social theory dissertation

Social Theory Research Paper Topics

Social theory begins with ordinary questions, like why do some passively accept authority while others respond with political violence? Religions provided answers in a distant past. Social theory emerged as a secular alternative, often joining ethical and positive elements. Three traditions of social theory are important for the social sciences.

115 Social Theory Research Paper Topics

• Actor Network Theory
• Affect Control Theory and Impression Formation
• Annales School
• Attribution Theory
• Behaviorism
• Biosociological Theories
• Birmingham School
• Cognitive Balance Theory (Heider)
• Cognitive Dissonance Theory (Festinger)
• Comparative-Historical Sociology
• Computational Sociology
• Conflict Theory
• Constructionism
• Control Balance Theory
• Conversation Analysis
• Critical Realism
• Critical Theory/Frankfurt School
• Decision-Making Theory and Research
• Demographic Transition Theory
• Dependency Theory
• Deterrence Theory
• Dialectical Materialism
• Diffusion Theories
• Economic Determinism
• Elementary Theory
• Emergent Norm Theory
• Essentialism and Constructionism
• Ethnomethodology
• Exchange Network Theory
• Existential Sociology
• Expectation States Theory
• Field Theory
• French School of Sociology
• Functionalism and Structuralism
• Game Theory
• Game Theory and Strategic Interaction
• German Sociology
• Grounded Theory
• Hermeneutics
• Human Sociobiology
• Identity Control Theory
• Identity Theory
• Information and Resource Processing Paradigm
• Labeling Theory
• Labor Process
• Major Personality Theories
• Management Theory
• Marxism and Sociology
• Mate Selection Theories
• Mathematical Sociology
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• Micro–Macro Links
• Modernization Theory
• New Institutional Theory
• Organization Theory
• Organizations and the Theory of the Firm
• Personality Theory
• Phenomenology
• Poetics in Social Science
• Political Process Theory
• Posthumanism
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• Postmodernism
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• Power Dependence Theory
• Practical Knowledge
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• Queer Theory
• Rational Choice Theory
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• Scripting Theories
• Self-Control Theory
• Situationists
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• Social Darwinism
• Social Disorganization Theory
• Social Exchange Theory
• Social Identity Theory
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• Society and Biology
• Society and Technological Risks
• Sociocultural Anthropology
• Sociolinguistics
• Status Construction Theory
• Strain Theories
• Stratification: Functional and Conflict Theories
• Stress and Stress Theories
• Structural Functional Theory
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• Symbolic Interaction Theory
• System Theories
• Theoretical Research Programs
• Theories of Aging and the Life Course
• Theories of Deviance
• Theories of Power
• Theories of Self Esteem
• Theories of Social Justice
• Theories of Stratification and Inequality
• Theory and Methods
• Theory Construction
• Value Theory and Research

A first tradition comes from Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679). After years of bloody warfare between Catholics and Protestants, Hobbes’s Leviathan (1651) offered a worldly theory of social order. What was really at issue was power. As an early example of what would be termed ideology critique, Hobbes asks “cui bono?”—whose interest does this idea serve? People obey, he argued, because of fear of violent death. Social order thus turns on who has ultimate power over violence. If there is not one final authority, there would be war of all against all, and life would be “solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short.” Better, he argued, is a society founded on fear of a great leviathan, whose power guarantees stability.

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Leviathan relied on no Absolute Good, whether God or Nature. In tracing all “higher” ideas to “lower” things—power, fear, death, the body, violence—Hobbes set the tone for one main strand of social theorizing. This approach continued in writers from Karl Marx (18181883) to Michel Foucault (1926-1984) and Pierre Bourdieu (1930-2002). While each differs, they are Hobbesian in asking “cui bono?”—and answering with a complex power struggle, even if it is denied, for example, in art, religion, and morality. This first type of social theory ferrets out hidden power structures behind everyday interactions and institutions.

Hobbes’s stress on fear led others to ask: Does not social order depend on more? What of obligation or love? How could the passions of a millennium and a half of Christianity be redirected onto earth, without producing the disastrous consequences Hobbes feared?

Such questions led to a second strand of social theory, stemming from Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778). He emphasized not fear but devotion as the foundation of social order. In our long-forgotten natural condition, Rousseau argued, we were independent, loving ourselves for ourselves; but society creates new needs, amour prope We love ourselves based upon how much others love us. Not power, but the struggle for recognition and status regulates social order.

For Rousseau, justice can transcend nature and inequality. Justice depends in turn on the social contract, wherein each person must totally submit to the general will. Private freedom, he argued, depended on public equality, which required a “lawgiver.” Moreover, the social bond, to last, should be held sacred.

Karl Marx (1818-1883) and V. I. Lenin (18701924) transformed the lawgiver into the revolutionary vanguard; the redefined social contract was the abolition of private property, as the condition of freedom and justice. Emile Durkheim (1858-1917) later pursued Rousseau’s connections between social solidarity and religious sentiment.

Critical theorists—Theodore Adorno (1903-1969), Max Horkheimer (1895-1973), Herbert Marcuse (1898-1979), Axel Honneth—explored how modern societies create vast inequalities, not only in wealth, but respect and self-worth. They expanded Rousseau’s ideas that culture can create unnecessary dependencies, focusing on the “culture industry”—the popular press, music, movies, advertising, and fashions. These sought to promote “needs” like Marx’s false consciousness, where people became blinded to their own interests and dependent upon corporate and political masters. Some, like David Riesman (1909-2002), extended Rousseau’s amour propre to the 1950s conformism of American “other-directed-ness,” while others, like Daniel Bell, analyzed how politicians and corporations could shift the erotic into a political ideology. Thus social theory identified key foundations of power, even if exercised in subtle arenas.

These first two traditions invoke a strong state to right social wrongs, as theoretically defined. The third tradition is more cautious. Alexis de Tocqueville (1805-1859) was equally concerned with the roots of order and governance, but took a different course. Writing after the French Revolution (1789-1799), Tocqueville the aristocrat pondered the implications of equality. Societies emphasizing equality—like postrevolutionary America and France—were hostile toward exceptional talent and excellence; they could level out uniqueness and difference, generating a middling mediocrity. Moreover, equality threatened social identity and meaning: In a hierarchical society, one knew one’s place and did not have to anxiously make one’s place. In equalized societies, all is in doubt: Foreign observers regularly noted that Americans suffered a permanent “identity crisis,” which was spreading globally at the beginning of the twenty-first century.

Traveling across America, Tocqueville commented on the deleterious effects of equality, and potential remedies. Loosed from primordial hierarchies, Americans, he argued, developed a passion for voluntary associations. The town hall and the local church were key examples, sustained by their members’ voluntary efforts more than the weight of tradition or the power of elites (or a leviathan or lawgiver). What mattered was commitment by each participant, and Americans were joiners. The strongest social structures, Tocqueville argued, emerged not just through struggles for power or regard of others, but by citizens voluntarily developing shared commitments in local associations, which trained future leaders.

Tocqueville’s voluntaristic, bottom-up approach informs a third strand of social theorizing. Max Weber (1864-1920) stressed voluntarism in probing the religious roots of capitalism. Capitalists did not just strive to make money. Rather, Weber argued, Puritan sects encouraged their members to seek salvation in voluntary, committed “good works”—against the old nobility that valued leisure over work. Capitalism was the unintended consequence. Though Weber felt we inherited an “iron cage” of capitalist society that we did not choose, his response was volun-taristic: If you are a scholar, do it as a “vocation,” not as a heartless specialist; if you are a politician, lead, do not act as a technocratic bureaucrat. Voluntary commitment was key. In egalitarian America, every social interaction among equal citizens became a source of identity, obligation, and meaning, following G. H. Mead (1863-1931), C. H. Cooley (1864-1929), and Herbert Blumer (1900-1987). Talcott Parsons (1902-1979) extended voluntarism to critique past social theories, but like Weber joined basic values with individual choices. Edward Shils (1911-1995) and Daniel Elazar (1934-1999) continued Tocqueville’s concern for hierarchy, honor, and glory, noting that even within an egalitarian society, they remain social powers. Still others, such as Robert Putnam, suggest that the individualistic strain in voluntarism has gone so far in contemporary American life that the commonwealth Tocqueville saw had weakened, as more Americans “bowl alone.” Some postmodernists are so individualistic and egalitarian that they deny the possibility of meaning beyond the minds of separate individuals.

These three traditions have been revised and combined in efforts to interpret deep social changes. Consider the rise of industry, the division of labor, and bureaucratic organization in the theories of Marx, Durkheim, and Weber.

Marx, working in London, wrote of the English countryside transformed by industrial manufacturing; he saw people from all races and religions living near factories. These proletarians were a nascent class, opposed to capitalist/owners of the forces of production. In his theory, conflicts between such classes drove history.

Durkheim saw similar changes, but focused on the division of labor. Traditional societies, he argued, held together from pressures toward homogeneity. Modern societies are more like organisms. Social cohesion arises from interdependence; individuals perform specialized functions and develop a heightened sense of uniqueness. But without some firm social regulation, normlessness or “anomie” can undermine differentiated societies. Talcott Parsons and Niklas Luhmann (1927-1998) extended Durkheim’s social differentiation into multiple, interconnected subsystems that fill different social functions, while others, such as Robert Merton (1910-2003), developed the idea of anomie and deviance as central to modern life.

Max Weber, writing in Germany, stressed the hierarchical rationality of government bureaucratic officials. Bureaucracies are ancient, but Weber stressed how modern organizations grew ever larger, more rational, and more hierarchical. Not only was the bureaucrat’s personality stunted by his duties, everyone risked bureaucratization— since it was balanced increasingly less by the charisma of religion or respect for tradition. Seeking a “value-neutral” perspective, Weber posited that modern society is increasingly subject to “rational authority,” as opposed to “traditional” or “charismatic authority.” But the theory also had a quasi-moral intent, namely, to provide modern models for styles of action—rooted in the bonds of tradition or the electricity of charisma—which Weber saw threatened by the cold, abstract rationalism of bureaucracy.

