critical and contemporary issues in education

Four of the biggest problems facing education—and four trends that could make a difference

Eduardo velez bustillo, harry a. patrinos.

In 2022, we published, Lessons for the education sector from the COVID-19 pandemic , which was a follow up to,  Four Education Trends that Countries Everywhere Should Know About , which summarized views of education experts around the world on how to handle the most pressing issues facing the education sector then. We focused on neuroscience, the role of the private sector, education technology, inequality, and pedagogy.

Unfortunately, we think the four biggest problems facing education today in developing countries are the same ones we have identified in the last decades .

1. The learning crisis was made worse by COVID-19 school closures

Low quality instruction is a major constraint and prior to COVID-19, the learning poverty rate in low- and middle-income countries was 57% (6 out of 10 children could not read and understand basic texts by age 10). More dramatic is the case of Sub-Saharan Africa with a rate even higher at 86%. Several analyses show that the impact of the pandemic on student learning was significant, leaving students in low- and middle-income countries way behind in mathematics, reading and other subjects.  Some argue that learning poverty may be close to 70% after the pandemic , with a substantial long-term negative effect in future earnings. This generation could lose around $21 trillion in future salaries, with the vulnerable students affected the most.

2. Countries are not paying enough attention to early childhood care and education (ECCE)

At the pre-school level about two-thirds of countries do not have a proper legal framework to provide free and compulsory pre-primary education. According to UNESCO, only a minority of countries, mostly high-income, were making timely progress towards SDG4 benchmarks on early childhood indicators prior to the onset of COVID-19. And remember that ECCE is not only preparation for primary school. It can be the foundation for emotional wellbeing and learning throughout life; one of the best investments a country can make.

3. There is an inadequate supply of high-quality teachers

Low quality teaching is a huge problem and getting worse in many low- and middle-income countries.  In Sub-Saharan Africa, for example, the percentage of trained teachers fell from 84% in 2000 to 69% in 2019 . In addition, in many countries teachers are formally trained and as such qualified, but do not have the minimum pedagogical training. Globally, teachers for science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) subjects are the biggest shortfalls.

4. Decision-makers are not implementing evidence-based or pro-equity policies that guarantee solid foundations

It is difficult to understand the continued focus on non-evidence-based policies when there is so much that we know now about what works. Two factors contribute to this problem. One is the short tenure that top officials have when leading education systems. Examples of countries where ministers last less than one year on average are plentiful. The second and more worrisome deals with the fact that there is little attention given to empirical evidence when designing education policies.

To help improve on these four fronts, we see four supporting trends:

1. Neuroscience should be integrated into education policies

Policies considering neuroscience can help ensure that students get proper attention early to support brain development in the first 2-3 years of life. It can also help ensure that children learn to read at the proper age so that they will be able to acquire foundational skills to learn during the primary education cycle and from there on. Inputs like micronutrients, early child stimulation for gross and fine motor skills, speech and language and playing with other children before the age of three are cost-effective ways to get proper development. Early grade reading, using the pedagogical suggestion by the Early Grade Reading Assessment model, has improved learning outcomes in many low- and middle-income countries. We now have the tools to incorporate these advances into the teaching and learning system with AI , ChatGPT , MOOCs and online tutoring.

2. Reversing learning losses at home and at school

There is a real need to address the remaining and lingering losses due to school closures because of COVID-19.  Most students living in households with incomes under the poverty line in the developing world, roughly the bottom 80% in low-income countries and the bottom 50% in middle-income countries, do not have the minimum conditions to learn at home . These students do not have access to the internet, and, often, their parents or guardians do not have the necessary schooling level or the time to help them in their learning process. Connectivity for poor households is a priority. But learning continuity also requires the presence of an adult as a facilitator—a parent, guardian, instructor, or community worker assisting the student during the learning process while schools are closed or e-learning is used.

To recover from the negative impact of the pandemic, the school system will need to develop at the student level: (i) active and reflective learning; (ii) analytical and applied skills; (iii) strong self-esteem; (iv) attitudes supportive of cooperation and solidarity; and (v) a good knowledge of the curriculum areas. At the teacher (instructor, facilitator, parent) level, the system should aim to develop a new disposition toward the role of teacher as a guide and facilitator. And finally, the system also needs to increase parental involvement in the education of their children and be active part in the solution of the children’s problems. The Escuela Nueva Learning Circles or the Pratham Teaching at the Right Level (TaRL) are models that can be used.

3. Use of evidence to improve teaching and learning

We now know more about what works at scale to address the learning crisis. To help countries improve teaching and learning and make teaching an attractive profession, based on available empirical world-wide evidence , we need to improve its status, compensation policies and career progression structures; ensure pre-service education includes a strong practicum component so teachers are well equipped to transition and perform effectively in the classroom; and provide high-quality in-service professional development to ensure they keep teaching in an effective way. We also have the tools to address learning issues cost-effectively. The returns to schooling are high and increasing post-pandemic. But we also have the cost-benefit tools to make good decisions, and these suggest that structured pedagogy, teaching according to learning levels (with and without technology use) are proven effective and cost-effective .

4. The role of the private sector

When properly regulated the private sector can be an effective education provider, and it can help address the specific needs of countries. Most of the pedagogical models that have received international recognition come from the private sector. For example, the recipients of the Yidan Prize on education development are from the non-state sector experiences (Escuela Nueva, BRAC, edX, Pratham, CAMFED and New Education Initiative). In the context of the Artificial Intelligence movement, most of the tools that will revolutionize teaching and learning come from the private sector (i.e., big data, machine learning, electronic pedagogies like OER-Open Educational Resources, MOOCs, etc.). Around the world education technology start-ups are developing AI tools that may have a good potential to help improve quality of education .

After decades asking the same questions on how to improve the education systems of countries, we, finally, are finding answers that are very promising.  Governments need to be aware of this fact.

