uses and gratifications theory case study

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USES AND GRATIFICATIONS OF WHATSAPP: A CASE STUDY OF COMMUNICATION STUDIES STUDENTS IN THE UNIVERSITY OF CAPE COAST

2015, SES AND GRATIFICATIONS OF WHATSAPP: A CASE STUDY OF COMMUNICATION STUDIES STUDENTS IN THE UNIVERSITY OF CAPE COAST

This study examined the uses and gratifications of WhatsApp as a social networking platform among Communication Studies students in the University of Cape Coast. The population of the study was 399 with a sample of 150 respondents derived from the convenience sampling procedure. The measuring instrument was questionnaire which contained 9 items – closeended and open-ended questions. The data for the study were analysed through the use of tables and were expressed in simple percentages. The study found out that Communication Studies students in the University of Cape Coast are active users of WhatsApp and they use WhatsApp for various purposes and gratifications. It also established that the students are not always fulfilled in their expectations of WhatsApp usage, although they made use of it daily. The study recommended that Mobile Network Providers should provide better network services to their customers to reduce frustrations that limit students‘ usage of WhatsApp.

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Gamji, M.B, & Jinaidu, H. S.

Musa B A R A ' U Gamji Ph.D , Habiba Junaid

This research is about the role of WhatsApp in enhancing students' academic performers with the aim of establishing the acceptability and usage of WhatsApp as an important tool of learning using 300 and 400 level students of mass communication, ABU Zaria as an area of study. Specifically, the study explores the level of their WhatsApp use, correlation between WhatsApp use and academic performance as well as knowing if they share material via the application. The researcher made use of Connectivism and Uses and gratification theories as a justification for the research work. To address the issue of the research, survey method was employed by administering 200 copies of questionnaire to the participants who were selected via simple random sampling technique. Findings from the research reveal that students of Mass communication undergraduates use WhatsApp on a medium level. It also shows that they utilize the application to share material among themselves and finally it reveals that there is correlation between academic performance and the use of WhatsApp. However, the correlation was neither positive nor negative. The researchers recommend that students should try as much as possible to utilize the application to assist their academic and not to be an agent of distraction.

International Journal of Advanced Trends in Computer Science and Engineering

WARSE The World Academy of Research in Science and Engineering , Rahu Zeeshan

Today's world technology plays a crucial role and rapid development of internet help the growing of messages processing using digital devices. These movements leading us towards the connecting and maintaining the relationships. This paper aims to investigate WhatsApp usage among students. The theoretical framework for current study is the "Uses and Gratifications theory", is called "Needs and Gratifications Theory". The current study covers qualitative feature of the research. This segment pact with examination of the usage of WhatsApp in everyday survives for students. The detailed meetings of 8 energetic WhatsApp users, three boys and five girls of the university were directed. As the students are the male student their explanation is to some extent is same they revealed that, they use WhatsApp application for the calls purpose and for sending notes and online study purpose. They use Facebook messenger for the purpose of joining different sort of study circle pages and for informal purpose.

Akintola Mubarak

Social media has become a tool for socialization among undergraduates. There are various social media platforms that are used by undergraduates. One of the widely used social media platform is Whatsapp, a mobile messaging platform which makes communication easier and faster thereby enhancing effective flow of information and idea sharing. This study examined Whatsapp as a favorite social media platform for educational purpose among undergraduates in Kwara State. The research type employed was a descriptive survey. The population were all undergraduates in universities in Kwara State while all 300 level undergraduates were the target population. 387 undergraduates were proportionately sampled and responded to a researcher-designed questionnaire with a content validity and 0.87 reliability index. Percentage, mean and standard deviation were used to answer the research questions while bar-chart was used to present the results. Findings revealed that Whatsapp is the favorite social media platform among undergraduates in Kwara State. The study recommended among others that undergraduates should see Whatsapp as an avenue to connect with fellow students to facilitate learning beyond classroom walls.

International Journal of Current Humanities & Social Science Researches (IJCHSSR) ISSN: 2456-7205, Peer Reviewed Journal

Radha Bathran

Any website that facilitates social interaction is considered social media. The use of social media is quickly expanding over the world. Adults and teens are using social media sites including Facebook, WhatsApp, Instagram, and Twitter. In many respects, social media has altered the world. WhatsApp is a messaging programme that is handier than email, phone calls, and text messages. It allows you to exchange text messages, photos, videos, and make phone calls, among other things. It is secure and simple to use. It is only necessary to have internet connectivity to connect to a Wi-Fi network. This study should be considered a user study. This study will also look at how Tirunelveli college students use WhatsApp groups.

Dr. Shahid Minhas

This paper has analyzed what Pakistani students do when they use the messaging tool i.e. Whatsapp. To carry out this study a questionnaire was used as research instrument to gather data from the population of students of university of Peshawar. A total of 100 questionnaires were distributed among the students. The response rate was 84% which is considered very effective. The result shows that Whatsapp is a vital tool of communication used mainly for one to one or group communication. The various other functions performed by the respondent were sharingacademic information, chat, picture and video sharing, texting to family members living abroad and current affairs.

The purpose of this study is to identify the effect of whatsapp messenger usage among students in Mangalore University. To achieve this, 200 questionnaires were distributed to students of various departments. Out of which, 188 filled questionnaires were received back. The survey method was employed. The findings of the study show that majority of users familiar with Whatsapp messenger and use Whatsapp for academic purposes on this basis, perception could be created between all the individuals irrespective of their age, academic background, sexual category, profession etc. If this may possibly be done, not only the higher education institution students but all the individuals could follow the advantage of using Whatsapp Messenger.

Dr. Anand Kenchakkanavar

The main purpose of this study is to examine the use of WhatsApp by the social science research scholars of the Karnatak University, Dharwad, Karnataka State. A structured questionnaire was designed and distributed to 145 regular research scholars, out of which 139 duly filled in questionnaires were received back with a response rate of 95.86 %. The results of the survey reveal that majority, i.e. 91.36 % respondents are aware of Facebook, followed by Google+ and Youtube; the research scholars are not only using WhatsApp for general use but also for academic / research purpose; though the access is denied for Social Networking Sites (SNSs) in the Karnatak University. But still the respondents are using these SNSs for their academic purpose.

International Journal of Commerce and Management Studies

IJCAMS Publication

The purpose of this study is to identify the student's perception towards whatsapp. To achieve these 150 questionnaires were distributed to students of various departments. Out of which, 100 filled questionnaire were received back. The survey method was employed. The findings of study show that majority of users waste their time in whatsapp rather than taking its advantages for academic purpose.

Doris N Morah

[ T y p e t h e c o m p a n y a d d r e s s ] [ T y p e t h e c o m p a n y a d d r e s s ] RexCOMMPAN©2015 Abstract The advent of social media which is commonly accessed through mobile devices has brought about unprecedented opportunities in the society. These opportunities have also been attended by fundamental concern around safety of young users. The concern appears genuine enough particularly in Nigeria, a country with a preponderant youth population. The reason is because the engagement of young Nigerians with diverse perspectives and from diverse social and cultural backgrounds on social media has expanded the dialogic space with its attendant tension, behavioural changes and, more importantly, civic vitality which is a critical component of modern democracy. But the usage pattern of Whatsapp by the Nigerian youth and their presence on social media must be put on the scholarship radar in order to determine how much influence it exerts on their educational development. Hinged on Technological Acceptance Model and the Uses and Gratification theory, this study is an investigation of how young people in two universities in Anambra state – one of Nigeria's 36 political subdivisions use Whatapp social network on campus. A total of 300 students from Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka and Madonna University, Okija were surveyed and results indicated that many students do not recognize the potentials of Whatsapp in educational development; a finding which highlights the necessity for the inclusion of Social/ New Media literacy in the University curriculum to educate Nigerian students on the educational benefits of the social media.

IJAERS Journal

— With the advent of whatsapp, information has been spread worldwide easily. Higher learning institutions such as IIUM have been using whatsapp as a mean of communication between the students and their instructors. The use of whatsapp at IIUM has been inevitable. Despite the positive impact of whatsapp as social media to the users, it has also negative impacts on student learning such as: time consuming for student's study time, exacerbating student's grammar and spelling, distracting student's concentration during lecture etc. this study explored the impact of using of whatsapp among postgraduate students' learning at the Kulliyyah of Education (KOED), at International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM). Interview which consisted of fourteen (14) questions were employed with two informants. The study found that using whatsapp as learning tool is beneficial to both students and instructors though it was suggested that electronic etiquette should be applied when using whatsapp in learning.

Uses and Gratifications Theory in Media Psychology

How and why we make our choices for media consumption

Cynthia Vinney, PhD is an expert in media psychology and a published scholar whose work has been published in peer-reviewed psychology journals.

uses and gratifications theory case study

Steven Gans, MD is board-certified in psychiatry and is an active supervisor, teacher, and mentor at Massachusetts General Hospital.

Klaus Vedfelt / Getty Images

Assumptions of UGT
Explaining Media Use With UGT
Criticisms of the Theory

Uses and gratifications theory (UGT) proposes that people choose to consume certain kinds of media because they expect to obtain specific gratifications as a result of those selections.

In contrast to other theories about media, UGT focuses on the media consumer rather than the media itself or the messages the media conveys.

While other theories see people as passive recipients of media messages, UGT sees people as active consumers of media who are aware of the reasons they choose to consume media.

History of Uses and Gratifications Theory

The origins of UGT can be traced back to the 1940s when communication scholars initially sought to study why specific media and content appealed to different people. The theory was further expanded in the 1970s when researchers started examining not just the gratifications that consumers sought but the gratifications they actually obtained.

Today UGT remains one of the most prevalent theories used in media effects research. In fact, communication scholar Ruggiero argued that the rise of new media makes uses and gratifications theory more important than ever as this perspective is especially useful for explaining why people adopt new mediums.

Assumptions of Uses and Gratifications Theory

A cornerstone of UGT is that audiences are active in choosing the media they consume. Moreover, audiences are aware of the reasons they want to consume media and consciously use those reasons to make media selections that will fulfill their needs and desires.

Five Assumptions

Based on these notions, uses and gratifications theory specifies a set of five assumptions about media consumption.

The assumptions are:

Media use is motivated and goal-oriented. People always have a reason for consuming media, even if it's simply habit or entertainment.
People select media based on their expectation that it will satisfy specific wants and needs .
Media use is driven by individual social and psychological factors.
Media compete with other forms of communication, especially in-person communication, for selection and use in the fulfillment of needs and desires. Today, since so much of the media we consume is mobile, that competition is more immediate than ever as even when engaging in in-person communication, media accessed through mobile devices, such as text messages, social networks , and apps are also competing for our attention.
Because people are active media users, media messages don't exert especially strong effects on people.

People are in Control of Their Media Consumption

These assumptions make it clear that UGT places the media consumer at the center of media use. That means that not only do consumers have the power to actively choose and take in specific media, they are also capable of interpreting media messages and utilizing those messages in their lives as they choose. As a result, people control how much and in what ways media impacts them.

Explaining Media Use With Uses and Gratification Theory

Much of UGT research focuses on the gratifications that media does or should fulfill. This has resulted in a variety of typologies that classify gratifications into a concise set of categories. For example, in 1973, Katz, Gurevitch, and Haas created a well-known scheme of five social and psychological needs gratified by media use, including:

Cognitive needs , or the need to acquire information and knowledge or improve understanding
Affective needs, or the need to have aesthetic or emotional experiences
Integrative needs , or the need to strengthen confidence , status, or credibility. These needs have both cognitive and affective components
Social integrative needs , or the need to strengthen relationships with friends and family
Tension-release needs , or the need to relax and escape by lessening one's awareness of the self

These needs, as well as those specified in many other uses and gratifications typologies, are based on the gratifications consumers obtained from old media, such as books, newspapers, radio, television , and movies.

Interestingly, some more recent UGT research has suggested that new media offers similar gratifications. However, work by Sundar and Limperos observes that while old media and new media may fulfill some similar social and psychological needs, affordances of new media also create unique needs that studies of the uses and gratifications of new media may overlook.

