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Plural Nouns: Definition, Meaning and Examples

Allison Bressmer

Pluralizing singular nouns (also known as making plural nouns) can be as easy as just adding s or es . Or adding letters to the noun, or replacing letters, or changing the entire spelling of the noun, or just leaving the word alone.

Okay, so perhaps “easy” isn’t really the way to describe the process of pluralization. Let’s go with “interesting” instead.

What Is a Plural Noun? (And How Is It Different Than a Singular Noun?

How to make regular plural nouns, how to pluralize irregular nouns, more unique plurals, a few more irregulars, pluralize for your audience, pluralization: use resources.

A noun is a word that represents a person, place, thing, or idea. This is true for both singular and plural nouns.

A singular noun is a noun representing a single (just one) person, place, thing, or idea. For example, the nouns drink , berry , and child are singular nouns.

Often, the determiners a or an are used with singular nouns :

• I’d like a drink , please.
• Would you like to try a berry ?
• Stop acting like a child !

When you make plural nouns, you indicate that there is more than one of whatever it is the noun represents.

For example, drink becomes drinks , berry becomes berries , and child becomes children . You may use the determiners few , many , and several before a plural noun:

• We’d like to order a few drinks , please.
• I like to put lots of berries on my cereal.
• The schoolyard was filled with children .

You’ve probably noticed that the method of pluralizing each of those noun examples is different. That’s because some nouns are considered regular—they tend to follow some simple rules—and others are irregular. The irregulars basically make their own rules.

Grab yourself one of those drinks I just pluralized and we’ll investigate. You’ll thank me for the advice later!

Regular nouns are generally straightforward when it comes to following the rules of pluralization. That’s why they are labeled as regular. For the most part, you pluralize them by adding s or es or by changing y to ies .

Of course, there are exceptions. You’ll notice a theme of exceptions throughout this study in pluralizing.

Pluralizing by Adding Letters

1. just add s.

This is probably the easiest rule of pluralization, and many nouns follow this rule.

2. Just add es

This rule is almost as easy, and just a little less common. It is used for nouns that end in ch , x , s (or s -sounds), sh , and z (with some special additions for the z and some s -sound-ending nouns)

Have you figured out the special additions for some s - and z -ending words? Sometimes it’s necessary to add an extra s or z to the noun before adding the pluralizing es .

There are a few other exceptions.

For example, the add es rule is pretty reliable for nouns ending in ch and sh , but not as reliable for nouns ending with x .

Some nouns that end in is or us don’t follow the just add es rule either.

With so many choices for octopus , which should you use?

3. Regular nouns ending in o

Once again, our regular nouns show their slightly rebellious side. The answer? It depends on the word. I told you you’d be happy to have that drink!

4. Regular nouns ending in y

If the nouns ends in a vowel + y , then just add s .

(And by the way, you can spell whiskey without the e as well, if it’s Scotch.)

If the noun ends in a consonant + y , you work under the replacing letters method.

Pluralizing Regular Nouns by Replacing Letters

When a noun ends in a consonant + y , the y becomes ies .

Are there exceptions? Of course there are.

Nouns such as jealousy , electricity , flexibility end with a consonant + y but do not have a plural form because they are uncountable nouns . We’ll look at them more closely further down the post.

Nouns that end in f or fe also follow the replacing letters method for pluralization. The f becomes a v . If the singular noun ends in s , you add an es to that v. If it ends in fe , you just add the s .

And yes. There are exceptions. Say the words aloud and listen for the pattern in the exceptions.

Congratulations! You’ve made it through the rules for the nouns that are called regular even though they have exceptions to the rules somewhat, well, regularly.

If you’re wondering why there are so many exceptions, it’s because the English language has a rich but complicated history and was formed through the integration of a variety of languages. Some of its words still follow rules from their original language.

Let’s move on to the irregular nouns. You might want to refill your drink.

Irregular nouns follow their own rules. They have no use for conformity, which is why they have been labeled irregular.

Pluralizing irregular nouns basically happens using one of two opposite methods: changing the singular-noun form almost entirely or not changing the singular-noun form at all.

There is no trick for determining which method to use. And knowing how to pluralize these nouns is not intuitive. In fact, it’s quite the opposite. If you’ve ever spoken to toddlers, you’ve probably heard them say things like this:

“I went to the pet store. I saw kitty cats, puppy dogs, and mouses.”

So cute, right?

We smile because they’ve said “mouses" which is adorable but incorrect. However, toddlers’ use of “mouses” is actually quite impressive as it shows they are adapting to and internalizing the rules of language. But “mouse” as a noun does not follow the rules and after a few months or years, the toddlers learn to use the far less intuitive “mice.”

Those same toddlers might tell you they’ve seen “sheeps” at the farm. Again, their instincts are right, it’s the noun “sheep” that breaks the rules.

For these irregular nouns, you really just need to learn and remember their pluralized forms and if you aren’t certain, consult your dictionary.

1. Pluralizing irregular nouns by changing the singular-noun form

Here are some examples of commonly used nouns whose plural forms are created by changing their singular forms.

2. Pluralizing nouns by changing absolutely nothing from the singular-noun form

Here are some examples of commonly used plural nouns spelled exactly the same as their singular forms.

We aren’t done yet! There are still more special pluralization situations: nouns that are only plural, uncountable nouns, and compound nouns.

Only-Plural Nouns

Some nouns do not have a singular form. They only exist in plural form. For example,

• pants : you can try on pants, but not a pant. You can, however, try on a pair of pants.
• clothes : you hang clothes in your closet. If you only have one shirt, you would say “I only have one shirt” not “I only have one clothe.”
• glasses : you wear glasses, or a pair of glasses, but you do not wear a glass. (If you’re talking about drinking glasses, then you can have just one glass.)
• shenanigans: you may get up to shenanigans, but are never just up to a shenanigan (what fun would just one shenanigan be anyway?)

Uncountable Nouns

The nouns we have pluralized so far have been countable nouns. Countable nouns are nouns we use for things we can actually count using numbers. You can use a / an or another determiner in front of them in their singular form or another determiner to answer “how many” in their plural form.

For example, you might have:

Uncountable nouns are nouns that represent things we cannot count with numbers. It doesn’t make sense to use a / an or other determiners that show “how many.” Phrases that answer “how much” are used with them instead.

Uncountable nouns have only one form. There is no plural form for them.

For example:

• jealousy : They were filled with jealousy.
• electricity : We have no electricity.
• research : He did so much research for the project.

• information : Can you provide me with more information?
• knowledge : She has a great deal of knowledge on the subject.
• evidence : There is not enough evidence to convict the defendant!
• water: I’ll just have water. (If you ask for a specific number of servings of water, you would usually say “a glass of water” or “three bottles of water.”)

Compound Nouns

Compound nouns are nouns that comprise two or more words. They can be written in three different ways: one word, two words, or as a set of hyphenated words.

Most compound nouns that are made of two nouns follow the just add s method of pluralization. And, many compound nouns that comprise a noun and a non-noun also follow this method (but of course, there are exceptions).

1. One-word compound nouns

2. two-word compound nouns, 3. hyphenated compound nouns.

Like the two-word compound nouns, hyphenated compound nouns also work as one unit.

You can see that the examples used so far all follow the just add s rule. You’re probably already thinking of other common compound nouns that don’t follow that rule. For example,

The easiest way to get these plurals right is simply to memorize them or look them up. However, there is a grammatical reason for their different methods of pluralization.

In passerby , hanger-on , and runner-up , the compound noun is made up of a noun with an er ending and an adverb. For that combination, the s is added to the noun part of the compound.

In sister-in-law and attorney-at-law , the compound noun is made up of two nouns connected by a preposition. For this combination, the first noun is pluralized.

Another way to think about this combination is to figure out which noun is the head noun. In other words, which noun is the most important (the head), and which noun just adds more information about that noun?

For sister-in-law, sister is the head noun. The in-law just tells us more about the type of sister we’re referencing. The in-law phrase works as an adjective . That same explanation applies to attorneys-at-law or attorneys general , another example of a two-word compound noun.

What happens if there is no obvious head noun?

If we say, “he’s just a good-for-nothing” do we pluralize that by saying, “They’re all good-for-nothings ?”

If we say, “I had a serious back-and-forth with my family about our political differences,” do we pluralize that by saying, “I had some serious back-and-forths with my family about our political differences?”

Yes, we do. How do I know? I looked those compound nouns up! I had to check a few online dictionaries to verify the plural versions. These are phrases that we have adapted into use over time and it can take time for dictionaries to catch up.

Still with me? Good!

Since you’re here, take a look at this list of commonly used, or at least somewhat commonly used, nouns and their unique pluralization forms.

Language is fluid, as the English language demonstrates in its own history, and changes continue to come. Along with consulting your dictionary when you’re uncertain about a word’s proper plural form, consider your audience as well.

