origin of novel assignment

Historical Development of the Novel

In the following section, we’ll examine the historical development of the novel.

Where to Begin?

A novel is a fictional prose narrative of extensive length. The word derives from the Italian word novella, which means “little new thing.” Longer and more complex than short stories, a novel is not restricted by structure and form as poetry and drama are. The length of a novel allows for a variety of characters, a complicated plot, and character development, unlike the short story.

Literary input from a variety of sources led to the creation of the first modern novel.

One of the biggest influences on the development of the novel came from Spain in 1604—Cervantes’ Don Quixote. Cervantes’ romantic parody offers the reader a view of seventeenth-century Spanish society through the presentation of a wide assortment of characters.

The plot follows the adventures of Alonso Quijano, who has spent far too much time reading stories about chivalry. Alonso, who is considered crazy by friends and family, takes the name Don Quixote and transforms himself into a knight-errant on a mission to redress the wrongs of the world.

English authors in the eighteenth century used Don Quixote as a springboard for the novel as we know it. In 1719, Daniel Defoe published Robinson Crusoe, considered the first modern novel. Robinson Crusoe tells the tale of a traveler shipwrecked on an uninhabited tropical island, as indicated by its full title, which follows.

Defoe’s dramatic realism combined with a convincing central character, pirates, and cannibals, virtually guaranteed the novel’s popularity.

Following in Defoe’s footsteps were Jonathan Swift with Gulliver’s Travels, Henry Fielding with Joseph Andrews and Tom Jones, and Oliver Goldsmith with Vicar of Wakefield. The modern novel began taking shape during the eighteenth century, and during the next century, it continued to evolve into the most popular literary form.

A New Genre Takes Off

Romanticism of the nineteenth century influenced the direction novelists took the new literary genre. Americans joined in on the act during this time, as did writers from other parts of Europe.

During the first half of the nineteenth century, writers from both sides of the ocean published novels of all varieties, as indicated by the following table.

During the romantic age, gothic novels , such as Frankenstein, were particularly popular. In gothic novels, supernatural elements and a foreboding setting, such as an abandoned house or a dark, spooky castle, take center stage. In the case of Shelley’s novel, the gothic elements revolve around a monster created by Dr. Frankenstein, its quest for sympathy, and, finally, its eventual death.

A sustained interest in romanticism led Sir Walter Scott to set his novels in historic England. For example, Ivanhoe takes place in the period following the Norman Conquest, with characters such as Robin Hood, Richard the Lionheart, and numerous knights and fair ladies.

Unlike her colleagues, Jane Austen disdained romanticism. In fact, her novel Northanger Abbey parodies popular gothic novels. The plots of Austen’s novels, such as Pride and Prejudice and Sense and Sensibility, focus on domestic situations, such as betrothals, where manners and fashion are of utmost importance. Her novels exhibit satirical wit, insightful views of human nature, and stylish dialogue, which moves the story along much like a play.

The first two sentences of Pride and Prejudice indicate the story’s direction.

American writers were greatly influenced by their European counterparts. Romantic ideals, like individualism and love of nature, inspired them to add their own ideals and create a truly American literary voice.

Leading the way was James Fenimore Cooper whose novel The Last of the Mohicans contrasts the Native American way of life with the settlers’ desire to build farms and towns. Cooper’s adventure novel sets a fast pace with thrilling attacks, captures, escapes, and heroic rescues.

Rounding out the first half of the century was Hawthorne’s novel The Scarlet Letter, which delves into the hearts and minds of characters to reveal their moral dilemmas. Hawthorne’s psychological romance laced with gothic elements proved to be a sensation when it was published, and it remains a classic example of great American literature.

During the second half of the nineteenth century, events on both sides of the Atlantic influenced writers. In England, Queen Victoria reigned over a time of progress and prosperity. Railroads became the chosen method of travel, education was expanded, sanitation was improved, and middle-class values, such as hard work, solid morals, and practicality, became the standards of the time.

In the United States, the Civil War broke out in 1861 and did not end until 1865, the same year President Lincoln was assassinated. American ingenuity was in full swing at this time with the inventions of the typewriter, the telephone, and the light bulb.

Novels published during the latter half of the nineteenth century are indicated in the following table.

The most popular Victorian novelist was Charles Dickens. His work combines social criticism with humor in a world of characters that range from the malicious to the suffering. Characters such as Miss Havisham, Pip, Ebenezer Scrooge, and Tiny Tim remain ingrained in the memories of readers. In his novels, Dickens often criticized British prisons and schools, which led to reforms that were badly needed.

Just as Dickens’s novels rely heavily on memorable characters, so do the novels of Mark Twain. Huckleberry Finn first appeared as a character in Twain’s popular book The Adventures of Tom Sawyer before Twain wrote a novel solely about the runaway orphan and his travels. The story fluctuates between funny, satirical episodes and touching descriptions of the relationship between Huck and Jim.

One of Twain’s most important contributions to the continuing evolution of the novel is the introduction of slang-laden, colloquial dialect, which proved influential to future writers, such as Ernest Hemingway.

In contrast to Dickens’s Victorian novels are the realistic novels by writers such as Flaubert, Dostoyevsky, and Tolstoy. A realistic novel attempts to give the effect of realism through a work of fiction. Characters in realistic novels have normal daily experiences and interact with other characters within a structured social system.

For example, in Madame Bovary, Flaubert describes the dismal everyday life of an ordinary woman using precise details and realism, as in the following passage from the novel.

Flaubert describes every unpleasant detail of Emma Bovary’s existence, which provides the reader an understanding of her life and her frustrations.

Toward the end of the century, science-fiction novels evolved as a distinct category from the gothic novels of the earlier part of the century. Futuristic scientific developments serve to move the plots of these science-fiction novels.

French writer Jules Verne wrote Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea and Around the World in Eighty Days in the 1870s; H. G. Wells followed with Time Machine, The Invisible Man, and The Island of Dr. Moreau.

The nineteenth century produced a wide variety of novels from all parts of the world, with each one making an important contribution to the development of the modern novel.

Which of the following authors contributed to realism in novels?

• H. G. Wells
• Charles Dickens
• Sir Walter Scott
• Leo Tolstoy

Reveal Answer

The answer is D. Tolstoy’s novels present a realistic impression of Russian life at the time Tolstoy wrote them.

Out with the Old, In with the New

The years immediately following the turn of the century brought many changes. World War I began and Queen Victoria, who symbolized the strict moral code and prosperity of nineteenth-century England, died.

Novelists around the world sought to shake off the old ways of writing and to usher in the new century with new styles, new subject matters, and new narrative techniques. Thus, Modernism was born.

The following table provides a list of some Modernist authors and their novels.

James Joyce is renowned for his literary innovations, including stream of consciousness . Stream of consciousness is a revolutionary narrative technique used to imitate the inner workings of the human mind by providing a continuous stream of thoughts, feelings, and memories.

Joyce’s literature broke new ground and established him as one of the greatest talents of the twentieth century. Joyce used stream of consciousness in his largely autobiographical novel, A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man. Using the technique for which he is famous, Joyce delves into the mind of Stephen Dedalus to illustrate the development of Stephen as an artist.

Like James Joyce, Virginia Woolf often used stream of consciousness in her novels. Woolf emphasized the psychological workings of her characters, rather than the story’s plot. In To the Lighthouse, for example, plot, dialogue, and action are secondary to the descriptions of character’s impressions and thoughts.

The novels of D. H. Lawrence explore issues related to psychological health, sexuality, and human relationships. One of the most controversial writers of the twentieth century, Lawrence saw his books banned as obscene, and during World War I he was persecuted for his alleged pro-German sympathies.

Lawrence’s novel Sons and Lovers tells the story of a young, flourishing artist who is the son of an English coal miner. Attacked upon publication for its frank treatment of sex, the novel has since earned praise and recognition as an example of modern literature.

Although modernist literature varies from author to author, the notion of breaking with tradition links them together.

• A novel is a fictional prose narrative of extensive length.
• Gothic novels with spooky settings focus on the supernatural.
• Realistic novels give the effect of realism by closely examining the lives of characters and their normal, everyday experiences.
• Science-fiction novels use futuristic settings and scientific developments to direct the plot.
• Modernism was a twentieth-century literary innovation. Stream of consciousness developed during the modern period. It is a narrative technique that imitates the thoughts of the human mind.

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Course info.

• Ina Lipkowitz

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As taught in, learning resource types, major english novels, assignments, course assignments.

There are two assignments for this course: Early Novels assignment and 19th-20th Century Novels assignment. The details for each assignment are given below.

Early Novels Assignment (7 - 10 pages, due in Ses #13)

1. “The novel differs from the prose romance in that a greater degree of realism is expected of it, and that it tends to describe a recognizable secular social world, often in a skeptical and prosaic manner inappropriate to the marvels of romance.” Dictionary of Literary Terminology, 152.

2. “What is often felt as the formlessness of the novel, as compared, say, with tragedy or the ode, probably follows from this: the poverty of the novel’s formal conventions would seem to be the price it must pay for its realism.” Ian Watt, The Rise of the Novel, 13.

3. “The novel could be considered established only when realistic narrative was organized into a plot which, while retaining Defoe’s lifelikeness, also had an intrinsic coherence; when the novelist’s eye was focused on character and personal relationships as essential elements in the total structure, and not merely as subordinate instruments for furthering the verisimilitude of the actions described; and when all these were related to a controlling moral intention.” Ian Watt, The Rise of the Novel, 131.

or choose one of the following:

4. Moll Flanders purports to be an autobiography; Evelina is told in letters; and Pride and Prejudice features a third person narrator. Are these narrative styles a matter of chronology (i.e. dictated by the time in which the novels were written?) or of authorial choice? How do the different narrative styles force you to read differently?

5. “The history of a young inconsiderate girl, whose little foibles, without any natural vices of the mind, involve her in difficulties and distresses, which, by correcting, make her wise, and deservedly happy in the end. A heroine like this, cannot but lay an author under much disadvantage… It is a barren foundation for a novel.” Ralph Griffith’s review of Eliza Haywood’s The History of Miss Betsy Thoughtless , Monthly Review, 1751. If the history of a young girl is but a “barren foundation” for a novel, why did so many early novels concern themselves with precisely that?

19th-20th Century Novels Assignment (7 - 10 pages, due in Ses #26)

1. “Many critics of the novel have implicitly or explicitly separated canonical authors, such as Richardson, Austen, Dickens, and Eliot, from the popular novels that influenced them and along side of which their work was read, in the interest of constructing a high-culture novel tradition. Popular genres, such as the sensation novel, are consigned to second-rate status through a process that often replicates nineteenth-century discourses suspicious of working-class readers, female audiences, and affectively powerful or nonrealist literature.” Ann Cvetkovich, Mixed Feelings: Feminism, Mass Culture, and Victorian Sensationalism, 15. (Suggested novels: Adam Bede , Lady Audley’s Secret .)