The scholars suggest several new gratifications that fall into four categories specific to features of new media.

These four categories include:

Modality-based gratifications : New media content can be served up in a variety of modalities from audio to video to text. The use of these different modalities can satisfy the need for realism, novelty, or in the case of something like virtual reality , the need to feel like you've been somewhere.
Agency-based gratifications : New media gives people the ability to create and share information and content, giving each individual a certain amount of power. This can satisfy needs such as agency-enhancement, community building, and the ability to tailor content to one's specific desires.
Interactivity-based gratifications : The interactivity of new media means content is no longer static. Instead, users can interact with and impact content in real time. This satisfies needs such as responsiveness and more choice and control.
Navigability-based gratifications : Users move through new media, and the navigation offered by different interfaces can greatly impact users' experiences. Positive new media navigation experiences satisfy needs such as browsing, guidance through navigation (or scaffolding), and the fun that comes with moving through spaces and, if one's playing a game, levels.

Criticisms of Uses and Gratifications Theory

While UGT continues to be widely used in media research, it has been criticized for several reasons.

First, UGT's' belief that audiences are active and can articulate their reasons for consuming specific media has led to studies that rely on self-report data. However, self-report data isn't always reliable and may not always be accurate or insightful.

Second, the idea that people freely choose the media they consume is limited by the media available to them. This may be an even more salient criticism today when there are more media choices than ever, but not everyone has access to every choice.

That lack of access may mean certain people are unable to choose the media that would best satisfy their needs.

Third, by focusing on the audience, UGT overlooks the constraints and boundaries of media messages and how that may impact people. Finally, there has been debate about whether UGT is too broad to be considered a theory.

Some scholars feel because of its lack of distinction between needs and motivations and the poor definitions provided for these and other concepts, the theory is better regarded as an approach than a full-fledged theory.

Ruggiero TE. Uses and Gratifications Theory in the 21st Century . Mass Communication and Society . 2000;3(1):3-37. doi:10.1207/s15327825mcs0301_02

Potter WJ. Media Effects . SAGE Publications; 2012.

Rubin AM. Audience activity and media use . Commun Monogr . 1993;60(1):98-105. doi:10.1080/03637759309376300

Katz E, Gurevitch M, Haas H. On the Use of the Mass Media for Important Things . Am Sociol Rev . 1973;38(2):164-181. doi:10.2307/2094393

Sundar SS, Limperos AM. Uses and Grats 2.0: New Gratifications for New Media . J Broadcast Electron Media . 2013;57(4):504-525. doi:10.1080/08838151.2013.845827

By Cynthia Vinney, PhD Cynthia Vinney, PhD is an expert in media psychology and a published scholar whose work has been published in peer-reviewed psychology journals.

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Published: 20 October 2023

A uses and gratifications approach to examining users’ continuance intention towards smart mobile learning

Biao Gao ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-0263-0167 1

Humanities and Social Sciences Communications volume 10 , Article number: 726 ( 2023 ) Cite this article

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Business and management

Smart mobile learning (SML), an online learning system built on artificial intelligence technology, signifies a key development trajectory for mobile learning. However, the current literature reveals a research deficit in introducing specific constructs that represent the categorical level of gratification towards SML, and a new gratification for the intelligent dimension of SML has yet to be identified. Utilising the uses and gratifications (U&G) framework, this study identifies five categories of user gratification. These are derived from five theoretical perspectives, including the incentive theory of motivation, learning theory, diffusion of innovation theory, self-determination theory, and flow theory. Hence, this research integrates aspects of technology, content, social, utilitarian, and hedonic gratification to examine their influence on users’ continuance intention towards SML. This study focuses on Liulishuo, an SML app, as a typical research object and incorporates data from 495 valid samples. The analysis via partial least-squares structural equation modelling (PLS-SEM) indicates the hierarchical significance of various gratifications influencing continuance intention. The empirical findings suggest that in the realm of SML, users’ expectations surpass basic intrinsic needs in importance. For the first time, this study introduces the intelligence construct to investigate users’ technology gratification concerning SML, thereby empirically establishing the validity of this construct. This study reveals that technology gratification, embodied in the notion of intelligence, is the most critical determinant of continuance intention towards SML, a relationship that has previously remained unexplored.

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Introduction

Smart mobile learning (SML), which integrates artificial intelligence (AI) and mobile learning, provides users with a personalised, smart, and mobile learning environment. SML enhances communication and collaboration and enables the delivery of personalised learning experiences (Yu et al., 2019 ). With the advancement of smart technologies, smart electronic devices have become widely accepted for learning purposes. This online learning, facilitated by cutting-edge AI technology, signifies the dawn of smart educational approaches (Lyapina et al., 2019 ). Furthermore, SML has made distance mobile learning feasible (e.g., Basoglu and Akdemir, 2010 ; Nah et al., 2008 ), with the goal of offering personalised learning experiences anywhere and anytime (Bajaj and Sharma, 2018 ; Yu et al., 2019 ).

SML incorporates a variety of technologies to cater to diverse user needs and facilitate the learning process (Abdel-Basset et al., 2018 ). SML applications such as Liulishuo employ advanced technologies such as speech recognition, natural language processing, machine learning, and recommendation systems to optimise mobile learning experiences. Similar SML applications include Duolingo, Rosetta Stone, and HelloTalk, among others (De la Vall and Araya, 2023 ; Karakaya and Bozkurt, 2022 ; Rukiati et al., 2023 ).

Liulishuo incorporates AI through various techniques and algorithms that facilitate intelligent features and functionalities. First, Liulishuo utilises natural language processing (NLP) algorithms to analyse and comprehend learners’ spoken input. Second, Liulishuo harnesses AI-based speech recognition technology to evaluate learners’ pronunciation and fluency. Third, Liulishuo uses machine learning algorithms to tailor learning to cater to the specific needs and development of each individual. Last, Liulishuo leverages recommendation systems to suggest personalised content and exercises based on each learner’s performance and preferences (Liulishuo.com, 2023 ). Consequently, the most notable difference between Liulishuo and a system that does not employ AI is that of intelligence level. The AI capabilities of Liulishuo enable it to function as an intelligent tutor, providing guidance, explanations, and suggestions that are tailored to each learner’s specific needs. It can pinpoint areas in which a learner may encounter difficulties and provide targeted exercises or additional resources to address these challenges (Bai and Stede, 2022 ).

NLP technology empowers the system to provide precise feedback, correct pronunciation, and offer personalised language learning suggestions (e.g., Evanini and Zechner, 2020 ). AI-based speech recognition technology contrasts the learner’s speech patterns with the accents of native speakers and provides real-time feedback to enhance pronunciation and intonation (e.g., Gong et al., 2022 ). Machine learning algorithms monitor each learner’s personalised performance, identify strengths and weaknesses, and adjust the content and exercises accordingly. This ensures that learners are consistently challenged at an appropriate level, which promotes progress and engagement (e.g., Pedro et al., 2019 ). Finally, recommendation systems delve deeper into learners’ interaction patterns, engagement levels, and learning pace, providing an advanced level of personalisation that not only enhances the learning experience but also optimises the learners’ time (Chen et al., 2021 ). As a result, SML applications such as Liulishuo have evolved into smart learning solutions.

The advancement of AI technologies has enabled SML applications such as Liulishuo to gain widespread popularity in the learner market (Kurni et al., 2023 ; Yu, 2022 ). Supported by advanced intelligent features and functionalities, Liulishuo is progressively reaching maturity. Currently, more than 216.5 million users have registered with Liulishuo to learn English in a personalised way (Liulishuo.com, 2023 ). However, faced with competitive pressure from many other English learning apps, Liulishuo must retain its current users. Researchers have indicated that it is important to retain users by studying their continuance intention (Bhattacherjee, 2001 ). At the individual level of users, the continuous usage of SML is also crucial to improving their English level.

The uses and gratifications (U&G) theory (Katz et al., 1973 ) serves as a valuable tool for examining sustained user behaviour towards SML. This theory has been effectively applied to diverse media based on computer-mediated communication and has been adapted for research on various emerging platforms (e.g., Khan, 2017 ; Liu et al., 2016 ). It has also been applied to mobile learning based on mobile devices (Aburub and Alnawas, 2019 ; Chang et al., 2021 ; Shukla, 2021 ). Nevertheless, current U&G research on mobile learning primarily focuses on the categorical level of gratification and fails to introduce specific constructs that encapsulate this type of gratification. Moreover, there is a noticeable gap in the literature concerning SML. As the future direction of mobile learning, SML, infused with AI technology, should have distinct constructs that reflect user gratification with this intelligent mobile learning modality. Unfortunately, new gratification for the intelligent dimension of SML has yet to be identified.

Consequently, this study focuses on the predictive influence of specific constructs under the gratification type on continuance intention towards SML. Additionally, this research endeavours to propose new gratification for the intelligent dimension of SML . Ultimately, this study seeks to empirically uncover the hierarchy of importance among various gratifications, each with specific constructs, that impact continuance intention towards SML, and partial least-squares structural equation modelling (PLS-SEM) is employed as the analytical method.

This study is expected to offer the following potential contributions. First, this study will demonstrate that various factors compose the gratification associated with SML usage and reveal the hierarchy of these factors in predicting sustained usage. Second, by introducing unique new gratifications for the intelligent dimension of SML, this study will augment U&G theory, making it more relevant and applicable to research in the realm of smart communication technologies. Third, U&G theory can provide a complete understanding of users’ post-acceptance behaviour by explaining different types of learner gratification after usage. This study will clearly relate U&G theory to the post-acceptance research of the information system (IS) represented by SML. As a result, this study will promote the generalisability of the theory in the context of SML and therefore is an indispensable step in developing U&G theory (Alvesson and Kärreman, 2007 ; Johns, 2006 ). This study can thus help explain the causes of SML’s continuous usage from the perspective of U&G and help individual users understand and improve their behaviour in their post-acceptance stage, which is beneficial for users to better manage their learning.

Theoretical framework

Uses and gratifications (u&g) theory.

While the initial decision to embrace an SML system is a crucial starting point, the capacity of the SML system to maintain users over an extended period hinges on its continued usage in the post-acceptance phase. Accordingly, U&G theory is employed in this study to assess the gratifications of users in their post-acceptance engagement with SML systems.

The research on uses and gratifications originated in the 1930s. After decades of development by many researchers, Katz et al. ( 1973 ) proposed U&G theory. This theory explores sociopsychological needs, which can help explain individual users’ medium usage (Xu et al., 2012 ). It has been effectively applied to a variety of computer-mediated platforms relying on communication technology, including the internet (Stafford et al., 2004 ), smartphones (Joo and Sang, 2013 ), social networking services (SNSs) (Liu et al., 2016 ), online videos (Khan, 2017 ), internet-based games (Li et al., 2015 ; Wu et al., 2010 ), instant messaging (Gan and Li, 2017 ), and mobile learning facilitated by mobile devices (Aburub and Alnawas, 2019 ; Chang et al., 2021 ; Shukla, 2021 ). Given that SML facilitates access to computer-mediated learning, applying U&G theory to this context is pertinent because it relates to the internet, new media, and IS.

U&G theory focuses on several key areas: (1) psychological and social origins that lead to (2) user needs; these needs, in turn, cultivate (3) user expectations of (4) the medium or computer-mediated communication systems. These expectations then give rise to (5) varying patterns of medium usage, which yield (6) the gratification of these needs and may result in (7) other outcomes, potentially including unintended consequences (Katz et al., 1973 ; Palmgreen, 1984 ; Rubin, 1994 ).

With the development of information and communication technology, researchers have new interpretations of U&G theory. Finn ( 1997 ) suggested that the integration of media and computer-mediated communication technology has changed the exposure patterns of users. Moreover, Ruggiero ( 2000 ) indicated that the interactive nature of the internet dramatically enhances the core of the U&G concept in terms of active usage; a computer-mediated medium also enhances the effectiveness of U&G theory. As a result, U&G theory can be applied to the study of telecommunications media effectively and efficiently (e.g., Ruggiero, 2000 ).