Rationality was a political weapon that Enlightenment philosophers used to attack the “irrationality” of the ancient regime before the French Revolution of 1789. The secular theories of Hobbes and Rousseau helped refocus thinking on specific secular arrangements, rather than divinities or kings. But the legacy of this rational approach proved so powerful that Weber feared its excess. Analysis and criticism of rationalism in modern society have been among the most doggedly pursued strands of twentieth-century social thought, especially by Jurgen Habermas and other critical theorists and postmodernists.

Since Marx, Durkheim, and Weber, social theories have continued to stretch the imagination, seeking to capture the times and perhaps guide them. New topics emerge with new social forces: the massive rise of cities and new urban lifestyles; mass media, electronic media, and mass education; increased global interconnection; general increase in leisure time across societies; and a resurgence in the global power of religions are but a few of the subjects whose causes and meanings social theorists continue to pursue.

References:

• Lemert, Charles, ed. and commentator. 2004. Social Theory: The Multicultural and Classic Readings. 3rd ed. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
• Parsons, Talcott, Edward Shils, Kaspar D. Naegele, and Jesse R. Pitts. 1965. Theories of Society. 2 vols. London: Collier-Macmillan.

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• Published: 06 January 2022

Theories explaining the relationship between neighbourhood stressors and depressive symptoms

• Seungjong Cho   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-1512-6066 1  

Humanities and Social Sciences Communications volume  9 , Article number:  10 ( 2022 ) Cite this article

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This study synthesizes the current theoretical knowledge to explain the relationship between neighbourhood stressors and depressive symptoms. The two most relevant sociological theories, social disorganization theory and stress process theory, are identified. The current study carefully reviewed the two theories regarding their historical development and key conceptual aspects, beginning with the theoretical evolution of research on neighbourhood stressors and mental health. This study also provides detailed critiques on each theory and suggests how researchers can apply both theories to their empirical testing. For example, social disorganization theory points out the application of both objective and subjective aspects of neighbourhood stressors. Also, the stress process theory emphasizes the mediating or moderating role of psychosocial resources. In conclusion, this study suggests a conceptual model of neighbourhood stressors, psychosocial resources, and depressive symptoms.

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Theoretical evolution of research on neighbourhood stressors and mental health

From the beginnings of modern sociological research, living in disadvantaged neighbourhoods has been thought to escalate the possibility of mental health problems (Durkheim, 1897 / 1951 ; Faris and Dunham, 1939 ; Simmel, 1903 / 1950 ; Wirth, 1938 ). Durkheim ( 1897 / 1951 ) theorized that suicide rates should be explained by social facts—the extent to which the moral forces of communal life structure us. Durkheim’s research on suicide initiated exploring associations between individual mental health and social environments, including neighbourhoods. This theoretical exploration of neighbourhood effects has coincided with urbanization (Park, 1915 ; Burgess, 1925 ; Wirth, 1938 ). Both Simmel ( 1903 / 1950 ) and Wirth ( 1938 ) pointed out that urban neighbourhoods could be more detrimental to mental health than rural neighbourhoods due to bigger geographic size, higher population density, and heterogeneity of residents. In that sense, the current study synthesized the theoretical evolution of research on neighbourhood effects on mental health in urban settings.

As one of the early studies in this theoretical tradition, Faris and Dunham ( 1939 ) demonstrated that neighbourhoods with higher social disorganization have disproportionately higher rates of hospitalization for mental disorders than other areas. In particular, Faris and Dunham ( 1939 ) showed that schizophrenic patients tended to be socially isolated in urban Chicago neighbourhoods characterized by concentrated poverty, high proportions of foreign-born residents, and rapid population turnover. They also reported that few residents knew each other or built lasting social ties to these neighbourhoods. Thus, they concluded schizophrenia was affected by excessive social isolation due to the social disorganization of the neighbourhoods. This seminal research has stimulated a stream of multidisciplinary studies, specifically focusing on the implications of community-level poverty and other disadvantages of local physical and social environments (Elliott et al., 1996 ). Following these seminal studies’ tradition, social disorganization theory has been applied to explain neighbourhood effects on mental health outcomes (Shaw and McKay, 1942 ).

Social disorganization theory

Historical development of social disorganization theory.

Social disorganization is conceptualized as “the inability of a community structure to realize the common values of its residents and maintain effective social controls” (Sampson and Groves, 1989 , p. 777). This conceptualization implies a process whereby neighbourhood characteristics make the realization of “common values” and the maintenance of “social controls”. In this way, the social disorganization of a neighbourhood could be used as an underlying process to explain the influences of disadvantageous neighbourhood characteristics on mental health, including neighbourhood poverty and residential instability. For example, a neighbourhood with high poverty rates might not motivate its residents to establish appropriate social norms.

In addition to Durkheim ( 1897 / 1951 ), Faris and Dunham ( 1939 ) were among the first to associate social disorganization with mental health outcomes at the neighbourhood level, suggesting that socially disorganized areas increase social isolation, as social support was harder to develop and maintain. Almost in the same period, focusing on delinquency, Shaw and McKay ( 1942 ) developed the concept of social disorganization. They provided the first general theoretical framework for understanding how neighbourhoods influenced a broad range of outcomes, including mental health. More specifically, they argued that three neighbourhood characteristics—“economic status,” “population composition” (racial/ethnic composition) and “physical status” (population increase or decrease)—could be associated with the social disorganization of neighbourhoods which, in turn, were related to individual outcomes (Shaw and McKay, 1942 , p. 136).

Shaw and McKay’s research followed the human ecological perspective on neighbourhood processes (Park, 1915 ; Burgess, 1925 ). The human ecological perspective had seen urban neighbourhoods as the products of natural processes of selection and competition. Shaw and McKay ( 1942 ) observed higher rates of negative outcomes (e.g., crime) persisted in the same neighbourhoods, regardless of the movement of different populations through them (Sampson, 2003 ). From these findings, the early twentieth century sociologists began to theorize that neighbourhoods produced enduring adverse effects on various outcomes (Sampson, 2012 ).

Social disorganization theory did not go unchallenged, however. The initial formulation of this theory experienced some problems of conceptualization and operationalization. A fundamental problem was with the definition of social disorganization since Shaw and McKay ( 1942 ) did not explicitly distinguish the anticipated results of social disorganization (i.e., increased rates of delinquents) with social disorganization itself (Bursik, 1988 ). For example, the neighbourhood crime rate could be both an example of social disorganization and an outcome caused by social disorganization. Later, this issue was successfully addressed when researchers attempted to provide a clear conceptual and operational definition of social disorganization (Kornhauser, 1978 ; Sampson and Groves, 1989 ). Since then, social disorganization theory has frequently been applied to explain the harmful effects of neighbourhood characteristics on individual outcomes, including mental health.

Social disorganization theory is about between-neighbourhood differences in the breakdown of the structure of social values and relations (Kornhauser, 1978 ). These neighbourhood characteristics can be expressed as objective and subjective indicators. Following the tradition of previous studies, this study labels the objective indicators as disadvantageous neighbourhood conditions and the subjective indicators as perceived neighbourhood disorders. Social disorganization theory explains how disadvantageous characteristics of neighbourhoods make a stressful environment by obstructing the development of formal (e.g., organizational participation) and informal (e.g., friendship network) ties that are necessary to solve common problems (Sampson and Groves, 1989 ; Sampson et al., 1997 ).

For example, neighbourhood-level economic status is a powerful determinant of organizational participation. Neighbourhoods with low economic status have a weaker organizational base than areas with higher economic status (Kornhauser, 1978 ). Also, the heterogeneity of the racial/ethnic composition of neighbourhoods may undermine communication between neighbours, limiting their ability to solve commonly experienced problems (Elliott et al., 1996 ; Halpern, 1993 ; Kubrin, 2009 ). Conversely, sometimes the homogeneity of racial/ethnic composition of neighbourhoods may not benefit social organization, especially in a racially segregated urban downtown area (Wilson, 1987 ). Residential instability may have harmful effects on the development of adequate friendship and kinship networks as well as local associational ties since social relationships and shared understandings must then be reconstructed (Manturuk, 2012 ). Residents in socially disorganized neighbourhoods may also perceive these conditions as stressful environments (Matheson et al., 2006 ; Ross et al., 2000 ). Consequently, this study suggests that researchers can apply the social disorganization theory to incorporate objective and subjective neighbourhood stressors as key predictors.

Social disorganization theory and depressive symptoms

This study suggests that higher disadvantageous neighbourhood conditions will be associated with higher depressive symptoms from the review of social disorganization theory. Many existing studies showed compelling evidence that disadvantageous neighbourhood conditions were positively associated with depressive symptoms (e.g., Latkin and Curry, 2003 ; Ross, 2000 ). Although the relationship between social disorganization and depressive symptomatology could be bidirectional or even a vicious cycle, this study recommends that researchers set disadvantageous neighbourhood conditions and perceived neighbourhood disorder as key predictors reflecting the neighbourhoods’ social disorganization.

Critique of social disorganization theory

Social disorganization theory has several strengths regarding the characteristics of a good theory defined by Jaccard and Jacoby ( 2020 ). Two major strengths of social disorganization theory are its utility and logical consistency in identifying neighbourhoods’ structural characteristics that generate stressful environments. Disadvantaged areas are projected to have high depressive symptoms, especially for more socioeconomically vulnerable populations with limited mobility. Thus, social disorganization theory explains why depressive symptoms may not be randomly distributed across neighbourhoods. Also, the empirical testability of social disorganization theory is relatively high, given that its key components, such as both objective and subjective indicators, are now amenable for empirical testing. Sampson and Groves ( 1989 ) pointed out that no previous researchers had directly tested this theory because the empirical test required extensive data measuring key neighbourhood-level structural factors within the theory. However, recent efforts have made accessible and appropriate datasets to test this theory, such as data from the Project on Human Development in Chicago Neighbourhoods (Sampson, 2012 ).

Further, an additional strength of social disorganization theory is its applicability to urban neighbourhoods, in that its theoretical development has been under the tradition of urban studies, as explained above. As urban neighbourhoods continue to grow, social disorganization theory may evolve to better reflect the urban neighbourhoods (Fitzpatrick and LaGory, 2011 ). Urban settings are especially suited for studying social disorganization theory due to their unique characteristic of more sociodemographically concentrated environments than other geographic locations.