Some methods of pluralization that used to be considered “improper” are now acceptable, at least in more casual situations.

For example, if you’re telling a friend you’d like “two tablespoonfuls of sugar in your iced tea” (that’s just too much, in my opinion), you’re fine! If you’re writing a fancy cookbook, then you might want to use the more formal “tablespoonsful.”

Some methods of pluralization are straightforward, and many nouns adhere to those methods. These are the plurals that you know just because you know them. You don’t even have to think about them!

Other plural forms are less compliant and it’s worth it to work on memorizing them, especially the ones you will use often.

When it comes to the outliers that pop up unexpectedly, there’s no need to guess. Take a minute and consult your dictionary and then run your work through a final ProWritingAid grammar check for accuracy assurance.

With ProWritingAid, you’ll use the right noun form every time—and avoid hundreds of other grammar, spelling, and style errors.

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Allison Bressmer is a professor of freshman composition and critical reading at a community college and a freelance writer. If she isn’t writing or teaching, you’ll likely find her reading a book or listening to a podcast while happily sipping a semi-sweet iced tea or happy-houring with friends. She lives in New York with her family. Connect at linkedin.com/in/allisonbressmer.

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• Writing Tips

Grammar Tips: Plural Nouns

7-minute read

• 10th March 2023

If someone asked you what a noun is , you’d probably say it’s a person, place, or thing. Pretty simple, right? But what about plural nouns? For example, what is the plural form for cat ? If you said cats , you’re right! What about the plural for foot ? If you said foots , you’re incorrect. The correct form is feet. Simply adding an s at the end works for some nouns – but not all.

Plural nouns can be confusing for many English learners. Most students struggle with regular versus irregular plurals as well as apostrophe usage with some plurals. Nevertheless, understanding plural nouns is important for effective communication. After all, you’ll encounter them in many contexts!

If you find plural nouns confusing, read on! This blog will provide essential grammar tips for using plural nouns correctly in written and spoken English. We’ll discuss pluralization rules as well as irregular and tricky plural noun forms. By the time you finish reading, you’ll feel confident using plural nouns effectively in any context. And understanding plural nouns can go a long way to improving your English grammar .

What Are Plural Nouns?

Plural nouns refer to more than one person, place, or thing. You can easily recognize most of them by their s or es ending:

There’s not much to pluralizing such nouns. However, things get tricky with irregular plurals, as they have their own unique forms. For example:

English language learners often struggle to distinguish regular plurals from irregular ones . Fortunately, to form irregular plurals, you just need to know which letters to change.

How to Make Nouns Plural

As we stated above, you can make most singular nouns plural by adding s or es to the end of the word, depending on the word’s ending. Likewise, collective nouns (nouns that represent groups) can be made plural by adding s or es . For example:

Regular Plural Nouns

Nouns such as bottle, toy, bike , and chair are the easiest to pluralize, as you simply add s to the end. However, some nouns require the es ending:

Irregular Plurals

The rules for forming these plurals are different from the rules for forming regular plurals, and interestingly enough, there are multiple ways to form irregular plurals. Examples of nouns that have irregular plurals include mouse , man , goose , wolf , and wife . Their pluralization looks like this:

Pluralizing these is usually a matter of knowing the rules regarding certain noun endings. If a noun ends in f or fe , you change the ending to ve before adding an s to form the plural:

The only exceptions to this rule are roof, belief, chef, chief , and café , which take the s ending. For nouns such as goose, foot, and tooth , you change the double o into a double e to make the plural. So the plural forms are geese, feet, and teeth , respectively.

Booth and book are exceptions: their plurals use the s ending. Therefore, changing the double o to a double e is incorrect. And for nouns such as man and woman , you only need to change the a to e to make the plural.

How to Pluralize the Word Mouse

The word mouse has a unique plural form. You simply change mouse to mice :

However, you wouldn’t apply this rule to other words ending in ouse , such as house . You would simply add the s ending for those.

More Rules for Plural Nouns

The final letter of a noun often dictates the correct spelling of the pluralized form. But just as we saw with irregular plurals, you must be aware of special rules.

Singular Nouns Ending in Y

If a singular noun ends in y and the letter before the y is a consonant, you change the ending to ies to make the plural:

If a singular noun ends in y and the letter before the y is a vowel, just add an s to make the plural:

Singular Nouns Ending in O

If a singular noun ends in o , add es to make the plural:

However, you would not apply this rule to nouns such as piano , halo , and photo , which take the s ending for the plural.

Which Nouns Take the es Ending?

We know you’ve probably been asking this question from the beginning. The simple answer is that the es ending applies to nouns that end in s , ss , sh , ch , x , and z . For example:

Plural Noun Exceptions

While we’ve already mentioned a few exceptions, more exist. If a singular noun ends in us , the plural ending is i . For example:

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If a singular noun ends in is , the plural ending is es :

If a singular noun ends in on , the plural ending is a :

Believe it or not, some nouns don’t change at all when you pluralize them. Such nouns include sheep, fish, deer, series , aircraft , and species . They can be singular or plural:

Plural Nouns Versus Possessive Nouns

Possessive nouns demonstrate ownership, generally with the ’ s ending. Let’s say your cousin Bill owns a boat (lucky Bill!). You would indicate it like this:

Most students confuse plural nouns with possessive nouns because of the s endings. Understanding how to use apostrophes with plurals and possessives can be tricky. Plural nouns don’t have apostrophes unless they’re also possessive. Let’s consider the following examples:

Common Mistakes When Using Plural Nouns

1. Adding s or es endings to irregular nouns (e.g., goose , man , child , foot )

2. Adding an apostrophe to a plural noun when it’s not possessive

3. Adding s endings with nouns that actually need the es ending

4. Adding pluralizing endings to nouns that don’t change at all (e.g., deer , fish , series )

5. Adding the wrong ending to nouns that end in us , is , and on

Tips for Avoiding Errors in Writing and Speaking

1. Remember that plural nouns don’t use apostrophes unless they’re also possessive.

2. You cannot pluralize all nouns simply by using s or es endings.

3. Remember which letters need to be changed to form irregular plurals (which all have unique forms).

4. Know which nouns use the s and es endings.

5. Know which nouns are singular and plural in sentences.

Tips for Identifying Singular and Plural Nouns in Sentences

Looking at how much of something a noun is referring to can tell you whether that noun is singular or plural. It’s singular if it refers to one person or thing. It’s plural if it refers to more than one person or thing.

When reading a sentence, look for any nouns with s or es endings. If so, they’re likely plural. Furthermore, by understanding how much of something the noun refers to, you can recognize the tricky irregular plural nouns we’ve covered.

Incorrect Plural Nouns Lead to Different Meanings

It’s important to use the correct forms of plural and possessive nouns, as incorrect plurals can change the meaning of a sentence. Take these examples:

We encourage you to practice using plural nouns correctly. One way to do this is by trying a worksheet on singular and plural nouns . The more practice you have, the more comfortable you’ll be. For our visual learners, we recommend this video on how to form plural nouns . Finally, we encourage you to proofread your written work for correct plural noun usage.

If you’re currently working on an essay or a paper, you might be interested in letting our proofreading experts review your writing. They can check for grammar and punctuation errors and make sure the spelling is perfect. They’ll also ensure the correct use of plural nouns! Consider submitting a 500-word document for free today.

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• 1.1.1 Pronunciation
• 1.1.2.1 Derived terms
• 1.1.2.2 Related terms
• 1.1.2.3 Translations
• 1.2.1 Pronunciation
• 1.2.2.1 Translations
• 1.3 Anagrams
• 2.1 Etymology
• 2.2 Pronunciation
• 2.3.1 Hypernyms
• 2.3.2 Derived terms
• 2.3.3 Descendants
• 3.1 Etymology
• 3.2.1 Derived terms
• 3.3 References
• 4.1 Etymology
• 4.2.1 Derived terms
• 4.3 References

English [ edit ]

Etymology 1 [ edit ].

Since late 16th century, borrowed from Middle French essay , essai ( “ essay ” ) , meaning coined by Montaigne in the same time, from the same words in earlier meanings 'experiment; assay; attempt', from Old French essay , essai , assay , assai , from Latin exagium ( “ weight; weighing, testing on the balance ” ) , from exigere + -ium .