2. “In the second half of the novel, Mrs Gaskell retreated from the implications of the moving record of distress presented in the first half, falling back on literary convention to eschew the social and political issues raised by the very originality and authenticity of her account… Perhaps the exigencies of the novel form were as much to blame as were Mrs Gaskell’s own politics. What made the novel an instant success was its capacity to bring to life the large-scale social problems reported in a plethora of parliamentary reports and blue books. Only a novel, with its focus upon the individual and particular, could correct the generalized abstractions of official documents and statistics: yet the novel demanded plot momentum and narrative resolution in a situation where irresolution and intractability were the keynotes.” Josie Billington, “Elizabeth Gaskell” (Suggested novels: Mary Barton , Adam Bede , Lady Audley’s Secret , Tess of the D’Urbervilles. )

3. “Hetty is a subject till that last moment on the road, before she abandons the baby. From that point on she is an object: of confession and conversion, of attitudes toward suffering. This is the essential difference from Hardy’s Tess of the D’Urbervilles which has the strength to keep to the subject to the end. Adam Bede and Dinah Morris—as one might say the dignity of self-respecting labour and religious enthusiasm—are more important in the end. Even the changed repentant Arthur is more important than the girl whom the novelist abandons, in a moral action more decisive than Hetty’s own confused and desperate leaving of her child.” Raymond Williams, The English Novel from Dickens to Lawrence, 82-3. (Suggested novels: Mary Barton , Adam Bede , Lady Audley’s Secret , Tess of the D’Urbervilles .)

4. “The Dorset in which Hardy grew up… was, of course, the basis for the Wessex of his fiction-a landscape that in some respects has fairly been said to suggest the timelessness characteristic of rural ballads; but Hardy’s Wessex should also be seen as a traditional society under attack by the forces of industrialization. Whereas the novels of Dickens, Gaskell, and others depict the hardship caused by the industrial revolution on the urban poor, Tess clearly shows how rural industry was far from being untouched by hardship, caused by soulless mechanization. Typically, however, the harsher undertones of Wessex life have in the public mind been often diluted or lost in a wash of nostalgic rural Englishness.” Sarah Maier, “Introduction” to Broadview edition of Tess of the D’Urbervilles , 15. (Suggested novels: Mary Barton , Adam Bede , Tess of the D’Urbervilles .)

5. “Art is the nearest thing to life; it is a mode of amplifying experience and extending our contact with our fellow-men beyond the bounds of our personal lot. All the more sacred is the task of the artist when he undertakes to paint the life of the People. Falsification here is far more pernicious than in the more artificial aspects of life.” George Eliot, Review of Wilhelm Heinrich Riehl’s The Natural History of the German People as a Foundation of German Social Politics, 1856. (Suggested novels: Mary Barton , Adam Bede , Tess of the D’Urbervilles .)

or choose one of the following on Woolf’s Mrs Dalloway :

6. “She felt somehow very like him—the young man who had killed himself.” Why do you think Woolf constructed her novel around two such different, yet obviously paralleled, central characters?

7. Mrs Dalloway’s marriage plot—the standard feature of the nineteenth-century novel—is very clearly in the past. What other features of more traditional novels that we’ve read this semester does Woolf either transform or reject outright? What does she replace them with? Why?

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Factors that gave rise to English Novel.

What caused the rise of English novel.

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Planning a Novel Study (Without Stress)

A Step-By-Step Guide

Planning a novel study can seem like an overwhelming task. And when you’re just throwing things together (we’ve all been there), it totally can be. However, a novel study is a cornerstone in an ELA classroom. You might feel immense pressure to design a unit where students can finally let their foundational reading skills shine and even take them to the next level. Therefore, it’s imperative to create a novel study with intent and purpose. After reading this, you’ll be able to create one with a lot less stress too.

When planning a novel study for your classroom, you want to avoid planning as you go. (That’s my number one piece of advice.) Now, I’m not saying you can’t make adjustments along the way. You’ll likely find that it’s hard to make it through an entire novel without making a tweak here or there. However, having a plan will not only ease your stress but will ensure a meaningful and purpose-driven novel study for your students as well.

So, whether this is your first time planning a novel study for your students or you’re looking to clean up your process and planning, follow this step-by-step approach. Trust me; It’ll benefit both you and your students.

WHAT EXACTLY IS A NOVEL STUDY?

Let me start by clarifying what a novel study is not . A novel study does not mean simply studying a plot, and it’s more than quizzing students on what happened on a specific page of a particular book. It’s not just about who did what when. Planning and facilitating a novel study isn’t synonymous with teaching a book. Why? Teaching a novel study goes beyond the book. Instead, a novel study goes beyond the basics of reading words on a page. Now that your students have a strong foundation of phonics, fluency, and vocabulary, a novel study helps them dive into the next phase of their learning journey.

It’s teaching students how to engage with a book. It goes beyond the words on the page and helps students understand to read between the lines. A novel study helps students develop essential reading comprehension and critical thinking skills that they will continue to build upon throughout their educational journey and beyond.

A novel study is also an opportunity for students to be highly active participants in their learning experience. When done well, a novel study finds the balance between guidance and student-led analysis to develop, practice, and refine their reading comprehension and analysis skills. And perhaps one of the best potential outcomes of a novel study is creating a safe space where students can build a love and appreciation for reading. (What kind of English teacher wouldn’t want that?)

UNDERSTANDING THE BENEFITS.

Before you dive into planning your novel study, you might be wondering if it’s worth the hype. Afterall, if you’re going to take the time and effort to plan it out, you want to be sure your students will benefit. (Hint: They will.)

The purpose and benefits are going to vary from class to class, student to student. You may choose certain novels to hone in on specific skills, standards, and learning goals. The novel study might be part of a larger unit or may stand on its own. Regardless, there are many benefits to introducing a novel study to your classroom.

Teacher Benefits.

A novel study is a great way to check many boxes with one cohesive unit. For starters, novel studies provide plenty of room to address multiple learning goals and state standards within a single unit. I’ve found it’s much more enjoyable for myself and my students when learning goals flow seamlessly from one to another. Additionally, novel studies provide the perfect setting for bringing together reading and writing skills (an ELA teacher’s dream). Student Benefits.

Perhaps one of the most significant student benefits of novel study is exposure. Novels provide students a portal to different experiences and perspectives. Our experiences often shape our lives, yet student experiences can be rather limited. So, whether you’re hoping to expose them to different cultures, historical periods, or circumstances and experiences outside their own, a well-planned and executed novel study can open the door to understanding and even lay the foundation for empathy.

Similarly, students gain skills beyond the book. Students might need to collaborate on activities or practice listening to the opinions of others, helping them develop essential interpersonal skills. So, they’ll gain a sense of perspective from reading and discussing the novel. Students will have many opportunities to understand that not everyone thinks and works in the same way.

Lastly, a novel study is a great opportunity to contextualize new vocabulary. While students might be used to spelling bees and weekly vocab lists, a novel study gives them a context for learning new words. Instead of learning new words for the sake of learning new words, vocabulary is contextualized for a more meaningful and authentic understanding. To this day, I cannot hear the word disillusionment without thinking of the great tragedy of The Great Gatsby and the American experience in the 1920s.

Now that you understand what a novel study is (and isn’t) and some of its greatest benefits, let’s get to planning!

Step 1: Know Your Purpose.

It all starts with a purpose. So, you want to begin planning your novel study with an idea of where you’re going and, ultimately, taking the students. Consider asking yourself the following questions to get you thinking about the bigger picture:

• How does this novel study fit into your curriculum? Is it your approach to your next unit or a supplement to a larger unit?
• What do you want your students to gain from this novel study? Be sure to think beyond the novel, considering both transferable skills and broader knowledge.

Perhaps this novel study is meant to introduce students to a particular genre or literary element. Or maybe you’re honing in on a particular experience or culture. In other cases, especially in middle school, you may be looking to provide a deeper context into a historical event or period students are learning in social studies.

Regardless, novel studies are a great way to provide context and build a rich understanding. However, you must know what that purpose is so you can effectively fulfill it.

WHAT TO CONSIDER WHEN DEFINING YOUR PURPOSE FOR YOUR NOVEL STUDY.

• Essential question. As you define your purpose, consider any essential questions you are looking for your students to answer by the end of the novel study. These questions are usually big abstract questions attached to curriculum units. A question might be as abstract as, “What role does tradition play in society?” Or, it might be more literature-focused, such as, “How does character development help move a story forward?” or “How does setting impact a story?”
• Universal theme. Similar to an essential question, you might be planning your novel study around a universal theme such as “The American Dream,” “Identity,” or “Overcoming adversity.” Whatever the theme, it’s essential to understand its role in your purpose. It’s imperative to have this understanding before moving on to the next step.
• Standards. Remember, one of the benefits of facilitating a novel study is hitting multiple standards in a cohesive way. So, when planning your novel study, be sure to identify the target standards your study will cover. (This is especially important if you work in a district where you must submit unit plans that identify key targets.) Even if that doesn’t apply to you, it can help anchor your planning as you move forward. Stick to no more than three standards so you can be sure to touch upon each standard at least twice throughout the novel study. Any more than three standards and it will likely be hard to get beyond the surface level of the standards.
• Learning needs and goals. As you consider your purpose, look toward the specific needs of your class. Needs, and therefore goals, will differ from class to class. So, even if you’re revamping an existing novel study, be sure to revisit this component and adjust to your particular group of students.

Step 2: Choose Your Framework.

Once you have clarity around your purpose, the next step is to choose the framework for your novel study. There are three frameworks to consider:

• Whole-class novel study
• Small-group novel study
• Independent novel study

In a whole-class novel study , the whole group reads the same book. This approach creates a shared experience among the students as they engage in a particular text, supplemental materials, and assessments. Despite being a whole-class approach, you can implement various activities and reading techniques, including whole-class, partner, and independent reading.

In a small-group novel study , each group has a different text. You may decide to give students a say in which book they read, but ultimately, it’s imperative you match the students with the books that suit their abilities best. Depending on the needs of your classroom, the different groups may be working on similar or different skills and tasks. However, I recommend finding a unifying theme, essential question, or experience across all books if possible. That way, students can come together to engage in whole-class discussions.

Just as the name indicated, an independent novel study consists of each student reading their own text. This is a highly independent approach where you might offer mini-lessons throughout the unit, but students work on reading and responding to assignments independently. While some students thrive with this level of autonomy, I do not recommend this framework for struggling or reluctant readers. With that said, you might consider putting together an independent study for highly advanced readers despite a whole-class or small-group approach.

NOT SURE WHICH FRAMEWORK TO CHOOSE?

For this grade level, I recommend embarking on a whole-class or small-group novel study. However, if this is the first time the majority of your students are engaging in a novel study or if they require more direct instruction and guidance to achieve your desired goals, I suggest a whole class novel study. Typically speaking, this framework allows more room for redirection and adjustments on the fly. If your classroom includes a wide range of needs and abilities, a small-group novel study might just be the best way to target particular groups of students. If you are overwhelmed by the idea, I suggest using a similar approach for each group, adjusting the specifics of the supplemental material as needed. For example, perhaps you expect one group to fill out a graphic organizer as a response. However, you may provide the organizer to another group while asking them to turn in a fully developed written response. Alternatively, you can begin the year with a whole-class novel study to lay the foundation, introducing students to the components and expectations of this type of unit. Then, follow up with a small-group novel study later in the year to accommodate varying needs or simply give students more autonomy.

Step 3: Choose Your Book

When you choose the book(s) for your novel study, you’ll want to consider what resources you have available to you. If you’re planning this unit far enough in advance and have a hefty book budget, you might have more choice than a teacher working from a pre-approved reading list or library resources.