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Consultant, Education Sector, World Bank

Senior Adviser, Education

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The 10 Education Issues Everybody Should Be Talking About

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What issues have the potential to define—or re define—education in the year ahead? Is there a next “big thing” that could shift the K-12 experience or conversation?

These were the questions Education Week set out to answer in this second annual “10 Big Ideas in Education” report.

You can read about last year’s ideas here . In 2019, though, things are different.

This year, we asked Education Week reporters to read the tea leaves and analyze what was happening in classrooms, school districts, and legislatures across the country. What insights could reporters offer practitioners for the year ahead?

Some of the ideas here are speculative. Some are warning shots, others more optimistic. But all 10 of them here have one thing in common: They share a sense of urgency.

Accompanied by compelling illustrations and outside perspectives from leading researchers, advocates, and practitioners, this year’s Big Ideas might make you uncomfortable, or seem improbable. The goal was to provoke and empower you as you consider them.

Let us know what you think, and what big ideas matter to your classroom, school, or district. Tweet your comments with #K12BigIdeas .

No. 1: Kids are right. School is boring.

Out-of-school learning is often more meaningful than anything that happens in a classroom, writes Kevin Bushweller, the Executive Editor of EdWeek Market Brief. His essay tackling the relevance gap is accompanied by a Q&A with advice on nurturing, rather than stifling students’ natural curiosity. Read more.

No. 2: Teachers have trust issues. And it’s no wonder why.

Many teachers may have lost faith in the system, says Andrew Ujifusa, but they haven’t lost hope. The Assistant Editor unpacks this year’s outbreak of teacher activism. And read an account from a disaffected educator on how he built a coalition of his own. Read more.

No. 3: Special education is broken.

Forty years since students with disabilities were legally guaranteed a public school education, many still don’t receive the education they deserve, writes Associate Editor Christina A. Samuels. Delve into her argument and hear from a disability civil rights pioneer on how to create an equitable path for students. Read more.

No. 4: Schools are embracing bilingualism, but only for some students.

Staff Writer Corey Mitchell explains the inclusion problem at the heart of bilingual education. His essay includes a perspective from a researcher on dismantling elite bilingualism. Read more.

No. 5: A world without annual testing may be closer than you think.

There’s agreement that we have a dysfunctional standardized-testing system in the United States, Associate Editor Stephen Sawchuk writes. But killing it would come with some serious tradeoffs. Sawchuk’s musing on the alternatives to annual tests is accompanied by an argument for more rigorous classroom assignments by a teacher-practice expert. Read more.

No. 6: There are lessons to be learned from the educational experiences of black students in military families.

Drawing on his personal experience growing up in an Air Force family, Staff Writer Daarel Burnette II highlights emerging research on military-connected students. Learn more about his findings and hear from two researchers on what a new ESSA mandate means for these students. Read more.

No. 7: School segregation is not an intractable American problem.

Racial and economic segregation remains deeply entrenched in American schools. Staff Writer Denisa R. Superville considers the six steps one district is taking to change that. Her analysis is accompanied by an essay from the president of the American Educational Research Association on what is perpetuating education inequality. Read more.

No. 8: Consent doesn’t just belong in sex ed. class. It needs to start a lot earlier.

Assistant Editor Sarah D. Sparks looked at the research on teaching consent and found schools and families do way too little, way too late. Her report is partnered with a researcher’s practical guide to developmentally appropriate consent education. Read more.

No. 9: Education has an innovation problem.

Are education leaders spending too much time chasing the latest tech trends to maintain what they have? Staff Writer Benjamin Herold explores the innovation trap. Two technologists offer three tips for putting maintenance front and center in school management. Read more.

No. 10: There are two powerful forces changing college admissions.

Some colleges are rewriting the admissions script for potential students. Senior Contributing Writer Catherine Gewertz surveys this changing college admissions landscape. Her insights are accompanied by one teacher’s advice for navigating underserved students through the college application process. Read more.

Wait, there’s more.

Want to know what educators really think about innovation? A new Education Week Research Center survey delves into what’s behind the common buzzword for teachers, principals, and district leaders. Take a look at the survey results.

A version of this article appeared in the January 09, 2019 edition of Education Week as What’s on the Horizon for 2019?

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Investigating Critical and Contemporary Issues in Education

Author(s): Tiffany A. Flowers , Dorian Harrison

Copyright: 2022

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Investigating Critical and  Contemporary Issues in Education provides an abundance of information does more than just list dates, facts, and figures. It challenges the reader to look to the past, present, and future - encouraging beliefs, practice, and perspectives that encourage justice and belonging for all. The publication investigates contemporary Issues in universal pre-k, classroom size, bullying, sex education, censorship, school funding, and lack of credentials.

Investigating Critical and  Contemporary Issues in Education also shares overlooked elements in the formation of schooling we see manifested today.  It takes the time to highlight current and historical events that may not be as widely known or understood. The book is not only informative, but also transformative.

To help create better educators, the publication uses opening reflections on key issues, a myriad of case vignettes, and creates connections between concepts and vignettes.  In addition, students are provided with activities and reflection questions to put concepts into practice.  In addition, the publication is packaged with access to KHQ – a quizzing app that provides feedback on concepts and ability to track struggling areas and progress.

To make a change in the classroom, we can expect our teachers to enact this change. If they too understand what is really happening and begin to unlearn and relearn, there will be a difference in our society.