Nevertheless, social disorganization theory tends to focus narrowly on the negative aspects of disadvantaged neighbourhoods. This theory overlooks the positive elements of underprivileged areas, such as attachment to community and social support (Jacobs, 1961 ). Low-income residents in disadvantaged inner-city neighbourhoods support each other by “highly organized, cohesive networks of family and friends” (Jackson et al., 2009 , p. 967). Stack ( 1974 ) concluded that residents “have evolved patterns of co-residence, kinship-based exchange networks,” maintaining “strong loyalties to their kin” (p. 124). Therefore, social disorganization theory underestimates the positive effects of community-level support on residents’ mental health in disadvantaged neighbourhoods.

Furthermore, social disorganization theory does not adequately address how these disadvantageous neighbourhood conditions affect individual mental health. Social disorganization theory does not elaborate on the mechanisms by which disadvantaged structures are realized in individual lives (Thoits, 2010 ). Although social disorganization theory emphasizes the roles of formal and informal social ties and social control, the theoretical explanation for these factors’ effects on depressive symptoms has been overlooked. Thus far, social disorganization theory does not provide a sophisticated process of how stressful neighbourhood environments affect depressive symptoms.

Stress process theory

Historical development of stress process theory.

Faris and Dunham’s ( 1939 ) research has also inspired many successive researchers (e.g., Dohrenwend and Dohrenwend, 1969 ; Hollingshead and Redlich, 1958 ; Kawachi and Berkman, 2003 ; Silver et al., 2002 ). This research has grown into what today is a dominant theory in the social determinants of mental health: stress process theory. Pearlin and colleagues first used the concept of the stress process (Pearlin et al., 1981 ). They originally formulated the stress process theory with life events (e.g., disruptive job events) as exemplary stress sources. Later, stress researchers introduced other sources of stress, such as (a) chronic strains (more enduring or repeated life problems), (b) non-events (desired or anticipated but not occurring events), (c) traumas (stressors of overwhelming severity), and (d) daily hassles (Avison and Turner, 1988 ; Pearlin, 1989 ; Turner and Lloyd, 1995 ; Wheaton, 1994 ). In that sense, neighbourhood stressors have been viewed as chronic strains on residents. They affect inhabitants’ daily lives in a chronic and recurring fashion; however, they are more fundamental stress sources than daily hassles (Pearlin, 1989 ; Thoits, 2010 ).

At an early stage, the stress process theory application focused on individual-level stressors (Aneshensel, 2010 ; Thoits, 2010 ). However, Pearlin ( 1989 ) recognized the importance of social contexts and labelled them as ambient strains that “are not attributable to a specific role but, rather, are diffuse in nature and have a variety of sources” (Avison and Comeau, 2013 , p. 545). Pearlin ( 1989 ) began to be interested in neighbourhoods as distinctive social contexts that could give rise to their own distinctive stressors, such as uncertainty about personal safety and detrimental conditions of neighbourhood surroundings (Pearlin, 1999 ; Pearlin and Skaff, 1995 ). These neighbourhood-level chronic stressors can be exacerbated when residents, especially those from low-income households, see themselves inescapably bound to disadvantageous neighbourhood conditions (Pearlin, 1999 ). Wheaton and Clarke ( 2003 ) also applied stress process theory to neighbourhood-level social inequality, conceptualizing this inequality as one of the multiple layers of social hierarchy. Since then, stress process theory has “commonly been utilized as a way to theorize linkages between place and people—thereby situating micro-level experiences of an individual within the meso-level social context of neighbourhoods” (Carpiano, 2014 , p. 109).

Stress process theory and depressive symptoms

Stress process theory can describe the mediating mechanisms through which neighbourhood stressors affect depressive symptoms or the mechanisms that moderate the effects of neighbourhood stressors on depressive symptoms (Aneshensel, 2010 ; Thoits, 2010 ; Turney et al., 2012 ). As mentioned earlier, disadvantageous neighbourhood conditions can be viewed as chronic stressors (Pearlin, 1989 ). Neighbourhood stressors may be primary stressors in a sequence of stress proliferation, the process through which a primary stressor has negative consequences for mental health (Pearlin et al., 1997 ). Primary stressors can be either objective or subjective (Pearlin et al., 1990 ). Therefore, both disadvantageous neighbourhood conditions and perceived neighbourhood disorder can be conceptualized as primary stressors, one of which is objective, and the other is subjective.

Furthermore, stress process theory focuses on the roles of psychosocial resources that alter (i.e., moderate) or explain (i.e., mediate) the effects of stress exposure on depressive symptoms (Pearlin et al., 1981 ). Such resources play a crucial role in clarifying why individuals exposed to the same stressors may experience different outcomes. Pearlin ( 1999 ) provided some examples of these mediating or moderating resources: (a) individual coping behaviours, (b) social support, and (c) perceived mastery over life. The mechanisms of the stress process occur within the social dimension of a neighbourhood where disadvantageous neighbourhood conditions create differential exposure to stress for its residents (Aneshensel, 2010 ). Psychosocial resources can either mediate or moderate the relationship between primary stressors and mental health outcomes.

Critique of stress process theory

Many stressful experiences “can be traced back to surrounding social structures and people’s locations within them” (Pearlin, 1989 , p. 242). The stress process theory’s major strength is that it bridges the gap between neighbourhood-level structures and individual-level experiences. It explains how structured risk factors, as stressful experiences, become actualized in the lives of individuals. Conjointly, stress process theory has uniquely focused on the mediating or moderating roles of psychosocial resources from its development (Pearlin, 1999 ). Another key strength of the stress process theory is its utility in explaining the sociological origins of mental health disparities (Aneshensel, 2009 ). This theory explains why exposure to stressors, access to psychosocial resources, and outcomes may differ among diverse populations. Also, the stress process theory has high testability. For empirical researchers, it is not hard to test this theory, given that it illustrates key components (primary stressors, psychosocial resources, mental health outcomes) and shows the possible pathways between them quite logically.

However, as already discussed, earlier stress process theorists and researchers in the 1980s did not pay much attention to the influences of neighbourhood stressors on the social distribution of mental health outcomes (Cutrona et al., 2006 ; Thoits, 2010 ). This lack of attention is unexpected given that the origins of stress process theory lie in Faris and Dunham’s ( 1939 ) study linking social disorganization with mental health at the neighbourhood level (Silver et al., 2002 ). Instead, these early researchers measured individual characteristics as a proxy for the characteristics of the neighbourhood where they lived (Dohrenwend, 1990 , 2000 ). Even though individual-level and neighbourhood-level characteristics can be correlated, a resident’s neighbourhood’s social conditions cannot be entirely decided by their individual characteristics (Aneshensel, 2010 ; South and Crowder, 1997 ). Moreover, previous studies consistently reported that—even when controlling for individual-level disadvantages—individuals who lived in disadvantaged neighbourhoods were “significantly more likely to experience negative outcomes” (Silver et al., 2002 , p. 1458; see also Dohrenwend et al., 1992 ; Ross, 2000 ; Turner et al., 1995 ; Wheaton, 1978 ). Therefore, this lack of consideration of neighbourhood factors was a weak point in the early formulation of the stress process theory. Later, however, Pearlin ( 1999 ) and Aneshensel ( 2010 ) paid more attention to neighbourhood effects and incorporated the neighbourhood into the stress process model.

In addition, the stress process theory has some limitations in terms of parsimony. This theory involves a relatively high degree of complexity because it integrates mediating or moderating effects of psychosocial resources into its process. Explaining the roles of these resources, Pearlin ( 1999 ) acknowledged that these resources could function as either mediators or moderators. Initially, at the conceptual level, he introduced three psychosocial resources—coping, social support, and mastery—as moderating resources “having the capacity to hinder, prevent, or cushion the development of the stress process and its outcomes”. However, on the very same page, he mentioned that these resources “could as plausibly be regarded as mediating conditions, where the effects of the other components of the stress process on outcomes are channelled through the resources” (Pearlin, 1999 , p. 405).

Conclusion: a conceptual model applying the two theories

Considering each theory’s fundamental weaknesses, this study concludes that researchers need to apply both social disorganization theory and stress process theory to identify the neighbourhood stressors associated with depressive symptoms. Figure 1 shows a conceptual model of neighbourhood stressors, psychosocial resources, and depressive symptoms. Each theory uniquely contributes to explaining the effects of neighbourhood stressors on depressive symptoms. First, social disorganization theory introduces disadvantageous neighbourhood characteristics (neighbourhood poverty, racial and ethnic composition, and residential instability) and perceived neighbourhood disorder, which is associated with higher levels of depressive symptoms. Another unique contribution of social disorganization theory is its applicability to urban settings. Although the recent application of stress process theory incorporated the concept of neighbourhood stressors, social disorganization theory is still needed because it provides the theoretical basis for choosing the most relevant indicators of neighbourhood stressors. These primary stressors (disadvantageous neighbourhood conditions and perceived neighbourhood disorder) are hypothesized to lead to higher depressive symptoms. Second, stress process theory is used to explain the mechanisms through which disadvantageous neighbourhood conditions affect depressive symptoms (i.e., mediation) or the mechanisms that exacerbate or buffer the effects of disadvantageous neighbourhood conditions on depressive symptoms (i.e., moderation).

A Conceptual Model of Neighborhood Stressors and Depressive Symptoms.

As mentioned previously, a psychosocial resource can be examined as a moderator. There is a theoretical potential for the psychosocial resource to buffer or protect individuals from the adverse effects of neighbourhood stressors on the individuals’ mental health. Cohen and Wills ( 1985 ) argued that the stress-buffering effect of social support was identified “when the social support measure assesses the perceived availability of interpersonal resources that are responsive to the needs elicited by stressful events” (p. 310). The current study suggests that researchers can use individuals’ availability of resources from multiple interpersonal sources (e.g., spouse/partner, children, relatives, friends). Focusing on the psychosocial resource as a moderator is consistent with much of the research applying the stress process model. For example, Pearlin and Bierman ( 2013 ) contended that “Although resources may be seen as having the potential either to explain or to modify the effects of stress, we shall be concerned mainly with their ability to constrain the stressful consequences of stressors” (p. 330).

This study considers implications for the development of future theory and research. Whether applying both social disorganization theory and stress process theory can lead to unique insights remains to be seen in future research. Future studies can test the conclusion that applying both theories would be empirically beneficial. More specifically, a future study can test (a) the anticipated relationships between neighbourhood stressors (e.g., neighborhood poverty, racial and ethnic minority composition, and residential instability) and depressive symptoms and (b) the stress-buffering effects of psychosocial resources (e.g., coping, mastery, and social support) on the relationships.