Regardless, this is why this step comes after clarifying your purpose. Be sure to select a book that aligns with your purpose. For example, will the book help students gain perspective around a historical event or period? Will students be able to apply the book when answering an essential question? Does it fit within the scope of the unit theme? The good news is novel studies have a lot of wiggle room. Unlike being confined to the content in a (potentially outdated) textbook, you have the freedom to select a novel that fits your goals and classroom needs. So, take advantage of the opportunity if you are able to.

HERE ARE A FEW THINGS TO CONSIDER WHEN CHOOSING YOUR NOVEL STUDY TEXT:

• Difficulty. This is your Goldilocks moment. You don’t want to select a book that is too difficult or too easy and risk losing student engagement. Instead, seek out that book that is juuuust right. (Remember, if that seems like an impossible task due to a diverse group, consider setting up a small-group novel study.
• Appropriateness. You want to consider what is appropriate for your student’s age. Just because a protagonist is 15 doesn’t mean you need to disregard it as an option. However, you might want to steer clear of books with vulgar language or references to sex, violence, and drugs. When considering appropriateness, be sure to consider parent and district expectations as well to avoid any potential backlash.
• Interest. Your students will be spending anywhere from a couple of weeks to a couple of months working with this text. So, while it might feel impossible to select a text that will pique everyone’s interests, consider the group as a whole. Will they find the story relatable or intriguing? Does it address a relatable theme or question? Even if you’re choosing (or required) to read a classic text, how can it be made relevant to modern society or students’ lives?
• Why? Again, be sure the text aligns with your purpose. This one is so important that, yes, I mentioned it twice.

Now, if you’ve chosen a book you haven’t yet read, your next step is to read the novel. Trust me; you don’t want to be surprised by inappropriate language or controversial topics. However, if you are crunched for time, I understand you may not have time to read an entire novel. At the very least, I suggest you read the synopsis and a handful of reviews to grasp the general storyline and identify any potential red flags in content. I also recommend doing a “finger walk” through the text to get a feel for the writing, including vocabulary and structure. Not everyone is looking to read a book written in diary format or verse. Alternatively, that might be exactly what you want!

WHILE YOU READ/REREAD

Let’s face it. Even as teachers, we might need a refresh and review on a novel we’ve read before. (Yes, even if we’ve taught it eight times.) So, as you read, consider paying attention to the following as you prepare to plan an entire novel study around the text:

• What from the text is relevant to the students’ lives? Modern society? Other areas they may be studying in other subjects?
• What themes and patterns are you finding? How do they fit into the overall goal of the novel study or overarching unit?
• What are you picking up on that you want your students to notice too?
• What literary elements do you want to teach or (at a minimum) point out in the story? (Things like parallel plot structure, character foils, monologue, extended metaphor, motif, static vs. dynamic characters, foreshadowing, etc.)
• What words might students need to know to build their vocabulary and/or enhance their understanding of the novel?
• How does the story unfold? How could it be broken up into manageable reading assignments for students?
• What parts of the story have a lot to unpack? Where do you feel students would benefit most from your input vs. independent reading?

From there, you can use your annotations to guide your focus when planning daily lessons, discussions, and assessments.

Step 4: Set Your Timeline.

When planning your novel study, you need to know how much time you plan to allot to this unit. In cases where you have limited time, you might need to flip-flop this step and the one prior.

Some novel studies move quicker than others. In some cases, you may only need four weeks, and in others, you may need an entire quarter. Your timeline will also depend on your daily schedule. Does your school operate on block scheduling? How long is each class period? Regardless, when deciding which timeline is right for you and your students, consider how much work you’d like done in class vs. at home. How much whole class reading do you plan on doing? That always takes longer than independent reading. Are you sharing this unit with supplemental minilessons to provide historical context or teach writing strategies? These are all things you want to keep in mind as you determine your timeline.

PLAN AHEAD.

As you’re setting up your timeline, you need to think beyond your novel study as well. I suggest marking off important dates to be mindful of as you plan your daily lessons. You don’t want to forget about half days or holidays– those could really throw off your plan if you’re not prepared. Additionally, it’s worth noting any days you know you will be out of the classroom for workshops, appointments, etc. I always recommend using those as independent workdays or “light” days. Mapping those out ahead of time can save you from stressfully shuffling things around for last minute adjustments.

Lastly, plan a buffer week. This extra week prepares you for the unexpected that is bound to come up. Maybe there was an unexpected school closure or an activity that took longer than expected. Whatever the interruption to your ideal timeline, it’s best to be prepared. Tacking on a buffer week to the end of your timeline will give you the wiggle room you need just in case. That way you don’t have to stress if you need to slow down or run into an unexpected obstacle.

In the rare event you end ahead of schedule (AKA on time)? Enjoy it. You can give the students an extra day or two on a final project, add in a fun activity that didn’t quite make the cut the first time around, or simply move on. (We all know that extra week will come in handy at some point down the line.)

I’m telling you, this buffer week is a teacher’s best-kept secret when it comes to planning a novel study.

ESTABLISH READING ASSIGNMENTS.

Once you establish your timeline, you have a foundation for determining your reading assignments. Use your timeline to help you determine how to best chunk out the novel. Account for both in-class and at-home reading, if applicable.

If you’re not sure how to chunk it out, divide the total number of pages in the book by the number of weeks you plan on dedicating to reading. (Remember, the first and last week might not involve reading, so be sure to double-check your plan.) Then divide that number by the number of days you plan on reading each week, in class or at home. You’ll likely have to adjust the number to match up with reasonable breaks in the text, like chapters, but it’s a dependable place to start. Once you know how many pages will be covered each day, in class or at home, be sure to denote which days will be specific for in-class reading. Feel free to mark down which type of in-class reading you’d like to do, such as whole class or independent reading. While this might seem oddly specific, it will help you when it comes to filling in the accompanying lessons and activities.

Additionally, planning both in-class and at-home reading helps you stay on track. Worst case, students have less homework or have to tack on a few extra pages. But trust me. Having a general idea will come in handy when planning out the details.

Step 5: Choose Your Final Assessment.

Start at the end. No, I’m not speaking in riddles. I am , however, talking about Backward Design. So, before filling your schedule with mini-lessons, formative assessments, and fun activities, determine how you will summatively assess your students at the end of the novel study.

Remember, the purpose of a novel study is to go beyond the basics and get students interacting with a text to build a deeper understanding. It’s about comprehension and critical thinking, not regurgitation. Steer clear of static multiple-choice questions and short answer prompts with limiting right and wrong answers. While these can make for quick exit tickets and reading checks, the final assessment should move beyond basic comprehension.

To do this, you’ll need to revisit your purpose. What are the learning goals and standards you are trying to assess by the end of this unit? Then, you need to determine how you are going to assess student learning. Is it going to be through a formal writing assignment? A reflection? A multi-faceted project? A formal discussion or presentation? Will students have a choice?

Once you have the final assessment squared away, be sure to add it to your calendar, marking the final due date. Then, you can work backward to fill in imperative dates to prepare students for the final assessment as needed. For example, certain assessments might need time for workshop days, peer revisions, or presentations. However, plan all of these dates (including the final due date) before the buffer week.

And don’t worry yet if you don’t have the exact assessment or rubrics finalized. For now, stay focused on the plan.

Step 6: Work Backward to Fill in the Rest!

Now that you have your essential framework laid out, it’s time to fill in the blanks! Using your reading schedule and final assessment, work backward to fill out the remaining blocks. You’ll want to incorporate activities before, during, and after reading to round out your novel study.

INTRODUCE THE NOVEL.

Start by planning out how you are going to introduce the novel. Do students need any background information before they dive in? Would it be useful to learn about the novel’s author, setting, or historical context? You can add other pre-reading activities like analyzing the book’s cover or discussing a relevant issue that appears in the book. Have students complete an anticipation guide or play four corners to begin exploring themes and conflicts in the novel.

CHECKING FOR READING COMPREHENSION.

Reading comprehension is an essential component of any novel study. Therefore, incorporate lessons and activities that address areas of comprehension such as identifying themes, examining character development and plot structure, summarizing, and making inferences and connections. You can accomplish these comprehension checks through group discussions, independently written responses, and group activities.

When planning for reading comprehension activities, be sure to incorporate a variety of activities. Not all students will shine through writing, but that doesn’t mean they don’t understand the novel and its essential elements. Adding a variety to your unit study will ensure each student has the opportunity to shine and showcase their comprehension in one way or another.

You’ll also want to leave room for any minilessons you plan on teaching to aid student comprehension. Do you need to plan a 20-minute lesson reviewing the elements of plot? Do you need to teach a lesson about literary devices or explain how to effectively annotate a text? Leave room for teaching such lessons and completing activities throughout the novel study.

BEFORE THE FINAL ASSESSMENT.

If time permits, consider incorporating a post-reading assignment that serves more as a fun review before jumping into the final assessment. This is a great opportunity for student choice and group mini-projects. Students can put together collages, redesign the cover, create a timeline of events, write a book review, or make a character scrapbook to review the essential elements of the story. Give them as many or as few guidelines as you feel necessary.

However, keep these activities to one or two classes. You don’t want them to take away from prepping for the final assessment. However, it’s an excellent way for students to interact with the whole text, providing a refresher before embarking on a summative assessment.

A FINAL WORD.

A piece of advice? Be realistic when planning. If you know your students aren’t going to be able to read 20 pages, watch a video clip, participate in a discussion, and write a response, don’t set that expectation for a single class period. It only creates stress and interrupts your plan. Instead, feel free to have a bank of optional extension activities you can pull from if needed. Character diary entries, connection prompts, and comic strips are some student favorites.

You’re Ready to Go!

The best part? Once you have a well-mapped-out novel study, you can rinse and repeat with different novels or groups of students from year to year. That way, you won’t have to start from scratch each time. I’m willing to bet there’s already a lot on your plate, so I’d hate for you to reinvent the wheel when you don’t have to.

But, for now, happy planning! Psst… Feel free to save this post to return to as needed throughout your planning process.

If you’re pressed for time or still feel overwhelmed don’t fear. I’ve premade some novel study resources I know you’ll find useful. Check them out!

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novel assignment

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Novel – Definition, Aspects, Characteristics, Types & History

Table of Contents

What is a Novel?

The novel is one of the many possible prose narrative forms. It shares with other narratives, like the epic and the romance, two basic characteristics: a story and a storyteller. The epic tells a traditional story and is a combination of myth, history, and fiction. Its heroes are gods and goddesses and extraordinary men and women. The romance also tells stories of larger-than-life characters. It stresses on an adventure and often involves a search for an ideal or the quest of an enemy. In symbolic form, the events seem to project the primitive wishes, hopes, and fear of the human mind and are, therefore, similar to the resources of dream, myth, and ritual. Although this is true to some novels as well, what differentiates the novel from the romance is its realistic treatment of life and manners. In broad terms, a novel can thus be defined as a piece of prose fiction which dramatizes life with the help of characters and situations. It also portrays some characteristics of human experience and generates real-life impressions.