About the Authors

CHAPTER 1 Early History of Education in the United States (1600–1915)

CHAPTER 2 Philosophies of Education

CHAPTER 3 Education Reform

CHAPTER 4 Civil Rights in Education

CHAPTER 5 Contemporary Issues in Education

CHAPTER 6 Social and Political Issues in Education

CHAPTER 7 Global Approaches to Education

CHAPTER 8 Ethics in the Education Profession

CHAPTER 9 Technology and Education

CHAPTER 10 Teachers Dispositions

Dr. Dorian Harrison is an assistant professor in the College of Education and Human Ecology’s Department of Teaching and Learning at The Ohio State University at Newark. She was raised in Nashville, TN and is a graduate of the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign where she earned a Ph.D. in curriculum and instruction. She also holds a K-6 teaching license with ESL endorsement. She teaches foundational and licensure course in literacy at the undergraduate and graduate level. Dr. Harrison has over 15 years of experience in education. She worked as an elementary teacher, Pre-K teacher, literacy specialist, educational consultant, after school program director, and college coach/tutor. Dr. Dorian Harrison is a member of the Diversity Scholars Network at the University of Michigan. Dr. Harrison is also a 2021 NCTE Early Career Educator of Color award recipient. 

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Journal of Contemporary Issues in Education

Managing editor(s): Maren Elfert, Carrie Karsgaard, Lynette Shultz

The Journal of Contemporary Issues in Education (JCIE) is committed to publishing original articles by eminent and emerging scholars that take a critical and interdisciplinary approach on a variety of issues in education from diverse contexts. The journal is open to both field-based research and conceptual and theoretical works; it especially welcomes critical scholarship that aims to contest conventional assumptions about educational and social development contexts and relationships. As such, JCIE accepts for review, previously unpublished articles that include but are not limited to global education, foundations of education (including sociological, philosophical, historical and cultural studies in education), citizenship and human rights education, social justice and related issues in education, specialized curriculum studies topics, policy studies in education and politics of education. We welcome suggestions for special issues and book reviews.

Back issues (4 issues)

Permanent archiving of articles on Érudit is provided by Portico .

• Volume 18, Number 2, 2023 Indigenous Historiographies, Place, and Memory in Decolonizing Educational Research, Policy, and Pedagogic Praxis: Special Issue in Honour and Memory of Professor Michael Marker (1951-2021)
• Volume 18, Number 1, 2023
• Volume 17, Number 2, 2022 Special Issue: Towards a SoTL Embracing Critical Southern Paradigms and Frameworks in Higher Education: Curriculum Innovations, Flexible Pedagogies, and Teaching and Learning Support Technologies from a Global South
• Volume 17, Number 1, 2022

What education policy experts are watching for in 2022

Subscribe to the brown center on education policy newsletter, daphna bassok , daphna bassok nonresident senior fellow - governance studies , brown center on education policy @daphnabassok stephanie riegg cellini , stephanie riegg cellini nonresident senior fellow - governance studies , brown center on education policy michael hansen , michael hansen senior fellow - brown center on education policy , the herman and george r. brown chair - governance studies @drmikehansen douglas n. harris , douglas n. harris nonresident senior fellow - governance studies , brown center on education policy , professor and chair, department of economics - tulane university @douglasharris99 jon valant , and jon valant director - brown center on education policy , senior fellow - governance studies @jonvalant kenneth k. wong kenneth k. wong nonresident senior fellow - governance studies , brown center on education policy.

January 7, 2022

Entering 2022, the world of education policy and practice is at a turning point. The ongoing coronavirus pandemic continues to disrupt the day-to-day learning for children across the nation, bringing anxiety and uncertainty to yet another year. Contentious school-board meetings attract headlines as controversy swirls around critical race theory and transgender students’ rights. The looming midterm elections threaten to upend the balance of power in Washington, with serious implications for the federal education landscape. All of these issues—and many more—will have a tremendous impact on students, teachers, families, and American society as a whole; whether that impact is positive or negative remains to be seen.

Below, experts from the Brown Center on Education Policy identify the education stories that they’ll be following in 2022, providing analysis on how these issues could shape the learning landscape for the next 12 months—and possibly well into the future.

I will also be watching the Department of Education’s negotiated rulemaking sessions and following any subsequent regulatory changes to federal student-aid programs. I expect to see changes to income-driven repayment plans and will be monitoring debates over regulations governing institutional and programmatic eligibility for federal student-loan programs. Notably, the Department of Education will be re-evaluating Gainful Employment regulations—put in place by the Obama administration and rescinded by the Trump administration—which tied eligibility for federal funding to graduates’ earnings and debt.

But the biggest and most concerning hole has been in the  substitute teacher force —and the ripple effects on school communities have been broad and deep. Based on personal communications with Nicola Soares, president of  Kelly Education , the largest education staffing provider in the country, the pandemic is exacerbating several problematic trends that have been quietly simmering for years. These are: (1) a growing reliance on long-term substitutes to fill permanent teacher positions; (2) a shrinking supply of qualified individuals willing to fill short-term substitute vacancies; and, (3) steadily declining fill rates for schools’ substitute requests. Many schools in high-need settings have long faced challenges with adequate, reliable substitutes, and the pandemic has turned these localized trouble spots into a widespread catastrophe. Though federal pandemic-relief funds could be used to meet the short-term weakness in the substitute labor market (and mainline teacher compensation, too ), this is an area where we sorely need more research and policy solutions for a permanent fix.

First, what’s to come of the vaccine for ages 0-4? This is now the main impediment to resuming in-person activity. This is the only large group that currently cannot be vaccinated. Also, outbreaks are triggering day-care closures, which has a significant impact on parents (especially mothers), including teachers and other school staff.

Second, will schools (and day cares) require the vaccine for the fall of 2022? Kudos to my hometown of New Orleans, which still appears to be the nation’s only district to require vaccination. Schools normally require a wide variety of other vaccines, and the COVID-19 vaccines are very effective. However, this issue is unfortunately going to trigger a new round of intense political conflict and opposition that will likely delay the end of the pandemic.