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Acknowledgements

This paper is reconceptualized from a part of my doctoral dissertation, Relationships Between Neighborhood Stressors and Depressive Symptoms: The Moderating Effects of Social Support Among Older Adults. I especially appreciate Aloen L. Townsend, who advised my dissertation. The substance and findings of the work are dedicated to the public.

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The most recent configuration of the ACM typology is composed of the following class categories: “ Employers and executives are employers or directors at private companies or in the public administration. They may be recruited from any of the groups in the occupational structure. Private Professionals are self-employed and very qualified in certain specialised professions, such as lawyers, architects, and so on. Professionals and managers are employees in upper or mid-level intellectual, scientific and technical jobs. They are different from the previous category essentially because they are not self-employed. Self-employed workers work on their own account without employees in administrative or similar occupations in services and commerce. They include craftsmen and similar workers, farmers and qualified workers in agriculture and fishery. Routine employees are administrative and similar personnel, service employees and salespeople. Industrial workers are manual workers employed in less qualified occupations in construction, industry, transports, agriculture and fishery (Carmo and Nunes 2013 , p. 378).

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Acknowledgements

This work was developed within the project EmployALL—The employment crisis and the Welfare State in Portugal: deterring drivers of social vulnerability and inequality, funded by the Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia (PTDC/SOC-SOC/30543/2017).

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3 Chapter 3 The Literature Review, Theory, Problem Statement, and Hypotheses

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This chapter discusses the literature review in a social work dissertation including strategies for researching and evaluating the literature, tips for completing a literature search, as well as analyzing, synthesizing, integrating the literature, and finally writing the literature review itself. In addition, the relevance of theory to social work research is examined, as is the development of the statement of the problem, issues in developing hypotheses, and defining and operationalizing measurable variables.

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• Bibliography
• More Referencing guides Blog Automated transliteration Relevant bibliographies by topics
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Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Social action theory'

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Adams, Douglas James 1957. "Playing the lottery: Social action, social networks and accounts of motive." Diss., The University of Arizona, 1996. http://hdl.handle.net/10150/282266.

Petrisson, Adam. "En analys av situational action theory. En forskningsöversikt." Thesis, Malmö högskola, Fakulteten för hälsa och samhälle (HS), 2010. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:mau:diva-25083.

Gilman, Todd Nathaniel. "Communicative Action as Feminist Epistemology." PDXScholar, 1995. https://pdxscholar.library.pdx.edu/open_access_etds/4906.

Estacio, Emee Vida G. "Integrating theory, research and social action in the context of material deprivation and social injustice." Thesis, City University London, 2007. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.446442.

Clark, Chris L. "Theory and practice in social intervention : the case of voluntary action on unemployment." Thesis, University of Edinburgh, 1989. http://hdl.handle.net/1842/18787.

Simpson, Jacqueline Christine Coon. "Affirmative Action and Self Esteem: An Exploratory Analysis using Attribution Theory." W&M ScholarWorks, 1992. https://scholarworks.wm.edu/etd/1539625781.

Cetin, Muhammed. "Collective identity and action of the Gulen movement : implications for social movement theory." Thesis, University of Derby, 2008. http://hdl.handle.net/10545/254792.

Alexandrova, Anna. "Connecting models to the real world game theory in action /." Diss., Connect to a 24 p. preview or request complete full text in PDF format. Access restricted to UC campuses, 2006. http://wwwlib.umi.com/cr/ucsd/fullcit?p3205365.

Loyal, Steven Paul Jit Singh. "Action, structure and contradiction a contextual critique of Gidden's theory of structuration /." Thesis, Online version, 1997. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?did=1&uin=uk.bl.ethos.390197.

Cook, James Matthew. "The social structure of political behavior: Action, interaction and congressional cosponsorship." Diss., The University of Arizona, 2000. http://hdl.handle.net/10150/290367.

Hudson, Sheri L. "The influence of program theory-based evaluation on the use of evaluation information : a longitudinal study /." Murdoch University Digital Theses Program, 2008. http://wwwlib.murdoch.edu.au/adt/browse/view/adt-MU20091002.91837.

Drake, Paul David. "Communicative action in information security systems : an application of social theory in a technical domain." Thesis, University of Hull, 2005. http://hydra.hull.ac.uk/resources/hull:5623.

Travers, Ann. "The invisible woman : a feminist critique of Habermas's theory of communicative action." Thesis, University of British Columbia, 1990. http://hdl.handle.net/2429/29857.

Chandler, Jahaan. "Social Theory and the Occupy Movement: An Exploration into the Relationship between Social Thought and Political Practice." ScholarWorks@UNO, 2014. http://scholarworks.uno.edu/td/1849.

Piscioneri, Matthew. "The Myth of reason : a study of Jürgen Habermas's Theory of Communicative Action/." [St. Lucia, Qld.], 2004. http://www.library.uq.edu.au/pdfserve.php?image=thesisabs/absthe18116.pdf.

Roberts, Kathleen. "The Meaning Making That Leads to Social Entrepreneurial Action." Antioch University / OhioLINK, 2011. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=antioch1323395903.

Kassem, Majed. "Revolutionary Action in the Arab Spring: A Typological Theory on Popular Revolution." Thesis, NSUWorks, 2017. https://nsuworks.nova.edu/shss_dcar_etd/85.

Price, Alan Charles. "Action research in outdoor learning : promoting social and emotional learning in young people with social emotional and behavioural difficulties." Thesis, University of Birmingham, 2017. http://etheses.bham.ac.uk//id/eprint/7428/.

Burke, Benjamin M. S., James M. Ph D. Duncan, Nick Ph D. Frye, and Mallory Ph D. LMFT CFLE Lucier-Greer. "Sense of (Online) Community? The Social Organization Theory of Action and Change and Adult Video Game Players." Digital Commons @ East Tennessee State University, 2020. https://dc.etsu.edu/secfr-conf/2020/schedule/45.

Benitez, Mauricio Moron. "Assessment of corporate social responsibility within the stakeholder theory in commercial microfinance instittutions in Bolivia." Thesis, University of the Western Cape, 2006. http://etd.uwc.ac.za/index.php?module=etd&action=viewtitle&id=gen8Srv25Nme4_9152_1256197189.

Currently, some microfinance institutions in Bolivia are adopting Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR), a concept whereby sompanies integrate social and environmental concerns in their business operations and publish the results. CSR is applied mostly by big companies in the North and in sectors more in the eye of the public, such as oil production or textile and apparel. Bolivia has been the pioneer in the commercialization of microfinance through microfinance NGO transformations. The objectives of this investigation was to asses and compare the reasons why the selected Bolivian commercial MFI's were engaged, or not engaged, in CSR. Secondly, to determine which stakeholders are more relevant for each MFI analysed, assessing how they influenced the decision to adopt or not adopt CSR and thirdly, to compare the current social performance of the selected MFI's within the framework of corporate social responsibility.

Russo, Ruthann. "How theory-driven web-based wellness planning influences attitudes and behavior| An action research case study." Thesis, Saybrook University, 2015. http://pqdtopen.proquest.com/#viewpdf?dispub=3718554.

Wellness is enough of a vital concern in the United States that as of 2014, the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act was enacted to encourage employers to adopt evidence-based workplace wellness programs. Although it is believed that these wellness programs will decrease both chronic disease and healthcare costs, participation has been minimal. Existing research has identified the positive impact of both the individual’s role and the use of technology in wellness planning. This inquiry used an action research case study design to explore how theory-driven web-based wellness planning impacted study participants’ decisions, actions, and perceptions about wellness. The researcher created a free, open access, proprietary web-based wellness planning tool based on stages of change and integral theory. Over the 4-month period of this study, the web site had 307 visitors and 29 registered users, 12 of whom also were employees of technology companies and were recruited to take part in the case study. Web site observation, the wellness-planning tool, and individual interviews served as the primary sources of data. Analysed using thematic analysis and descriptive statistics, the findings demonstrated that this web-based planning tool increased the users’ wellness awareness and may impact their intention to make improvements. Although the tool had a positive impact on users’ wellness planning skills and enhanced their understanding of wellness, most users continued to overemphasize physical wellness and underemphasize spirit and community, as represented by the lower quadrants of integral theory. Interviews further revealed that there may be an interest for employers to expand workplace wellness (WPW) program offerings, involve employees in program design, and expand WPW activities, with the intention of increasing self-care of both employees and their family members. These findings are limited to the participants and conditions of this research but warrant further study with more participants spanning a longer time period to determine whether changes may be generalizable and sustainable.

Hall, Virginia Kaufman, of Western Sydney Hawkesbury University, of Health Humanities and Social Ecology Faculty, and School of Social Ecology. "Women transforming the workplace : collaborative inquiry into integrity in action." THESIS_FHHSE_SEL_Hall_V.xml, 1996. http://handle.uws.edu.au:8081/1959.7/438.

Naylor, Robin Andrew. "Solidarity, cooperation and collective action : the economic theory of social customs with particular applications to the labour market." Thesis, University of Warwick, 1993. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.388381.

Stevens, Christopher E. "SOCIAL ENTREPRENEURSHIP AND EARNED INCOME OPPORTUNITIES: AN EXAMINATION OF THE IMPORTANCE OF INSTITUTIONAL FACTORS IN PREDICTING ENTREPRENEURIAL ACTION AMONG NONPROFIT ORGANIZATIONS." Case Western Reserve University School of Graduate Studies / OhioLINK, 2008. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=case1213790396.

Crosson, Scott 1970. "Exclusive group formation as a collective action problem." Thesis, University of Oregon, 2000. http://hdl.handle.net/1794/10451.

Hallöf, Isabelle. "Gymnasieungdomars motiv till att stanna eller flytta från Luleå kommun." Thesis, Umeå universitet, Kulturgeografi, 2016. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:umu:diva-123427.

Essman, Carl. "Social preconditions of collective action among NGO:s : A social network analysis of the information exchanges between 55 NGO:s in Georgia." Thesis, Stockholms universitet, Sociologiska institutionen, 2015. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:su:diva-118567.