Aspects of Novel

Theme The central idea of a novel is the theme. It is a concern or a subject on which the story rotates. For a novelist the theme is like a design that comes to the mind, sprouts like a seed and a story with plot and characters are woven around it. Plot The framework of the story is the plot. It has an opening, a centre and a conclusion. It progresses with the help of characters, events and actions. There can be even sub-plot in a plot but they are linked to each other in the main theme. The plot is thus the structure of the actions which work together to accomplish an artistic outcome. And as these actions are performed by the characters, plot and character are interdependent on each other. It is the plot that arranges and re-arranges the story according to the mode of narrative. Characterization The writer offers some ethical or dispositional qualities to the characters which they expose through their actions. How should the person act, react, learn and change all constitute the art of characterization . With the advancement of the story, a character grows slowly and has the power to make the reader so involved that he might feel very close to the character participating and sharing the emotional fluctuations as well. A character has the potentiality of moving the readers and forcing them to remember it forever and this indicates the accomplishment of the art of characterization .  Point of View This indicates how a story is narrated. It is the perception through which the author depicts the characters, controls their actions and relates the events. The story can be in the first-person narration where the narrator reports the incidents with ‘I’ which represent that it is he who has been a spectator to the events of life. Time and Place A story originates and moves within a particular time and place and the author cannot detach himself from it. Use of place decides the location and the use of time assures the way the events are structured. It is not required for a novelist to mention the name of the place but through the setting and the background, the ambience is created. In some novels, the author uses place to give cultural support to the story and in some, the place is used as a source of significance and building the atmosphere around the story. Style Each writer has his/her own style of writing. It is how the author narrates the story keeping in view the language and expression. The characters, situations and events are expressed maintaining a unique diction , choice of words, sentence structure etc. and it is this style that distinguishes one author from the other.

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Characteristics Of a Novel

Today, one of the ways in which we define a novel is that it is a prose narrative. This is its first characteristic. A novel, however, may not adopt or rely on such frames to develop its subject. This brings us to the second characteristic of the novel: it is a modern development. The third characteristic of the novel is that it has a plot or a structure. Even those novels which seem to lack an apparent structure actually have one. Without a plot, the subject of the novel cannot be organised properly. The plot makes it possible for the novelist to arrange different points of the novel coherently. The plot is that which holds the various elements of the novel together. We must remember that all fictional prose narratives which tell stories are not novels. For example, in the essays of the nineteenth-century writer, Charles Lamb, we find him presenting fictional situations in narrative form. In Lamb’s essays, we have fictional episodes but they do not become a novel. This brings us to the fourth characteristic of the novel: it must be of a certain length. This feature is important because only when the story spans some length can the theme be expanded and developed. There is no definite rule about how long a novel should be. But if it is too short, then the different conditions of the story cannot be developed properly. Without characters, we cannot have a novel. This is the fifth characteristic of the novel: it must have characters and action. The action in a novel may be of different kinds. Sometimes we see a lot of developments in the plot. In some other cases, especially in the modernist novel the action is often internal and cannot be described in terms of external change or transformation. The novel tries to deal with and credibly present some form of reality. This is its sixth characteristic. Of course, we find that all novels cannot be placed with the category of realism. But in one way or the other, the representation of reality (ideas about the real may be different and even contradictory) is one of the important issues in a novel. There are various kinds of realistic representations in fiction: magic realism and social realism are two such examples. We also find novels that experiment with the question of reality in ways that make it the central issue in the novel. The novel of ideas is one such type where the ideas are more important than the situation of the characters. Some postmodern novels examine the issues of reality that are quite opposed to the way it is presented in the classic realist novels. In Salman Rushdie’s Midnight’s Children (1981), the reality cannot be taken for granted. The narrative of Saleem Sinai in the novel raises questions about the nature of the subject quite vehemently.

Types Of Novel

Various types of novels have taken form in English from its initiation in England to the recent ones developed in America and India. Gothic Novel Derived from the word ‘Goths’ used for a Germanic tribe, the Gothic novel has supernatural elements like ghosts, haunted houses, etc. which induces horror, apprehension and insecurity. Examples – Horace Walpole’s Castle of Otranto, a Gothic Story, Ann Radcliff’s The Mysteries of Udolpho, etc. Picaresque Novel Derived from the Spanish word ‘Picaro’ which means ‘a rogue’, the Picaresque novels present the stories of adventure where the characters, in general, move from one place to the other. Examples – Daniel Defoe’s Robinson Crusoe, Henry Fielding’s Tom Jones, etc. Epistolary Novel The meaning of ‘Epistle’ is ‘a letter’. It is through the exchange of letters among the characters that the story proceeds forward. It became very popular in the eighteenth century with Samuel Richardson’s Pamela and Clarissa. Historical Novel It is from history that the events and the characters are taken. This type was brought into prominence by Sir Walter Scott’s Ivanhoe. Psychological Novel It is the innermost desires and motives of the characters that are projected in this type of novel. The feelings and reactions of the characters are given prominence more than the social setting. The stream of consciousness techniques suites this type very much. Examples – Virginia Woolf’s Mrs Dalloway, James Joyce’s Ulysses , etc. Regional Novel

This type of novel is set in a particular geographical section and deals with the living and culture of that area. Example – Thomas Hardy’s Wessex, R.K.Narayan’s Malgudi, etc. These are the common types of novels. Apart from these, there are many more varieties that excel in creating the literature of the time and making the essence of the novel more dedicated and authentic in the present scenario.

History of Novel

It is very difficult to say when the novel proper made its appearance in the world’s literary history. One thing is clear; there are many features of the novel, which we find in many non-novelistic literary types as well. For example, the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle considered the epic to be a form of narrative. Novels are usually written in prose. Of course, we must remember that people have written novels in verse too. We can take the example of the Indian writer Vikram Seth’s The Golden Gate as one such case. In this novel, which is in verse, Seth tried to present the situation of life and culture in the context of the Golden Gate Bridge at San Francisco, USA. The great Russian writer Alexander Pushkin’s Eugene Onegin is often seen as the pioneering text in the novel in the verse category . Thus, although we find numerous prose narratives existing prior to the emergence of the novel, these cannot be seen as novels for one basic reason: they were not fictional in character . This again is not very easy to separate from the writings that make up the world’s mythology. The different mythological narratives of the world exhibit some of the features of the novel. They are characterised by the presence of a strong sense of morality. These mythological tales are usually associated with some religious or spiritual framework. One of the striking features of the novel, as it traversed through the various stages of its evolution, is its modernity. When we trace the growth and emergence of the novel as a literary form, this is an aspect we must keep in mind: it is a modern phenomenon. There were narratives in the ancient world, but the novel is a product of the modern period. The Czech novelist, Milan Kundera considers the novel’s modernity to be its most important feature. So, we may arrive at the following conclusion based on the above discussion: the novel is a fictional prose narrative and a modern literary development. When we say that the novel is a modern phenomenon we must see it in terms of its place in culture. The Print revolution (in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries) was a major condition that contributed to the growth of the modern reader. Earlier, knowledge was closely bound up with religion and spiritual experience. With books being available to the general reader, the nature of education and readership also changed. That is why we find many prose romances emerging during the sixteenth century. Some literary historians consider these narratives to be part of the novel’s prehistory, while others believe that such writings are actually similar to the novel itself. It is interesting to note that many of these romances were extremely popular and well-received. The great English playwright William Shakespeare (1564- 1616) based some of his plays on the romances of his contemporaries such as Robert Greene. In tracing the history of the novel we must also note that it was confined to just one or two locations. It spread across different centres of Europe and developed with varying degrees of complexity. It is, however, clear the novel first made its appearance in Europe. Two remarkable examples from the early history of the novel are Francois Rabelais’ Gargantua and Pantagruel (France) and Miguel de Cervantes’ Don Quijote (Spain). Both these novels are very different from one another. This was because the form of the novel was yet to develop fully. By the beginning of the eighteenth century, many people in Europe began to experiment in prose. In England, we can see that it emerged properly only in the eighteenth century. Similar writings appeared at the same time in Italy, Spain, France and Germany. By the nineteenth century, we have many accomplished novelists who are revered very highly even today. It can be said that the growth of the novel was to some extent influenced by the changing current of ideas in the fields of science and general knowledge. People’s perceptions were changing and such transformations were mirrored in the growth of an eager and curious readership in the eighteenth and the nineteenth centuries. The stories became more and more complicated and exciting as the novel reached the modern period. In this connection, we must also take note of the role played by the publishing industry (represented to a great extent by periodicals and journals) and the libraries. The novel’s emergence in the modern world can be traced to certain cultural and social developments in Europe. With the revival of learning during the Renaissance, the growth of readership because of print culture and the formation of libraries and the availability of leisure, the novel consolidated in the eighteenth and the nineteenth centuries in Europe. In the eighteenth century, we find the novelists experimenting in a variety of ways. In England, for instance, we find that the writers tried to present things in quite dissimilar ways. Daniel Defoe wrote Robinson Crusoe in the adventure tale format; Samuel Richardson wrote the narrative of letters (Pamela and Clarissa) and Henry Fielding tried out the picaresque novel in Tom Jones. By the nineteenth century, the novel was considerably consolidated as a literary form. Novelists like Jane Austen, Charles Dickens, W. M. Thackeray, Anthony Trollope and Thomas Hardy dealt with different aspects of contemporary social life. The novel in this period was primarily realistic in orientation.

If we look at the developments of the genre outside England we see great variation and experimentation. Miguel de Cervantes’ Don Quijote is a landmark in Spanish literature. Following its publication in the early seventeenth century, it paved the way for the genre to develop and consolidate in other European languages. Towards the end of the seventeenth century, we find in Countess de Lafayette’s La Princesse de Clèves (1678) the arrival of the woman novelist in Europe. Of course, Aphra Behn had also written Oroonoko in English in the seventeenth century. By the nineteenth century, the novel was a major literary form in Europe. The French naturalists and realists such as Emile Zola and Gustave Flaubert had created a new space for the novel through their fictional narratives. The nineteenth century was perhaps the most significant year for the novel in terms of its spread and practice across the world. In Russia Ivan Turgenev, Fyodor Dostoevsky and Leo Tolstoy explored aspects of human life and character in new invigorating ways. The writings of Nathaniel Hawthorne, Herman Melville and Mark Twain announced the emergence of the American novel. In India too, we see various novelistic experiments being carried out in the vernacular languages. O. Chandu Menon’s Indulekha (1889, Malayalam), Veeresalingam’s Rajasekhara Charitra (1878, Telegu) Lakshminath Bezbaroa’s Podum Kunwori (1890, Assamese) and Mirza Hadi Ruswa’s Umrao Jan Ada (1899, Urdu) are some noteworthy examples of the novel in Indian vernacular languages. In the early twentieth century, the novel flourished in various Indian languages. In the modern period, the journey of the novel takes a new turn. Some of the modern novelists felt that the question of form cannot be taken for granted. They have experimented with both form and language. There have other challenges as well. There have been major technological developments in the twentieth and the early years of the twenty-first century. These developments have greatly affected the character of the contemporary novel in terms of theme, technique and reception. As an aspiring novel writer, you must be familiar with the historical movement of the genre.

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What does the noun novel mean?

There are ten meanings listed in OED's entry for the noun novel , six of which are labelled obsolete. See ‘Meaning & use’ for definitions, usage, and quotation evidence.

novel has developed meanings and uses in subjects including

How common is the noun novel ?

How is the noun novel pronounced, british english, u.s. english, where does the noun novel come from.