Third, will we start to see signs of permanent changes in schooling a result of COVID-19? In a previous post on this blog, I proposed some possibilities. There are some real opportunities before us, but whether we can take advantage of them depends on the first two questions. We can’t know about these long-term effects on schooling until we address the COVID-19 crisis so that people get beyond survival mode and start planning and looking ahead again. I’m hopeful, though not especially optimistic, that we’ll start to see this during 2022.

The CTC and universal pre-K top my list for 2022, but it’s a long list. I’ll also be watching the Supreme Court’s ruling on vouchers in Carson v. Makin , how issues like critical race theory and detracking play into the 2022 elections, and whether we start to see more signs of school/district innovation in response to COVID-19 and the recovery funds that followed.

Electoral dynamics will affect several important issues: the selection of state superintendents; the use of American Rescue Plan funds; the management of safe return to in-person learning for students; the integration of racial justice and diversity into curriculum; the growth of charter schools; and, above all, the extent to which education issues are leveraged to polarize rather than heal the growing divisions among the American public.

Early Childhood Education Education Policy Higher Education

Governance Studies

Brown Center on Education Policy

Annelies Goger, Katherine Caves, Hollis Salway

May 16, 2024

Sofoklis Goulas, Isabelle Pula

Melissa Kay Diliberti, Elizabeth D. Steiner, Ashley Woo

EDUC 2110 - Investigating Critical and Contemporary Issues in Education

EDUC 2110: Investigating Critical and Contemporary Issues in Education

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In this Guide, you will find detailed student learning outcomes (SLO)  for the course, with suggested readings, videos, and interactive activities for each outcome.

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EDUC 2110 - Investigating Critical and Contemporary Issues in Education

2 Class Hours 1 Laboratory Hours 3 Credit Hours Prerequisite: ENGL 1102. This course engages potential education candidates in observations and interactions in schools, and analyses of critical and contemporary educational issues. Candidates investigate issues influencing the social and political contexts of educational settings in Georgia and the United States. Candidates actively examine the teaching profession from multiple vantage points both within and outside the school. Against this backdrop, candidates reflect on and interpret the meaning of education and schooling in a diverse culture. Includes the use of current technologies which are directly related to effective teaching and 15 hours of observation and participation in an appropriate school setting elementary/early childhood, middle grades, secondary or P-12 environments. Verification of professional liability insurance and a criminal background check are required prior to receiving a school placement.

  Notes: Verification of professional liability insurance and a criminal background check are required prior to receiving a school placement. Offered as an online course.

Investigating Critical & Contemporary Issues in Education

Education has long been a topic of debate. The world's greatest thinkers continue to revolutionize methods to create a better generation. But every time a seemingly flawless method is devised, a later and greater thinker proves it to be complete nonsense. The philosopher Freidrich William Neitzche comments that, "Philosophical systems are wholly true only for their founders. For all subsequent philosophers they usually seem one great mistake..."

Author [ edit | edit source ]

Timothy Goodale Ph.D

Unit 1: Current Student Related Challenges [ edit | edit source ]

Unit 2: current teacher related challenges [ edit | edit source ], unit 3: current school, state and national related challenges [ edit | edit source ].

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How one school is trying to improve attendance of chronically absent students

Leigh Paterson

In 2023, about one in four students was chronically absent. Schools are going above and beyond to turn those numbers around. That often means having difficult conversations with students and families.

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4 Chapter 4: Enlightenment Philosophy: John Locke

This chapter introduces students to the educational philosophy of John Locke (1632-1704). As is the case with most philosophers, John Locke was writing in response to ideas published by former philosophers. In this case, Locke’s most famous works, his treatises on government, were a response to Thomas Hobbes’s political theory as presented in his famous Leviathan, published in 1651. Hobbes advocated the value of a benevolent monarchy, hence the leviathan, in governing society. Because Hobbes believed that individuals were primarily self-seeking and potentially violent if left free, they would be willing to enter into a social contract to protect their lives. Due to Hobbes’s view of human nature, he argued that individuals would agree to contract with a benevolent monarch to govern and protect society.

Locke, on the other hand, who believed that human nature was sufficiently rational to develop representative government, believed that individuals would agree to a social contract that guaranteed representative government. Based on his theory of natural rights, Locke believed representative government to be ideal in protecting individuals and their property. In other words, since Locke viewed all individuals to be naturally free, equal and capable of moral reasoning, he advocated limited self-government and majority rule as the best way to protect natural rights. Likewise, Locke gave significantly less authority and responsibility to government than did Hobbes, and he made the argument that citizens could revoke their social contract if government repeatedly abused its authority.

Locke was an empiricist who believed that all knowledge, including simple and complex ideas, ultimately relied on sense experience. Opposing Plato’s eternal Forms and Aristotle’s teleological theories, Locke believed that the mind was blank at birth (tabula rasa) and through continual experiences children would move from simple ideas to more complex ideas and the ability to morally reason. Locke’s epistemological view contributed to his views on education, of course, and he supported home education, viewing parents as the best guarantors of their children’s educational needs. Locke’s fear of powerful government caused him to oppose public schooling (except for educational provisions for the poor).

Learning Objectives

Upon completing this module, students will be able to:

• Understand Locke’s theoretical foundation for representative government and social contract theory.
• Articulate Locke’s emphasis on natural rights, the state of nature, and property.
• Understand Locke’s idea of negative liberty.
• Articulate Locke’s empirical approach to knowledge.
• Articulate Locke’s plans for education of youth.
• Recognize criticisms of and inconsistencies in Locke’s educational philosophy and his theory of representative government.
• Distinguish differences among Plato, Aristotle, and Locke’s theories.