As a result, the SML system meets the U&G theory assumptions: (1) The users are active. (2) Users who choose a medium/computer-mediated communication system are goal-oriented and purposeful with expectations. (3) Users know their needs and expectations to use a specific medium/computer-mediated communication system. After usage, the user’s needs are either satisfied or not satisfied. If their needs are satisfied, their continuance usage will be strengthened (Katz et al., 1973 ).

This study seeks to empirically assess whether users’ expectations of SML are being gratified. Given its focus, U&G theory functions as an appropriate approach for studying the post-acceptance of SML. The U&G framework is capable of examining user satisfaction in the post-acceptance stage, providing insight into whether users feel gratified with an information technology following its acceptance. After all, a central research question posed by U&G theory is as follows: what gratifications of corresponding expectations do users experience after using a specific medium? (e.g., Ruggiero, 2000 ). As such, U&G theory offers a logically coherent paradigm, seamlessly allowing for the exploration of users’ continuance intention in the post-acceptance phase (e.g., Luo and Remus, 2014 ).

In forecasting the usage of information technology, research predominantly based on technology diffusion theories, such as the technology acceptance model (TAM), often neglects the emotional components that emerge from users’ personal and social realms. In contrast, U&G theory fills this gap by addressing the emotional factors that users contemplate after employing technology, hence serving as a supplement to the limitations of technology diffusion theory in delineating a user’s post-acceptance usage. This stems from the significance of considering emotional elements, which are intrinsic to users’ personal and social facets, during the post-acceptance phase of technology usage. Additionally, the notion of satisfaction in U&G theory transcends the simple fulfilment of a need. It includes a pleasurable element, essentially indicating that gratification is an amalgamation of satisfaction and happiness. Following our previous discussion, U&G theory thereby emerges as a fitting framework for investigating continuance intention during the post-acceptance phase. Dissecting different forms of user satisfaction post-usage can provide a comprehensive understanding of the user’s post-acceptance gratification. This holistic perspective, which includes acknowledging emotional factors and expanding the understanding of satisfaction, underscores the advantages of the U&G approach in examining post-acceptance phenomena.

Research construct and hypothesis formulation

Uses and gratifications typologies.

Prior research leveraging U&G theory has classified user gratification in the post-acceptance stage across various representative media platforms. Table 1 presents a typology of uses and gratifications corresponding to representative new (computer-mediated) media.

Research constructs

In this study, five types of gratification are identified and derived from a range of theories, including the incentive theory of motivation, flow theory, diffusion of innovation theory, self-determination theory, and learning theory. Following a comprehensive review of the literature on these theories, it is concluded in this study that several formative factors underpin these five gratifications. Specifically, technology gratification is composed of factors such as perceived intelligence (Bartneck et al., 2009 ) and convenience (Ko et al., 2005 ). Hedonic gratification is constructed from factors such as perceived enjoyment (Ryan and Deci, 2000 ) and concentration (Koufaris, 2002 ). Users’ social gratification is epitomised by the factor of status (Venkatesh and Brown, 2001 ), while achievement (Wu et al., 2010 ) embodies a factor associated with utilitarian gratification. Finally, education (Stafford et al., 2004 ) emerges as a factor that aligns with users’ content gratification. The research constructs that are employed in this study are outlined in Table 2 .

Hypothesis formulation

Continuance intention is a predominant anticipated behavioural outcome in the field of IS post-adoption research (Bhattacherjee, 2001 ). In this study, continuance intention is defined as the probability that a user will continue to use SML over an extended period.

The literature suggests that there is a positive correlation between technology gratification and continuance intention (Gan and Li, 2017 ; Gulvady, 2009 ). In this study, intelligence is used to describe the ability of Liulishuo’s SML system to continually acquire and store knowledge via self-learning processes (Ritter et al., 2011 ). This inherent smartness and intelligence, exhibited by Liulishuo’s SML system, is something that users actively assess and appreciate (Lee et al., 2007 ). In terms of the technical benchmarks that users consider, Liulishuo’s SML system should fulfil users’ technology gratification expectations, particularly in perceived intelligence. Prior research has empirically substantiated that perceived intelligence can exert a positive influence on users’ behavioural intentions concerning Internet of Things (IoT) systems (Dong et al., 2017 ) and personal intelligent agents (Moussawi et al., 2023 ). Thus,

H1 . Perceived intelligence is positively associated with continuance intention towards SML.

Convenience refers to the ease with which users can obtain what they need by using a system (Chou et al., 2004 ). Convenience value, as defined by Larivière et al. ( 2013 ), refers to the value derived from accomplishing a task in a quick, efficient, and effortless manner. In fact, this convenience value is recognised as a principal driving force behind internet usage (Flanagin and Metzger, 2001 ). In service-oriented research, various dimensions of convenience have been identified and deliberated in the literature (e.g., Berry et al., 2002 ). Convenience has been empirically validated as a significant motivation for mobile media usage (Leung and Wei, 2000 ), YouTube utilisation (Haridakis and Hanson, 2009 ), the use of tourism mobile apps (Xu et al., 2019 ), and the utilisation of a learning management system (Bansah and Darko, 2022 ). Thus,

H2 . Convenience is positively associated with continuance intention towards SML.

Prior research conducted on internet-based games (Li et al., 2015 ) and general portals (van der Heijden, 2003 ) has demonstrated that perceived enjoyment is a predictive factor for continuance intention. Perceived enjoyment has been acknowledged as a primary determinant of media usage (Ryan and Deci, 2000 ). Empirical evidence from previous studies indicates that when a usage process is perceived as enjoyable, it strengthens users’ intentions to continue using the system (Gallego et al., 2016 ). This viewpoint has been confirmed in research on online accommodation booking platforms (So et al., 2021 ). Thus,

H3 . Perceived enjoyment positively influences continuance intention towards SML.

Users who are deeply engaged in their activities tend to exhibit a heightened concentration level (Koufaris, 2002 ). This high level of concentration, directed towards media usage, often culminates in what is referred to as a flow state (Sherry, 2010 ). Past research findings posit that this intense concentration can notably enhance the usage of e-learning systems (Lee, 2010 ). Thus,

H4 . Concentration positively influences continuance intention towards SML.

Users derive a sense of social gratification from the enhanced status associated with the use of Liulishuo’s SML system. Drawing upon the literature on the diffusion of innovations, it is posited that the pursuit of higher social standing is a fundamental motivator for IS usage (Rogers, 1995 ). This perspective also applies to online technologies, where the allure of elevated status continues to drive user engagement (Yan et al., 2021 ). Thus,

H5 . Status positively influences continuance intention towards SML.

Achievement, in the realm of using an e-learning system, is embodied by users earning learning points, completing missions, levelling up, and competing with others (Ryan and Deci, 2000 ). As users engage with Liulishuo, they incrementally elevate their proficiency levels. Past studies have empirically validated the idea that this sense of achievement serves as a motivating factor that can predict users’ intention to continuing using a system (Wu et al., 2010 ). This has been confirmed in recent research on smartphone apps (Mi et al., 2021 ). Thus,

H6 . Achievement positively influences continuance intention towards SML.

Users’ content gratification, within the context of Liulishuo’s SML system, is signified by the educational benefit they accrue. This form of gratification pertains to the valuable information relayed by the media, which fulfils users’ expectations (Cutler and Danowski, 1980 ). Underpinned by a user-friendly social mechanism and the contributions of nearly 100 elites in English culture and education, Liulishuo expanded from merely oral learning to encompass a broad spectrum of English culture learning. Previous empirical studies have confirmed that content gratification can foster users’ engagement with online media (Stafford et al., 2004 ) and enhance online learning (Li and Liu, 2023 ). The education acquired by users through Liulishuo, as an SML system, can enhance their intention to continue using the platform. Thus,

H7 . Education is positively associated with continuance intention towards SML.

Figure 1 shows the research model.

Description: The figure depicts the research model.

Research method and data

Measurement development.

In this study, a quantitative research methodology was implemented, and survey data were utilised. The participants involved in this study were users who had engaged with Liulishuo. All the measurement scales were adapted from previous literature, included perceived intelligence (Bartneck et al., 2009 ), convenience (Ko et al., 2005 ), perceived enjoyment (Moon and Kim, 2001 ; van der Heijden, 2003 ), concentration (Koufaris, 2002 ), status (Venkatesh and Brown, 2001 ), achievement (Wu et al., 2010 ), education (Stafford et al., 2004 ), and continuance intention (Bhattacherjee, 2001 ), and were tailored to fit the SML context. All measurement items were evaluated using a seven-point Likert scale. Table 3 provides a detailed view of the measurement items.

The survey items were initially in English. The translation process of the survey items in this study from English to Chinese was meticulously carried out. The specific steps and techniques employed included forward translation, back translation, comparison and revision, and pilot testing and finalisation. These established translation methods were used to ensure linguistic and conceptual equivalence of the survey items (e.g., Smith et al., 2022 ).

Data collection methods

A pilot test of 107 samples was conducted prior to the formal study and was not included in the main survey. Preliminary evidence underscores the measurement scale’s reliability and validity.

A conditional random sampling procedure was implemented for our online questionnaire survey, which was hosted nationwide by the Baidu sample service in China. Given the study requirements, only respondents who confirmed prior use of Liulishuo via their response to the first question, “Have you used Liulishuo before?”, were permitted to proceed with the rest of the questionnaire. Since the platform studied, Liulishuo, primarily caters to a younger demographic, the nature of our sampling method inherently resulted in a sample that predominantly consisted of relatively young individuals, including college students and working professionals, which is reflective of the demographic profile of Liulishuo’s user base (Liulishuo.com, 2023 ). Participation in the survey was voluntary, with measures put in place to guarantee the authenticity and reliability of the responses collected. The data collection process spanned approximately 15 days, and after careful validation of responses, a total of 495 participants’ valid responses were deemed suitable and included in the subsequent analysis.

Data analysis and results

PLS-SEM can be utilised to assess the relationships among independent, dependent, mediating, and moderating variables, making it better suited for the data analysis in this study. When compared to covariance-based structural equation modelling (CB-SEM), PLS-SEM demonstrates fewer identification problems and displays greater robustness (e.g., Hair et al., 2011 ). Given that the research model involves a considerable number of variables and exhibits complexity, PLS-SEM can more effectively validate the relationships among the variables in the research model (Chin et al., 2003 ).

Descriptive statistics

Among 495 valid participants, 51.9% were female, and 48.1% were male; a total of 95.8% of the participants had a college degree or above. In addition, most of the participants (98%) were between 19 and 45 years old. The descriptive statistics align well with Liulishuo’s target audience. Earlier data analysis reports indicate that Liulishuo, being an English learning application for adults, predominantly caters to a demographic of college students and working professionals aged roughly between 19 and 45 (Liulishuo.com, 2023 ). Further academic studies suggest that this user base has a higher propensity to leverage technology for educational pursuits (Ding, 2019 ). Figure 2 illustrates the demographics of the participants. Figure 3 presents the visualisation of the Likert scale data.

Description: The figure illustrates the demographics of the participants.

Description: The figure presents the visualisation of the Likert scale data.

Measurement model

Chin ( 2010 ) suggested that in the first step of model evaluation, the measurement scale applied in each construct should be confirmed to be reliable and valid through analysis of the measurement model. Therefore, utilising the SmartPLS 3.0 version, the measurement model was initially evaluated in this study before the structural model was tested.

To assess the psychometric properties of the constructs, composite reliability (CR), Cronbach’s alpha, and average variance extracted (AVE) were calculated in this study, as shown in Table 4 (e.g., Gao et al., 2022 ; Nunnally and Bernstein, 1994 ). The results reveal that the composite reliability (CR) values exceed 0.800, the Cronbach’s alpha coefficient values surpass 0.700, and the average variance extracted (AVE) values exceed 0.500. As a result, the constructs of this study demonstrate good internal consistency reliability, as shown in Table 4 .