Earliest known use

Middle English

The earliest known use of the noun novel is in the Middle English period (1150—1500).

OED's earliest evidence for novel is from around 1400, in Book to Mother .

novel is of multiple origins. Partly a borrowing from Latin. Partly a borrowing from French. Partly a borrowing from Italian.

Etymons: Latin novella ; French nouvelles ; Latin novellae ; Italian novella .

Nearby entries

• Novatian, n. & adj. c1449–
• Novatianism, n. 1574–
• Novatianist, n. & adj. 1597–
• novation, n. 1501–
• novative, adj. 1875
• novato, n. 1614–68
• novator, n. 1600–
• novatory, adj. 1880
• novatrix, n. 1866
• novaturient, adj. 1679
• novel, n. c1400–
• novel, adj. 1405–
• novela, n. 1968–
• novelant, n. 1602–61
• novel appellation, n. 1760
• novel assignment, n. 1607–1728
• novel-book, n. 1821–30
• novel constitution, n. 1726
• noveldom, n. 1831–
• novelese, n. 1900–
• novelesque, adj. 1853–

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Meaning & use

Pronunciation, compounds & derived words, entry history for novel, n..

novel, n. was revised in December 2003.

novel, n. was last modified in March 2024.

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Revisions and additions of this kind were last incorporated into novel, n. in March 2024.

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Citation details

Factsheet for novel, n., browse entry.

Purdue Online Writing Lab Purdue OWL® College of Liberal Arts

Common Writing Assignments

Welcome to the Purdue OWL

This page is brought to you by the OWL at Purdue University. When printing this page, you must include the entire legal notice.

Copyright ©1995-2018 by The Writing Lab & The OWL at Purdue and Purdue University. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, reproduced, broadcast, rewritten, or redistributed without permission. Use of this site constitutes acceptance of our terms and conditions of fair use.

These OWL resources will help you understand and complete specific types of writing assignments, such as annotated bibliographies, book reports, and research papers. This section also includes resources on writing academic proposals for conference presentations, journal articles, and books.

Understanding Writing Assignments

This resource describes some steps you can take to better understand the requirements of your writing assignments. This resource works for either in-class, teacher-led discussion or for personal use.

Argument Papers

This resource outlines the generally accepted structure for introductions, body paragraphs, and conclusions in an academic argument paper. Keep in mind that this resource contains guidelines and not strict rules about organization. Your structure needs to be flexible enough to meet the requirements of your purpose and audience.

Research Papers

This handout provides detailed information about how to write research papers including discussing research papers as a genre, choosing topics, and finding sources.

Exploratory Papers

This resource will help you with exploratory/inquiry essay assignments.

Annotated Bibliographies

This handout provides information about annotated bibliographies in MLA, APA, and CMS.

Book Report

This resource discusses book reports and how to write them.

Definitions

This handout provides suggestions and examples for writing definitions.

Essays for Exams

While most OWL resources recommend a longer writing process (start early, revise often, conduct thorough research, etc.), sometimes you just have to write quickly in test situations. However, these exam essays can be no less important pieces of writing than research papers because they can influence final grades for courses, and/or they can mean the difference between getting into an academic program (GED, SAT, GRE). To that end, this resource will help you prepare and write essays for exams.

Book Review

This resource discusses book reviews and how to write them.

Academic Proposals

This resource will help undergraduate, graduate, and professional scholars write proposals for academic conferences, articles, and books.

In this section

Subsections.

Understanding Assignments

What this handout is about.

The first step in any successful college writing venture is reading the assignment. While this sounds like a simple task, it can be a tough one. This handout will help you unravel your assignment and begin to craft an effective response. Much of the following advice will involve translating typical assignment terms and practices into meaningful clues to the type of writing your instructor expects. See our short video for more tips.

Basic beginnings

Regardless of the assignment, department, or instructor, adopting these two habits will serve you well :

• Read the assignment carefully as soon as you receive it. Do not put this task off—reading the assignment at the beginning will save you time, stress, and problems later. An assignment can look pretty straightforward at first, particularly if the instructor has provided lots of information. That does not mean it will not take time and effort to complete; you may even have to learn a new skill to complete the assignment.
• Ask the instructor about anything you do not understand. Do not hesitate to approach your instructor. Instructors would prefer to set you straight before you hand the paper in. That’s also when you will find their feedback most useful.

Assignment formats

Many assignments follow a basic format. Assignments often begin with an overview of the topic, include a central verb or verbs that describe the task, and offer some additional suggestions, questions, or prompts to get you started.

An Overview of Some Kind

The instructor might set the stage with some general discussion of the subject of the assignment, introduce the topic, or remind you of something pertinent that you have discussed in class. For example:

“Throughout history, gerbils have played a key role in politics,” or “In the last few weeks of class, we have focused on the evening wear of the housefly …”

The Task of the Assignment

Pay attention; this part tells you what to do when you write the paper. Look for the key verb or verbs in the sentence. Words like analyze, summarize, or compare direct you to think about your topic in a certain way. Also pay attention to words such as how, what, when, where, and why; these words guide your attention toward specific information. (See the section in this handout titled “Key Terms” for more information.)

“Analyze the effect that gerbils had on the Russian Revolution”, or “Suggest an interpretation of housefly undergarments that differs from Darwin’s.”

Additional Material to Think about

Here you will find some questions to use as springboards as you begin to think about the topic. Instructors usually include these questions as suggestions rather than requirements. Do not feel compelled to answer every question unless the instructor asks you to do so. Pay attention to the order of the questions. Sometimes they suggest the thinking process your instructor imagines you will need to follow to begin thinking about the topic.

“You may wish to consider the differing views held by Communist gerbils vs. Monarchist gerbils, or Can there be such a thing as ‘the housefly garment industry’ or is it just a home-based craft?”

These are the instructor’s comments about writing expectations:

“Be concise”, “Write effectively”, or “Argue furiously.”

Technical Details

These instructions usually indicate format rules or guidelines.

“Your paper must be typed in Palatino font on gray paper and must not exceed 600 pages. It is due on the anniversary of Mao Tse-tung’s death.”

The assignment’s parts may not appear in exactly this order, and each part may be very long or really short. Nonetheless, being aware of this standard pattern can help you understand what your instructor wants you to do.

Interpreting the assignment

Ask yourself a few basic questions as you read and jot down the answers on the assignment sheet:

Why did your instructor ask you to do this particular task?

Who is your audience.

• What kind of evidence do you need to support your ideas?

What kind of writing style is acceptable?

• What are the absolute rules of the paper?

Try to look at the question from the point of view of the instructor. Recognize that your instructor has a reason for giving you this assignment and for giving it to you at a particular point in the semester. In every assignment, the instructor has a challenge for you. This challenge could be anything from demonstrating an ability to think clearly to demonstrating an ability to use the library. See the assignment not as a vague suggestion of what to do but as an opportunity to show that you can handle the course material as directed. Paper assignments give you more than a topic to discuss—they ask you to do something with the topic. Keep reminding yourself of that. Be careful to avoid the other extreme as well: do not read more into the assignment than what is there.

Of course, your instructor has given you an assignment so that they will be able to assess your understanding of the course material and give you an appropriate grade. But there is more to it than that. Your instructor has tried to design a learning experience of some kind. Your instructor wants you to think about something in a particular way for a particular reason. If you read the course description at the beginning of your syllabus, review the assigned readings, and consider the assignment itself, you may begin to see the plan, purpose, or approach to the subject matter that your instructor has created for you. If you still aren’t sure of the assignment’s goals, try asking the instructor. For help with this, see our handout on getting feedback .

Given your instructor’s efforts, it helps to answer the question: What is my purpose in completing this assignment? Is it to gather research from a variety of outside sources and present a coherent picture? Is it to take material I have been learning in class and apply it to a new situation? Is it to prove a point one way or another? Key words from the assignment can help you figure this out. Look for key terms in the form of active verbs that tell you what to do.

Key Terms: Finding Those Active Verbs

Here are some common key words and definitions to help you think about assignment terms:

Information words Ask you to demonstrate what you know about the subject, such as who, what, when, where, how, and why.

• define —give the subject’s meaning (according to someone or something). Sometimes you have to give more than one view on the subject’s meaning
• describe —provide details about the subject by answering question words (such as who, what, when, where, how, and why); you might also give details related to the five senses (what you see, hear, feel, taste, and smell)
• explain —give reasons why or examples of how something happened
• illustrate —give descriptive examples of the subject and show how each is connected with the subject
• summarize —briefly list the important ideas you learned about the subject
• trace —outline how something has changed or developed from an earlier time to its current form
• research —gather material from outside sources about the subject, often with the implication or requirement that you will analyze what you have found

Relation words Ask you to demonstrate how things are connected.

• compare —show how two or more things are similar (and, sometimes, different)
• contrast —show how two or more things are dissimilar
• apply—use details that you’ve been given to demonstrate how an idea, theory, or concept works in a particular situation
• cause —show how one event or series of events made something else happen
• relate —show or describe the connections between things

Interpretation words Ask you to defend ideas of your own about the subject. Do not see these words as requesting opinion alone (unless the assignment specifically says so), but as requiring opinion that is supported by concrete evidence. Remember examples, principles, definitions, or concepts from class or research and use them in your interpretation.

• assess —summarize your opinion of the subject and measure it against something
• prove, justify —give reasons or examples to demonstrate how or why something is the truth
• evaluate, respond —state your opinion of the subject as good, bad, or some combination of the two, with examples and reasons
• support —give reasons or evidence for something you believe (be sure to state clearly what it is that you believe)
• synthesize —put two or more things together that have not been put together in class or in your readings before; do not just summarize one and then the other and say that they are similar or different—you must provide a reason for putting them together that runs all the way through the paper
• analyze —determine how individual parts create or relate to the whole, figure out how something works, what it might mean, or why it is important
• argue —take a side and defend it with evidence against the other side

More Clues to Your Purpose As you read the assignment, think about what the teacher does in class:

• What kinds of textbooks or coursepack did your instructor choose for the course—ones that provide background information, explain theories or perspectives, or argue a point of view?
• In lecture, does your instructor ask your opinion, try to prove their point of view, or use keywords that show up again in the assignment?
• What kinds of assignments are typical in this discipline? Social science classes often expect more research. Humanities classes thrive on interpretation and analysis.
• How do the assignments, readings, and lectures work together in the course? Instructors spend time designing courses, sometimes even arguing with their peers about the most effective course materials. Figuring out the overall design to the course will help you understand what each assignment is meant to achieve.

Now, what about your reader? Most undergraduates think of their audience as the instructor. True, your instructor is a good person to keep in mind as you write. But for the purposes of a good paper, think of your audience as someone like your roommate: smart enough to understand a clear, logical argument, but not someone who already knows exactly what is going on in your particular paper. Remember, even if the instructor knows everything there is to know about your paper topic, they still have to read your paper and assess your understanding. In other words, teach the material to your reader.

Aiming a paper at your audience happens in two ways: you make decisions about the tone and the level of information you want to convey.