Burnett, Patrick John. "The social emergence of health : a theoretical interpretation and empirical application of Pierre Bourdieu's relational theory of social action in a three-dimensional Canadian field." Thesis, University of British Columbia, 2011. http://hdl.handle.net/2429/39782.

Thomas, Jill C. "FACILITATING CITIZENSHIP THROUGH TEACHING ACTION RESEARCH: AN UNDERGRADUATE COURSE AS AN ACTION RESEARCH INTERVENTION." Oxford, Ohio : Miami University, 2007. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc%5Fnum=miami1151511852.

Wilkins, Denise Joy. "Power to the Tweeple? : the role of social media in the bridging and setting of boundaries in collective action." Thesis, University of Exeter, 2018. http://hdl.handle.net/10871/33706.

Thorén, Katarina H. "Activation Policy in Action : A Street-Level Study of Social Assistance in the Swedish Welfare State." Doctoral thesis, Växjö universitet, Institutionen för vårdvetenskap och socialt arbete, 2008. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:vxu:diva-2474.

Schalk, Samantha Dawn. "When Students Take Action: How and Why to Engage in College Student Activism." Miami University Honors Theses / OhioLINK, 2008. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=muhonors1208968417.

Neilson, Lisa A. "Collective Action and the Institutionalization of Corporate Social Responsibility in the United States, 1980-2010." The Ohio State University, 2012. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=osu1345224780.

Henretty, Joan M. "Physical activity and adolescent girls : the development and evaluation of an active-gaming intervention utilising social cognitive theory and action research." Thesis, Heriot-Watt University, 2011. http://hdl.handle.net/10399/2506.

Uddin, Rokon. "Explaining Adolescent Offending Variety in Sweden by Parental Country of Birth: A Test of Situational Action Theory." Thesis, Malmö högskola, Fakulteten för hälsa och samhälle (HS), 2017. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:mau:diva-26832.

Hall, Jamie. "From the text to the frame : a frame analysis of the collective action frames of the Zapatista Army of National Liberation, 1980-1998." Thesis, University of Exeter, 2008. http://hdl.handle.net/10036/48133.

Valentine, Leanne. "Exposure to Gambling-Related Media and its Relation to Gambling Expectancies and Behaviors." Digital Archive @ GSU, 2008. http://digitalarchive.gsu.edu/psych_diss/46.

Gustavsson, Teresia. "Självkontroll - En kriminologisk översikt." Thesis, Malmö högskola, Fakulteten för hälsa och samhälle (HS), 2013. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:mau:diva-25449.

Norlin, Jerry, and Tobias Karlsson. "Omvårdnadspersonalens riskaversion kontra vårdtagares autonomi på demensboenden - Vad präglar verksamheten?" Thesis, Högskolan Dalarna, Socialt arbete, 2020. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:du-32522.

Fourie, Jade Melissa. "The relationship between social support, self-esteem and exposure to community violence on adolescent's perceptions of well-being." Thesis, University of the Western Cape, 2010. http://etd.uwc.ac.za/index.php?module=etd&action=viewtitle&id=gen8Srv25Nme4_3937_1331889850.

Violence is considered to be one of the most critical and threatening global problems plaguing the world today, leaving a trail of devastating consequences to societies, economies, cultures, families and individuals (Desjarlais & Kleinman, 1997). Adolescents who grow up in a context of violence learn distorted ways of thinking, acting, living and interacting. Aggressive tendencies and violent behaviour become internalised and adopted as acceptable ways to resolve conflict situations. Chronic, continuous exposure to violence results in physical, psychological and emotional disturbances, such as depression, anxiety, lowered self-confidence, sleep disturbances, decreased attention and concentration spans. This study addressed the form of violence known as community violence, i.e. violence that children experience within their communities (either as witnesses or as victims). This study investigated the effects of this negative environmental experience and investigated potential mediating and moderating variables that could influence the harmful effects of such experiences. The variables considered as mediating and/or moderating variables were social support and self-esteem. The theoretical framework adopted for this study was Bronfennbrenner&rsquo s Bioecological Systems theory.

Doherty, Kathryn Laing. "From Alarm to Action: Closing the Gap Between Belief and Behavior in Response to Climate Change." Antioch University / OhioLINK, 2014. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=antioch1406552403.

Fourie, Jade Melissa. "The relationship between social support, self-esteem and exposure to community violence on adolescentʹs perceptions of well-being." Thesis, University of the Western Cape, 2010. http://etd.uwc.ac.za/index.php?module=etd&action=viewtitle&id=gen8Srv25Nme4_1944_1331890691.

Diekmann, Andreas, and Thomas Voss. "Social norms and reciprocity." Universitätsbibliothek Leipzig, 2016. http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bsz:15-qucosa-208162.

Dembeck, Terri L. "Dynamics of Collective Sensemaking and Social Structuring Action Nets| An Organizational Ethnography Within the Military Health System's Defense Centers of Excellence for Psychological Health and Traumatic Brain Injury." Thesis, The George Washington University, 2013. http://pqdtopen.proquest.com/#viewpdf?dispub=3557559.

Organizational perception and conception of interactions and relationships vary over time and space. This study focused on the capacity within and between healthcare organizations to collectively make sense of ambivalent and ambiguous environments in the context of social structuring actions (Czarniawska, 2008; Johnson, 2009; Weick, 1995). The purpose was to develop narrative frames from which a deeper understanding could be developed of how collective sensemaking is enacted through reciprocal and reflective interorganizational relationships during the final phases of an intended multiorganizational integration endeavor (Barki & Pinsonneault, 2005; Oliver, 1990). This study explored and described collective sensemaking as recognizable patterned social structuring actions that surfaced during integration efforts within the Military Health System's Defense Centers of Excellence for Psychological Health and Traumatic Brain Injury.

A narrative approach illustrated emergent social processes. In the process of collaboration, ongoing generative conversations (Taylor & Van Every, 2000; Hardy, Lawrence, & Grant, 2005; Weick, 2004) affected the relationships between collective sensemaking and social structuring. An interpretive constructionist perspective revealed practices involving the interplay of assignment of meaning (signification), reducing equivocality and integration; formation of a sense of community, establishing structures and norms (legitimation); and the effects of collaboration and power (domination) distribution (Giddens, 1984; Weick, Sutcliffe, & Obstfeld, 2005).

More than 24 months of embedded observation aided the researcher's awareness of ongoing narrative dynamics of collaborative actions setting the conditions for the emergence of interorganizational relationships (Harquail & King, 2010; Hatch, 1997; Hatch & Schultz, 2002) and embodied practices (Varela, Thompson, & Rosch, 1991). Throughout experiences of collective sensemaking, organizations interpose mini-narratives as evidence of reciprocal patterns of social structuring revealing cooperative behaviors interweaving coordinated actions and setting conditions for the structuring of collaborative integrating nets of collective action. This supports both Carniawska's (2008) and Weick's (1995) theory of organizing during collective sensemaking as enacted processes within relational conceptualizations and perceptions. These findings contribute to understanding the dynamics of collective sensemaking and social structuring; moreover, they incorporate the new paradigm of enaction (Kuhn, 1996; Stewart, Gapenne, & Di Paolo, 2010) as embodied sensemaking into organizational theory.

Minott, Sandra Simone. "Validation of Parsons' Structural Functionalism Theory Within a Multicultural Human." ScholarWorks, 2016. https://scholarworks.waldenu.edu/dissertations/3357.

Dashora, Pushpanjali. "Empowering Homeless Youth: An Evaluation of a Participatory Action Research Based Program." The Ohio State University, 2010. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=osu1267458035.

Wepsäläinen, Ellinor. "COMPARING SWEDISH ADOLESCENTS’ CRIMINAL INTENTIONS AND ACTUAL CRIMINAL BEHAVIOURS: DO THEY CORRESPOND? -A TEST OF THE SITUATIONAL ACTION THEORY." Thesis, Malmö högskola, Fakulteten för hälsa och samhälle (HS), 2016. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:mau:diva-25620.

Nabal, Venessa. "Living the theory : an enquiry into the development of a psychotherapist in training." Diss., Pretoria [S.n.], 2009. http://upetd.up.ac.za/thesis/available/etd-02032010-175633/.

Parsloe, Sarah M. "“Real People. Real Stories.”: Self-Advocacy and Collective/Connective Action on the Digital Platform, The Mighty." Ohio University / OhioLINK, 2017. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=ohiou1497536100831896.

Hakala, Fanni Pirita. "The Greta Effect on Global Environmental Governance : Testing the Applicability of Frame Theory." Thesis, Malmö universitet, Malmö högskola, Institutionen för globala politiska studier (GPS), 2021. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:mau:diva-43634.

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Choosing a theoretical framework: popular theories for dissertation research.

One of the most important steps in topic development  for your dissertation is picking out a theory or theories that will help to create the theoretical framework for your study. Because this is such a crucial and yet tricky task, our quantitative and qualitative research methods experts often help with this step when collaborating with our dissertation consulting clients on developing their research topics. Maybe you’re reading this and thinking, “What exactly IS a theoretical framework, anyway?” If so, you might check out this previous blog post on this topic, as it addresses this foundational question in more depth.

Whether you are using your framework to develop a qualitative research interview protocol  or to frame a study using statistical analysis of pertinent variables, the theoretical lens for your dissertation needs to be chosen carefully. This is because it has to provide a suitable explanatory structure, connecting the problem , purpose, research questions, and data collection instruments. Making a poor choice of theory for this purpose can result in having to do major rewrites to your proposal down the road (shudder!), so it’s best to choose mindfully. Keep in mind that we can definitely help with this crucial early decision in your dissertation or thesis writing process.

To help you start thinking over this decision for your dissertation, this article will provide a handful of possibilities for your theoretical framework. We compiled this list of popular theories based on our dissertation assistance clients’ choices, although this is by no means an exhaustive list. But, this should at least get you started thinking about some possibilities.

Self-Determination Theory

Deci and Ryan’s (2000) self-determination theory is a very common choice for the theoretical framework among our dissertation assistance  clients. Central to self-determination theory is the proposition that our motivation stems from satisfaction of three basic psychological needs: competence, autonomy, and relatedness (Deci & Ryan, 2008). Competence refers to our sense that we are capable of accomplishing specific tasks, and autonomy is the feeling that we have control and choice. Our sense of relatedness refers to the perception that we have meaningful social relationships.