Discriminant validity was assessed in two steps. The first step was to load all items into the corresponding latent variable. In this study, it was found that all items exhibited loadings greater than 0.700. At the same time, the factor loading of an item in this study onto its associated construct surpassed that of any other nonconstruct item (e.g., Venkatesh et al., 2012 ). Thus, the measurement model exhibits strong convergent validity. Table 5 outlines the PLS loadings and cross-loadings. In the second step, Fornell and Larcker’s ( 1987 ) criteria were used in this study to assess whether the square root of any construct’s AVE in the research model was larger than the correlation between this construct and any other construct. If the squared correlations between the constructs do not exceed 0.800 in the correlation matrix, the multicollinearity issue can be disregarded without affecting the model’s estimation (Hair et al., 2006 ; Provenzano et al., 2020 ). Table 4 shows that the analysis results conform to Fornell and Larcker’s ( 1987 ) criteria. This suggests that the measurement model of this study exhibits good discriminant validity. Put simply, the five dimensions of the gratification construct and continuance intention are identifiable and distinguishable.

Structural model

Tenenhaus et al. ( 2005 ) recommended the goodness of fit (GoF) measure (0 < GoF < 1) as a global fit index for PLS-SEM modelling. The GoF value of this model is calculated to be 0.64, exceeding the benchmark value of 0.36 for GoFlarge (e.g., Croasdell et al., 2011 ; Wetzels et al., 2009 ), suggesting that the model aptly fits the data. Consequently, the model demonstrates 63.1% of the variance for continuance intention.

Table 6 shows the measurement of the path relationships between the constructs in this model and the assessment of their significance levels. The findings from the data analysis validate all the hypotheses, except H4. These findings reveal that continuance intention is influenced by intelligence ( β = 0.171, P < 0.01), convenience ( β = 0.125, P < 0.05), perceived enjoyment ( β = 0.120, P < 0.05), status ( β = 0.147, P < 0.05), achievement ( β = 0.131, P < 0.05), and education ( β = 0.150, P < 0.05). However, concentration does not significantly influence continuance intention. As a result, the structural model analysis results empirically indicate the sequence of the importance of different gratifications affecting continuance intention towards SML.

Figure 4 presents the structural model.

Description: This figure depicts the structural model.

Discussion and conclusions

Leveraging the U&G framework, this study reveals five primary categories of user gratifications influencing SML continuance intention, each of which embody an array of factors. Each type of gratification is dissected in order of its significance. The empirical results, which explore the relationship between each gratification type and continuance intention, shed light on their alignment or contradiction with the literature. Additionally, explanations are provided to rationalise the obtained findings.

This study, focusing on Liulishuo as a typical research object of SML, employs empirical research to establish that five categories of gratification can effectively predict users’ intention to continue using Liulishuo. According to the order of importance, the first category is technology gratification, which is represented by intelligence. The second category is content gratification, which is represented by education. The third category is social gratification, which is represented by status. The fourth category is utilitarian gratification, which is represented by achievement. The fifth category is technology gratification, which is represented by convenience. The sixth category is hedonic gratification, which is represented by perceived enjoyment.

Hypothesis H1 investigates the influence of perceived intelligence on users’ continuance intention towards SML. The results demonstrate that intelligence, as a technology gratification, emerges as the most influential factor in predicting the continuous usage of Liulishuo. This finding aligns with the research findings of Stafford et al. ( 2004 ) on the internet, those of Liu et al. ( 2016 ) on SNSs, those of Gan and Li ( 2017 ) on instant messaging, and those of Moussawi et al. ( 2023 ) on personal intelligent agents. A higher degree of intelligence implies that users can avail themselves of more astute learning guidance through Liulishuo, thus enhancing their learning efficiency, comparable to having a personal human tutor. For instance, Liulishuo evaluates users’ performance and precisely identifies areas that need improvement, which can effectively and efficiently elevate the users’ English proficiency. This gratification derived from the intelligent features of Liulishuo bolsters users’ intention to continue its use.

Hypothesis H2 explores the impact of convenience on users’ continuance intention towards SML. The findings reveal that convenience, as a technology gratification factor, significantly influences a user’s sustained usage of Liulishuo. This insight aligns with the studies of Ko et al. ( 2005 ) on the internet, Liu et al. ( 2016 ) on SNSs, Xu et al. ( 2019 ) on tourism mobile applications, and Bansah and Darko ( 2022 ) on learning management systems. The ease and comfort provided by Liulishuo while learning English meet users’ need for convenience, thereby strengthening their desire for continued engagement.

Hypothesis H3 assesses the impact of perceived enjoyment on users’ continuance intention towards SML. The results demonstrate that perceived enjoyment, as a hedonic gratification, can effectively predict the continuous usage of Liulishuo users. This confirms previous research results on home personal computers (Venkatesh and Brown, 2001 ), internet-based games (Li et al., 2015 ), online videos (Khan, 2017 ), and online accommodation booking platforms (So et al., 2021 ). Users’ enjoyment and pleasant experiences when learning English using Liulishuo can meet their demand for enjoyment, thus strengthening their intention of continuous usage.

Hypothesis H4 investigates the impact of concentration on users’ continuance intention towards SML. Surprisingly, the results demonstrate that concentration does not affect users’ intention to continue using Liulishuo. This indicates that users consider concentration to be less critical when using Liulishuo.

Hypothesis H5 explores the influence of status on users’ continuance intention towards SML. The results suggest that status as a social gratification reliably predicts the intention to continue using Liulishuo. This confirms previous research on personal computers (Venkatesh and Brown, 2001 ), online videos (Khan, 2017 ), and online technologies (Yan et al., 2021 ). This demonstrates that users of Liulishuo place significant importance on gaining status through Liulishuo’s social systems.

Hypothesis H6 evaluates the effect of achievement on users’ intention to continue using SML. The results indicate that achievement, viewed as a form of utilitarian gratification, significantly impacts the sustained use of Liulishuo. This aligns with earlier research on internet-based games (Li et al., 2015 ) and smartphone apps (Mi et al., 2021 ). Thus, this study highlights that users attach significant importance to the utilitarian purpose of using Liulishuo, such as achieving specific goals.

Hypothesis H7 investigates the influence of education on users’ continuance intention towards SML. The findings confirm that education, as a content gratification, can effectively predict the ongoing usage of Liulishuo. This aligns with previous studies on the internet (Stafford et al., 2004 ) and online learning platforms (Li and Liu, 2023 ). These findings emphasise that users prioritise the educational content provided by Liulishuo in their continued usage.

Conclusions

This study contributes to understanding users’ gratification stage concerning SML by identifying specific gratifications. Doing so expands the scope and generalisability of U&G theory to the SML context. By examining the relationships among various types of gratifications and continuance intention, this study enhances our understanding of users’ gratification stage in SML. This insight is instrumental for continually advancing users’ language abilities. This study reveals that technology gratification, represented by intelligence, is the most influential factor in effectively predicting the sustained usage of SML. Furthermore, the empirical results highlight that users’ expectations of the SML system are of greater significance than their basic intrinsic needs.

Theoretical contributions

While prior research using uses and gratifications (U&G) theory to investigate IS-based media has primarily concentrated on predicting the role of hedonic, utilitarian, and social gratifications in fostering continued usage, there has been a noticeable gap in exploring the relationship between technology gratification, especially concerning the intelligence inherent in AI-based information systems, and sustained use. This study, however, establishes that intelligence, functioning as a form of technology gratification, is the most potent predictor of continuous SML usage. Therefore, this study makes a pioneering contribution by introducing intelligence as a novel factor of technology gratification. In doing so, it contributes to the expansion of U&G theory, rendering it more applicable to SML-related research. The research also affirms that the technology gratification of convenience positively impacts the continuous usage of SML, further bolstering the integral role of technology gratification in the context of sustained SML usage.

This study revealed that content gratification, represented by education, has the second most significant positive effect on the continuous usage of SML. Additionally, this study confirmed that hedonic gratification, represented by perceived enjoyment; social gratification, represented by status; and utilitarian gratification, represented by achievement, can effectively predict continuous usage. The results demonstrate that various factors contribute to gratification with SML usage and indicate the order of importance of these factors in predicting continuous usage.

The findings of this research are theoretically valuable, as they deepen our understanding of the driving factors behind SML usage from the perspective of uses and gratifications (U&G) theory. The findings can provide a basis for further theoretical exploration into how users can optimise their learning management for increased efficiency. These insights not only contribute to the enhancement of English proficiency but also potentially extend the theoretical framework to other online learning sectors. By elucidating the primary gratifications leading to continued SML use, this research builds upon, integrates, and expands existing theories, thus offering a more comprehensive theoretical basis for the study of online learning engagement and commitment.

U&G theory offers a comprehensive understanding of users’ post-acceptance behaviour by explaining various types of user gratification after usage. This study effectively relates U&G theory to the post-acceptance research of IS, represented by SML. This connection is also theoretically sound, as U&G theory addresses users’ gratifications with expectations after using a specific medium (e.g., Ruggiero, 2000 ).

This study has effectively expanded the range of U&G theory, originally rooted in communication research, by applying it to the domain of SML systems. These systems, as conveyors of learning information, can be classified broadly as computer-mediated mediums. Consequently, the theoretical justification for this extension is sound and brings a fresh perspective to the analysis of online learning systems, which have traditionally been examined from an IS viewpoint. By merging the theoretical strengths of both the management IS field and the communication field, this study offers an enriched, interdisciplinary perspective on users’ post-acceptance behaviour.

Practical implications

The findings offer practical guidance for retaining existing SML users in China by addressing their specific needs for gratification. By doing so, it could bolster user engagement and, in turn, foster customer loyalty. As insights from this study draw attention to particular user gratifications, they significantly inform practitioners in their design of future mobile learning products. Aligning these offerings with user needs and expectations ensures a more engaging and beneficial learning experience. Furthermore, the strategic optimisation of the design elements of SML systems, informed by these user gratifications, can significantly enhance learning efficiency.

The findings emphasise the crucial role of technological gratifications, notably intelligence and convenience, in promoting the continuous usage of SML systems. For practitioners in the SML field, these findings suggest that enhancing the intellectual capabilities of these platforms is crucial, making them more akin to smart, personalised tutors. Additionally, the element of convenience should not be overlooked. An easy-to-navigate interface, coupled with the flexibility of mobile access, offers users the advantage of learning anytime and anywhere.

In addition, this research emphasises the importance of content gratification, particularly in terms of educational value, as a critical factor in driving continuous usage. This serves as a significant insight for SML practitioners, suggesting that they should focus on enriching the educational content provided by these platforms to better meet user needs.

Moreover, hedonic gratification, illustrated by perceived enjoyment; social gratification, depicted by status; and utilitarian gratification, represented by achievement, have been identified in this study as essential factors that motivate SML users’ continued engagement during the gratification stage. These findings suggest that SML practitioners should focus on improving platform features and functions that enhance perceived enjoyment, elevate user status, and facilitate achievement. This could involve introducing more interactive and entertaining learning activities, developing social features that allow users to share progress and compete with peers, and establishing clear goals and reward mechanisms to boost users’ sense of achievement.

Finally, the insights garnered from this study could guide individual SML users in understanding and managing their own learning processes more effectively, leading to substantial improvements in their language proficiency.

Limitations and future research directions

This study also has certain limitations, offering avenues for improvement in future studies. The samples are geographically limited to China. On the one hand, the cultural context of the study might introduce a degree of cultural bias. On the other hand, because the subjects hail from a developing country, the findings may encompass a certain level of economic distortion. The findings can be more generalised if future studies use samples from other Western developed countries for comparison.

Data availability

The datasets analysed during the current study are available in the Dataverse repository: https://doi.org/10.7910/DVN/Q5UDGU .

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Acknowledgements

This work was supported by the Science and Technology Research Project of the Jiangxi Provincial Department of Education [Grant Number GJJ2200517]. In addition, this work was also supported by the Jiangxi Provincial University Humanities and Social Sciences Research Project [Grant Number GL22223].