Pronunciation [ edit ]

• ( Received Pronunciation , General American ) IPA ( key ) : /ˈɛs.eɪ/ (1), IPA ( key ) : /ɛˈseɪ/ (2-4)
• Rhymes: -ɛseɪ
• Homophone : ese

Noun [ edit ]

essay ( plural essays )

• 2013 January, Katie L. Burke, “Ecological Dependency”, in American Scientist ‎ [1] , volume 101 , number 1, archived from the original on 9 February 2017 , page 64 : In his first book since the 2008 essay collection Natural Acts: A Sidelong View of Science and Nature , David Quammen looks at the natural world from yet another angle: the search for the next human pandemic, what epidemiologists call “the next big one.”
• ( obsolete ) A test , experiment ; an assay .
• 1861 , E. J. Guerin, Mountain Charley , page 16 : My first essay at getting employment was fruitless; but after no small number of mortifying rebuffs from various parties to whom I applied for assistance, I was at last rewarded by a comparative success.
• 1988 , James McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom , Oxford, published 2003 , page 455 : This was Lee's first essay in the kind of offensive-defensive strategy that was to become his hallmark.
• ( philately , finance ) A proposed design for a postage stamp or a banknote .

Derived terms [ edit ]

• argumentative essay
• automated essay scoring
• eight-legged essay
• essay question
• photo-essay
• photo essay

Related terms [ edit ]

Translations [ edit ], etymology 2 [ edit ].

From Middle French essayer , essaier , from Old French essaiier , essayer , essaier , assaiier , assayer , assaier , from essay , essai , assay , assai ( “ attempt; assay; experiment ” ) as above.

• ( UK , US ) IPA ( key ) : /ɛˈseɪ/

Verb [ edit ]

essay ( third-person singular simple present essays , present participle essaying , simple past and past participle essayed )

• 1900 , Charles W. Chesnutt , chapter II, in The House Behind the Cedars : He retraced his steps to the front gate, which he essayed to open.
• 1950 April, R. A. H. Weight, “They Passed by My Window”, in Railway Magazine , page 260 : The train took the slow to branch spur at the north end at a not much slower speed, then essayed the short sharply curved climb with a terrific roar, smoke rising straight from the chimney to a height of some 60 ft., the long train twisting and curling behind.
• 2023 October 12, HarryBlank, “Fire in the Hole”, in SCP Foundation ‎ [2] , archived from the original on 22 May 2024 : There was the counter, there was the bulletin board, above her the dull sound of music being played over headphones. Something jaunty. She liked the beat. Then the sound of a chair being pushed back, and someone humming as they walked away from her, and she darted up to plunge the bayonet into their kidneys from behind. A followup stroke through the back of the neck, and the second soldier was down. She didn't even stop to see if it was a man or a woman, young or old. There were further hurdles to essay before she reached her destination.
• ( intransitive ) To move forth, as into battle.

Anagrams [ edit ]

• Sayes , Seays , Sesay , eyass

Dutch [ edit ]

Etymology [ edit ].

Borrowed from English essay ( “ essay ” ) , from Middle French essai ( “ essay; attempt, assay ” ) , from Old French essai , from Latin exagium (whence the neuter gender).

• IPA ( key ) : /ɛˈseː/ , /ˈɛ.seː/
• Hyphenation: es‧say
• Rhymes: -eː

essay   n ( plural essays , diminutive essaytje   n )

Hypernyms [ edit ]

Descendants [ edit ], norwegian bokmål [ edit ].

Borrowed from English essay , from Middle French essai .

essay   n ( definite singular essayet , indefinite plural essay or essayer , definite plural essaya or essayene )

• an essay , a written composition of moderate length exploring a particular subject
• essaysamling

References [ edit ]

• “essay” in The Bokmål Dictionary .

Norwegian Nynorsk [ edit ]

essay   n ( definite singular essayet , indefinite plural essay , definite plural essaya )

• “essay” in The Nynorsk Dictionary .

• English terms derived from Proto-Indo-European
• English terms derived from the Proto-Indo-European root *h₂eǵ-
• English terms borrowed from Middle French
• English terms derived from Middle French
• English terms derived from Old French
• English terms derived from Latin
• English 2-syllable words
• English terms with IPA pronunciation
• English terms with audio links
• Rhymes:English/ɛseɪ
• Rhymes:English/ɛseɪ/2 syllables
• English terms with homophones
• English lemmas
• English nouns
• English countable nouns
• English terms with quotations
• English terms with obsolete senses
• English terms with rare senses
• en:Philately
• English verbs
• English dated terms
• English transitive verbs
• English intransitive verbs
• English heteronyms
• en:Literature
• Dutch terms borrowed from English
• Dutch terms derived from English
• Dutch terms derived from Middle French
• Dutch terms derived from Old French
• Dutch terms derived from Latin
• Dutch terms with IPA pronunciation
• Rhymes:Dutch/eː
• Dutch lemmas
• Dutch nouns
• Dutch nouns with plural in -s
• Dutch neuter nouns
• Norwegian Bokmål terms borrowed from English
• Norwegian Bokmål terms derived from English
• Norwegian Bokmål terms derived from Middle French
• Norwegian Bokmål lemmas
• Norwegian Bokmål nouns
• Norwegian Bokmål neuter nouns
• Norwegian Nynorsk terms borrowed from English
• Norwegian Nynorsk terms derived from English
• Norwegian Nynorsk terms derived from Middle French
• Norwegian Nynorsk lemmas
• Norwegian Nynorsk nouns
• Norwegian Nynorsk neuter nouns
• English entries with topic categories using raw markup
• English entries with language name categories using raw markup
• Quotation templates to be cleaned
• Terms with Albanian translations
• Terms with Arabic translations
• Terms with Armenian translations
• Terms with Assamese translations
• Terms with Azerbaijani translations
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Count and Noncount Nouns (with Plurals, Articles, and Quantity Words)

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Section 1: Definition of Count and Noncount Nouns

Count or noncount.

The main difference between count and noncount nouns is whether you can count the things they refer to or not.

Count nouns refer to things that exist as separate and distinct individual units. They usually refer to what can be perceived by the senses.

Example sentences:

I stepped in a puddle. (How many puddles did you step in? Just one.)

I drank a glass of milk. (Glasses of milk can be counted)

I saw an apple tree. (Apple trees can be counted)

Noncount nouns refer to things that can't be counted because they are thought of as wholes that can't be cut into parts. They often refer to abstractions and occasionally have a collective meaning (for example, furniture).

I dove into the water. (How many waters did you dive into? The question doesn't make any sense; therefore water is noncountable.)

I saw the milk spill. (How many milks? Milk cannot be counted.)

I admired the foliage. (How many foliages? Foliage cannot be counted.)

Think of the batter from which a cake is made. Before you put the batter into the oven, it can't be divided into parts because it's a thick liquid. Once it has been baked, it becomes solid enough to be cut into pieces. Noncount nouns are like cake batter; count nouns are like pieces of cake

Note: Since the issue is complicated and almost no rule is absolute, there will be exceptions to the above definitions; however, we can show some general patterns. Bear in mind that what is countable in another language may not be countable in English, and vice versa.

Section 2: Uses of Count and Noncount Nouns

Pluralizing.

From the definitions of mass and count given above you may have already guessed the rule for pluralizing them:

• most count nouns pluralize with -s
• noncount nouns don't pluralize at all

This rule works for all of the nouns in the lists of examples in the first section. Check this rule for yourself before reading further.

An Exception to the Rule

For a number of nouns, the rule needs slight revision. Certain nouns in English belong to both classes: they have both a noncount and a count meaning. Normally the noncount meaning is abstract and general and the count meaning concrete and specific. Compare:

• I've had some difficulties finding a job. (refers to a number of specific problems)
• The talks will take place in the Krannert building. (refers to a number of specific lectures)
• The city was filled with bright lights and harsh sounds. (refers to a number of specific lights and noises)
• She succeeded in school with little difficulty . (refers to the general idea of school being difficult)
• I dislike idle talk . (refers to talking in general)
• Light travels faster than sound. (refers to the way light and sound behave in general)

Note: A special case of the use of noncount nouns in a count sense has to do with classification. Sometimes a usually noncount noun can be understood as one item separate and distinct from other items of the same category. The nouns that function in this way often denote foods and beverages: food(s), drink(s), wine(s), bread(s), coffee(s), fruit(s), and so on. Examples:

• There are several French wines to choose from. (= kinds of wine)
• I prefer Sumatran coffees to Colombian. (= kinds of coffee)
• We use a variety of different batters in our bakery. (= kinds of batter)

A recent entry into this class is homework, which at least among some students has the count plural homeworks in addition to its noncount use. (For example, "You're missing three of the homeworks from the first part of the course.") Because this usage is not firmly established and is likely to be considered nonstandard, you should check with your instructor before using it in writing.

A Revision of the Rule

These exceptions require that the rule for pluralizing be revised: count nouns and nouns used in a count sense pluralize; noncount nouns and nouns used in a noncount sense do not.

The two possibilities in each half of the rule require different choices. If you know that a particular noun must be either count or noncount and cannot be both, you need to decide only if it is possible to pluralize the noun. On the other hand, if you know that a particular noun may be used in either a count or noncount sense, then you need to decide whether it is appropriate to pluralize.