Many of our dissertation consulting clients are interested in examining intrinsic versus extrinsic motivation, which develop in relation to different experiences of need satisfaction. When we feel intrinsic motivation, we have a sense of pleasure, interest in, and enjoyment of the activity. The experience of greater needs satisfaction related to certain environments or activities helps to develop intrinsic motivation (Deci & Ryan, 2000, 2008). On the other hand, extrinsic motivation comes about when we receive outside incentives to engage in certain actions.

Because self-determination theory deals with basic psychological needs, we find when working with our dissertation consulting clients that it is widely applicable across many different topics in the social sciences. Self-determination theory can help to explain different forms of motivation, which makes it useful in dissertations that focus centrally on how motivation is shaped in arenas such as school or the workplace. Furthermore, the experience of self-determination has been associated with a variety of physical and psychological health outcomes, which makes it a great choice for examinations of conditions that influence health. Our dissertation assistance clients have used self-determination theory to frame studies on diverse topics ranging from a statistical analysis  of predictors of motivation among call center workers to a qualitative research exploration of conditions perceived to influence psychological well being in congregate care facilities.

Social Cognitive Theory

Another very popular theory among our dissertation assistance clients is Bandura’s (1977) social cognitive theory. The theory can help with explaining how behaviors develop, and one of the key tenets of social cognitive theory is that we learn behaviors through our observations of other people. This is not to say that we imitate every single behavior we observe indiscriminately, though. We are more or less likely to replicate behavior we observe based on whom we see doing it—or in other words, who the “model” is. 

Our dissertation consulting clients who are interested in how powerful people exert influence often love this theory, as Bandura (1977) posited that we are much more likely to imitate behavior when we observe others who are perceived as having elevated power or status modeling the behavior. This is especially so in the case of vicarious reinforcement, which is when the model is rewarded in some way for the behavior. If we see that certain behaviors elicit negative outcomes, however, we might avoid those behaviors due to the expectation that we would also be penalized for them. Our observations of others’ experiences, along with the results of our own behavior, also influence self-efficacy, which is a person’s sense of capability to handle challenges effectively.

Social cognitive theory is a really useful framework when you’re interested in examining how people develop behavioral patterns or ways of thinking about their own competence. Our dissertation consulting clients have used social cognitive theory to frame qualitative analysis  of influences on aggressive behavior in youths, statistical analysis of the predictors of self-efficacy in novice teachers, and qualitative research exploring the influence of social relationships on health behaviors.

Ecological Systems Theory

Bronfenbrenner’s (1977) ecological systems theory is another very popular theory among our dissertation consulting clients. According to the theory, a variety of influences help to shape children’s growth and development over time. As children interact with their environments, they are exposed to a variety of influences that Bronfenbrenner conceptualized as nested spheres that radiate outward from proximal to distal. For example, the most immediate and influential social circle (i.e., family) is referred to as the microsystem. The mesosystem is a bit more removed from the child’s immediate network and may include influences such as friends and teachers. Beyond the mesosystem is the exosystem, which includes influences such as the media, government systems, and extended family. The macrosystem is even more distal and includes influences such as cultural narratives and societal ideals. 

Ecological systems theory is a favorite among our dissertation assistance clients who are studying education or human development, as it applies to so many important aspects of growth and development for children and youths. It lends itself well to qualitative research explorations of student, parent, or educator perceptions on child development as well as to statistical analysis  of the impact of variables (e.g., parent involvement, teacher efficacy) that can be located in one or another of the levels of influence in Bronfenbrenner’s model.

Tinto’s Theory of Student Persistence

Tinto’s theory of student persistence and retention is very much appreciated by our dissertation consulting clients studying higher education. In this theory, Tinto (1993) proposed that students have a collection of personal characteristics that exert influence over their commitment to their higher education institutions. Some of these factors reside at the individual level, such as gender, race, and age. Background factors like socioeconomic level and previous achievement in academics can also come into play. 

Beyond these factors, Tinto (1993) posited that the degree to which the student feels a sense of social and academic integration can affect their sense of commitment to the college or university. This means that feeling a greater sense of social and academic integration can help to support academic persistence, thus resulting in higher retention rates (Tinto, 1993). Among our dissertation assistance clients conducting research in higher education leadership, Tinto’s theory is a top choice. Validated survey instruments derived from this theory make it a useful choice for quantitative studies involving statistical analysis of factors related to persistence and retention. And, it makes a great lens through which to explore student perspectives on their experiences of integration and persistence using a qualitative research and analysis  approach.

Adult Learning Theory

Another favorite of our dissertation assistance clients in higher education is adult learning theory. In his theory, Knowles (1973) proposed that adults learn differently from children, which means that educators can help to enhance adults’ learning if they take their specific needs into account. There are six key dimensions to adult learning (Knowles, 1973): 

• Self-concept: Adults are self-directed and independent, and so they will learn best when learning conditions allow them autonomy.
• Experience: Adults have plenty of life experience, and tying new concepts or facts in with their own experiences enhances their learning.
• Readiness to learn: Adults experience a greater readiness or motivation to learn new information when they see a true need for learning the information.
• Orientation to learning: Using a task- or problem-focused approach optimizes learning of new information by adults.
• Internal motivation: Adults are driven by intrinsic rather than extrinsic motivators when learning new information.
• Need to know: It helps adults to learn when new information is clearly relevant to or applicable in their lives.

One of the great things about this theory is its broad application—it applies to adult learning across many contexts. This makes it a popular theory among our dissertation consulting clients conducting research in a variety of fields. For example, the theory might frame a qualitative research  exploration of adult learning in traditional university settings while also serving quite well as the guiding framework in a statistical analysis of factors associated with learning a new enterprise resource planning system in the workplace.

Transformative Learning Theory

Another theory of adult learning is Mezirow’s (2009) transformative learning theory. This theory is popular among our dissertation assistance clients who are examining processes of learning that significantly change an adult’s foundational beliefs and assumptions. Mezirow (2009) posited that certain types of learning experiences help induce important shifts to an adult’s basic beliefs systems. Transformative learning, then, describes the processes that change the ways that an adult thinks about and interacts with the world around them. Specifically, discussion with others and self-reflection are key processes that can transform an adult’s values, beliefs, and behavior in significant ways. 

Transformative learning may happen spontaneously or as the result of formal education or training (Taylor, 2007). This makes the theory applicable when investigating such learning as the result of classroom or workplace instruction, but it also can help to frame inquiry into transformation as the result of personal experiences or everyday events. For example, our dissertation assistance clients have used the theory as lens for qualitative analysis of trauma as transformative of individuals’ spiritual beliefs, and they have also used it to frame statistical analysis  in quasi-experimental investigations of educational interventions aimed at developing cultural sensitivity in adult learners.

Transformational Leadership Theory

Among our dissertation consulting clients who wish to take a statistical analysis approach to the study of leadership, one of the most widely used leadership theories for frameworks is transformational leadership theory. The roots of this theory lie in the work of Burns (1978), who conceptualized transforming leadership as an approach that inspired employee performance through appeals to their values and morality. Bass (1985) elaborated upon Burns’ theory through development of dimensions that reflect underlying psychological processes at work within the relationships between transformational leaders and employees. These four dimensions of transformational leadership are (a) intellectual stimulation, (b) charisma or idealized influence, (c) inspirational motivation, and (d) individualized consideration (Avolio et al., 1999; Bass, 1991). 

The associated Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ) is a frequently used tool in the statistical analysis of workplace predictors or outcomes that are associated with transformational leadership. The MLQ is definitely a favorite among our dissertation assistance clients studying in fields such as business management and industrial/organizational psychology. However, the dimensions of transformational leadership often create intriguing lenses through which to explore workplace phenomena through a qualitative research perspective. An example is a qualitative analysis of employees’ perspectives on individualized consideration and its influence on their experiences of stress and coping on the job.

Job Demands-Resources Model

The job demands-resources model (JD-R) is a popular choice of framework for our dissertation assistance clients who are conducting quantitative or qualitative research  on the workplace. According to this model, the overall balance between job demands and job resources has an effect on employees’ stress levels (Bakker & Demerouti, 2007). Job demands can be psychological or physical aspects of jobs that elevate a worker’s stress. These might include such factors as physical demands, emotional demands, work pressure, workload, role conflict, and role ambiguity.

On the other hand, job resources can function to relieve or lessen stress for workers. These resources can be physical, social, or organizational dimensions of a job that help to ease stress deriving from job demands (Bakker & Demerouti, 2007). Job resources can take many forms, such as workplace practices that support employees to perform their job tasks effectively, supportive relationships in the workplace, conditions that increase an employee’s sense of autonomy, and a strong organizational climate.

The availability of validated survey instruments for the JD-R model make it a great choice to frame statistical analysis of variables that are related to job demands and resources. For example, job demands and resources may derive from organizational features such as justice or culture, or they may be predictive of outcomes such as employee performance and well being. Exploring perceptions related to demands and resources on the job via qualitative research methods can also reveal important insights, and our dissertation consulting clients in fields like industrial/organizational psychology have used this model to frame such inquiry.

Diffusion of Innovations Theory 

Diffusion of innovations is a theory that was developed by Rogers (2003), and it continues to occupy a very useful role as a theoretical framework for our dissertation consulting clients in fields from information technology to business management and leadership. This theory can help to frame studies that focus on how different types of innovations are embraced. A core underlying assumption of the theory is that information related to new innovations diffuses throughout communication channels in a social system over the course of time. Although we often think of technologies when we think of innovations, an innovation can really be any practice or idea that is viewed as novel or new by people and that induces a sense of uncertainty. This might include technologies, but it might also include things like new practices or policies within formal or informal organizations. 

According to Rogers (2003), there are five factors that influence the rate of adoption of a new innovation: relative advantage, compatibility, complexity, trialability, and observability. According to the theory, these five factors generally influence how quickly a new innovation is accepted and adopted. Additionally, though, different people tend to respond to innovations with varying degrees of acceptance, and their communication amongst one another may also influence how quickly any given group adopts a new innovation. 