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Gao, B. A uses and gratifications approach to examining users’ continuance intention towards smart mobile learning. Humanit Soc Sci Commun 10 , 726 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-023-02239-z

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What Is Uses and Gratifications Theory? Definition and Examples

Busakorn Pongparnit / Getty Images

Archaeology

Ph.D., Psychology, Fielding Graduate University
M.A., Psychology, Fielding Graduate University
B.A., Film Studies, Cornell University

Uses and gratifications theory asserts that people use media to gratify specific wants and needs. Unlike many media theories that view media users as passive, uses and gratifications sees users as active agents who have control over their media consumption.

Key Takeaways: Uses and Gratifications

Uses and gratifications characterizes people as active and motivated in selecting the media they choose to consume.
The theory relies on two principles: media users are active in their selection of the media they consume, and they are aware of their reasons for selecting different media options.
The greater control and choice brought about by new media has opened up new avenues of uses and gratifications research and has led to the discovery of new gratifications, especially in regards to social media.

Uses and gratifications was first introduced in the 1940s as scholars began to study why people choose to consume various forms of media. For the next few decades, uses and gratifications research mostly focused on the gratifications media users sought. Then, in the 1970s, researchers turned their attention to the outcomes of media use and the social and psychological needs that media gratified. Today, the theory is often credited to Jay Blumler and Elihu Katz’s work in 1974. As media technologies continue to proliferate, research on uses and gratifications theory is more important than ever for understanding people’s motivations for choosing media and the gratifications they get out of it.

Assumptions

Uses and gratifications theory relies on two principles about media users. First, it characterizes media users as active in their selection of the media they consume. From this perspective, people don’t use media passively. They are engaged and motivated in their media selections. Second, people are aware of their reasons for selecting different media options. They rely on their knowledge of their motivations to make media choices that will help them meet their specific wants and needs.

On the basis of those principles, uses and gratifications goes on to outline five assumptions :

Media use is goal-directed. People are motivated to consume media.
Media is selected based on the expectation that it will satisfy specific needs and desires.
Media influence on behavior is filtered through social and psychological factors. Thus, personality and social context impact the media choices one makes and one’s interpretation of media messages.
Media are in competition with other forms of communication for an individual’s attention. For example, an individual may choose to have an in-person conversation about an issue instead of watching a documentary about the issue.
People are usually in control of media and therefore are not particularly influenced by it.

Taken together, uses and gratifications theory stresses the power of the individual over the power of the media. Individual differences mediate the relationship between media and their effects. This results in media effects being driven as much by the media user as by the media content itself. So, even if people take in the same media message, each individual will not be impacted by the message in the same way.

Uses and Gratifications Research

Uses and gratifications research has uncovered several motivations people often have for consuming media. These include force of habit, companionship, relaxation, passing the time, escape, and information. In addition, a newer body of research explores people’s use of media to meet higher order needs like finding meaning and considering values. Studies from a uses and gratifications perspective have involved all kinds of media, from radio to social media.

TV Selection and Personality

Uses and gratifications' emphasis on individual differences has led researchers to examine the way personality impacts people’s motivations for using media. For example, a study by the Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University looked at personality traits like neuroticism and extroversion to see if people with different traits would identify different motivations for watching television. The researcher found that the motivations of participants with neurotic personalities included passing the time, companionship, relaxation, and stimulation. This was the reverse for participants with extraverted personalities. Moreover, while the neurotic personality types favored the companionship motive most, extraverted personality types strongly rejected this motive as a reason to watch TV. The researcher judged these results to be consistent with these two personality types. Those who are more socially isolated, emotional, or shy, demonstrated an especially strong affinity for television. Meanwhile, those that were more sociable and outgoing saw TV as a poor substitute for real-life social interactions.

Uses and Gratifications and New Media

Scholars have noted that new media includes several attributes that weren’t part of older forms of media. Users have greater control over what they interact with, when they interact with it, and more content choices. This opens up the number of gratifications that new media use could satisfy. An early study published in the journal CyberPsychology & Behavior on uses and gratifications of the internet found seven gratifications for its use: information seeking, aesthetic experience, monetary compensation, diversion, personal status, relationship maintenance, and virtual community. Virtual community could be considered a new gratification as it has no parallel in other forms of media. Another study, published in the journal Decisions Sciences , found three gratifications for internet usage. Two of these gratifications, content and process gratifications, had been found before in studies of the uses and gratifications of television. However, a new social gratification specific to internet use was also found. These two studies indicate that people look to the internet to fulfill social and communal needs.

Research has also been conducted to uncover the gratifications sought and obtained through social media use. For instance, another study published in CyberPsychology & Behavior uncovered four needs for Facebook group participation. Those needs included socializing by staying in touch and meeting people, entertainment through the use of Facebook for amusement or leisure, seeking self-status by maintaining one’s image, and seeking information in order to learn about events and products. In similar study, researchers found that Twitter users gratified their need for connection through the social network. Increased usage, both in terms of the amount of time one had been active on Twitter and in terms of the number of hours per week one spends using Twitter, increased the gratification of this need.

While uses and gratifications remains a popular theory in media research, it faces a number of criticisms . For example, the theory downplays the importance of media. As a result, it may overlook the way media influences people, especially unconsciously. In addition, while audiences may not always be passive, they may not always be active either, something the theory does not account for. Finally, some critics claim that uses and gratifications is too broad to be considered a theory, and therefore, should only be considered an approach to media research.

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Uses and Gratifications of Scientific Dissemination on TikTok in Peru—A Case Study@AdrianCiencia

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Karoline Cruzado Bautista 8 ,
Victor Omar Vite-León ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-0206-5858 8 &
Christiana Poggi-Parodi ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-8401-6020 9

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Scientific popularization has as its main purpose the dissemination of information in an accessible manner to a lay audience, for which it is necessary for traditional methods of this practice to transition to emerging digital platforms such as TikTok. The account “@AdrianCiencia” on that platform is studied, posing the following question: What uses and gratifications do users find when consuming @adrianciencia’s content? The objective is to determine if the platform is useful for effectively disseminating scientific content. Using the uses and gratifications theory, the case is studied through semi-structured interviews with men and women between the ages of 19 and 33. The results show that the interviewed individuals were able to satisfy all categories of uses and gratifications, using the application as both an entertainment and an information-seeking tool. Finally, this work provides insight into the consumed content for future creators of scientific content who seek to venture into new social media platforms.

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Bautista, K.C., Vite-León, V.O., Poggi-Parodi, C. (2024). Uses and Gratifications of Scientific Dissemination on TikTok in Peru—A Case Study@AdrianCiencia. In: Ibáñez, D.B., Castro, L.M., Espinosa, A., Puentes-Rivera, I., López-López, P.C. (eds) Communication and Applied Technologies. ICOMTA 2023. Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies, vol 375. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-7210-4_38

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Uses and gratifications of educational apps: A study during COVID-19 pandemic

Although educational apps have emerged as an easily available and accessible alternative to classroom learning, particularly at the time of pandemics like COVID-19, no research has attempted to identify learners intentions behind the usage of different educational apps. The current study developed a valid and reliable research instrument to measure the motivations behind using educational apps. Using the mixed method approach commonly used in uses and gratification (U&G) research, i.e., open-ended essays & national survey (N = 552), this study identified seven gratifications behind learners intention to use educational apps: academic assistance, convenience, entertainment, social influence, novelty, engagement and activity. The result suggests that academic assistance, convenience and social influence were the significant predictors of the intention to use educational apps. The current research also identified the moderating effect of gender in selecting educational apps. One of the most significant contributions of the present study is that it extended the uses and gratification theory applications beyond the traditional media to explain the intention to use educational apps.

1. Introduction

The advancements in communication technology have resulted in various applications for accessible and affordable education. As a result, students and educators have access to new technologies, gadgets, and applications to augment their pedagogical experiences [38] . Applications based on digital technologies have transformed the teaching and learning experience by opening up myriad opportunities [ 40 , 109 ]. The rapid internet connectivity, developments in phone technology and the emergence of compact and compatible smartphones and tablets have put "education" into "apps" [51] . Educational apps reduce the cognitive load on the learners by easily and effectively communicating concepts and contents with a faster flow of information beyond time and space [ 22 , 40 , 123 ].

Past studies have identified that well-designed educational apps can facilitate an interactive learning experience [ 25 , 35 , 75 ]. Researchers found that various factors motivate learners intentions to use educational apps. Scholars have observed that motives such as entertainment [ 4 , 20 , 39 , 76 ], convenience [35] , academic assistance [ 21 , 35 , 75 ], interactivity [23] and engagement [35] influence students' selection of educational apps.

The review of prior literature shows many gaps in the existing literature. First, although educational apps have emerged as an important learning alternative in most countries, very scant literature is available on the motives behind their usage. The available literature on educational apps focused more on app design [ 39 , 85 , 93 ] and content features [ 32 , 115 ] besides identifying various user motivations. For example, Falloon [39] , in his study on iPad based educational apps, identified interactive design, convenience, and entertainment gratifications that motivate students to use learning apps. However, the primary objective of his study was to explore how the app design and content influence students learning pathways. Similarly, past studies like Bomhold et al., [13] , Falloon [40] , Dubé et al.; [35] , Dias & Brito [33] etc., gave more emphasis on educational apps' contents, their design and various features, besides locating various user motivations.

Second, the limited prior literature ( [16] & [ 17 , 75 ]) investigating the user motivations of educational apps portrays an ambiguous picture of the learners' motives for using educational apps by providing conflicting results. Third, the existing literature analysed the usage of educational apps from teachers' [16] & [ 17 , 52 ]) or parents' [ 80 , 121 ] perspectives. The end-users of the educational apps are students, and literature probing into students motives for using educational apps are not available yet. Consequently, an investigation of educational apps' various uses and gratifications (U&G's) and the intentions behind their usage is highly warranted. We argue that various U&G's behind educational apps are significantly associated with learners intention to use them.

Lastly, educational apps became increasingly popular across the globe recently after the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic (Kondylakis et al., 2020; [95] ). The lockdowns and social distancing norms have disrupted the education sector, and physical attendances of schools and colleges were suspended for a long time, making the students and educators search for a feasible alternative [ 106 , 112 ]. Through advances in technology, accessibility and affordability, educational apps emerged as a viable alternative for classroom teaching. In addition, the COVID-19 crisis further caused a surge in the usage of educational apps across the globe [103] . During COVID-19, India witnessed an unprecedented spike in the usage of educational apps [ 30 , 74 ]. However, no study has ever attempted to identify what motivates students to use educational apps in India.

The current study addresses the gap mentioned above by examining the different uses and gratifications behind the usage of educational apps exclusively from the students perspective and thus provide a new dimension to the existing literature. Also, understanding the motives for using educational apps and gratifications sought or obtained from them help educators to design the content in accordance with the learners taste and alter the pedagogy to facilitate an interactive learning experience. Unlike the prior studies, we conducted our study in India, a developing and culturally diverse country, thus increasing its external validity. Scholars [ 70 , 101 ] argue that conducting research on a culturally diverse country can increase the study's external validity. Another unique contribution of this study is that we have used the Uses and gratification theory as our theoretical framework to understand the various motivations behind the usage of educational apps. Thus we have extended the U&G theory beyond the conventional media to locate the gratifications obtained from educational apps.

The primary focus of this study is to identify learners motives for using educational apps in India. We utilised a mixed-method approach, including qualitative and quantitative methods, to locate the user motivations. After identifying the user motivations, we developed a comprehensive research model and tested it to see which motive better predict the intention to use educational apps. Finally, we also attempted to see the moderating effect of gender in the usage of educational apps. Further, the current research also has some important theoretical and practical implications.