• Tone means the “voice” of your paper. Should you be chatty, formal, or objective? Usually you will find some happy medium—you do not want to alienate your reader by sounding condescending or superior, but you do not want to, um, like, totally wig on the man, you know? Eschew ostentatious erudition: some students think the way to sound academic is to use big words. Be careful—you can sound ridiculous, especially if you use the wrong big words.
• The level of information you use depends on who you think your audience is. If you imagine your audience as your instructor and they already know everything you have to say, you may find yourself leaving out key information that can cause your argument to be unconvincing and illogical. But you do not have to explain every single word or issue. If you are telling your roommate what happened on your favorite science fiction TV show last night, you do not say, “First a dark-haired white man of average height, wearing a suit and carrying a flashlight, walked into the room. Then a purple alien with fifteen arms and at least three eyes turned around. Then the man smiled slightly. In the background, you could hear a clock ticking. The room was fairly dark and had at least two windows that I saw.” You also do not say, “This guy found some aliens. The end.” Find some balance of useful details that support your main point.

You’ll find a much more detailed discussion of these concepts in our handout on audience .

The Grim Truth

With a few exceptions (including some lab and ethnography reports), you are probably being asked to make an argument. You must convince your audience. It is easy to forget this aim when you are researching and writing; as you become involved in your subject matter, you may become enmeshed in the details and focus on learning or simply telling the information you have found. You need to do more than just repeat what you have read. Your writing should have a point, and you should be able to say it in a sentence. Sometimes instructors call this sentence a “thesis” or a “claim.”

So, if your instructor tells you to write about some aspect of oral hygiene, you do not want to just list: “First, you brush your teeth with a soft brush and some peanut butter. Then, you floss with unwaxed, bologna-flavored string. Finally, gargle with bourbon.” Instead, you could say, “Of all the oral cleaning methods, sandblasting removes the most plaque. Therefore it should be recommended by the American Dental Association.” Or, “From an aesthetic perspective, moldy teeth can be quite charming. However, their joys are short-lived.”

Convincing the reader of your argument is the goal of academic writing. It doesn’t have to say “argument” anywhere in the assignment for you to need one. Look at the assignment and think about what kind of argument you could make about it instead of just seeing it as a checklist of information you have to present. For help with understanding the role of argument in academic writing, see our handout on argument .

What kind of evidence do you need?

There are many kinds of evidence, and what type of evidence will work for your assignment can depend on several factors–the discipline, the parameters of the assignment, and your instructor’s preference. Should you use statistics? Historical examples? Do you need to conduct your own experiment? Can you rely on personal experience? See our handout on evidence for suggestions on how to use evidence appropriately.

Make sure you are clear about this part of the assignment, because your use of evidence will be crucial in writing a successful paper. You are not just learning how to argue; you are learning how to argue with specific types of materials and ideas. Ask your instructor what counts as acceptable evidence. You can also ask a librarian for help. No matter what kind of evidence you use, be sure to cite it correctly—see the UNC Libraries citation tutorial .

You cannot always tell from the assignment just what sort of writing style your instructor expects. The instructor may be really laid back in class but still expect you to sound formal in writing. Or the instructor may be fairly formal in class and ask you to write a reflection paper where you need to use “I” and speak from your own experience.

Try to avoid false associations of a particular field with a style (“art historians like wacky creativity,” or “political scientists are boring and just give facts”) and look instead to the types of readings you have been given in class. No one expects you to write like Plato—just use the readings as a guide for what is standard or preferable to your instructor. When in doubt, ask your instructor about the level of formality they expect.

No matter what field you are writing for or what facts you are including, if you do not write so that your reader can understand your main idea, you have wasted your time. So make clarity your main goal. For specific help with style, see our handout on style .

Technical details about the assignment

The technical information you are given in an assignment always seems like the easy part. This section can actually give you lots of little hints about approaching the task. Find out if elements such as page length and citation format (see the UNC Libraries citation tutorial ) are negotiable. Some professors do not have strong preferences as long as you are consistent and fully answer the assignment. Some professors are very specific and will deduct big points for deviations.

Usually, the page length tells you something important: The instructor thinks the size of the paper is appropriate to the assignment’s parameters. In plain English, your instructor is telling you how many pages it should take for you to answer the question as fully as you are expected to. So if an assignment is two pages long, you cannot pad your paper with examples or reword your main idea several times. Hit your one point early, defend it with the clearest example, and finish quickly. If an assignment is ten pages long, you can be more complex in your main points and examples—and if you can only produce five pages for that assignment, you need to see someone for help—as soon as possible.

Tricks that don’t work

Your instructors are not fooled when you:

• spend more time on the cover page than the essay —graphics, cool binders, and cute titles are no replacement for a well-written paper.
• use huge fonts, wide margins, or extra spacing to pad the page length —these tricks are immediately obvious to the eye. Most instructors use the same word processor you do. They know what’s possible. Such tactics are especially damning when the instructor has a stack of 60 papers to grade and yours is the only one that low-flying airplane pilots could read.
• use a paper from another class that covered “sort of similar” material . Again, the instructor has a particular task for you to fulfill in the assignment that usually relates to course material and lectures. Your other paper may not cover this material, and turning in the same paper for more than one course may constitute an Honor Code violation . Ask the instructor—it can’t hurt.
• get all wacky and “creative” before you answer the question . Showing that you are able to think beyond the boundaries of a simple assignment can be good, but you must do what the assignment calls for first. Again, check with your instructor. A humorous tone can be refreshing for someone grading a stack of papers, but it will not get you a good grade if you have not fulfilled the task.

Critical reading of assignments leads to skills in other types of reading and writing. If you get good at figuring out what the real goals of assignments are, you are going to be better at understanding the goals of all of your classes and fields of study.

You may reproduce it for non-commercial use if you use the entire handout and attribute the source: The Writing Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

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How to write an introduction for a history essay

Every essay needs to begin with an introductory paragraph. It needs to be the first paragraph the marker reads.

While your introduction paragraph might be the first of the paragraphs you write, this is not the only way to do it.

You can choose to write your introduction after you have written the rest of your essay.

This way, you will know what you have argued, and this might make writing the introduction easier.

Either approach is fine. If you do write your introduction first, ensure that you go back and refine it once you have completed your essay. 

What is an ‘introduction paragraph’?

An introductory paragraph is a single paragraph at the start of your essay that prepares your reader for the argument you are going to make in your body paragraphs .

It should provide all of the necessary historical information about your topic and clearly state your argument so that by the end of the paragraph, the marker knows how you are going to structure the rest of your essay.

In general, you should never use quotes from sources in your introduction.

Introduction paragraph structure

While your introduction paragraph does not have to be as long as your body paragraphs , it does have a specific purpose, which you must fulfil.

A well-written introduction paragraph has the following four-part structure (summarised by the acronym BHES).

B – Background sentences

H – Hypothesis

E – Elaboration sentences

S - Signpost sentence

Each of these elements are explained in further detail, with examples, below:

1. Background sentences

The first two or three sentences of your introduction should provide a general introduction to the historical topic which your essay is about. This is done so that when you state your hypothesis , your reader understands the specific point you are arguing about.

Background sentences explain the important historical period, dates, people, places, events and concepts that will be mentioned later in your essay. This information should be drawn from your background research . 

Example background sentences:

Middle Ages (Year 8 Level)

Castles were an important component of Medieval Britain from the time of the Norman conquest in 1066 until they were phased out in the 15 th and 16 th centuries. Initially introduced as wooden motte and bailey structures on geographical strongpoints, they were rapidly replaced by stone fortresses which incorporated sophisticated defensive designs to improve the defenders’ chances of surviving prolonged sieges.

WWI (Year 9 Level)

The First World War began in 1914 following the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand. The subsequent declarations of war from most of Europe drew other countries into the conflict, including Australia. The Australian Imperial Force joined the war as part of Britain’s armed forces and were dispatched to locations in the Middle East and Western Europe.

Civil Rights (Year 10 Level)

The 1967 Referendum sought to amend the Australian Constitution in order to change the legal standing of the indigenous people in Australia. The fact that 90% of Australians voted in favour of the proposed amendments has been attributed to a series of significant events and people who were dedicated to the referendum’s success.

Ancient Rome (Year 11/12 Level)  

In the late second century BC, the Roman novus homo Gaius Marius became one of the most influential men in the Roman Republic. Marius gained this authority through his victory in the Jugurthine War, with his defeat of Jugurtha in 106 BC, and his triumph over the invading Germanic tribes in 101 BC, when he crushed the Teutones at the Battle of Aquae Sextiae (102 BC) and the Cimbri at the Battle of Vercellae (101 BC). Marius also gained great fame through his election to the consulship seven times.

2. Hypothesis

Once you have provided historical context for your essay in your background sentences, you need to state your hypothesis .

A hypothesis is a single sentence that clearly states the argument that your essay will be proving in your body paragraphs .

A good hypothesis contains both the argument and the reasons in support of your argument. 

Example hypotheses:

Medieval castles were designed with features that nullified the superior numbers of besieging armies but were ultimately made obsolete by the development of gunpowder artillery.

Australian soldiers’ opinion of the First World War changed from naïve enthusiasm to pessimistic realism as a result of the harsh realities of modern industrial warfare.

The success of the 1967 Referendum was a direct result of the efforts of First Nations leaders such as Charles Perkins, Faith Bandler and the Federal Council for the Advancement of Aborigines and Torres Strait Islanders.

Gaius Marius was the most one of the most significant personalities in the 1 st century BC due to his effect on the political, military and social structures of the Roman state.

3. Elaboration sentences

Once you have stated your argument in your hypothesis , you need to provide particular information about how you’re going to prove your argument.

Your elaboration sentences should be one or two sentences that provide specific details about how you’re going to cover the argument in your three body paragraphs.

You might also briefly summarise two or three of your main points.

Finally, explain any important key words, phrases or concepts that you’ve used in your hypothesis, you’ll need to do this in your elaboration sentences.

Example elaboration sentences:

By the height of the Middle Ages, feudal lords were investing significant sums of money by incorporating concentric walls and guard towers to maximise their defensive potential. These developments were so successful that many medieval armies avoided sieges in the late period.

Following Britain's official declaration of war on Germany, young Australian men voluntarily enlisted into the army, which was further encouraged by government propaganda about the moral justifications for the conflict. However, following the initial engagements on the Gallipoli peninsula, enthusiasm declined.

The political activity of key indigenous figures and the formation of activism organisations focused on indigenous resulted in a wider spread of messages to the general Australian public. The generation of powerful images and speeches has been frequently cited by modern historians as crucial to the referendum results.

While Marius is best known for his military reforms, it is the subsequent impacts of this reform on the way other Romans approached the attainment of magistracies and how public expectations of military leaders changed that had the longest impacts on the late republican period.

4. Signpost sentence

The final sentence of your introduction should prepare the reader for the topic of your first body paragraph. The main purpose of this sentence is to provide cohesion between your introductory paragraph and you first body paragraph .

Therefore, a signpost sentence indicates where you will begin proving the argument that you set out in your hypothesis and usually states the importance of the first point that you’re about to make. 

Example signpost sentences:

The early development of castles is best understood when examining their military purpose.

The naïve attitudes of those who volunteered in 1914 can be clearly seen in the personal letters and diaries that they themselves wrote.

The significance of these people is evident when examining the lack of political representation the indigenous people experience in the early half of the 20 th century.

The origin of Marius’ later achievements was his military reform in 107 BC, which occurred when he was first elected as consul.