Part 1, Chapter 4 Preface to Readings

Like many philosophers of his day, Locke’s thinking was heavily influenced by the Enlightenment. The Enlightenment is understood as consisting of three major events. First, the Renaissance (1500-1688) characterized a resurgence of appreciation for classical learning exemplified by ancient Greek and Rome. Humanism, the notion that human beings, as opposed to relying on divine intervention as was often the case during the Middle Ages, are responsible for human affairs. Humanism celebrated Man’s reason and creativity, as well as Man’s ability to improve his condition without supernatural intervention. Man was now responsible for progress, which required action, courage, and a sense of self-worth. The invention of printing during this period also created the demand for and opened opportunities to knowledge formerly available to the Church and the elite.

Second, the Protestant Reformation (1517) challenged and fractured the Catholic Church’s hegemony in religious matter. Protestantism democratized religion through the development of multiple sects and denomination and most importantly supporting the idea of individual (as opposed to authoritarian) interpretation of the Bible. This individualism encouraged individual literacy among groups that were formerly illiterate, beginning an increased demand for education.

Third, scientific discoveries by Copernicus, Galileo, and Newton, to name a few, significantly altered understanding of nature and the cosmos. With the use of new scientific instruments and the investigations they enabled, scientists were able to understand new paradigms that ruptured traditional concepts of nature and our place in it. Science and reason increasingly displaced religious interpretations and justifications of the natural world, which paralleled the emergence of humanism. Man was now perceived as having the capacity to reason and to determine his own potential, and to influence his world without relying on spiritual intervention or ecclesiastical authority. It is understandable how the Enlightenment impacted new ideas about politics, history, philosophy, and education.

Locke’s Ideas on Knowledge and Education

While Locke was devoutly religious, he did not believe that humans were born with a hidden knowledge or preconceptions that had to be discovered over time, such as Plato’s ideal Forms or Aristotle’s telos. Rather, Locke believed that children were born with no knowledge, apparent or hidden, but rather with a blank mind (tabula rasa). Only experience with the natural world would imprint knowledge onto the mind. This is known as empiricism, the belief that we come to know the world around us through sense experience. The notion that children passively absorb knowledge through the senses contributed to the idea that they were malleable. In other words, external educational techniques and stimuli could be utilized to develop children’s ability to morally reason and to conform to appropriate social expectations. Developmentally, Locke believed that sense experience provided young children with simple ideas related to natural objects, the ability to learn differences in temperature, sounds, textures, and so forth, and that over time children would store significantly sufficient information and enable their ability to form complex ideas, including moral reasoning. Moral reasoning was particularly important for Locke since he believed that this more complex level of thinking was necessary (and achievable) by adulthood, which would contribute to a well-ordered society.

Locke published his Some Thoughts Concerning Education in 1693. He provides information about his specific learning theories and styles, including but not limited to child-centered education, the importance of parental or home education, and his opposition to public and private schooling (due largely to his trepidation over excessive government power).

Locke’s Political Theory

First, it is important to understand what Locke was responding to in his treatises on government. Thomas Hobbes published his Leviathan in 1651 providing a justification for executive power. Hobbes premised his arguments on the hypothetical state of nature. In this state, which is prior to the development of civil government, human beings are completely free. Hobbes also held that human beings were selfish and self-seeking, making them prone to violence and cruelty. Without law and order, Hobbes concluded that the state of nature would resemble anarchy and that “the life of man [would be] solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short.” Therefore, Hobbes concluded that in order to remove themselves from a state of war and to enjoy the benefits of peace, individuals would be willing to give up their complete freedom (and vulnerability) and agree to a form of government wherein complete authority would be given to a sovereign power or monarch. Since this contract (or covenant) will not change human nature, Hobbes gives the sovereign complete authority in maintaining order. Safety is predicated on the necessity of obedience to absolute power. The sovereign, expected primarily to maintain peace, according to the contract, has an interest in limited governance, albeit absolute authority. The sovereign also exercises complete authority over religious matters.

In response to Hobbes, Locke presents a more generous view of human nature and likewise supports representative government. Locke utilizes the same hypothetical state of nature when setting up his argument. However, seeing human beings as rational creatures, he does not view the state of nature as violent. Nevertheless, he does conclude that individuals in the state of nature, in order to protect their lives, liberties, and property, will agree to a social contract limiting government power. Because he views individuals more positively, Locke supports representation and rotation in public office, majority rule, and giving ultimate authority to the people. If government abuses its powers repeatedly, Locke radically concludes that citizens can revoke or dissolve the government and replace it with another. Locke’s fear of centralized power also caused him to support a negative form of liberty, meaning a very limited government or a government that is restricted to purely public matters and protecting lives, liberties, and property. His fear of despotic government also caused him to support home schooling. He reluctantly agreed that the government should provide basic education to poor children, but his education plan was developed with the gentry or upper class in mind.

Questions to Consider

• If parents have exclusive authority over their children’s education, how likely is it that they will learn about perspectives different from their own?
• Locke prioritizes the moral freedom of individual adults. How is this method of education going to develop such moral freedom?
• How will this kind of insular education develop respect for the moral freedom of others who are different?
• What if parents choose to teach their children to be racists or xenophobic?
• If minority families (defined in various ways) teach their children according to their cultural backgrounds, how will they be impacted in the broader society, particularly in one that values negative liberty?
• Should the state exercise any reasonable responsibility over children’s education?
• Why does Locke fear government schooling?

Locke, John. (1988).  Two Treatises of Government . Laslett, Peter (Ed.). New York: Cambridge University Press.

Locke, John. (1983).  A Letter Concerning Toleration . Indianapolis, IN: Hackett Publishing.

Locke, John. (1959).  An Essay Concerning Human Understanding: In Two Volumes . Fraser, Alexander

Campbell (Ed.). New York: Dover Publications.

Tannenbaum, Donald G., and Schultz, David. (1988).  Inventors of Ideas: An Introduction to Western Political Philosophy . New York: St. Martin’s Press.

After reading Locke’s work, sited above, have students discuss how Locke’s views on education relate to or parallel his views on government.