To summarize, we may put the rule in a chart, like this:

Nouns and Articles

Choosing which article to use (if any) with a noun is a complex matter because the range of choices depends on whether the noun in question is 1) count or noncount and 2) singular or plural. Both count nouns (whether singular or plural) and noncount nouns take articles.

Combinations of Nouns and Articles

The following chart shows which articles go with which kinds of nouns. Notice that this , that , these , and those have been included because, like the, they mark the noun that they modify as definite, which means that the noun refers 1) to a unique individual or 2) to some person, event, or object known to both the writer and reader from their general knowledge or from what has been previously mentioned in a piece of writing.

Count Singular: I ate an apple. I rode the bus. Does she live in this house? No, she lives in that house over there.

Count Plural: I like to feed the birds. Do you want these books? No, I want those books up there. Cats are interesting pets.

Noncount: The water is cold. This milk is going sour. Music helps me relax.

Quantity Terms

The following chart shows which quantity words go with which kinds of nouns. Note that quantity words can be used in combinations such as many more, many fewer, much more, and much less, any of which can be preceded by how to form questions or relative clauses. Negatives like not and no can also be applied to many of these terms.

Count Singular: I practice every day. I'd like one donut, please.

Count Plural: Can I have some chips? She has a lot of books, and many are autographed. I have fewer pencils than you.

Noncount: Can I have some water? She has a lot of strength, and much is due to her upbringing. I have less courage than you.

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7.4: Text- Regular Plural Nouns

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Let’s start with regular plurals: regular plural nouns use established patterns to indicate there is more than one of a thing.

Recognize nouns marked with plural form – s.

We add the plural suffix – s to most words.

• apple → apples
• key → keys
• computer → computers

However, after sounds s , z , sh , ch , and j , we add the plural suffix – es .

• box → boxes
• wish → wishes
• kiss → kisses

Do you know how to spell the plurals for the following words?

[reveal-answer q=”245001″] Click to Show Answer [/reveal-answer] [hidden-answer a=”245001″]

[/hidden-answer]

After the letter o .

We add the plural suffix – es to most words that end in o .

• tomato → tomatoes
• hero → heroes

We add the plural suffix – s to words of foreign origin (Latin, Greek, Spanish, etc.)

• piano → pianos
• photo → photos
• video → videos

What are the correct plurals for the following words?

[reveal-answer q=”245002″] Click to Show Answer [/reveal-answer] [hidden-answer a=”245002″]

After – y and – f , – fe

When a word ends in y and there is a consonant before y , we change the y to i and add – es .

• baby → babies
• fly → flies

But not after a vowel + y

• toy → toys
• monkey → monkeys
• day → days

[reveal-answer q=”245003″] Click to Show Answer [/reveal-answer] [hidden-answer a=”245003″]

When a word ends in – f or – fe , we change the f to v and add – es .

• leaf → leaves
• life → lives
• scarf → scarves
• calf → calves
• loaf → loaves

But not in these words

• cliff → cliffs
• roof → roofs
• belief → beliefs
• chief → chiefs

[reveal-answer q=”245004″] Click to Show Answer [/reveal-answer] [hidden-answer a=”245004″]

• Revision and Adaptation. Provided by : Lumen Learning. License : CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike
• Regular Plural Nouns. Authored by : Julie Sevastopoulos. Provided by : Grammar-Quizzes.com. Located at : http://www.grammar-quizzes.com/agree1a.html . License : CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike
• Image of two men. Authored by : Gregor Cresnar. Provided by : The Noun Project. Located at : https://thenounproject.com/search/?q=people&i=176708 . License : CC BY: Attribution

Eseys or Essays – Which is Correct?

• by Sarah Thompson
• March 3, 2024

Let’s have a conversation about the common mistake people make when writing the word “Essays.” Many individuals seem to get confused between “Eseys” and “Essays” and find themselves wondering which spelling is correct. Today, we will debunk this confusion and establish the correct spelling once and for all.

To address this issue, it is pertinent to emphasize that “Essays” is the correct spelling of the word. The incorrect term “Eseys” is a common misspelling resulting from a typographical error or a lack of familiarity with the correct spelling.

Now, let’s learn the reasons why “Essays” is the right spelling. Firstly, “Essays” is the plural form of the singular noun “Essay.” When we want to refer to more than one essay, we simply add an “s” to the end of the word. This is the conventional English rule for forming plurals of nouns, and it applies to “Essay” as well. For example, “I have written multiple essays on various topics.” Here, the correct plural form of “Essay” is used to convey the idea that the speaker has written more than one essay.

Moreover, we can also look at past forms of verbs to further solidify the correct spelling. For instance, the verb form of “Essay” is “Essayed.” “Essayed” is the past tense form, and by examining the conjugation of the verb, we can recognize that “Essays” is indeed the accurate plural form. You might say, “He essayed his thoughts on the subject,” to convey that someone expressed their ideas in the form of an essay.

To illustrate the incorrect spelling, “Eseys,” it is crucial to emphasize that this word does not exist in Standard English. It is a mistake that has often emerged due to a lack of knowledge or inattentiveness during writing. Therefore, it is essential to be attentive and avoid this misspelling in formal writing, as it may weaken your language skills and leave a negative impression on the reader.

In conclusion, we have effectively established that the correct spelling of the word referring to multiple essays is “Essays.” “Eseys” is an erroneous form that should be avoided. Remember, using proper grammar and spelling not only enhances your communication skills, but it also showcases your proficiency in the English language. So, the next time you find yourself unsure about whether to write “Eseys” or “Essays,” confidently choose the latter for an accurate and grammatically correct sentence!

So, keep practicing your writing skills, pay attention to proper grammar, and remember the correct spelling of “Essays.” With dedication and practice, you will become an exceptional writer and expert in the English language.

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Plural Nouns in English: Simple Guide with Examples

English plural nouns can seem challenging for learners. But this guide makes it easier to turn any singular (one) noun into a plural (more than one) noun.

Discover the eight rules for making nouns plural in English below. I’ve also included common examples of nouns for each rule and the different kinds of irregular plural nouns.

How Do Plurals Work in English?

Regular plural nouns, add -s to most regular nouns.

• Add -es to nouns ending in -o, -s, -x, -z, -sh or -ch
• Add -s to nouns that end with vowel + y

Change the ending to -es for nouns ending in -is

Change the ending to -ves for nouns ending in -f or -fe, change the ending to -ies for nouns ending in consonant + y, change the ending to -i for nouns ending in -us.

• Change the ending to -a for certain nouns ending in -on

Irregular Plural Nouns

Common irregular nouns to memorize, nouns with the same plural and singular forms, nouns that don’t change, and one more thing....

Download: This blog post is available as a convenient and portable PDF that you can take anywhere. Click here to get a copy. (Download)

The difference between the singular and plural forms of a noun is reflected in spelling. The most basic way to make an English noun plural is by adding -s , but as you’ll see below,  there are a number of spelling rules to follow to make a noun plural and also many exceptions.

The majority of English nouns are regular, which means they all follow the same format for their plural forms. Here are the rules for dealing with regular nouns:

For most regular English nouns, you simply add the letter -s to the noun.

It’s easy, but remember that another form looks very similar, and that’s the possessive form: “a dog’s bowl,” which means the bowl belongs to the dog. So watch out for that. 

Here are a few common examples:

Add -es to nouns ending in -o ,  -s , -x , -z , -sh or -ch

When the noun ends with -s , -x , -z , -sh or -ch , simply add -es after the noun.

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For most nouns ending with the letter -o , you have to add -es after the noun instead of -s .

Add -s  to nouns that end with vowel + y

If a vowel comes before the letter -y , then it’s easy. You simply add -s after the noun.

For nouns ending in -is , drop the -is and then add -es .

Let’s look at some common examples:

For some nouns ending with -f or -fe , you change the F to V and then add -es.

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For nouns ending with a consonant + y , the general rule is to drop the -y and add -ies after the noun.

For nouns ending in -us , drop -us and add -i at the end of the word.

A few common examples are:

Change the ending to  -a for certain nouns ending in -on

You probably won’t encounter this class of nouns very often, but it’s still important to know where you might need to use these words:

If you’ve been an English learner for some time, you know there’ll always be special cases that don’t fit into any fixed formats or follow any rules. They are irregular, which means different.

They do things differently from everyone else and that’s what makes them so interesting . They don’t follow the standard rules and have to be memorized.

Let’s look at some examples:

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Talk about easy! There are some words that are exactly the same in their singular and plural forms.

Some common examples are below. You might notice that a lot of these words have to do with biology or animals.

Then there are some nouns that have no singular forms or no plural form. Because of this, you only have to learn the one form. 

This is especially true with what’s called  mass nouns . They have no distinct plural forms. Typically, they refer to nouns that often come in groups, or nouns that are somewhat abstract. 

So now, I hope you have a clearer picture of how to make nouns plural in English.