Putting it all together

Once you have written all four parts of the BHES structure, you should have a completed introduction paragraph. In the examples above, we have shown each part separately. Below you will see the completed paragraphs so that you can appreciate what an introduction should look like.

Example introduction paragraphs: 

Castles were an important component of Medieval Britain from the time of the Norman conquest in 1066 until they were phased out in the 15th and 16th centuries. Initially introduced as wooden motte and bailey structures on geographical strongpoints, they were rapidly replaced by stone fortresses which incorporated sophisticated defensive designs to improve the defenders’ chances of surviving prolonged sieges. Medieval castles were designed with features that nullified the superior numbers of besieging armies, but were ultimately made obsolete by the development of gunpowder artillery. By the height of the Middle Ages, feudal lords were investing significant sums of money by incorporating concentric walls and guard towers to maximise their defensive potential. These developments were so successful that many medieval armies avoided sieges in the late period. The early development of castles is best understood when examining their military purpose.

The First World War began in 1914 following the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand. The subsequent declarations of war from most of Europe drew other countries into the conflict, including Australia. The Australian Imperial Force joined the war as part of Britain’s armed forces and were dispatched to locations in the Middle East and Western Europe. Australian soldiers’ opinion of the First World War changed from naïve enthusiasm to pessimistic realism as a result of the harsh realities of modern industrial warfare. Following Britain's official declaration of war on Germany, young Australian men voluntarily enlisted into the army, which was further encouraged by government propaganda about the moral justifications for the conflict. However, following the initial engagements on the Gallipoli peninsula, enthusiasm declined. The naïve attitudes of those who volunteered in 1914 can be clearly seen in the personal letters and diaries that they themselves wrote.

The 1967 Referendum sought to amend the Australian Constitution in order to change the legal standing of the indigenous people in Australia. The fact that 90% of Australians voted in favour of the proposed amendments has been attributed to a series of significant events and people who were dedicated to the referendum’s success. The success of the 1967 Referendum was a direct result of the efforts of First Nations leaders such as Charles Perkins, Faith Bandler and the Federal Council for the Advancement of Aborigines and Torres Strait Islanders. The political activity of key indigenous figures and the formation of activism organisations focused on indigenous resulted in a wider spread of messages to the general Australian public. The generation of powerful images and speeches has been frequently cited by modern historians as crucial to the referendum results. The significance of these people is evident when examining the lack of political representation the indigenous people experience in the early half of the 20th century.

In the late second century BC, the Roman novus homo Gaius Marius became one of the most influential men in the Roman Republic. Marius gained this authority through his victory in the Jugurthine War, with his defeat of Jugurtha in 106 BC, and his triumph over the invading Germanic tribes in 101 BC, when he crushed the Teutones at the Battle of Aquae Sextiae (102 BC) and the Cimbri at the Battle of Vercellae (101 BC). Marius also gained great fame through his election to the consulship seven times. Gaius Marius was the most one of the most significant personalities in the 1st century BC due to his effect on the political, military and social structures of the Roman state. While Marius is best known for his military reforms, it is the subsequent impacts of this reform on the way other Romans approached the attainment of magistracies and how public expectations of military leaders changed that had the longest impacts on the late republican period. The origin of Marius’ later achievements was his military reform in 107 BC, which occurred when he was first elected as consul.

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In This Section

• Classroom Materials: Digitized Primary Sources
• Classroom Materials: Rubrics and Syllabi
• Classroom Materials: Sample Assignments
• Classroom Materials: Teaching Modules
• Classroom Materials: History Skills
• Classroom Materials: Reflections on Teaching
• Classroom Materials: History Lessons and Background Materials

Sample Assignments

Sample assignment showcasing the importance of local/regional history in the early american survey course.

Brittany Adams focuses on incorporating more regional history into the early survey. She also emphasizes the importance of de-centering the British colonial narrative when teaching students who identify more with western US history, as do many of her students at UC Irvine.

Assignment: Social History of the Atlantic Slave Trade

Shannon Bontrager not only incorporated global contexts into his survey, but he also used non-traditional and digital pedagogical tools to engage his students.

Chinese Immigrants in America in the 19th Century: A Study Module

These materials, produced by Vincent A. Clark as a result of his work in the Bridging Cultures program, consist of an illustrated introduction, excerpts from four contemporaneous articles, an online quiz (not included in these materials), and an assignment for an e-mail discussion. The introduction describes not only the life of the immigrants in the United States but their economic and cultural background in China. The goal is to expand the students’ knowledge to include the China from which these immigrants came. Two of the articles oppose Chinese immigrants; two praise them. They are designed to let students see the varying perceptions of the immigrants, the arguments for and against Chinese immigration, and the complex class and ethnic dimensions of this controversy.

Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Extra Credit Assignment

As part of her work in the Bridging Cultures program, Cheryll Cody designed a course assignment using the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Database. It requires students to answer a series of questions by looking at the database’s extensive collection of maps and charts.

The US Becomes an Empire, Late 19th and Early 20th Centuries

As part of his work in the Bridging Cultures program, Carlos Contreras provided some classroom assignments and activities that challenge students to think "Atlantically" and "Pacifically" as they think broadly about American history. This set of discussion questions focuses on the expansion of the US as it becomes an imperial power and has students critically examine the US-Caribbean relationship, Hawaii and the Philippines in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

Discussion Questions on the Film Manifest Destiny

History and policy education program.

Oct. 2, 2015 -  Modeled on the National History Center's Congressional Briefings by Historians program, the History and Policy Education Program aims to help students appreciate the importance of bringing historical perspectives to contemporary policy conversations.  Designed to be adaptable to many courses and teaching styles, the Mock Policy Briefing initiative provides a guide for history educators to develop and host briefings about the historical dimensions of current policy questions.  Read more about the background of the initiative in the October issue of  Perspectives on History. 

Paper Assignment: Encountering Commodities in the Atlantic and the Pacific Worlds

This sample assignment requires students to use primary and secondary sources to connect American history with the Atlantic and Pacific worlds and write a paper that focuses on the circulation of commodities, peoples, and ideas throughout those worlds. This paper assignment has three major parts: a list of sources for students to read and study along with guiding questions on each reading; a mapping exercise; and the five page paper.

Paper Assignment: Localizing Global Encounters, Case Study: New Netherland/New York (Suffolk County Community College)

This sample assignment requires students to use primary and secondary sources to connect American history with the Atlantic and Pacific worlds and write a paper that focuses on encounters between different groups of Europeans in New Netherland/New York. This paper assignment has three major parts: a list of sources for students to read and study along with guiding questions on each reading; a mapping exercise; and the five page paper.

Sample Assignments from Globalized US History Courses

As part of her work in the Bridging Cultures program, Amy Forss employed wide-ranging techniques such as PechaKucha presentations, oral history research, and greater study of maps to engage her students in their globalized US history courses. She even had her students find historical recipes and try them out.

Revolutions, Independence and New Nations: The Great Transformation

As part of his work in the Bridging Cultures program, Carlos Contreras provided some classroom assignments and activities that challenge students to think "Atlantically" and "Pacifically" as they think broadly about American history. This set of discussion questions helps students consider the implications of revolution in the Atlantic world.

Discussion Questions on the Film Black in Latin America

As part of his work in the Bridging Cultures program, Carlos Contreras provided some classroom assignments and activities that challenge students to think "Atlantically" and "Pacifically" as they think broadly about American history. This set of readings and discussion questions helps students consider the complexities of the Transatlantic slave trade and the broader Atlantic world during the colonial era, particularly considering the film "Black in Latin America."

Films and Readings on the African Slave Trade and the Atlantic World

As part of his work in the Bridging Cultures program, Carlos Contreras provided some classroom assignments and activities that challenge students to think "Atlantically" and "Pacifically" as they think broadly about American history. This set of discussion questions helps students consider the complexities of the Transatlantic slave trade and the broader Atlantic world during the colonial era.

Africans in the Americas: Discussion Questions from Lepore, Benjamin, Articles, and Film

Video assignment based on isabel allende's daughter of fortune.

Oscar Cañedo crafted this creative assignment about the California Gold Rush and the experiences of people traveling from South America to get to California. He used a story from prominent Latin American novelist Isabel Allende as a backdrop for the assignment. Students craft their own characters based on Isabelle Allende's novel Daughter of Fortune and produce videos to explain why they wished to make the arduous journey to California

Plagiarism: Curricular Materials for History Instructors

History instructors can use this guide to teach students how to avoid plagiarism. It includes a discussion of how the American Historical Association defines plagiarism, tips on preventing and detecting plagiarism in student work, exercises to sharpen students’ understanding of plagiarism, a list of suggested readings for graduate students, an annotated bibliography, and a list of useful web sites.

ChronoZoom Memory and History Project Rubric

Discovering american social history on the web.

Dan Kallgren developed several sample assignments for use in his undergraduate survey course "United States History Since the Civil War," in the spring of 2000. Assignments can be used inidividually or in series, as each is accompanied by suggested reading and primary sources.

The Triangle Shirtwaist Fire

One of Dan Kallgren's assignments. Students read a section from "Out of Many; A History of the American People" by John Mack Faragher, et al., to contextualize primary source documents about the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory fire. After analyzing the sources, the students write a short report.

The Anti-Saloon League

One of Dan Kallgren's assignments. Students analyze digital primary sources in order to contextualize and understand the motivation of the Anti-Saloon League members.

Mapping Suburbanization

One of Dan Kallgren's assignments. Using topographical maps from the University of New Hampshire, students explore how the landscape surrounding a 1950s New Hampshire city changed over time. Students are asked to consider how sociopolitical factors such as the Cold War might have affected the development of the United States.

World Civilizations: The Ancient Period to 500 CE

In David Smith's project, students use world history methods (Big Picture, Diffusion, Syncretism, Comparison, and Common Phenomena) to interpret secondary and primary materials. Primary material is handled through directed reading questions that focus on three classics: the Odyssey, the Ramayana and the Analects.

JFK's Executive Orders and the New Frontier

One of Dan Kallgren's assignments. Students analyze executive orders from President Kennedy to draw out themes and place them in the context of Kennedy's agenda.

United States History from the Civil War to the Present Syllabus

Sue C. Patrick's syllabus for her United States History from the Civil War to the Present course, which includes assignments and links to digital primary sources.

United States History through the Civil War Syllabus

Sue C. Patrick's syllabus for a United States History through the Civil War course. The syllabus includes assignments and links to digital primary sources.

Sample Assignment: Charting Your Journey with ORBIS

Created by John Rosinbum as part of his Teaching with #DigHist series on AHA Today, This assignment asks students to craft a hypothetical journey using ORBIS, a digital humanities project at Stanford University that allows users to plot a route between sites in the Roman Empire and simulate the journey. After rationalizing the choices made when planning their trip, students use a comic strip or travel diary to recount the trials and tribulations of their journey. The assignment helps develop skills in writing narratives, real or imagined. In addition, it develops the historical skills of contextualization and causation by asking the students to ground their narratives in a place they have already learned about and then justify the steps in their journey. While designed for middle school students, the assignment and attached rubric could easily be adapted for students ranging from elementary school to entry-level undergraduate.

Sample Assignment: Comparing Spatial Depictions of the Roman World

Created by John Rosinbum as part of his Teaching with #DigHist series on AHA Today, this assignment requires students to analyze the depictions of the Roman world created in digital projects ORBIS and the Digital Atlas of Roman and Medieval Civilizations. Designed for high performing high school students and freshman/sophomore undergraduate students, the assignment pushes students to compare the two projects and gives them the opportunity to explore how purpose, argument and data shape a project.