Have students discuss Locke’s Letter on Toleration and how this work influenced Thomas Jefferson’s ideas on the separation of church and state.

External Readings & Resources

John Locke, Some Thoughts Concerning Education (The Liberty Fund’s Online Library of Liberty)

John Locke, Letter on Toleration (The Liberty Fund’s Online Library of Liberty, optional)

Supplemental Materials

John Locke’s Two Treatises on Government

John Locke (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)

Tarcov, Nathan. Locke’s Education for Liberty. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984. (chapter 1). London: Routledge.

Investigating Critical and Contemporary Issues in Education Copyright © by Brian Dotts is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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'The academic freedom fueled my own critical thinking and curiosities'

Ianna Ramdhany Correa: Government & China & Asia-Pacific Studies

A&S Communications

Ianna Ramdhany Correa

Government & China & Asia-Pacific Studies New York, N.Y.

What was your favorite class and why?  

My favorite class has been Experiencing Global China, which I took as a Cornell class offered at Peking University through the Cornell China & Asia-Pacific Studies (CAPS) program. Every week, experts from different disciplines would come and give a lecture on a topic related to China and foreign affairs. This structure allowed me to experience perspectives in areas such as economics, sociology and sustainability that I had not previously taken courses in. I took this course alongside graduate students from across the world who pushed me to think critically about international politics.

What are the most valuable skills you gained from your Arts & Sciences education?        

My Arts & Sciences education has challenged me to constantly dig deeper and ask questions. The structure of many of my government and CAPS courses allowed me to conduct research on topics that I had a personal interest in. This academic freedom in my classes fueled my own critical thinking and curiosities across new subjects. Through these classes, I was able to take my interests including race, gender, education, criminal justice, international relations and law and apply these lenses to political institutions and historical events. These opportunities to explore my interests in the classroom helped me discover my future career aspirations from early on in my college experience. 

What have you accomplished as a Cornell student that you are most proud of?

In the fall semester of my senior year, I studied abroad in Beijing, China, which was absolutely life-changing. The program pushed me to be completely immersed in a culture and language that is so different than what I had previously been exposed to. I had incredibly fulfilling experiences such as teaching English at a school for the children of migrant workers, learning Chinese Sign Language while volunteering at a cafe that employed deaf workers and speaking to professionals at the Alibaba headquarters. One of my most memorable experiences in China was traveling to Guangzhou to attend the Cornell-China forum. I met alumni from all walks of life who gave me invaluable advice about my remaining time at Cornell and my next steps upon graduation. This conference, in particular, made me realize how connected we are as Cornell students, even when on the other side of the world. I was even able to do a research project in Beijing, where I looked at disadvantaged populations and spoke to changemakers spearheading activist work across China.

Who or what influenced your Cornell education the most?     

My family has been the biggest influence on my Cornell education. My parents and older sister have made tremendous sacrifices to allow me to chase my dreams, and I am endlessly grateful to them. My parents are immigrants from Cuba and Guyana, and I owe them the world for leaving their lives behind to give me the opportunity to explore my passions. They have always supported my goals and been my biggest fans, even traveling to China to visit me while abroad. My biggest dream is to be able to repay them for their sacrifices and support them however I can. I am incredibly fortunate to have such an incredible support system of people cheering me on through everything.

Where do you dream to be in 10 years?

In 10 years, I hope to be a practicing lawyer in New York City. It would be my dream to provide pro bono services where I can directly give back to the communities I have always advocated for. I also hope to live in close proximity to my family. In 10 years, I also hope to continue exploring new cultures and languages in different parts of the world.

Every year, our faculty nominate graduating Arts & Sciences students to be featured as part of our Extraordinary Journeys series.  Read more about the Class of 202 4.

More News from A&S

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Gender Inequality in the WAEMU: Current Situation and Opportunities

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This paper documents the current state of gender inequalities in the WAEMU by focusing on outcomes (health, education, labor market and financial inclusion) and opportunities (economic rights). The findings show that despite significant progress toward gender equality over the last three decades, there are still prevalent gender-based disparities, which prevent women from fulfilling their economic potential. Both empirical and model-based estimates suggest that the WAEMU can reap substantial economic gains by mitigating the existing gender gaps in schooling and labor market outcomes. Hence, achieving gender equality remains a macro-critical goal for the region. Going forward, the need for specific policies supportive of gender equality may vary in each member country, but a multifaceted and holistic approach is needed to unleash the related economic potential in the WAEMU as a whole.

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FACT SHEET: President   Biden Takes Action to Protect American Workers and Businesses from China’s Unfair Trade   Practices