Outside of this list, try to listen to how native speakers use these in their speech. If you don’t have natives around you, find a language exchange partner, or start watching English-language movies and TV shows . 

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As you watch English language content (especially with subtitles), you’ll get more familiar with how plurals work in English by hearing them in context.

It may take some time to become familiar with the rules but that’s okay. To learn them quicker, print out a copy of these rules and keep them handy for your reference. Pretty soon, you’ll be an expert at plural spellings. Good luck!

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Definition of 'essay'

essay in American English

Essay in british english, examples of 'essay' in a sentence essay, related word partners essay, trends of essay.

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Meaning of essay in English

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• I want to finish off this essay before I go to bed .
• His essay was full of spelling errors .
• Have you given that essay in yet ?
• Have you handed in your history essay yet ?
• I'd like to discuss the first point in your essay.
• boilerplate
• composition
• dissertation
• essay question
• peer review
• go after someone
• go all out idiom
• go down swinging/fighting idiom
• go for it idiom
• go for someone
• shoot the works idiom
• smarten (someone/something) up
• smarten up your act idiom
• square the circle idiom
• step on the gas idiom

essay | American Dictionary

Examples of essay, collocations with essay.

These are words often used in combination with essay .

Click on a collocation to see more examples of it.

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Word of the Day

two-wheeler

a vehicle with two wheels, usually a bicycle

Keeping up appearances (Talking about how things seem)

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Essay Plural, What is the Plural of Essay?

Meaning: a short piece of writing on a particular subject.

Table of Contents

Plural of Essay

• dissertation

Essay as a Singular Noun in Example Sentences:

• She submitted her essay before the deadline.
• The student received an A+ on his essay .
• The teacher assigned a persuasive essay for the assignment.
• He spent hours researching and writing the essay .
• The essay explored the theme of identity in literature.
• The scholarship required a well-written essay on a specific topic.
• The university professor provided feedback on the essay .
• The essay was published in a renowned academic journal.

Essay as a Plural Noun in Example Sentences:

• The students submitted their essays for grading.
• The conference received numerous essays from scholars around the world.
• The collection of essays covered a wide range of topics.
• The professor assigned weekly essays to encourage critical thinking.
• The finalists presented their essays in front of the audience.
• The anthology included essays from various renowned authors.
• The competition aimed to recognize outstanding essays on social issues.
• The workshop focused on refining students’ persuasive essays .

Singular Possessive of Essay:

The singular possessive form of “Essay” is “Essay’s”.

Examples of Singular Possessive Form of Essay:

• I need to read Essay’s conclusion.
• The topic of Essay’s first paragraph is intriguing.
• Have you seen Essay’s thesis statement?
• I appreciate Essay’s insightful analysis.
• The structure of Essay’s body paragraphs is clear.
• Essay’s introduction captures the reader’s attention.
• I admire Essay’s coherent argumentation.
• Essay’s conclusion summarizes the main points.
• Can you provide me with Essay’s bibliography?
• The evidence in Essay’s supporting paragraphs is compelling.

Plural Possessive of Essay:

The plural possessive form of “Essay” is “Essays'”.

Examples of Plural Possessive Form of Essay:

• I need to read the Essays’ conclusions.
• The topics of the Essays’ first paragraphs are diverse.
• Have you seen the Essays’ thesis statements?
• I appreciate the Essays’ insightful analyses.
• The structures of the Essays’ body paragraphs are well-organized.
• The Essays’ introductions engage the readers effectively.
• I admire the Essays’ coherent argumentations.
• The Essays’ conclusions summarize the main points eloquently.
• Can you provide me with the Essays’ bibliographies?
• The evidence in the Essays’ supporting paragraphs is substantial.

Explore Related Nouns:

• Complete List of Singular Plurals

Last updated on June 9th, 2023 at 09:23 pm

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About the author.

Hi, I'm USMI, engdic.org's Author & Lifestyle Linguist. My decade-long journey in language and lifestyle curation fuels my passion for weaving words into everyday life. Join me in exploring the dynamic interplay between English and our diverse lifestyles. Dive into my latest insights, where language enriches every aspect of living.

Singular and Plural Forms in Scientific Writing

• Peer Review

Although plurals can sometimes be relatively simple, there are situations that cause confusion, including mass nouns. Learn more about how to avoid mistakes in scientific writing.

Updated on June 19, 2012

In most cases, forming the plural in English is relatively simple (just add an 's'). However, authors frequently make a few mistakes when forming plurals, especially with mass nouns.

Count nouns are discrete, individual entities -- items that you can count. Mass nouns , sometimes called uncountable or non-count nouns, refer to an undifferentiated mass or collection of material. For example, you would not say, “I'm all out of a water.” It is correct to say “I need a little water” or “I need a few bottles of water.” In this example, water is a mass noun, and bottle is a count noun. Likewise, when describing an experiment, you would quantify a mass noun by adding a specific measurement (e.g., “2 ml of water”); in fact, whether you choose bottles or milliliters, the mass noun requires some unit of measurement to be quantified. Note that the unit is plural and the mass noun ('water') remains unchanged.

Data and research are two nouns that are frequently used in the sciences and are much more tricky than they appear.

It is often taught that data (like media or spectra) is a plural word (the singular is 'datum'). In most contexts, the word data refers to specific numerical results and should therefore be treated as a plural count noun, with a corresponding plural verb form.

• The patient data are sorted in Table 1.
• Data were collected retrospectively from patient medical records.

However, this rule is not strict; it depends on the scientific context. Data can sometimes be used in the singular as a mass noun. For example, in Ars Technica, Chris Foresman examines how securely “user data is stored” by Apple's iCloud service. Likewise, the following PLOS ONE article uses the singular form of data in its title: “ Clickstream Data Yields High-Resolution Maps of Science. ” In computer science, data is often used in the singular form as an mass noun; that is, computer scientists use the word data to describe a mass of information to be accessed, stored, or processed ( information is another great example of a mass noun).

Unlike data , research should always be used as a mass noun, and its verb must be singular. Some writers attempt to force research to take a plural form (researches); however, this usage is incredibly rare, and it will almost certainly trouble a reviewer. Because research is a mass noun, it can refer to a wide body of literature (e.g., “current research in the field”) or the work involved in a specific project (e.g., “our research focused on the following objectives”). If you need to quantify the research in question, try using study/studies (e.g., “In total, 28 studies were included in this review”). Consider the following examples, also from PLOS ONE :

• A Comparison of rpoB and 16S rRNA as Markers in Pyrosequencing Studies of Bacterial Diversity
• Aggregating, Tagging and Integrating Biodiversity Research (not researches)

We hope these tips and examples help avoid the grammatical confusion that often surrounds data and research . Are there other singular or plural forms that cause you trouble in your scientific writing? Write to [email protected] , and we will work with you to find the answer. Best of luck!

Brandon Jernigan, PhD

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Which Is The Correct Plural Spelling? (It's a Trick Question)

Referenda & Referendums

Definition : a public vote on a particular issue

Latin has given English a sizable portion of its vocabulary, and one of the reasons that so many of our words are descended from that language is that they have entered our tongue at a number of distinct points. Some, such as butter , date back to the Roman invasion of Britain. Others came to us in the middle ages, from the Norman Conquest. Others still did not arrive until the 19th century, often as part of an expanding scientific vocabulary. Referendum is one of those late arrivals, initially used to describe a vote on the Swiss constitution at that time. Both referendums and referenda are correct.

Of course it will all take time—  The population must be reassured,  The boundary must be surveyed,  There'll be royal commissions, referenda…. —Margaretta D’Arcy and John Arden, The Non-Stop Connolly Show: Part Six , 1978 quote here

Syllabuses & Syllabi

Definition : a summary outline of a discourse, treatise, or course of study or of examination requirements

Syllabus comes to English from the Latin sillybus , which actually has nothing to do with buses or silliness ( sillybus refers to a label for a book). Both forms of the plural are acceptable, although people might look askance at you if you use syllabi . 

Gymnasiums & Gymnasia

Definition : a large room used for various indoor sports (such as basketball or boxing) and usually equipped with gymnastic apparatus

Very few people use gymnasia as the plural of gymnasium anymore, but it can come in handy if you want to confuse people. And if you desire still more obscure information about this word, know that it can be traced to a Greek word meaning “to exercise naked” ( gymnazein ). The naked aspect of this word’s history has been largely set aside in English, although Nathan Bailey, in his 1727 Universal Etymological English Dictionary , defined the word gymnologize as “to dispute naked, or like an Indian Philosopher.”

"Had you rather witness the sports of the gymnasia than the works of artists?" inquired Plato. —Lydia Maria Francis Child, Philothea , 1836

Miasmas & Miasmata & Miasms

Definition : a vaporous exhalation formerly believed to cause disease

Most words have a single plural form, while others feel the need to have two. Others are more gluttonous still (such as octopus , the plural of which may be octopi , octopuses , or octopodes ), and require three different ways of pluralizing. Miasma is one of those triplets. So if you have more than one of these vaporous exhalations (and we hope you never do), they may be described as miasmas , miasmata , or miasms . 