Sample Assignment: Visualizing the Transatlantic Slave Trade with Voyages

Created by John Rosinbum as part of his Teaching with #DigHist series on AHA Today, this assignment offers students the opportunity to use their visual and/or technical skills to create a visualization of the transatlantic slave trade. Students will use the information provided by Voyages to create either a digital or an analog data visualization of the trade. In addition they will write a detailed guide explaining their process and defending their choices. This assignment asks them to think deeply about the process of visualizing history and personally involves them in the process of generating a better understanding of the past.

Sample Assignment: Tracking a Slave Ship with Voyages

Created by John Rosinbum as part of his Teaching with #DigHist series on AHA Today, asks students to investigate a specific slave vessel and contextualize its journeys within their broader knowledge of the trade and concurrent historical events/processes that might have affected it.

Teaching the Slave Trade with Voyages: The Transatlantic Slave Trade Database (AHA Today)

New perspectives on 19th-century america [assignment].

John Rosinbum uses American Panorama, a digital atlas created by the University of Richmond's Digital Scholarship Lab, to teach students about the economic, cultural, and territorial transformations that changed America during the 19th century. In this assignment, students must create their own visualization of changes in 19th-century America. Students must also develop a guide that defends their research choices in the creation of the visualization, explains how the visualization extends our current understanding of the period, and distinguishes their visualization from American Panorama.

Analyzing Visual Depictions of America's Expansion with American Panorama

John Rosinbum uses American Panorama, a digital atlas created by the University of Richmond's Digital Scholarship Lab, to teach students about the economic, cultural, and territorial transformations that changed America during the 19th century. In this sample assignment, he asks students to compare two maps from American Panorama dealing with the 19th century and explore how each map presents American expansion differently.

Creating Maps Using Carto [Assignment]

Lindsey Passenger Wieck (St. Mary's Univ.) explains how students in her history classroom use Carto to create maps. The exercise helps students become critical consumers of maps and media, while designing and implementing digital projects that communicate historical content. In this assignment, students explain the significance of maps they created using Carto.

Creating a Dataset [Assignment]

Lindsey Passenger Wieck (St. Mary's Univ.) explains how students in her history classroom use Carto to create maps. The exercise helps students become critical consumer of maps and media, while designing and implementing digital projects that communicate historical content. In this assignment, students develop and analyze a dataset and consider its potential for mapping.

Mapping the Early Modern World [Instructions)

Julia M Gossard (Utah State Univ.) uses the widely available Google Maps to assign a mapping project to her students. The assignment allows students to think carefully about the economic, political, religious, and ideological connections between Europe and the rest of the world in the early modern period.

The Historian's Toolbox: Source Evaluation [Worksheet]

Julia M Gossard (Utah State Univ.) uses the widely available Google Maps to assign a mapping project to her students. The assignment allows students to think carefully about the economic, political, religious, and ideological connections between Europe and the rest of the world in the early modern period. In this worksheet, Gossard asks her student to carefully evaluate the sources they use for their Google Map entries.

Visualizing the Past [Sample Assignment]

John Rosinbum looks at a spectrum of digital archives available on the web today and explores how teachers can use them in the classroom. In this sample assignment, students are asked to use data from a digital archive to visualize the past.

Operation War Diary Project [Sample Assignment]

In this assignment, Susan Corbesero (The Ellis School) discusses using the crowdsourcing project, Operation War Diary, to help students learn about the First World War. The project contains over one million digitized images of war diaries from British and Indian troops.

Teach Your Family

In this project, you will show your instructor—and your family or friends—what you’ve learned in class.

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Scientists reveal mysterious origin of Baobab trees, Rafiki's home in 'The Lion King'

Emily Kwong

Regina G. Barber

Rachel Carlson

Baobabs are sometimes called the "tree of life." They have thick trunks, a crown of branches and flowers that only open at twilight. Technically a succulent, the tree served as the inspiration for Rafiki's home in the Lion King .

Scientists recognize eight distinct baobab species, adapted for dry climates and providing food, water and shelter to entire ecosystems . The trees can also figure heavily into the diets and folklore of the people around them .

However, theories about their geographic origin was divided among three places: the savannas of sub-Saharan Africa, the Kimberley region of western Australia and the dry forests of Madagascar.

To solve this mystery, a global research team led by scientists at the Wuhan Botanical Garden at the Chinese Academy of Sciences examined high-quality genomic data from all eight baobab species. Advances in genetics have made this type of sequencing faster and cheaper.

Goats and Soda

Why are some of africa's biggest baobab trees dying off.

Combined with ecological analysis, the team pinpointed the most probable origin point: Madagascar. They believe that oceanic currents later spread the baobab fruit to Africa and Australia, where the plant adapted to the local environment and gave rise to entirely new species.

The team published their results in the journal Nature this week .

Wan Jun-Nan , first author on the study, has loved baobabs since reading about them in " The Little Prince ." He recalled his first time seeing a baobab in Madagascar. "When I touched the bark of the baobab, I decided to know the evolutionary history of these special trees," he said.

Happy Arbor Day! These 20 books will change the way you think about trees

The future of the trees is a question mark for now.

Three of the Malagasy baobab species are threatened with extinction. Adansonia perrieri is classified as critically endangered, while Adansonia grandidieri and Adansonia suarezensis are classified as endangered.

Deforestation and rising sea levels limit the baobabs range. The habitats of baobab pollinators like fruit bats and hawks are under threat too. Ultimately, Wan hopes ecologists take the study's genetic findings and apply those insights to conservation plans.

Have another origin story you want us to cover? Email us at [email protected] .

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Listen to every episode of Short Wave sponsor-free and support our work at NPR by signing up for Short Wave+ at plus.npr.org/shortwave .

Today's episode was produced by Megan Lim and Rachel Carlson. It was edited by Rebecca Ramirez and Christopher Intagliata. Rachel and Rebecca checked the facts alongside Emily Kwong, Maria Godoy and Regina Barber. The audio engineers were Neil Tevault and Patrick Murray.

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Book Review: ‘Challenger’ is definitive account of shuttle disaster and missteps that led to tragedy

This cover image released by Avid Reader shows “Challenger: A True Story of Heroism and Disaster on the Edge of Space” by Adam Higginbotham. (Avid Reader via AP)

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When the Challenger space shuttle exploded a little over a minute after its launch in 1986, it pierced the dreams of millions about who watched the tragedy unfold live on television. It also eventually exposed the weaknesses of a space program that had been revered by many.

In “Challenger: A True Story of Heroism and Disaster on the Edge of Space,” Adam Higginbotham provides the most definitive account of the explosion that took the lives of the seven-person crew. He also meticulously explores the missteps and negligence that allowed the tragedy to occur.

Bookmarked between two other tragedies that struck NASA — the 1967 Apollo launchpad fire that killed three astronauts and the 2003 Columbia shuttle disaster that killed seven — Higginbotham’s book traces the history of the nation’s shuttle program leading up to the Challenger explosion.

Higginbotham manages to temper his account of the excitement the shuttle program generated — recounting how “everyday life seemed to come to a standstill” during the launch of the Columbia shuttle in 1981 — with the warning signs of technical flaws that were overlooked or outright ignored over the years.

In clear and accessible language, Higginbotham explains the mechanics of the shuttle and its problems without sacrificing any of the pace that carries readers forward. The pace is so brisk that readers will be surprised when they realize the vivid account of the Challenger launch doesn’t occur until well after halfway through the book.

Higginbotham provides just as dramatic of a retelling of the aftermath of the shuttle’s crash, from the search for the wreckage and astronaut remains to the investigation and hearings on the disaster.

The book delivers a compelling, comprehensive history of the disaster that exposed, as Higginbotham writes, how “the nation’s smartest minds had unwittingly sent seven men and women to their deaths.”

AP book reviews: https://apnews.com/hub/book-reviews

Manchester City win Premier League title for fourth successive year

Manchester City have been crowned Premier League champions for the eighth time after beating West Ham United on Sunday.

A 3-1 win at Etihad Stadium secured the title — their sixth under manager Pep Guardiola — and sees them become the first team in the history of English football to win four successive top-flight league championships.

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Phil Foden ’s brilliant strike after just 79 seconds set City on their way in the Manchester sunshine before the England international swept home a second 16 minutes later.

Mohammed Kudus’ sensational overhead kick halved the deficit before the break to add some jeopardy before Rodri , who a year ago scored the goal in the Champions League final to complete the treble, settled any nerves with the third.

They now have the chance to complete a league and cup double when they take on Manchester United in the FA Cup final on May 25.

Striker Erling Haaland also retains the Golden Boot — awarded to the division’s top scorer — after netting a league-leading 27 goals.

City had trailed Arsenal by as many as six points earlier in the season after a run of three draws and one defeat from November to the first week of December.

But City have gone unbeaten since taking 61 points from a possible 69 — including eight wins on the spin to close the season — to overhaul Arsenal and clinch the title.

‘We have put ourselves into the history books’

Two-goal hero Foden, still just 23, has now won six league titles.

“It is so hard to put into words what we’ve done today,” he told Sky Sports. “No team has ever done it, we have put ourselves into the history books.

“You see what it means to the fans and to us players working all year for this moment. A special moment to share it with the fans.”

“I never get bored of it, you want this feeling every time,” he said on his personal title tally. “When you win something there is no better feeling. I want to keep winning as much as I can.”

Bernardo Silva , another who has been part of all six of Guardiola’s title-winning sides, pointed to how close the gaps have often been.

“The margins are so small,” he said. “ Liverpool in two seasons we beat them by one point and now Arsenal by two points.

“We’ve been lucky enough to have these small margins to be in front of them. The achievement is unbelievable. Four in a row, we are so, so proud and so, so happy.”

This title is Haaland’s second after arriving in the summer of 2022.

“It’s a bit demanding at times,” he admitted of working under Guardiola. “It’s tough, but look what he’s done. He demands a lot every single day.

“If you don’t live up to what he expects you have a big problem. He’s demanding and he’s a lovely guy and I love him to pieces.”

It’s the second straight year Mikel Arteta’s Arsenal have been pipped to the post after leading the league for the majority of the season.

The north London side were reliant on City dropping points on the final day to have any chance of winning a first title for 20 years.

A 2-1 win over Everton proved in vain and ensured they finished as runners-up, two points shy of City’s 91.

It represents City’s second-lowest title-winning total under Guardiola after the 86 points they amassed in 2020-21 when they beat Jose Mourinho’s Manchester United to top spot.

Guardiola’s sixth winner’s medal takes him closer to Sir Alex Ferguson’s record of 13 Premier League titles and three clear of Arsene Wenger and Mourinho (3).

The 53-year-old’s current contract — renewed in 2022 — expires at the end of next season and he is yet to sign an extension.

The Briefing - Manchester City win Premier League: Foden unstoppable, Arsenal's progress, admirable Everton

(Naomi Baker/Getty Images)

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Callum Davis is a deputy news editor for The Athletic, based in London. Prior to joining, he was senior editor at TNT Sports, having previously worked at The Telegraph. Follow Callum on Twitter @ Callum_davis89