2. Literature review

An educational application or simply an 'educational app' is a software programme integrated with learning materials that can be downloaded and installed on mobile phones or tablets [27] . Educational apps allow students and learners to access content anywhere, anytime [ 13 , 32 , 115 ]. Smartphones and tablets with touch screen facilities have increased the popularity of educational apps among students, teachers and parents [ 53 , 85 , 93 ]. Although many studies have been conducted on educational apps, very few researchers have attempted to identify the motivations for using educational apps [86] . 'Motivations are general dispositions that influence people's actions taken to fulfil a need or a want ( [84] , p.179)'. Identifying the motivations behind using a particular media can predict the recurring usage of the media [91] . Most of the prior studies that analysed the motivations for using educational apps were conducted on developed or western countries such as Canada[ 75 , 35 ], Malta [21] , United States [51] , New Zealand [39] , Netherlands [ 16 , 17 ], and Portugal [33] .

Falloon [39] conducted a study on iPad-based educational apps to identify factors influencing students' learning pathways in New Zealand. However, their study focussed primarily on the design and content features of the apps developed for school children; they also identified that interactive design, convenience and entertainment were some of the parameters that motivated teachers to recommend apps for children. Some of the recent studies also support these findings. For example, researchers [ 4 , 20 , 76 ] recommended the usage of virtual reality and augmented reality in the design of educational apps to make them more interactive and entertaining. Papadakis et al., [85] and Dias& Brito [33] ' also located entertainment as an important motivation behind the adoption of learning apps.

Many researchers [ 21 , 22 , 35 , 75 ] stressed that academic assistance is one of the key gratifications that motivate students to adopt educational apps. For example, Camilleri & Camilleri [23] conducted a qualitative study with the help of semi-structured face to face interviews with students between 6-8 years of age in Malta. Their study results showed that although academic assistance is the primary motivation behind educational apps, students also reported that interactive and engaging educational apps had improved their academic competency. Camilleri & Camilleri [23] also recommends the gamification of educational apps as many students expressed that entertaining content also motivates them while choosing educational apps.

Dubé et al., [35] argue that well designed educational apps can facilitate an experience of multi-level engagement that can improve the competence in the subject being taught. Their study also underscored that student engagement occurs because of the novelty of the new technology, the interactivity of the apps, entertainment or gamification and convenience such as hands own aspect of the touch screens. Hirsh-Pasek et al., [51] also suggest that the popularity and acceptance of education apps largely depend on course content and their meaningful, interactive and engaging presentation.

Social influence is regarded as one of the major factors influencing the adoption of new technologies [ 8 , 46 , 50 , 118 ]. Researchers ([ 21 , 24 ]&b) have found a positive association between the usage of educational apps and social influence. Children's selection and usage of educational apps are largely decided by their parents [ 80 , 121 ]. Broekman et al., [16] conducted a study to identify factors that motivate parents while selecting their children's apps using U&G theory. The study result showed that parents expect five gratifications when they select learning apps for their children, i.e. need for entertainment, information seeking, social interaction, emotional satisfaction and passing time. Another study conducted by Broekman et al., [17] on parents of young children aged 3-7 to identify the app features that fulfil parents' need for selecting apps for their children and identified four U&Gs: clear design; tailorable, controllable, educational content; challenges and rewards; and technological innovation behind educational app selection. Their study also revealed that a child's age and gender play a key role in app selection. Similarly, Montazami [75] identified five motives behind parents' intention to download apps for their children, i.e. scaffolding, academic utility, the development team's expertise, feedback, and learning theory.

Dias & Brito [33] recently conducted a study to locate the factors that influence the selection of education apps from perceptions of students, parents and app developers. The results showed that students, parents and app developers have different perspectives on selecting apps. Students preferred education apps that afford entertainment. On the other hand, parents were inclined to apps that provide good academic assistance. Their study concluded that since children and parents have contrasting perspectives on app selection, developers struggle to please both.

The review of prior literature shows many gaps in the existing literature. First, although educational apps have emerged as an important learning alternative in most countries, very scant literature is available on the motives behind their usage. Even though educational apps are widely used in developing countries like India, it has not received much scholarly attention. However, a few recent studies [ 30 , 77 ] related to online learning at the time of the COVID- 19 indicated a sudden boom in educational apps downloads. COVID-19 pandemic has intensified the usage of educational apps, and they are slowly and steadily expanding their digital footprints even in remote areas of developing countries like India [ 74 , 77 ].

Second, the above mentioned existing literature on educational apps provides an ambiguous picture of the learners' motives for using educational apps. Although past researchers have observed entertainment, convenience, academic assistance, interactivity and engagement influence students' selection of educational apps, the main objectives behind these studies were not to locate the motivations behind students uses of educational apps. Rather these studies were focused more on app design and its content features. Two of the specific studies by Broekman et al., [16] and Broekman et al., [17] to identify the motives behind using educational apps were from the parents perspective instead of learners. Also, the results of these two studies were conflicting as they identified different sets of motivations unrelated to each other. Thus, the analysis of prior research findings demands an exclusive study on students' motivations for using educational apps from students' perspectives, particularly from developing countries that are largely affected by the COVID-19 pandemic. To address the existing research gap, we ask the following research question:

RQ1 : What are the learner's primary motives for using the educational apps?

In technology adoption research, 'intention to use' is considered an important determinant that reflects the recurring usage of a particular technology [ 113 , 114 ]. Various intrinsic and extrinsic factors influence people's intentions to use new technology. Motives for using a particular technology or the gratification obtained is considered as one of the significant predictors of users' intention to use new technology and applications [88] . Prior studies ([ 21 , 24 , 62 , 97 ]&b) suggest that motivations behind the usage of educational apps influence learners intentions to use them. For example, Camilleri & Camilleri [ [21] &b] have found a positive association between the usage intention of educational apps and social influence.

Similarly, Shroff & Keyes [97] observed that educational apps' interactivity and engagement positively influences learners intention to use them. In the light of these findings, it is plausible to assume that students motives for using educational apps can predict their intention to use them. Hence we pose our second research question:

RQ2: Which usage motive better predict the intention to use educational apps?

2.1. Gender difference in educational apps usage

Prior research ascertained that males intentions to use the internet and related technology-driven by leisure, entertainment and functional needs, whereas females use the internet and associated applications more for social interaction and communication [ 94 , 116 ]. Moreover, past studies indicate that a gender difference exists in the uses and gratification of smartphone usage. For example, studies [ 3 , 78 ] have ascertained that male and female students' time spent on smartphones is significantly different. Andone et al., [3] observed that females spent more time on mobile phones than males, with an average difference of about 8%. Similarly, Nayak [78] , in his study on students smartphone usage and addiction in India, found that females spent more time on smartphones than male students. As educational apps are a new entrant and most of them are designed to operate on smartphones with an active internet connection, we assume that the intentions to use educational apps are sensitive to gender. Hence to explore the influence of gender in the usage of educational apps, we asked the following research question:

RQ3: Do the intentions to use educational apps differ depending on the gender of its users?

To address the research questions, we have used the Uses and gratification theory as our theoretical framework.

2.2. Uses and gratification theory

Uses and gratification (U&G) theory is the widely utilised theoretical framework to explain the different motives and reasons behind the usage of any given medium [ 43 , 57 ]. U&G theory assumes that the media can satisfy people's innate needs [91] . Gratifications are conceptualised as the satisfaction people receive when their innate requirements are fulfilled by the media usage that matches their expectations. In other words, gratifications are the perceived fulfilment of one's needs through media usage [83] . The most important tenets of this theory are that users are active, selective, and motivated to use a particular media [ 57 , 87 ]. Hence U&G theory provides a user-centred angle of the various socio-psychological gratifications obtained from a given medium [64] . Although this theory originated pre-digitalisation era, scholars widely used it to examine the gratifications obtained from new communication technologies like the internet [84] and social media [117] .

To address the various challenges and conceptual refinement of U&G theory posed by scholars in the light of emerging technologies, Sundar & Limperos [108] suggested that U&G scholars consider the technology themselves while assessing audiences' media usage gratifications. Sundar & Limperos [108] reviewed prior U&G studies on various media technologies since the 1940s. They pointed out the need to tap the potential gratifications emerging from new interactive media, which gave rise to the MAIN model and U&G.2.0. The MAIN model helps to devise the potential gratifications emerging from new media in the light of four classes of affordances, i.e., modality, agency, interactivity, and navigability. Based on their MAIN model Sundar and Limperos [108] suggested that usage of new media (e.g., smartphones, smartphones' apps) paved the way for new sets of needs, called "medium-specific needs". Therefore, while examining the uses and gratifications from new media technologies besides considering "general needs", researchers should also emphasise emerging "medium-specific needs". Thus, the U&G theory is an axiomatic and robust theory that can examine the gratifications from traditional and new media.

Furthermore, scholars have used U&G theory to study the gratifications behind using new technologies such as mobile phone usage [64] , internet use [ 31 , 84 ], social media [117] and various smartphone applications: E.g. Facebook [ 5 , 100 ], Instagram [ 2 , 96 ], Tinder [105] , TikTok [73] etc. U&G theory was also used to study educational apps in two different contexts. i.e. parents motives for choosing apps for their children ( [17] & 2019) and learners motives for selecting apps for themselves [75] . Therefore, we utilised the U&G theory as our theoretical framework for exploring the intention to use educational apps.

3. Methodology

3.1. scale development.

Because of the availability of scanty literature on the topic under study, we have used a mixed-method [71] approach to develop the scale. The mixed-method uses a qualitative approach and a cross-sectional survey [ 88 , 111 ]. Initially, an open-ended essay writing (Dhir et al., 2017; [111] ) with 58 educational app users was conducted. Open-ended essays are the easiest and most parsimonious method to gather in-depth qualitative data [111] and are widely used by the child and adolescent researchers working on human-computer interaction [ 14 , 56 ]. In qualitative essays, predefined questions or themes were given to the respondents to instigate them and build up and share their ideas and experience.

The samples were selected randomly from the pool colleges in Southern India obtained from their affiliated universities' websites. Twenty colleges were selected initially, and selected colleges were contacted by email and telephone and informed of the study objectives, research procedure and expected benefits from the research. Four colleges were agreed to participate in the study. All the colleges that agreed to participate were private colleges, and the medium of instruction was English. The author, along with the help of teachers, distributed the open-ended survey questionnaire to students who agreed to participate. Students completed the essays between January 2020 to February 2020. Participation in the survey was voluntary, and students were free to withdraw from the survey anytime. The survey was confidential, and no personal information was collected.

The qualitative essays focussed on various issues related to the usage of educational apps. However, in the current study, the focus is only on the uses and gratifications of educational apps. The grounded theory approach [ 9 , 49 , 61 ] with affinity diagramming was utilised to analyse the data collected through the open-ended essays to locate and classify the themes based on their commonalities.

In affinity diagramming, researchers go through essays thoroughly to analyse and record each participant's response. The data analysis was concluded with the development of different themes representing various gratifications obtained from educational apps. The themes obtained were classified and categorised through the uses and gratification theory lens. The qualitative data analysis identified seven themes, i.e. academic assistance, social influence, convenience, entertainment, engagement, novelty and activity. Based on the suggestions of prior literature [ 92 , 111 ], the pool of items that emerged from the qualitative analysis is placed for a review before a group of experts, including professionals in app development and academicians. This expert review was to know whether changes are required in the questionnaire's wording and ensure that the survey instrument is error-free. The questionnaire is also pilot tested among a few students before final data collection. The final questionnaire after the pilot testing depicting seven gratifications was used for final data collection. A five-point Likert scale anchoring between 1(strongly disagree) to 2 (strongly agree) was used to measure the items.

3.2. Survey participants and procedure

The population identified for the study were high school and college students up to post-graduation in the age group ranging from 15-25 years from India. Data collection was done between March 2020 to February 2021. Data collection utilised an internet-based national survey using a snowball sampling method. The targeted respondents were accessed through multiple methods, e.g., hosting the survey links on various social media platforms (like- WhatsApp, Facebook, Instagram, Telegram), asking students who already completed the survey to share among their friends' networks, and requested teachers to post the survey link on online teaching platforms and ask their students to fill the questionnaire.