President Biden’s economic plan is supporting investments and creating good jobs in key sectors that are vital for America’s economic future and national security. China’s unfair trade practices concerning technology transfer, intellectual property, and innovation are threatening American businesses and workers. China is also flooding global markets with artificially low-priced exports. In response to China’s unfair trade practices and to counteract the resulting harms, today, President Biden is directing his Trade Representative to increase tariffs under Section 301 of the Trade Act of 1974 on $18 billion of imports from China to protect American workers and businesses.   The Biden-Harris Administration’s Investing in America agenda has already catalyzed more than $860 billion in business investments through smart, public incentives in industries of the future like electric vehicles (EVs), clean energy, and semiconductors. With support from the Bipartisan Infrastructure Law, CHIPS and Science Act, and Inflation Reduction Act, these investments are creating new American jobs in manufacturing and clean energy and helping communities that have been left behind make a comeback.   As President Biden says, American workers and businesses can outcompete anyone—as long as they have fair competition. But for too long, China’s government has used unfair, non-market practices. China’s forced technology transfers and intellectual property theft have contributed to its control of 70, 80, and even 90 percent of global production for the critical inputs necessary for our technologies, infrastructure, energy, and health care—creating unacceptable risks to America’s supply chains and economic security. Furthermore, these same non-market policies and practices contribute to China’s growing overcapacity and export surges that threaten to significantly harm American workers, businesses, and communities.   Today’s actions to counter China’s unfair trade practices are carefully targeted at strategic sectors—the same sectors where the United States is making historic investments under President Biden to create and sustain good-paying jobs—unlike recent proposals by Congressional Republicans that would threaten jobs and raise costs across the board. The previous administration’s trade deal with China  failed  to increase American exports or boost American manufacturing as it had promised. Under President Biden’s Investing in America agenda, nearly 800,000 manufacturing jobs have been created and new factory construction has doubled after both fell under the previous administration, and the trade deficit with China is the lowest in a decade—lower than any year under the last administration.   We will continue to work with our partners around the world to strengthen cooperation to address shared concerns about China’s unfair practices—rather than undermining our alliances or applying indiscriminate 10 percent tariffs that raise prices on all imports from all countries, regardless whether they are engaged in unfair trade. The Biden-Harris Administration recognizes the benefits for our workers and businesses from strong alliances and a rules-based international trade system based on fair competition.   Following an in-depth review by the United States Trade Representative, President Biden is taking action to protect American workers and American companies from China’s unfair trade practices. To encourage China to eliminate its unfair trade practices regarding technology transfer, intellectual property, and innovation, the President is directing increases in tariffs across strategic sectors such as steel and aluminum, semiconductors, electric vehicles, batteries, critical minerals, solar cells, ship-to-shore cranes, and medical products.   Steel and Aluminum   The tariff rate on certain steel and aluminum products under Section 301 will increase from 0–7.5% to 25% in 2024.   Steel is a vital sector for the American economy, and American companies are leading the future of clean steel. Recently, the Biden-Harris Administration announced $6 billion for 33 clean manufacturing projects including for steel and aluminum, including the first new primary aluminum smelter in four decades, made possible by the Bipartisan Infrastructure Law and the Inflation Reduction Act. These investments will make the United States one of the first nations in the world to convert clean hydrogen into clean steel, bolstering the U.S. steel industry’s competitiveness as the world’s cleanest major steel producer.   American workers continue to face unfair competition from China’s non-market overcapacity in steel and aluminum, which are among the world’s most carbon intensive. China’s policies and subsidies for their domestic steel and aluminum industries mean high-quality, low-emissions U.S. products are undercut by artificially low-priced Chinese alternatives produced with higher emissions. Today’s actions will shield the U.S. steel and aluminum industries from China’s unfair trade practices.   Semiconductors   The tariff rate on semiconductors will increase from 25% to 50% by 2025.   China’s policies in the legacy semiconductor sector have led to growing market share and rapid capacity expansion that risks driving out investment by market-driven firms. Over the next three to five years, China is expected to account for almost half of all new capacity coming online to manufacture certain legacy semiconductor wafers. During the pandemic, disruptions to the supply chain, including legacy chips, led to price spikes in a wide variety of products, including automobiles, consumer appliances, and medical devices, underscoring the risks of overreliance on a few markets.   Through the CHIPS and Science Act, President Biden is making a nearly $53 billion investment in American semiconductor manufacturing capacity, research, innovation, and workforce. This will help counteract decades of disinvestment and offshoring that has reduced the United States’ capacity to manufacture semiconductors domestically. The CHIPS and Science Act includes $39 billion in direct incentives to build, modernize, and expand semiconductor manufacturing fabrication facilities as well as a 25% investment tax credit for semiconductor companies. Raising the tariff rate on semiconductors is an important initial step to promote the sustainability of these investments.   Electric Vehicles (EVs)   The tariff rate on electric vehicles under Section 301 will increase from 25% to 100% in 2024.   With extensive subsidies and non-market practices leading to substantial risks of overcapacity, China’s exports of EVs grew by 70% from 2022 to 2023—jeopardizing productive investments elsewhere. A 100% tariff rate on EVs will protect American manufacturers from China’s unfair trade practices.   This action advances President Biden’s vision of ensuring the future of the auto industry will be made in America by American workers. As part of the President’s Investing in America agenda, the Administration is incentivizing the development of a robust EV market through business tax credits for manufacturing of batteries and production of critical minerals, consumer tax credits for EV adoption, smart standards, federal investments in EV charging infrastructure, and grants to supply EV and battery manufacturing. The increase in the tariff rate on electric vehicles will protect these investments and jobs from unfairly priced Chinese imports.   Batteries, Battery Components and Parts, and Critical Minerals   The tariff rate on lithium-ion EV batteries will increase from 7.5%% to 25% in 2024, while the tariff rate on lithium-ion non-EV batteries will increase from 7.5% to 25% in 2026. The tariff rate on battery parts will increase from 7.5% to 25% in 2024.   The tariff rate on natural graphite and permanent magnets will increase from zero to 25% in 2026. The tariff rate for certain other critical minerals will increase from zero to 25% in 2024.   Despite rapid and recent progress in U.S. onshoring, China currently controls over 80 percent of certain segments of the EV battery supply chain, particularly upstream nodes such as critical minerals mining, processing, and refining. Concentration of critical minerals mining and refining capacity in China leaves our supply chains vulnerable and our national security and clean energy goals at risk. In order to improve U.S. and global resiliency in these supply chains, President Biden has invested across the U.S. battery supply chain to build a sufficient domestic industrial base. Through the Bipartisan Infrastructure Law, the Defense Production Act, and the Inflation Reduction Act, the Biden-Harris Administration has invested nearly $20 billion in grants and loans to expand domestic production capacity of advanced batteries and battery materials. The Inflation Reduction Act also contains manufacturing tax credits to incentivize investment in battery and battery material production in the United States. The President has also established the American Battery Materials Initiative, which will mobilize an all-of-government approach to secure a dependable, robust supply chain for batteries and their inputs.   Solar Cells   The tariff rate on solar cells (whether or not assembled into modules) will increase from 25% to 50% in 2024.   The tariff increase will protect against China’s policy-driven overcapacity that depresses prices and inhibits the development of solar capacity outside of China. China has used unfair practices to dominate upwards of 80 to 90% of certain parts of the global solar supply chain, and is trying to maintain that status quo. Chinese policies and nonmarket practices are flooding global markets with artificially cheap solar modules and panels, undermining investment in solar manufacturing outside of China.   The Biden-Harris Administration has made historic investments in the U.S. solar supply chain, building on early U.S. government-enabled research and development that helped create solar cell technologies. The Inflation Reduction Act provides supply-side tax incentives for solar components, including polysilicon, wafers, cells, modules, and backsheet material, as well as tax credits and grant and loan programs supporting deployment of utility-scale and residential solar energy projects. As a result of President Biden’s Investing in America agenda, solar manufacturers have already announced nearly $17 billion in planned investment under his Administration—an 8-fold increase in U.S. manufacturing capacity, enough to supply panels for millions of homes each year by 2030.   Ship-to-Shore Cranes   The tariff rate on ship-to-shore cranes will increase from 0% to 25% in 2024.   The Administration continues to deliver for the American people by rebuilding the United States’ industrial capacity to produce port cranes with trusted partners. A 25% tariff rate on ship-to-shore cranes will help protect U.S. manufacturers from China’s unfair trade practices that have led to excessive concentration in the market. Port cranes are essential pieces of infrastructure that enable the continuous movement and flow of critical goods to, from, and within the United States, and the Administration is taking action to mitigate risks that could disrupt American supply chains. This action also builds off of ongoing work to invest in U.S. port infrastructure through the President’s Investing in America Agenda. This port security initiative includes bringing port crane manufacturing capabilities back to the United States to support U.S. supply chain security and encourages ports across the country and around the world to use trusted vendors when sourcing cranes or other heavy equipment.   Medical Products   The tariff rates on syringes and needles will increase from 0% to 50% in 2024. For certain personal protective equipment (PPE), including certain respirators and face masks, the tariff rates will increase from 0–7.5% to 25% in 2024. Tariffs on rubber medical and surgical gloves will increase from 7.5% to 25% in 2026.   These tariff rate increases will help support and sustain a strong domestic industrial base for medical supplies that were essential to the COVID-19 pandemic response, and continue to be used daily in every hospital across the country to deliver essential care. The federal government and the private sector have made substantial investments to build domestic manufacturing for these and other medical products to ensure American health care workers and patients have access to critical medical products when they need them. American businesses are now struggling to compete with underpriced Chinese-made supplies dumped on the market, sometimes of such poor quality that they may raise safety concerns for health care workers and patients.   Today’s announcement reflects President Biden’s commitment to always have the back of American workers. When faced with anticompetitive, unfair practices from abroad, the President will deploy any and all tools necessary to protect American workers and industry.  