Not a whit, fair sir—a cordial cup of sack, impregnated with wormwood is the best anti-pestilential draught; and, to speak the truth, the pestilential miasmata are now very rife in the atmosphere. —Anon., Mary of Scotland, or The Heir of Avenel , 1821

Terminuses & termini

Definition : either end of a transportation line or travel route

Given that the above two words are obscure variant plurals of a somewhat obscure singular form ( terminus ), it is quite unlikely that you will have need of distinguishing between them. But seeing as how the joy of unexpected knowledge is not regulated by need, we have included them anyway. You may use either terminuses or termini (but not terminusses ) with ferocious and joyful impunity.

Home from a world of late-liberal distraction  To rain and tenfoots clogged with leaves,  To the life's work of boredom and waiting,  The bus-station's just-closing teabar,  The icy, unpromising platforms of regional termini…. —Sean O’Brien, After Laforgue (from HMS Glasshouse), 1991

Memorandums & Memoranda

Definition : an informal record: also, a written reminder

Many usage guides have taken pains to warn their readers of a potential problem with the plural of memorandum . This is not whether or not to use memorandums or memoranda (either is fine), but rather to avoid using memorandas . Some words with similar Latinate endings in English will allow an a ending to take an s (such as agendas ), but memorandas is not among them.

But what does our proud Ign'rance Learning call,  We odly Plato 's Paradox make good,  Our Knowledge is but mere Remembrance all,  Remembrance is our Treasure and our Food;  Nature's fair Table-book our tender Souls  We scrawl all o'er with old and empty Rules,  Stale Memorandums of the Schools…. —Jonathan Swift, Ode to the Honorable Sir William Temple , c1689

Virtuosos & Virtuosi

Definition : one who excels in the technique of an art

Both virtuosos and virtuosi may be found as the plural form of virtuouso , although the former is more common than the latter. Virtuosi is also viewed by a number of usage guides as being overly pedantic, and many will recommend virtuosos instead. So if your desideratum (which is only pluralized as desiderata ) is to use the sort of words that usage guides think of as overly pedantic, well, then virtuosi is the word for you.

Those virtuosi who expend their amiable propensities in transfixing butterflies and impaling gnats would here find ample employment from May till November. —Caroline M. Kirkland, Forest Life , 1850

Appendices & Appendixes

Definition : supplementary material usually attached at the end of a piece of writing

Some people are of the opinion that when giving the plural of appendix one form is appropriate for certain contexts and not for others (stating, for instance, that appendices should be when referring to texts, and appendixes for non-textual things). We have a considerable body of written evidence indicating that these plurals are used interchangeably, so decide which one you are more comfortable with, and use it at will.

Modest Attire, and Meekness, signify  A Mind compos'd of Native Purity.  Needs no Appendices so to set forth  A Jewel of a more admired worth. —Mary Mollineux, Of Modesty (from Fruits of Retirement), 1702

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“Plural Marriage in Kirtland and Nauvoo,” Gospel Topics Essays (2016)

“Plural Marriage in Kirtland and Nauvoo,” Gospel Topics Essays

Plural Marriage in Kirtland and Nauvoo

Latter-day Saints believe that monogamy—the marriage of one man and one woman—is the Lord’s standing law of marriage. 1 In biblical times, the Lord commanded some of His people to practice plural marriage—the marriage of one man and more than one woman. 2 Some early members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints also received and obeyed this commandment given through God’s prophets.

After receiving a revelation commanding him to practice plural marriage, Joseph Smith married multiple wives and introduced the practice to close associates. This principle was among the most challenging aspects of the Restoration—for Joseph personally and for other Church members. Plural marriage tested faith and provoked controversy and opposition. Few Latter-day Saints initially welcomed the restoration of a biblical practice entirely foreign to their sensibilities. But many later testified of powerful spiritual experiences that helped them overcome their hesitation and gave them courage to accept this practice.

Although the Lord commanded the adoption—and later the cessation—of plural marriage in the latter days, He did not give exact instructions on how to obey the commandment. Significant social and cultural changes often include misunderstandings and difficulties. Church leaders and members experienced these challenges as they heeded the command to practice plural marriage and again later as they worked to discontinue it after Church President Wilford Woodruff issued an inspired statement known as the Manifesto in 1890, which led to the end of plural marriage in the Church. Through it all, Church leaders and members sought to follow God’s will.

Many details about the early practice of plural marriage are unknown. Plural marriage was introduced among the early Saints incrementally, and participants were asked to keep their actions confidential. They did not discuss their experiences publicly or in writing until after the Latter-day Saints had moved to Utah and Church leaders had publicly acknowledged the practice. The historical record of early plural marriage is therefore thin: few records of the time provide details, and later reminiscences are not always reliable. Some ambiguity will always accompany our knowledge about this issue. Like the participants, we “see through a glass, darkly” and are asked to walk by faith. 3

The Beginnings of Plural Marriage in the Church

The revelation on plural marriage was not written down until 1843, but its early verses suggest that part of it emerged from Joseph Smith’s study of the Old Testament in 1831. People who knew Joseph well later stated he received the revelation about that time. 4 The revelation, recorded in Doctrine and Covenants 132, states that Joseph prayed to know why God justified Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Moses, David, and Solomon in having many wives. The Lord responded that He had commanded them to enter into the practice. 5

Latter-day Saints understood that they were living in the latter days, in what the revelations called the “dispensation of the fulness of times.” 6 Ancient principles—such as prophets, priesthood, and temples—would be restored to the earth. Plural marriage was one of those ancient principles.

Polygamy had been permitted for millennia in many cultures and religions, but, with few exceptions, was rejected in Western cultures. 7 In Joseph Smith’s time, monogamy was the only legal form of marriage in the United States. Joseph knew the practice of plural marriage would stir up public ire. After receiving the commandment, he taught a few associates about it, but he did not spread this teaching widely in the 1830s. 8

When God commands a difficult task, He sometimes sends additional messengers to encourage His people to obey. Consistent with this pattern, Joseph told associates that an angel appeared to him three times between 1834 and 1842 and commanded him to proceed with plural marriage when he hesitated to move forward. During the third and final appearance, the angel came with a drawn sword, threatening Joseph with destruction unless he went forward and obeyed the commandment fully. 9

Fragmentary evidence suggests that Joseph Smith acted on the angel’s first command by marrying a plural wife, Fanny Alger, in Kirtland, Ohio, in the mid-1830s. Several Latter-day Saints who had lived in Kirtland reported decades later that Joseph Smith had married Alger, who lived and worked in the Smith household, after he had obtained her consent and that of her parents. 10 Little is known about this marriage, and nothing is known about the conversations between Joseph and Emma regarding Alger. After the marriage with Alger ended in separation, Joseph seems to have set the subject of plural marriage aside until after the Church moved to Nauvoo, Illinois.

Plural Marriage and Eternal Marriage

The same revelation that taught of plural marriage was part of a larger revelation given to Joseph Smith—that marriage could last beyond death and that eternal marriage was essential to inheriting the fulness that God desires for His children. As early as 1840, Joseph Smith privately taught Apostle Parley P. Pratt that the “heavenly order” allowed Pratt and his wife to be together “for time and all eternity.” 11 Joseph also taught that men like Pratt—who had remarried following the death of his first wife—could be married (or sealed) to their wives for eternity, under the proper conditions. 12

The sealing of husband and wife for eternity was made possible by the restoration of priesthood keys and ordinances. On April 3, 1836, the Old Testament prophet Elijah appeared to Joseph Smith and Oliver Cowdery in the Kirtland Temple and restored the priesthood keys necessary to perform ordinances for the living and the dead, including sealing families together. 13 Marriages performed by priesthood authority could link loved ones to each other for eternity, on condition of righteousness; marriages performed without this authority would end at death. 14

Marriage performed by priesthood authority meant that the procreation of children and perpetuation of families would continue into the eternities. Joseph Smith’s revelation on marriage declared that the “continuation of the seeds forever and ever” helped to fulfill God’s purposes for His children. 15 This promise was given to all couples who were married by priesthood authority and were faithful to their covenants.

Plural Marriage in Nauvoo

For much of Western history, family “interest”—economic, political, and social considerations—dominated the choice of spouse. Parents had the power to arrange marriages or forestall unions of which they disapproved. By the late 1700s, romance and personal choice began to rival these traditional motives and practices. 16 By Joseph Smith’s time, many couples insisted on marrying for love, as he and Emma did when they eloped against her parents’ wishes.