Rogers (2003) proposed distinct categories related to openness to innovations. Innovators are the most willing to adopt new innovations, followed by early adopters and then early majority. Those who are more reluctant generally to accept new innovations fall into the late majority and laggard categories. These are people who need a lot of help to accept new innovations, and they tend to do so only after the people surrounding them have successfully adopted the innovation.

Our dissertation assistance clients from a range of fields have applied this theory as their framework, as the nature of “innovation” is quite broad. For example, this theory made a great framework for a qualitative analysis of teachers’ perceptions of and reactions to the introduction of a new data-based decision making process. It applied equally well in a quantitative study that used statistical analysis to determine the factors that most strongly impacted customers’ behavioral reactions to online versus in-person car sales.

Finally, a big favorite among our dissertation assistance clients who are conducting research on technology adoption is the unified theory of acceptance and use of technology (UTAUT). It was formulated by Venkatesh et al. (2003) using eight different models that addressed technology acceptance and adoption in different ways. The updated version of the theory, UTAUT2, still includes the dimensions from the first version of the theory (i.e., performance expectancy, effort expectancy, social influence, and facilitating conditions), which are proposed as predictors of an individual’s behavioral intention and actual use of technology. To tailor UTAUT2 to the consumer population, the authors added dimensions of price value, hedonic motivation, and experience or habit (Venkatesh et al., 2012). 

There are seven dimensions of UTAUT2 that correspond with expectations and perceptions related to the use of a specific technology (Venkatesh et al., 2012). These are:

• performance expectancy, which refers to perceived benefits of technology use;
• effort expectancy, which refers to expected ease or difficulty of technology use; 
• social influence, which refers to a person’s sense of how other people feel about their use of technology, especially valued others like friends or family; 
• facilitating conditions, which are resources a person views as available to support them in their use of the technology; 
• hedonic motivation, which refers to the sense of joy or pleasure a person derives from using technology;
• experience/habit, which refers to the degree to which a person has already used technology; and
• price value, which refers to the value a person expects to derive from use of the technology. 

According to the UTAUT2 model, each of these dimensions exerts influence on a person’s behavioral intentions to use technology, which then influences the person’s actual use of the technology (Venkatesh et al., 2012). 

Our dissertation consulting clients have made great use of the UTAUT2 survey to guide statistical analysis of technology acceptance and use variables across technologies that range from learning management systems to smart devices. Shaping qualitative research data collection  around the various dimensions of UTAUT2 can also yield rich insights into the thinking and reasoning behind technology resistance or acceptance. A great example of this is a qualitative analysis that explored perceptions of social influence with regard to ride sharing services.

Because your guiding theory ties your whole study together within an explanatory framework, it is important to choose wisely as you develop this vital piece of your research topic. If you are choosing a quantitative method for your dissertation, many theories have associated survey instruments that can help to ensure that your data collection and statistical analysis align well with your framework. For qualitative research , it is important to develop data collection instruments (e.g., interview protocols) that align with key dimensions of the theoretical framework. If you would like help with these essential steps for creating alignment, our dissertation coaches  are happy to provide guidance during your topic development process. There are so many theories to choose from—this article provided just a glimpse of your possibilities—and we’re here to help if you need us!

Avolio, B. J., Bass, B. M., & Jung, D. I. (1999). Re-examining the components of transformational and transactional leadership using the Multifactor Leadership. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology , 72 (4), 441-462. https://doi.org/10/1348/096317999166789

Bakker, A., & Demerouti, E. (2007). The job demands-resources model: State of the art. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 22 (3), 309-328. https://doi.org/10.1108/02683940710733115

Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory . Prentice Hall.

Bass, B. M. (1985). Leadership and performance beyond expectations . Free Press.

Bass, B. M. (1991). From transactional to transformational leadership: Learning to share the vision. Organizational Dynamics , 18 (3), 19-31. https://doi.org/10.1016/0090-2616(90)90061-S

Bronfenbrenner, U. (1977). Toward an experimental ecology of human development. American Psychologist, 32 (7), 513-531. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.32.7.513

Burns, J. M. (1978). Leadership . Harper and Row.

Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). The “what” and “why” of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. Psychological Inquiry , 11 (4), 227-268. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327965PLI1104_01

Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2008). Self-determination theory: A macrotheory of human motivation, development, and health. Canadian Psychology , 49 (3), 182-185. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0012801

Knowles, M. (1973). The adult learner: A neglected species . Gulf Publishing Company. 

Mezirow, J. (2009). An overview of transformative learning. In K. Illeris (Ed.), Contemporary theories of learning: Learning theorists…in their own words (pp. 90-105). Routledge.

Rogers, E. M. (2003). Diffusion of innovations (5 th ed.). Free Press.

Taylor, E. W. (2007). An update of transformative learning theory: A critical review of the empirical research (1999–2005). International Journal of Lifelong Education , 26 (2), 173-191. https://doi.org/10.1080/02601370701219475

Tinto, V. (1993). Leaving college: Rethinking the causes and cures of student attrition (2 nd ed.). University of Chicago Press.

Venkatesh, V., Morris, M. G., Davis, G. B., & Davis, F. D. (2003). User acceptance of information technology: Toward a unified view. MIS Quarterly , 425-478. https://doi.org/10.2307/30036540

Venkatesh, V., Thong, J. Y., & Xu, X. (2012). Consumer acceptance and use of information technology: Extending the unified theory of acceptance and use of technology. MIS Quarterly , 36 (1), 157-178. https://doi.org/10.2307/41410412

Dissertation Structure & Layout 101: How to structure your dissertation, thesis or research project.

By: Derek Jansen (MBA) Reviewed By: David Phair (PhD) | July 2019

So, you’ve got a decent understanding of what a dissertation is , you’ve chosen your topic and hopefully you’ve received approval for your research proposal . Awesome! Now its time to start the actual dissertation or thesis writing journey.

To craft a high-quality document, the very first thing you need to understand is dissertation structure . In this post, we’ll walk you through the generic dissertation structure and layout, step by step. We’ll start with the big picture, and then zoom into each chapter to briefly discuss the core contents. If you’re just starting out on your research journey, you should start with this post, which covers the big-picture process of how to write a dissertation or thesis .

*The Caveat *

In this post, we’ll be discussing a traditional dissertation/thesis structure and layout, which is generally used for social science research across universities, whether in the US, UK, Europe or Australia. However, some universities may have small variations on this structure (extra chapters, merged chapters, slightly different ordering, etc).

So, always check with your university if they have a prescribed structure or layout that they expect you to work with. If not, it’s safe to assume the structure we’ll discuss here is suitable. And even if they do have a prescribed structure, you’ll still get value from this post as we’ll explain the core contents of each section.  

Overview: S tructuring a dissertation or thesis

• Acknowledgements page
• Abstract (or executive summary)
• Table of contents , list of figures and tables
• Chapter 1: Introduction
• Chapter 2: Literature review
• Chapter 3: Methodology
• Chapter 4: Results
• Chapter 5: Discussion
• Chapter 6: Conclusion
• Reference list

As I mentioned, some universities will have slight variations on this structure. For example, they want an additional “personal reflection chapter”, or they might prefer the results and discussion chapter to be merged into one. Regardless, the overarching flow will always be the same, as this flow reflects the research process , which we discussed here – i.e.:

• The introduction chapter presents the core research question and aims .
• The literature review chapter assesses what the current research says about this question.
• The methodology, results and discussion chapters go about undertaking new research about this question.
• The conclusion chapter (attempts to) answer the core research question .

In other words, the dissertation structure and layout reflect the research process of asking a well-defined question(s), investigating, and then answering the question – see below.

To restate that – the structure and layout of a dissertation reflect the flow of the overall research process . This is essential to understand, as each chapter will make a lot more sense if you “get” this concept. If you’re not familiar with the research process, read this post before going further.

Right. Now that we’ve covered the big picture, let’s dive a little deeper into the details of each section and chapter. Oh and by the way, you can also grab our free dissertation/thesis template here to help speed things up.

The title page of your dissertation is the very first impression the marker will get of your work, so it pays to invest some time thinking about your title. But what makes for a good title? A strong title needs to be 3 things:

• Succinct (not overly lengthy or verbose)
• Specific (not vague or ambiguous)
• Representative of the research you’re undertaking (clearly linked to your research questions)

Typically, a good title includes mention of the following:

• The broader area of the research (i.e. the overarching topic)
• The specific focus of your research (i.e. your specific context)
• Indication of research design (e.g. quantitative , qualitative , or  mixed methods ).

For example:

A quantitative investigation [research design] into the antecedents of organisational trust [broader area] in the UK retail forex trading market [specific context/area of focus].

Again, some universities may have specific requirements regarding the format and structure of the title, so it’s worth double-checking expectations with your institution (if there’s no mention in the brief or study material).

Acknowledgements

This page provides you with an opportunity to say thank you to those who helped you along your research journey. Generally, it’s optional (and won’t count towards your marks), but it is academic best practice to include this.

So, who do you say thanks to? Well, there’s no prescribed requirements, but it’s common to mention the following people:

• Your dissertation supervisor or committee.
• Any professors, lecturers or academics that helped you understand the topic or methodologies.
• Any tutors, mentors or advisors.
• Your family and friends, especially spouse (for adult learners studying part-time).

There’s no need for lengthy rambling. Just state who you’re thankful to and for what (e.g. thank you to my supervisor, John Doe, for his endless patience and attentiveness) – be sincere. In terms of length, you should keep this to a page or less.

Abstract or executive summary

The dissertation abstract (or executive summary for some degrees) serves to provide the first-time reader (and marker or moderator) with a big-picture view of your research project. It should give them an understanding of the key insights and findings from the research, without them needing to read the rest of the report – in other words, it should be able to stand alone .

For it to stand alone, your abstract should cover the following key points (at a minimum):

• Your research questions and aims – what key question(s) did your research aim to answer?
• Your methodology – how did you go about investigating the topic and finding answers to your research question(s)?
• Your findings – following your own research, what did do you discover?
• Your conclusions – based on your findings, what conclusions did you draw? What answers did you find to your research question(s)?

So, in much the same way the dissertation structure mimics the research process, your abstract or executive summary should reflect the research process, from the initial stage of asking the original question to the final stage of answering that question.

In practical terms, it’s a good idea to write this section up last , once all your core chapters are complete. Otherwise, you’ll end up writing and rewriting this section multiple times (just wasting time). For a step by step guide on how to write a strong executive summary, check out this post .