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'The academic freedom fueled my own critical thinking and curiosities'

5/17/2024 A&S Communications

Ianna Ramdhany Correa

Government and China & Asia-Pacific Studies New York, N.Y.

What was your favorite class and why?  

My favorite class has been Experiencing Global China, which I took as a Cornell class offered at Peking University through the Cornell China & Asia-Pacific Studies (CAPS) program. Every week, experts from different disciplines would come and give a lecture on a topic related to China and foreign affairs. This structure allowed me to experience perspectives in areas such as economics, sociology and sustainability that I had not previously taken courses in. I took this course alongside graduate students from across the world who pushed me to think critically about international politics.

What are the most valuable skills you gained from your Arts & Sciences education?        

My Arts & Sciences education has challenged me to constantly dig deeper and ask questions. The structure of many of my government and CAPS courses allowed me to conduct research on topics that I had a personal interest in. This academic freedom in my classes fueled my own critical thinking and curiosities across new subjects. Through these classes, I was able to take my interests including race, gender, education, criminal justice, international relations and law and apply these lenses to political institutions and historical events. These opportunities to explore my interests in the classroom helped me discover my future career aspirations from early on in my college experience. 

What have you accomplished as a Cornell student that you are most proud of?

In the fall semester of my senior year, I studied abroad in Beijing, China, which was absolutely life-changing. The program pushed me to be completely immersed in a culture and language that is so different than what I had previously been exposed to. I had incredibly fulfilling experiences such as teaching English at a school for the children of migrant workers, learning Chinese Sign Language while volunteering at a cafe that employed deaf workers and speaking to professionals at the Alibaba headquarters. One of my most memorable experiences in China was traveling to Guangzhou to attend the Cornell-China forum. I met alumni from all walks of life who gave me invaluable advice about my remaining time at Cornell and my next steps upon graduation. This conference, in particular, made me realize how connected we are as Cornell students, even when on the other side of the world. I was even able to do a research project in Beijing, where I looked at disadvantaged populations and spoke to changemakers spearheading activist work across China.

Who or what influenced your Cornell education the most?     

My family has been the biggest influence on my Cornell education. My parents and older sister have made tremendous sacrifices to allow me to chase my dreams, and I am endlessly grateful to them. My parents are immigrants from Cuba and Guyana, and I owe them the world for leaving their lives behind to give me the opportunity to explore my passions. They have always supported my goals and been my biggest fans, even traveling to China to visit me while abroad. My biggest dream is to be able to repay them for their sacrifices and support them how however I can. I am incredibly fortunate to have such an incredible support system of people cheering me on through everything.

Where do you dream to be in 10 years?

In 10 years, I hope to be a practicing lawyer in New York City. It would be my dream to provide pro bono services where I can directly give back to the communities I have always advocated for. I also hope to live in close proximity to my family. In 10 years, I also hope to continue exploring new cultures and languages in different parts of the world.

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