Latter-day Saints’ motives for plural marriage were often more religious than economic or romantic. Besides the desire to be obedient, a strong incentive was the hope of living in God’s presence with family members. In the revelation on marriage, the Lord promised participants “crowns of eternal lives” and “exaltation in the eternal worlds.” 17 Men and women, parents and children, ancestors and progeny were to be “sealed” to each other—their commitment lasting into the eternities, consistent with Jesus’s promise that priesthood ordinances performed on earth could be “bound in heaven.” 18

The first plural marriage in Nauvoo took place when Louisa Beaman and Joseph Smith were sealed in April 1841. 19 Joseph married many additional wives and authorized other Latter-day Saints to practice plural marriage. The practice spread slowly at first. By June 1844, when Joseph died, approximately 29 men and 50 women had entered into plural marriage, in addition to Joseph and his wives. When the Saints entered the Salt Lake Valley in 1847, at least 196 men and 521 women had entered into plural marriages. 20 Participants in these early plural marriages pledged to keep their involvement confidential, though they anticipated a time when the practice would be publicly acknowledged.

Nevertheless, rumors spread. A few men unscrupulously used these rumors to seduce women to join them in an unauthorized practice sometimes referred to as “spiritual wifery.” When this was discovered, the men were cut off from the Church. 21 The rumors prompted members and leaders to issue carefully worded denials that denounced spiritual wifery and polygamy but were silent about what Joseph Smith and others saw as divinely mandated “celestial” plural marriage. 22 The statements emphasized that the Church practiced no marital law other than monogamy while implicitly leaving open the possibility that individuals, under direction of God’s living prophet, might do so. 23

Joseph Smith and Plural Marriage

During the era in which plural marriage was practiced, Latter-day Saints distinguished between sealings for time and eternity and sealings for eternity only. Sealings for time and eternity included commitments and relationships during this life, generally including the possibility of sexual relations. Eternity-only sealings indicated relationships in the next life alone.

Evidence indicates that Joseph Smith participated in both types of sealings. The exact number of women to whom he was sealed in his lifetime is unknown because the evidence is fragmentary. 24 Some of the women who were sealed to Joseph Smith later testified that their marriages were for time and eternity, while others indicated that their relationships were for eternity alone. 25

Most of those sealed to Joseph Smith were between 20 and 40 years of age at the time of their sealing to him. The oldest, Fanny Young, was 56 years old. The youngest was Helen Mar Kimball, daughter of Joseph’s close friends Heber C. and Vilate Murray Kimball, who was sealed to Joseph several months before her 15th birthday. Marriage at such an age, inappropriate by today’s standards, was legal in that era, and some women married in their mid-teens. 26 Helen Mar Kimball spoke of her sealing to Joseph as being “for eternity alone,” suggesting that the relationship did not involve sexual relations. 27 After Joseph’s death, Helen remarried and became an articulate defender of him and of plural marriage. 28

Following his marriage to Louisa Beaman and before he married other single women, Joseph Smith was sealed to a number of women who were already married. 29 Neither these women nor Joseph explained much about these sealings, though several women said they were for eternity alone. 30 Other women left no records, making it unknown whether their sealings were for time and eternity or were for eternity alone.

There are several possible explanations for this practice. These sealings may have provided a way to create an eternal bond or link between Joseph’s family and other families within the Church. 31 These ties extended both vertically, from parent to child, and horizontally, from one family to another. Today such eternal bonds are achieved through the temple marriages of individuals who are also sealed to their own birth families, in this way linking families together. Joseph Smith’s sealings to women already married may have been an early version of linking one family to another. In Nauvoo, most if not all of the first husbands seem to have continued living in the same household with their wives during Joseph’s lifetime, and complaints about these sealings with Joseph Smith are virtually absent from the documentary record. 32

These sealings may also be explained by Joseph’s reluctance to enter plural marriage because of the sorrow it would bring to his wife Emma. He may have believed that sealings to married women would comply with the Lord’s command without requiring him to have normal marriage relationships. 33 This could explain why, according to Lorenzo Snow, the angel reprimanded Joseph for having “demurred” on plural marriage even after he had entered into the practice. 34 After this rebuke, according to this interpretation, Joseph returned primarily to sealings with single women.

Another possibility is that, in an era when life spans were shorter than they are today, faithful women felt an urgency to be sealed by priesthood authority. Several of these women were married either to non-Mormons or former Mormons, and more than one of the women later expressed unhappiness in their present marriages. Living in a time when divorce was difficult to obtain, these women may have believed a sealing to Joseph Smith would give them blessings they might not otherwise receive in the next life. 35

The women who united with Joseph Smith in plural marriage risked reputation and self-respect in being associated with a principle so foreign to their culture and so easily misunderstood by others. “I made a greater sacrifice than to give my life,” said Zina Huntington Jacobs, “for I never anticipated again to be looked upon as an honorable woman.” Nevertheless, she wrote, “I searched the scripture & by humble prayer to my Heavenly Father I obtained a testimony for myself.” 36 After Joseph’s death, most of the women sealed to him moved to Utah with the Saints, remained faithful Church members, and defended both plural marriage and Joseph. 37

Joseph and Emma

Plural marriage was difficult for all involved. For Joseph Smith’s wife Emma, it was an excruciating ordeal. Records of Emma’s reactions to plural marriage are sparse; she left no firsthand accounts, making it impossible to reconstruct her thoughts. Joseph and Emma loved and respected each other deeply. After he had entered into plural marriage, he poured out his feelings in his journal for his “beloved Emma,” whom he described as “undaunted, firm and unwavering, unchangeable, affectionate Emma.” After Joseph’s death, Emma kept a lock of his hair in a locket she wore around her neck. 38

Emma approved, at least for a time, of four of Joseph Smith’s plural marriages in Nauvoo, and she accepted all four of those wives into her household. She may have approved of other marriages as well. 39 But Emma likely did not know about all of Joseph’s sealings. 40 She vacillated in her view of plural marriage, at some points supporting it and at other times denouncing it.

In the summer of 1843, Joseph Smith dictated the revelation on marriage, a lengthy and complex text containing both glorious promises and stern warnings, some directed at Emma. 41 The revelation instructed women and men that they must obey God’s law and commands in order to receive the fulness of His glory.

The revelation on marriage required that a wife give her consent before her husband could enter into plural marriage. 42 Nevertheless, toward the end of the revelation, the Lord said that if the first wife “receive not this law”—the command to practice plural marriage—the husband would be “exempt from the law of Sarah,” presumably the requirement that the husband gain the consent of the first wife before marrying additional women. 43 After Emma opposed plural marriage, Joseph was placed in an agonizing dilemma, forced to choose between the will of God and the will of his beloved Emma. He may have thought Emma’s rejection of plural marriage exempted him from the law of Sarah. Her decision to “receive not this law” permitted him to marry additional wives without her consent. Because of Joseph’s early death and Emma’s decision to remain in Nauvoo and not discuss plural marriage after the Church moved west, many aspects of their story remain known only to the two of them.

Trial and Spiritual Witness

Years later in Utah, participants in Nauvoo plural marriage discussed their motives for entering into the practice. God declared in the Book of Mormon that monogamy was the standard; at times, however, He commanded plural marriage so His people could “raise up seed unto [Him].” 44 Plural marriage did result in an increased number of children born to believing parents. 45

Some Saints also saw plural marriage as a redemptive process of sacrifice and spiritual refinement. According to Helen Mar Kimball, Joseph Smith stated that “the practice of this principle would be the hardest trial the Saints would ever have to test their faith.” Though it was one of the “severest” trials of her life, she testified that it had also been “one of the greatest blessings.” 46 Her father, Heber C. Kimball, agreed. “I never felt more sorrowful,” he said of the moment he learned of plural marriage in 1841. “I wept days. … I had a good wife. I was satisfied.” 47

The decision to accept such a wrenching trial usually came only after earnest prayer and intense soul-searching. Brigham Young said that, upon learning of plural marriage, “it was the first time in my life that I had desired the grave.” 48 “I had to pray unceasingly,” he said, “and I had to exercise faith and the Lord revealed to me the truth of it and that satisfied me.” 49 Heber C. Kimball found comfort only after his wife Vilate had a visionary experience attesting to the rightness of plural marriage. “She told me,” Vilate’s daughter later recalled, “she never saw so happy a man as father was when she described the vision and told him she was satisfied and knew it was from God.” 50

Lucy Walker recalled her inner turmoil when Joseph Smith invited her to become his wife. “Every feeling of my soul revolted against it,” she wrote. Yet, after several restless nights on her knees in prayer, she found relief as her room “filled with a holy influence” akin to “brilliant sunshine.” She said, “My soul was filled with a calm sweet peace that I never knew,” and “supreme happiness took possession of my whole being.” 51

Not all had such experiences. Some Latter-day Saints rejected the principle of plural marriage and left the Church, while others declined to enter the practice but remained faithful. 52 Nevertheless, for many women and men, initial revulsion and anguish was followed by struggle, resolution, and ultimately, light and peace. Sacred experiences enabled the Saints to move forward in faith. 53

The challenge of introducing a principle as controversial as plural marriage is almost impossible to overstate. A spiritual witness of its truthfulness allowed Joseph Smith and other Latter-day Saints to accept this principle. Difficult as it was, the introduction of plural marriage in Nauvoo did indeed “raise up seed” unto God. A substantial number of today’s members descend through faithful Latter-day Saints who practiced plural marriage.

