inevitably use them.

Environmental Pollution in the Moscow Region According to Long-term Roshydromet Monitoring Data

• Published: 02 November 2020
• Volume 45 , pages 523–532, ( 2020 )

Cite this article

• G. M. Chernogaeva 1 , 2 ,
• L. R. Zhuravleva 1 ,
• Yu. A. Malevanov 1 ,
• N. A. Fursov 3 ,
• G. V. Pleshakova 3 &
• T. B. Trifilenkova 3  

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Long-term Roshydromet monitoring data (2009–2018) on the pollution of the atmosphere, soil, and surface water are considered for the Moscow region (Moscow city within its new boundaries and the Moscow oblast). The air quality in the megacity (Moscow) and in background conditions (Prioksko-Terrasny Reserve) is compared.

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Izrael Institute of Global Climate and Ecology, 107258, Moscow, Russia

G. M. Chernogaeva, L. R. Zhuravleva & Yu. A. Malevanov

Institute of Geography, Russian Academy of Sciences, 119017, Moscow, Russia

G. M. Chernogaeva

Central Administration for Hydrometeorology and Environmental Monitoring, 127055, Moscow, Russia

N. A. Fursov, G. V. Pleshakova & T. B. Trifilenkova

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Correspondence to G. M. Chernogaeva .

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Russian Text ©The Author(s), 2020, published in Meteorologiya i Gidrologiya, 2020, No. 8, pp. 9-21.

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Chernogaeva, G.M., Zhuravleva, L.R., Malevanov, Y.A. et al. Environmental Pollution in the Moscow Region According to Long-term Roshydromet Monitoring Data . Russ. Meteorol. Hydrol. 45 , 523–532 (2020). https://doi.org/10.3103/S1068373920080014

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Received : 06 February 2020

Revised : 06 February 2020

Accepted : 06 February 2020

Published : 02 November 2020

Issue Date : August 2020

DOI : https://doi.org/10.3103/S1068373920080014

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Essay on Water for Students and Children

500+ words essay on water.

Water is one of the most important substances for life on earth to function. It is equally important for humans as well as animals. Water does not merely help us survive, but it is significant for our day to day functioning. It has numerous uses when we come to think about it. Majority of our earth is covered with water itself, but, not all of it is safe for consumption. Therefore, it makes it essential for us to utilize this transparent substance chemical wisely. Moreover, if we look at the shortage of water happening in our country, it makes it all the more important to conserve it immediately.

Uses of Water

As we have already said that water has numerous uses, we will see where it is used. This part will most importantly help us realize the importance of water . It will make humans aware of what absence of water in the following areas can do to human life. As India’s main occupation is agriculture, water is exhaustively used here. Irrigation and cattle rearing requires a lot of water. Thus, a lot of farmers’ livelihood depends on it.

Further, industries use water for various purposes. It comes in handy when cooling, manufacturing and transporting several goods. For instance, thermal power plants consume quite a substantial amount of water for their running.

Furthermore, the domestic use of water cannot be left behind. In the day to day life of the common man, water plays a vital role. That is to say, from drinking water to washing utensils, we need water every step of the way.

After that, plants need water to survive and make food. It is one of the main elements which help them grow. Hence, water is extremely important for humans, animals, and plants to survive .

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Do not Waste Water

While water is quite essential and yet so scarce, however, people fail to realize this fact. They waste water with little or no care for the results of this activity. There are various ways in which one can avoid wasting water . To begin with, all households must get their leaking taps checked. They should fix them immediately as every drop is precious.

Similarly, we must choose buckets instead of showers for bathing. This is a very debatable topic and it needs to be settled. Showers waste a lot of water, so people must prefer buckets. This particular habit is quite commonly found in most of the households. People do not turn off their taps while brushing their teeth and washing utensils. Always remember to keep the tap off when doing so.

In addition, encourage rainwater harvesting system in all homes. This can help conserve water like never before.

In short, water is essential for the survival of mankind. But, it is, unfortunately, being waster rapidly. Every citizen and government must come together to tackle this issue. Governments must ensure all areas get water equally. On the other hand, citizens must keep in mind to use it wisely and not waste it unnecessarily.

FAQs on Water

Q.1 State the importance of water.

A.1 Water is of the utmost importance for human and animal life. It gives us water to drink. It also comes in great use for farmers and industries. Even common man requires water for various purposes like drinking, cleaning, bathing and more.

Q.2 List the ways to avoid wastage of water.

A.2 Everyone must avoid wasting water. We can do so by fixing our leaking taps, avoiding showers for bathing, and turning off taps when brushing. Furthermore, we can adopt rainwater harvesting system to conserve water.

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