The resulting sample (N = 552) consisted of 53.3 % female and 46.7 % male students with an average of 18 years. The minimum age of the respondents was 15, and the maximum age was 24. Most of the participants were higher secondary students, followed by graduate students. The average time spent on educational apps in a single sitting is about 47 minutes. The majority of the students (62.6%) prefer to use mobile phones for accessing educational apps (See Table 1 )

Sample characteristics.

N = 552.

3.3. Research model

The researchers used U&G as the theoretical lens and proposed a model consisting of seven different U&Gs as the predictor variables. Prior scholarship [87] suggests that identifying U&Gs is important because these gratifications can influence actual technology use. The intention to use (adapted from [88] ) is the only criterion variable (see Fig. 1 ). Past literature utilised U&G theory to delineate the influence of various U&Gs on usage intentions [ 42 , 67 , 68 ]. Hence, we assume that the U&G theory can provide an axiomatic and closely fitting theoretical framework for identifying the relationship between the U&Gs of educational apps and their usage intentions.

The proposed research model.

Past researchers [ 88 , 108 ] have classified the gratifications of media usage into four main categories: content, process, social and technology. Guided by this, the seven U&Gs emerged from our qualitative data analysis is classified into four dimensions: process (i.e.convenience), social (i.e. social influence), content (i.e. academic assistance, entertainment) and technology (novelty, activity and engagement). The different research hypotheses were developed in the light of this classification and presented below.

3.4. Hypotheses

Academic assistance in this study refers to the academic help extended by the educational apps to learners in the form of audio or video lectures and e-course materials. Educational apps available in the market are designed to help students learn their courses easily [51] . Besides providing extensive information related to the course of study, these apps also help students complete their regular classroom assignments, prepare them for examinations by conducting mock tests, and give extra information about their course beyond their proposed syllabus. The prior literature studied academic assistance provided by the educational apps from different contexts ([ 21 , 22 ]&b; [ 35 , 75 ]). Furthermore, scholars [ 53 , 66 ] have also found a positive relationship between academic assistance and the intention to use educational apps. Therefore we hypothesise that:

H1. Academic assistance gratification is positively associated with the intention to use educational apps.

Entertainment in the present study refers to designing educational content interestingly to catch the learners' attention. Most educational apps make their content interesting by using entertaining language or with the help of eye-catching pictorial representations or with the help of good quality graphics and animation. Furthermore, such apps are integrated with features that make students play and learn [122] . This kind of gamification approach of education increases learners motivation and engagement by incorporating the game design environment with the educational environment [34] . In addition, some apps use virtual reality (VR) or augmented reality (AR) techniques to make their content more interactive and entertaining [ 4 , 20 , 76 , 82 ]. Prior research [ 33 , 39 , 85 ] shows that entertainment is an important aspect of adopting learning apps. Therefore, we propose:

H2. Entertainment gratification is positively associated with the intention to use educational apps.

Convenience in this study refers to the perceived ease of use of educational apps. Educational apps allow users to install it on their mobile phones or tablets and enable them to access it anywhere anytime [ 13 , 44 , 115 ]. Furthermore, some of the educational apps are stand-alone. It comes preloaded in a tablet which often does not require an internet connection making them more convenient and easily accessible [ 10 ]. Besides these, most educational apps allow users to navigate and filter content and make them read, listen or watch the specific content they require [58] . Also, users can bookmark content and resume or play from the point where they have stopped previous lectures or sessions. In the case of video lectures, students can play, rewind and watch the lecture as much as they want. Also, the convenience of educational apps enables students to learn from their homes even in difficult times of pandemics like Covid-19 [ 6 , 77 , 106 ]. Hence the current study proposes:

H3. Convenience gratification is positively associated with the intention to use educational apps.

Previous research [88] has identified that peers, family, friends, teachers and various media can influence product purchase and Ist usage intentions. In the context of the study undertaken here, social influence can be identified as the advisements on educational apps from many sources such as friends, peers and mass media. Prior studies have identified social influence as one of the major determinants in adopting new technologies such as mobile applications [ 8 , 46 , 50 , 118 ]. Furthermore, scholars [ 23 , 24 ] have found a positive relationship between the usage of educational apps and social influence. Therefore in the current research, we hypothesise that:

H4. Social Influence gratification is positively associated with the intention to use educational apps.

Novelty in this study refers to the technological affordances of the educational apps, like their newness and unusual user experience [108] . Novelty is a medium-specific gratification [65] that emerged due to the advancement of user interactions with newer gadgets. Sundar & Limperos [108] classified novelty under modality based gratification and suggest that newer media has given rise to new features like mobile apps. As far as educational apps are concerned, they offer interactive content to engage and comprehend learners easily. In their MAIN model, Sundar & Limperos [108] argue that new media's technological affordances can instigate cognitive heuristics in users. Past studies [ 19 , 55 , 59 ] have found that novelty gratification positively influences the intention to use mobile apps. Hence in this study, we propose that:

H5. Novelty gratification is positively associated with the intention to use educational apps.

Activity refers to the technological affordance that facilitates real-time interaction with the content and features of the app. Sundar & Limperos [108] argue that interactivity affordances triggers a heuristic and allow users to interact with and through the medium (pp.515). The interactivity affordance makes the digital applications meaningful [ 102 , 107 ]. All the educational apps have an interactive interface that allows the learners to interact with them and keeps them engaged [11] . Also, few studies on mobile apps [ 79 , 119 ] suggest that interactivity positively predict the intention to use mobile apps. Therefore, we assume that interactivity is likely to positively affect the educational apps' usage intention. Hence we state our next hypothesis :

H6. Activity gratification is positively associated with the intention to use educational apps.

In the current study, engagement refers to the users' degree of involvement with the learning process. Educational apps have many features that help learners stay on the medium and reduce the impediments that distract them. According to Hirsh-Pasek et al., [51] , the quality of the educational apps depends upon their ability to support students engagement with the learning process. Dubé et al., [35] suggested that a well-designed education app creates an environment for the students to experience multi-level engagement, leading to increased interest in learning. Prior studies [ 60 , 62 , 97 ] suggest that educational apps' engagement positively influences their intention to use. Hence we argue that:

H7. Engagement gratification is positively associated with the intention to use educational apps.

Prior studies suggest that a gender difference exists in the uses and gratification of various media. Andone et al., [3] and Nayak [78] have ascertained that male students' time spent on smartphones and female students is significantly different. They found that female students spent more time on mobile phones than male students. In another study, Zhou & Xu [120] observed that females are lesser competent in adopting new education technologies. Albelali & Alaulamie [1] conducted a study on mobile learning apps among Saudi Arabian students and found that male students had more inclination towards using M-learning apps than females. In the light of prior research, we argue that gender moderates the usage of educational apps. Thus we hypothesise:

H8 . There is a significant difference in the intention to use educational apps across male and female students.

3.5. Data analysis

The data gathered through essays were analysed with the help of the grounded theory approach [ 15 , 26 , 45 ] using NVivo 12. The survey data were analysed with SPSS 23.0 and AMOS. The research model was tested using the structural equation modelling (SEM) procedure [47] . As part of the procedure, a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was conducted to establish the proposed research model's goodness of fit and confirm its reliability and validity. After the model was statistically confirmed, then research hypotheses were tested.

4.1. Measurement model

We performed CFA using the robust Maximum Likelihood algorithm [89] . The proposed measurement model was examined using popular goodness of fit indices. The CFA confirmed that the measurement model possess a good model fit with χ 2 / df = 3.23 , Comparative fit index ( CFI ) = 0.95, Tucker-Lewis Index ( TLI ) = 0.93, and Root mean square error approximation ( RMSEA ) = 0.06 [18] . The final solution of constructs and indicators are depicted in Table 2 .

Factor loadings of measurement and structural model.

4.2. Reliability and validity

The CFA checked the reliability and validity of the measures. Convergent validity is checked by looking into the average variance extracted (AVE) for each study of the measures [47] . (Refer Table 3 ). From the table, it can be seen that all the study measures have good convergent validity and discriminant validity [ 41 , 47 ]. Besides these, the construct reliability scores (CRS) of the study measures were higher than the defined limit, i.e. 0.75 [ 28 , 29 , 81 ], confirming its construct reliability (see Table 3 ).

Mean, S.D, discriminant and convergent validity. EG = Engagement, SI = Social Influence, CN = Convenience, AC = Activity, EN = Entertainment, NV = Novelty, AA = Academic Assistance, IU = Intention to Use, S. D = Standard Deviation, AVE = Average Variance Extracted, MSV = Maximum Shared Variance.

4.3. Structural model testing

The proposed structural model returned a good fit with model fit with χ 2 / df = 3.23 , Comparative fit index ( CFI ) = 0.95, Tucker-Lewis Index ( TLI ) = 0.93, and Root mean square error approximation ( RMSEA ) = 0.06 [18] . Also, the model explained high percentages of variances [48] , i.e., 49 % of the variance in usage intentions (see Fig. 2 ). The hypotheses H1, H3, and H4 were supported (see Table 4 ) because academic assistance (p < 0.01), convenience (p < 0.05), and social influence (p < 0.001) U&Gs were found to be significant positive predictors of education app usage intentions.

Results of the structural model.

Results of hypothesis (# H) testing.

n.s = not significant.

The current study's findings are supported by past research [ 22 , 23 , 35 , 75 ] that identified academic assistance as a significant predictor of students usage of educational apps. Scholars [ 23 , 24 ] have found a positive association between the usage of educational apps and social influence. Our study corresponds to this finding by identifying social influence motive as a significant positive predictor of usage intention. Lastly, supporting prior studies [ 6 , 58 , 77 , 106 ], in the current study, convenience gratification obtained from educational apps positively predicted intention to use them.

4.4. Moderation analysis

The final hypothesis in the present research was to check the moderating effect of gender (H8). It has been assumed that the intention to use educational apps differed among male and female students significantly. In the current study, a two-group model is used to find whether gender moderates the intention to use educational apps. The result (see Table 5 ) shows that the intention to use educational apps is significantly varied among the male and female users showing a moderating effect. It is observed that academic assistance and social influence gratifications influence male students' intention to use educational apps, whereas convenience and social influence gratifications influence the female students' intention to use educations apps. This finding corroborates the findings of Zhou & Xu [120] and Albelali & Alaulamie [1] .

Gender as a moderator.

⁎⁎⁎ p < 0.001, **p < .0.01, *p < 0.05

5. Discussion

Recent studies [ 6 , 7 , 106 , 112 ] have shown that COVID -19 pandemic has disrupted the traditional classroom education system, and students were forced to adapt themselves to the online class and learn through apps. Many developing countries like India have been affected by the COVID-19 pandemic. Schools and colleges were closed for a long time to protect the students from viral infections, and alternative mechanisms such as online learning and learning through apps were put in place to cope with [77] . Educational apps play a vital role among the different measures and methods to cater to quality education during COVID-19. Due to their portability, interactivity and entertaining content, educational apps successfully struck a chord among students, parents and teachers in India (India Today, 2020 [ 54 ]). In the backdrop of this extreme situation, the first research question of the current study was intended to investigate the uses and gratifications behind the use of educational apps. The present study is the first empirical research that looks into the different U&Gs for using educational apps.

Furthermore, the study examines which gratification motive better predict the intention to use educational apps. This study used a mixed-method approach that involved open-ended essays with 58 educational apps users and an internet-based cross-sectional survey with 553 education app users in India during the COVID-19 pandemic. The current research utilised the Uses and Gratification theory as its theoretical framework to locate learners intentions and motivations for using educational apps. This research offers potential theoretical and practical implications for academicians, researchers, educational app developers and app users.