Church members no longer practice plural marriage. 54 Consistent with Joseph Smith’s teachings, the Church permits a man whose wife has died to be sealed to another woman when he remarries. Moreover, members are permitted to perform ordinances on behalf of deceased men and women who married more than once on earth, sealing them to all of the spouses to whom they were legally married. The precise nature of these relationships in the next life is not known, and many family relationships will be sorted out in the life to come. Latter-day Saints are encouraged to trust in our wise Heavenly Father, who loves His children and does all things for their growth and salvation. 55

This is the year to invest in women’s health. Here’s why

Anu Duggal, the founding partner at Female Founders Fund, guest wrote today’s Term Sheet essay on how women’s health has been ignored for most of history, and why this is the year to double down.

After her doctor misdiagnosed her perimenopause as herpes , Halle Berry knew it was time to open a national conversation. Earlier this Women’s Health Month, the actress joined a group of U.S. senators outside the Capitol Building to call for more federal funding for research into a critical part of the female experience that should not be hard to fund, let alone discuss. “The shame has to be taken out of menopause,” she said. “We have to talk about this very normal part of our life that happens.”

Just having this public conversation is groundbreaking. Ten years ago, the word “menopause” was barely uttered. “Women’s health” as a category did not exist for patients, entrepreneurs, employers, or investors. You’d have been shocked to find fertility care, maternity benefits, or IVF offered by America’s largest employers. Back then, my industry—venture capital—did not even consider women’s health an investable category.

Against that backdrop, almost exactly 10 years ago, I met Kate Ryder. Then a former journalist, Kate wanted to tackle the infamously-bureaucratic, slow-moving healthcare industry–a system that is hesitant to adopt new technology and, until recently, treated women’s health just like men’s health, ignoring the complex hormonal changes throughout a woman’s life. In fact, the inclusion of women in clinical trials did not become law until the early 1990s.

Kate’s vision—for a healthcare experience that would put the female patient at the center of care for the first time—was incredibly compelling and visionary. My firm, Female Founders Fund, went on to write one of our first checks to Maven Clinic, getting a front-row seat as Kate built the first women’s health unicorn. Maven Clinic is now worth $1.35 billion and serves more than 2,000 employers, including giant corporations like Microsoft and AT&T. But more important than the statistics is that Kate convinced employers that it is imperative to provide better benefits for women, and she helped prove to venture investors—and the medical industry—that women’s health has massive potential as a business that is well worth the investment.

Since then, I’ve seen the tide shift as more and more founders and investors put money into women’s health. A great example: A few years ago, I was pitched by two women building a more holistic care model for pregnancy, combining the best aspects of obstetric care and midwifery care into an evidence-based birth program tailored to each mother’s unique wants and needs. And with the U.S. having the worst maternal mortality rate of all developed nations, the pregnancy and birthing experience needed to change. Adrianne and Elaine of Oula were convinced that there was a better solution, again putting the female patient experience at the center. 

Oula has now raised more than $50 million in funding from investors, including Female Founders Fund, and has facilitated over 1,500 births with a 26% better C-section rate compared to New York City benchmarks and a 61% lower preterm birth rate—all while maintaining an NPS customer experience score greater than 90.

Just as encouraging are the successful startups that are not inside our portfolio.

Midi Health provides virtual care for women in menopause and perimenopause, and the results of this well-tailored care have been incredible. Around 91% of their patients report improving symptoms after just two months of care. Over 94% of patients see improvement in hot flashes in three months, 93% of patients report less insomnia in the first five months and 92% claim their moods improved in just two months. The company has raised over $100M to date, provides care in all 50 states, and now partners with major healthcare systems like Memorial Hermann and benefit-providers like Progyny and Cleo.

And there are many other examples over the last decade, such as Kindbody, Carrot, Clue, Alife Health, that show things are changing. Women are benefiting from improved solutions across a multitude of life experiences: menopause, IVF, endometriosis, fertility, hormone health, childbirth, osteoporosis, cancer diagnosis, and much more. The social momentum is building, too. Advocates like Elaine Welteroth and Serena Williams are raising awareness of critical issues of better maternal options with the launch of the Birth Fund earlier this year.  Last year, President and Dr. Biden announced $100 million for women’s health initiatives and called on Congress to invest $12 billion in research—a move that was widely and rightly applauded. Of course, despite the progress, we still have a long way to go. Disproportionate funding is allocated toward diseases primarily affecting men , while the majority of medical professionals are still brushing off women’s pain instead of treating it .

But if there’s ever been a year to capitalize on the momentum of women , it’s this year; It’s right now, as the medical community finally begins to acknowledge women have evolving health needs across each stage of their lives.

You can read the full essay here . 

Anu Duggal Submit a deal for the Term Sheet newsletter here .

Joe Abrams curated the deals section of today’s newsletter.

VENTURE DEALS

- Babylon , a Palo Alto, Calif.-based Bitcoin staking protocol, raised $70 million in funding. Paradigm led the round and was joined by Bullish Capital , Polychain Capital , and others. 

- Rhea , a Singapore and New York City-based network of reproductive health clinics, raised $10 million in funding. Thiel Capital led the round and was joined by LifeX Ventures , Blue Lion Global , and FJ Labs . 

- Weave Bio , a New Haven, Conn.-based platform designed to automate the preparation, writing, and review process for investigational new drug applications, raised $10 million in seed funding from Innovation Endeavors and Magnetic Ventures . 

- Basalt , a San Francisco-based developer of an operating system for satellite operators, raised $3.5 million in seed funding. Initialized Capital led the round and was joined by Y Combinator , Liquid2 , General Catalyst , and others.

- (Re)vive , a New York City-based company that helps retailers sell their returned or dead stock items, raised $3.5 million in seed funding. Equal Ventures and Hustle Fund led the round and was joined by Banter Capital , Coalition Operators , Mute VC , Veronica Chou , and others. 

- Plural Energy , a San Francisco-based investing platform that tokenizes clean energy assets like solar projects, raised $2.3 million in pre-seed funding. Necessary Ventures and Compound led the round and was joined by Volt Capital and Maven11 . 

- Kalogon , a Melbourne, Fla.-based developer of smart wheelchair cushions designed for pain relief, blood flow, and posture improvement, raised $1.2 million in a seed extension from Sawmill Angels , M7 , SeedFundersOrlando , AARP , and angel investors. 

PRIVATE EQUITY

- ACA Group , backed by Genstar , agreed to acquire UMB Fund Services , a Kansas City, Mo.-based provider of investment fund administration services, from UMB Financial Corporation (NASDAQ: UMBF) . Financial terms were not disclosed. 

- Agilence , backed by Cuadrilla Capital , acquired IntelliQ , a London, U.K.-based fraud prevention platform for retailers, restaurants, and entertainment companies. Financial terms were not disclosed. 

- Angeles Equity Partners acquired O’Hara’s Son Roofing , a Chicago, Ill.-based commercial and industrial roofing provider. Financial terms were not disclosed. 

- KKR agreed to acquire a majority stake in Agiloft , a Redwood City, Calif.-based contract lifecycle management platform. Financial terms were not disclosed. 

- Marlin Equity Partners acquired Traace , a Paris, France-based carbon use management and ESG monitoring platform. Financial terms were not disclosed. 

- Tencarva Machinery Company , backed by Bessemer Investors , acquired Tri-State Coating & Machine , a Salt Rock, W.V.-based provider of thermal coating services and related parts to industrial companies. Financial terms were not disclosed. 

- Vista Equity Partners led a minority investment in Portside , a Cary, N.C.-based developer of software for business and government aviation. Insight Partners also participated. Financial terms were not disclosed. 

- Asplundh Tree Expert , backed by The Carlyle Group , acquired Voltyx , a Nashville, Tenn.-based provider of electrical grid maintenance, repair, engineering, and other services, from Arcline Investment Management and Industrial Growth Partners . Financial terms were not disclosed.

- Uhuru Investment Partners acquired Cresta Paints , an Accra, Ghana-based paint and industrial coatings manufacturer, from Adenia Partners . Financial terms were not disclosed.

- Cloudflare (NYSE: NET ) acquired BastionZero , a Boston, Mass.-based platform designed for IT and security teams to manage remote access to a company’s systems. Financial terms were not disclosed.

- Renovus Capital Partners , a Philadelphia, Pa.-based private equity firm, hired Gary Tang as principal. Formerly, he was with Chicago Pacific Founders . 

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