The first research question was stated to identify learners' motivations behind using educational apps. The current study identified seven motivations for using educational apps: academic assistance, convenience, entertainment, social influence, novelty, activity, and engagement. The finding is consistent with the past scholarships [ 16 , 17 , 23 , 33 , 36 , 51 ], which reported that academic utility, convenience, user interactivity, and entertaining content were the motivations behind the adoption of educational apps. Besides this, our study also confirms that parents and students have slightly different motives for choosing educational apps. For example, Broekman et al., [16] identified five gratifications for parents selecting education apps for their children: need for entertainment, information seeking, social interaction, emotional satisfaction and pass time. But, except for entertainment, no other gratifications emerged in our study. Hence our findings support the argument of Dias & Brito [32] that students and parents have contrasting perspectives on app selection.

The first hypothesis of this study examined the relationship between academic assistance and the intention to use educational apps. The current research findings suggest a positive association between academic assistance and the intention to use educational apps. The result indicates that during the COVID-19 pandemic, many students depend on educational apps for learning. This finding corroborates recent literature [ 22 , 23 , 33 , 35 , 66 , 75 ] that suggested the primary intention behind the education applications is academic assistance by bridging the gap between classroom learning and home learning [98] . In the light of this finding, we recommend students, parents, and educators increase the usage of educational apps in academics.

The second hypothesis investigated the association between entertainment gratification and intention to use educational apps. However, the findings of this study were inconsistent with past literature ([ 16 , 18 ]) by identifying no significant relationship between entertainment and the intention to use educational apps. The possible reason for disconnect can be due to the participants under study. Broekman et al., [ [16] , 18] studied parents of primary school children, and our study focussed on high school and college students. Due to their high maturity level, they may be looking for more subject-specific content than entertaining content. Furthermore, Dias & Brito [32] found that young children and parents vary in their criteria for selecting educational apps. Children preferred apps that afford fun and entertainment, whereas parents preferred the academic utility of the apps.

The third hypothesis tested the relationship between convenience and intention to use educational apps. The study result supports this hypothesis which is in line with the findings of the past studies (e.g., [ 16 , 51 ]). The perceived ease of use and accessibility of educational apps make it a convenient learning tool. Also, educational apps offer 'tailorable' and 'controllable' education content [17] that can comprehend easily. Thus, when educational institutions closed at COVID-19, these educational apps slowly and steadily created their niche in the academic arena due to their perceived ease of use and technological advances.

The fourth hypothesis examined the relationship between social influence and the usage of educational apps. The result indicated a positive association between social influence and the intention to use educational apps, which supports the findings of prior literature [ 16 , 33 , 75 , 80 ]. Social pressure often triggers adopting new technology and innovations [99] . Apart from teachers, parents and peers, mass media also significantly influence the intention to use educational apps. Some education app companies are doing extensive media campaigning in India with film stars and celebrities to endorse their learning apps ( [37] , June 11).

Hypothesis H5, H6 and H7 examined the relationship between technological gratifications, i.e. novelty, activity and engagement and the intention to use educational apps. The result indicated an insignificant relationship. In U&G 2.0, Sundar & Limperos [108] suggest that technological affordances such as smartphones and tablets have created new gratifications that have paved the way for novel, interactive and engaging media experiences. However, this study result indicates that novelty, interactivity and engagement are not positive predictors of adopting educational apps. This could probably be because users find it difficult to adapt to this new learning method [30] . In addition, the COVID-19 outbreak forced many students who are not regular educational apps users to migrate to app-based education [63] . Also, the small screen size of the tablets and mobile phones could be another potential reason for the insignificance of technological gratifications. Larger screens have offered more attention and more content absorption than small screens like smartphones and tablets [ 69 , 72 ].

Finally, the current study revealed that gender moderates the relationship between U&Gs and the intention to use educational apps. The results showed that male students intention to use educational apps was more influenced by academic assistance and social influence gratifications. One of the main reasons behind these findings is the gender difference in the usage patterns of mobile phones and tablets. In Indian society, male students get more privileges and access to smartphones much earlier than girls [78] .

6. Contributions, limitations and concluding remarks

6.1. theoretical contributions.

The current research findings have many theoretical contributions. First, the study extended the Uses and gratification theory beyond the conventional media to capture the motivations for using educational apps. The U&G is the most popular and widely used theory to study media usage behaviour and antecedents. However, we have given a new perspective to this theory by utilising it to test the educational app usage intention. We have also statistically tested and validated a model using new measures of education app usage. The developed gratification measures can help the academic community conduct further in-depth research on educational apps.

Second, the study identified three technological gratifications for using educational apps: novelty, activity, and engagement. Thus, this study has validated Sundar & Limperos [108] argument that new technologies have given rise to newer affordances and, in turn, has created new gratifications. However, the study result showed that the new gratifications were not significant predictors of the intention to use educational apps.

Third, we have used the mixed-method approach and proved a sophisticated research method to tap the U&Gs of new and emerging media [110] . Further, this research reaffirms the potential of the mixed-method approach and grounded theory [ 26 , 45 ] in analysing new technologies. The mixed-method approach is the easiest and most parsimonious research method to study new media behaviours of vastly diverse populations.

Fourth, this study identified the moderating effect of gender in the usage intention of educational apps. Thus the current study corroborates past U&Gs research [ 1 , 120 ] that females are lesser competent in adopting new education technologies. Albelali & Alaulamie [1] on internet-related technologies have identified the moderating role of gender. Also, this research upheld the popular argument [78] that in Indian society, boys get more privilege than girls in terms of technological affordances and accessibility.

Lastly, the study is conducted in a developing country, i.e. India, where limited research was conducted using U&G theoretical framework. Ruggeiro (2000) argued that outside the United States, particularly in non-western countries, the U&G theory has limited acceptability. Nevertheless, our study negates this argument by extending U&G theory to study a new media, empirically testing and validating a model using new measures in a developing country outside the United States. Also, India is undergoing a massive transformation in digitalisation initiatives [110] , and the sudden outbreak of the COVID-19 has created an increased demand for online education and educational apps. Hence the educational apps industry is expected to grow fast in the coming years. We hope that the current research results will contribute to the growing body of education app-related research and set the stage for further development in the U&G theory.

6.2. Practical implications

The current study has many practical implications as well. Firstly this study identified one of the key motivations behind using educational apps as academic assistance. Hence, we recommend that teachers and parents encourage students to use educational apps as the world is struggling under the clutches of the COVID-19 pandemic, and the education system is disrupted. Educational apps are an ideal alternative learning system that can compensate for the traditional classroom learning system at the time of the pandemic, particularly in developing countries like India.

Secondly, we found that convenience is one of the U&G that predicted the students' intention to use educational apps. Hence, we recommend that the education app designers and content creators develop convenient and easier solutions for students to comprehend easily. Also, since app-based education is a more feasible alternative to mitigate the impasse created by COVID-19, complex disciplines like science and engineering can be taught using more interactive education apps. Students can read/watch/listen to the lectures and course materials anywhere anytime. If feedback and doubt clearing mechanisms are embedded in the educational apps, that can make distance learning more convenient.

Lastly, social influence gratification has emerged as the most significant predictor of the intention to use educational apps. That means the social pressure can create an ideal environment for the adoption of educational apps among students. Hence, the parents, teachers, and peers can influence the students to adopt and migrate to app-based learning. In India, to cope with the COVID-19 pandemic govt of India came with various free educational apps and portals to help the students learn from home. However, many students are unaware, and many have inhibition towards this new learning technology. Hence, based on our study, we suggest that teachers, parents, and peers can influence laggards [90] to use educational apps effectively.

6.3. Limitations and future research

Despite the number of contributions of this research, limitations also exist. First, although the current study has identified a comprehensive number of educational apps usage intentions, it may not be exhaustive. We recommend that future researchers expand the current study to tap more nuanced gratifications of educational apps. Second, data collection utilised a snowball sampling method hence. Although this can be justified against the backdrop of COVID-19, the sample has the inherent limitations of non-random sampling. Thus, based on our findings, we do not claim that generalisations can be made about the whole population. Third, this study is mainly based on education app users in India. Hence, caution must be taken while extending the findings to different cultures in different countries. We expect future researchers to conduct a similar study with a random sampling method in other cultures. Fourth, the current research only conducted a comparative analysis and investigated the relationship of a few antecedents of the intention to use. Hence future researchers can utilise a longitudinal approach to analyse the other constructs that influence the intention to use educational apps. Lastly, the present study examined the moderation effect of only one variable, i.e. gender. Many other demographical, technological, and social factors can moderate the intention to use educational apps. Hence, we recommend that future scholars consider a study from those angles.

Declaration of Competing Interest

The author declares that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have influenced the work reported in this paper.

COMMENTS

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2.1 Antecedents of uses and gratifications theory and usage intention. The UGT refers to the study of the gratifications or benefits that attract and hold users to different media and various contents that fulfill the user's psychological and social needs (Dunne et al., 2010). The primary objective of UGT is to clarify the causes why people ...
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Get Access. 1. It is such a body of shared elements that Katz, Blumler, and Gurevitch (1974) sought to identify in their definition of the uses and gratifications paradigm. Workers in this tradition, they said, "are concerned with (1) the social and psychological origins of (2) needs, which generate (3) expectations of (4) the mass media or ...
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Uses and gratifications theory relies on two principles about media users. First, it characterizes media users as active in their selection of the media they consume. From this perspective, people don't use media passively. They are engaged and motivated in their media selections. Second, people are aware of their reasons for selecting ...
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Through the theoretical frameworks of the media system dependency model and uses and gratifications theory, this study examined the uses of social media by Syrian refugees in Jordan and Turkey. A mixed-methods approach was used to increase the credibility and validity of the study's findings by combining a qualitative method with quantitative data. The findings show that there were some ...
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Drawing from the uses and gratification theory (U&G theory), this study examines the gratifications in photo sharing on Instagram. Participants were 639 respondents from India aged between 15 to 62 years. This study identified seven gratifications: disclosure, peer influence, trend influence, self-promotion, diversion, habitual pastime, and ...
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The purpose of this paper is to adopt the uses and gratifications theory to tourism. Books and journals Case studies Expert Briefings Open Access. Publish with us ... a case study ", in Blumler, J.G. and Katz, E. (Eds), The Uses of Mass Communication: Current Perspectives on Gratifications Research, Sage, Beverly Hills, CA, pp. 35-48.
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Uses and gratifications theory is a communication theory that describes the reasons and means by which people seek out media to meet specific needs. The theory postulates that media is a highly available product, that audiences are the consumers of the product, and that audiences choose media to satisfy given needs as well as social and psychological uses, such as knowledge, relaxation, social ...
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This study explores the uses and gratifications theory through conventional media and new media on exposure to the COVID-19 pandemic information. The results show that the variable testing indicator is in the middle satisfaction for testing the three motives for seeking information, social interacting, and education both conventional and new media.
PRR Eﬀectsofusesandgratiﬁcations onsocialmediause
To ﬁll these research gaps, this study borrows theUGTfrom theﬁeld of media research and integrates the theory of habit and subjective norm into the Facebook context, attempting to examine how the usage intention is measured by UGT with multiple mediating effects. This study, however, advances previous studies and appeals to the
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Using the uses and gratifications theory, the case is studied through semi-structured interviews with men and women between the ages of 19 and 33. The results show that the interviewed individuals were able to satisfy all categories of uses and gratifications, using the application as both an entertainment and an information-seeking tool.
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2.2. Uses and gratification theory. Uses and gratification (U&G) theory is the widely utilised theoretical framework to explain the different motives and reasons behind the usage of any given medium [43,57]. U&G theory assumes that the media can satisfy people's innate needs . Gratifications are conceptualised as the satisfaction people receive ...

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Uses and gratifications of educational apps: A study during COVID-19 pandemic

1. Introduction

2. Literature review

2.1. Gender difference in educational apps usage

2.2. Uses and gratification theory

3. Methodology

3.2. Survey participants and procedure

3.3. Research model

3.4. Hypotheses

3.5. Data analysis

4.1. Measurement model

4.2. Reliability and validity

4.3. Structural model testing

4.4. Moderation analysis

5. Discussion

6. Contributions, limitations and concluding remarks

6.2. Practical implications

6.3. Limitations and future research

Declaration of Competing Interest