Need a helping hand?

Table of contents

This section is straightforward. You’ll typically present your table of contents (TOC) first, followed by the two lists – figures and tables. I recommend that you use Microsoft Word’s automatic table of contents generator to generate your TOC. If you’re not familiar with this functionality, the video below explains it simply:

If you find that your table of contents is overly lengthy, consider removing one level of depth. Oftentimes, this can be done without detracting from the usefulness of the TOC.

Right, now that the “admin” sections are out of the way, its time to move on to your core chapters. These chapters are the heart of your dissertation and are where you’ll earn the marks. The first chapter is the introduction chapter – as you would expect, this is the time to introduce your research…

It’s important to understand that even though you’ve provided an overview of your research in your abstract, your introduction needs to be written as if the reader has not read that (remember, the abstract is essentially a standalone document). So, your introduction chapter needs to start from the very beginning, and should address the following questions:

• What will you be investigating (in plain-language, big picture-level)?
• Why is that worth investigating? How is it important to academia or business? How is it sufficiently original?
• What are your research aims and research question(s)? Note that the research questions can sometimes be presented at the end of the literature review (next chapter).
• What is the scope of your study? In other words, what will and won’t you cover ?
• How will you approach your research? In other words, what methodology will you adopt?
• How will you structure your dissertation? What are the core chapters and what will you do in each of them?

These are just the bare basic requirements for your intro chapter. Some universities will want additional bells and whistles in the intro chapter, so be sure to carefully read your brief or consult your research supervisor.

If done right, your introduction chapter will set a clear direction for the rest of your dissertation. Specifically, it will make it clear to the reader (and marker) exactly what you’ll be investigating, why that’s important, and how you’ll be going about the investigation. Conversely, if your introduction chapter leaves a first-time reader wondering what exactly you’ll be researching, you’ve still got some work to do.

Now that you’ve set a clear direction with your introduction chapter, the next step is the literature review . In this section, you will analyse the existing research (typically academic journal articles and high-quality industry publications), with a view to understanding the following questions:

• What does the literature currently say about the topic you’re investigating?
• Is the literature lacking or well established? Is it divided or in disagreement?
• How does your research fit into the bigger picture?
• How does your research contribute something original?
• How does the methodology of previous studies help you develop your own?

Depending on the nature of your study, you may also present a conceptual framework towards the end of your literature review, which you will then test in your actual research.

Again, some universities will want you to focus on some of these areas more than others, some will have additional or fewer requirements, and so on. Therefore, as always, its important to review your brief and/or discuss with your supervisor, so that you know exactly what’s expected of your literature review chapter.

Now that you’ve investigated the current state of knowledge in your literature review chapter and are familiar with the existing key theories, models and frameworks, its time to design your own research. Enter the methodology chapter – the most “science-ey” of the chapters…

In this chapter, you need to address two critical questions:

• Exactly HOW will you carry out your research (i.e. what is your intended research design)?
• Exactly WHY have you chosen to do things this way (i.e. how do you justify your design)?

Remember, the dissertation part of your degree is first and foremost about developing and demonstrating research skills . Therefore, the markers want to see that you know which methods to use, can clearly articulate why you’ve chosen then, and know how to deploy them effectively.

Importantly, this chapter requires detail – don’t hold back on the specifics. State exactly what you’ll be doing, with who, when, for how long, etc. Moreover, for every design choice you make, make sure you justify it.

In practice, you will likely end up coming back to this chapter once you’ve undertaken all your data collection and analysis, and revise it based on changes you made during the analysis phase. This is perfectly fine. Its natural for you to add an additional analysis technique, scrap an old one, etc based on where your data lead you. Of course, I’m talking about small changes here – not a fundamental switch from qualitative to quantitative, which will likely send your supervisor in a spin!

You’ve now collected your data and undertaken your analysis, whether qualitative, quantitative or mixed methods. In this chapter, you’ll present the raw results of your analysis . For example, in the case of a quant study, you’ll present the demographic data, descriptive statistics, inferential statistics , etc.

Typically, Chapter 4 is simply a presentation and description of the data, not a discussion of the meaning of the data. In other words, it’s descriptive, rather than analytical – the meaning is discussed in Chapter 5. However, some universities will want you to combine chapters 4 and 5, so that you both present and interpret the meaning of the data at the same time. Check with your institution what their preference is.

Now that you’ve presented the data analysis results, its time to interpret and analyse them. In other words, its time to discuss what they mean, especially in relation to your research question(s).

What you discuss here will depend largely on your chosen methodology. For example, if you’ve gone the quantitative route, you might discuss the relationships between variables . If you’ve gone the qualitative route, you might discuss key themes and the meanings thereof. It all depends on what your research design choices were.

Most importantly, you need to discuss your results in relation to your research questions and aims, as well as the existing literature. What do the results tell you about your research questions? Are they aligned with the existing research or at odds? If so, why might this be? Dig deep into your findings and explain what the findings suggest, in plain English.

The final chapter – you’ve made it! Now that you’ve discussed your interpretation of the results, its time to bring it back to the beginning with the conclusion chapter . In other words, its time to (attempt to) answer your original research question s (from way back in chapter 1). Clearly state what your conclusions are in terms of your research questions. This might feel a bit repetitive, as you would have touched on this in the previous chapter, but its important to bring the discussion full circle and explicitly state your answer(s) to the research question(s).

Next, you’ll typically discuss the implications of your findings? In other words, you’ve answered your research questions – but what does this mean for the real world (or even for academia)? What should now be done differently, given the new insight you’ve generated?

Lastly, you should discuss the limitations of your research, as well as what this means for future research in the area. No study is perfect, especially not a Masters-level. Discuss the shortcomings of your research. Perhaps your methodology was limited, perhaps your sample size was small or not representative, etc, etc. Don’t be afraid to critique your work – the markers want to see that you can identify the limitations of your work. This is a strength, not a weakness. Be brutal!

This marks the end of your core chapters – woohoo! From here on out, it’s pretty smooth sailing.

The reference list is straightforward. It should contain a list of all resources cited in your dissertation, in the required format, e.g. APA , Harvard, etc.

It’s essential that you use reference management software for your dissertation. Do NOT try handle your referencing manually – its far too error prone. On a reference list of multiple pages, you’re going to make mistake. To this end, I suggest considering either Mendeley or Zotero. Both are free and provide a very straightforward interface to ensure that your referencing is 100% on point. I’ve included a simple how-to video for the Mendeley software (my personal favourite) below:

Some universities may ask you to include a bibliography, as opposed to a reference list. These two things are not the same . A bibliography is similar to a reference list, except that it also includes resources which informed your thinking but were not directly cited in your dissertation. So, double-check your brief and make sure you use the right one.

The very last piece of the puzzle is the appendix or set of appendices. This is where you’ll include any supporting data and evidence. Importantly, supporting is the keyword here.

Your appendices should provide additional “nice to know”, depth-adding information, which is not critical to the core analysis. Appendices should not be used as a way to cut down word count (see this post which covers how to reduce word count ). In other words, don’t place content that is critical to the core analysis here, just to save word count. You will not earn marks on any content in the appendices, so don’t try to play the system!

Time to recap…

And there you have it – the traditional dissertation structure and layout, from A-Z. To recap, the core structure for a dissertation or thesis is (typically) as follows:

• Acknowledgments page

Most importantly, the core chapters should reflect the research process (asking, investigating and answering your research question). Moreover, the research question(s) should form the golden thread throughout your dissertation structure. Everything should revolve around the research questions, and as you’ve seen, they should form both the start point (i.e. introduction chapter) and the endpoint (i.e. conclusion chapter).

I hope this post has provided you with clarity about the traditional dissertation/thesis structure and layout. If you have any questions or comments, please leave a comment below, or feel free to get in touch with us. Also, be sure to check out the rest of the  Grad Coach Blog .

Psst… there’s more (for free)

This post is part of our dissertation mini-course, which covers everything you need to get started with your dissertation, thesis or research project. 

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36 Comments

many thanks i found it very useful

Glad to hear that, Arun. Good luck writing your dissertation.

Such clear practical logical advice. I very much needed to read this to keep me focused in stead of fretting.. Perfect now ready to start my research!

what about scientific fields like computer or engineering thesis what is the difference in the structure? thank you very much

Thanks so much this helped me a lot!

Very helpful and accessible. What I like most is how practical the advice is along with helpful tools/ links.

Thanks Ade!

Thank you so much sir.. It was really helpful..

You’re welcome!

Hi! How many words maximum should contain the abstract?

Thank you so much 😊 Find this at the right moment

You’re most welcome. Good luck with your dissertation.

best ever benefit i got on right time thank you

Many times Clarity and vision of destination of dissertation is what makes the difference between good ,average and great researchers the same way a great automobile driver is fast with clarity of address and Clear weather conditions .

I guess Great researcher = great ideas + knowledge + great and fast data collection and modeling + great writing + high clarity on all these

You have given immense clarity from start to end.

Morning. Where will I write the definitions of what I’m referring to in my report?

Thank you so much Derek, I was almost lost! Thanks a tonnnn! Have a great day!

Thanks ! so concise and valuable

This was very helpful. Clear and concise. I know exactly what to do now.

Thank you for allowing me to go through briefly. I hope to find time to continue.

Really useful to me. Thanks a thousand times

Very interesting! It will definitely set me and many more for success. highly recommended.

Thank you soo much sir, for the opportunity to express my skills

Usefull, thanks a lot. Really clear

Very nice and easy to understand. Thank you .

That was incredibly useful. Thanks Grad Coach Crew!

My stress level just dropped at least 15 points after watching this. Just starting my thesis for my grad program and I feel a lot more capable now! Thanks for such a clear and helpful video, Emma and the GradCoach team!

Do we need to mention the number of words the dissertation contains in the main document?

It depends on your university’s requirements, so it would be best to check with them 🙂

Such a helpful post to help me get started with structuring my masters dissertation, thank you!

Great video; I appreciate that helpful information

It is so necessary or avital course

This blog is very informative for my research. Thank you

Doctoral students are required to fill out the National Research Council’s Survey of Earned Doctorates

wow this is an amazing gain in my life

This is so good

How can i arrange my specific objectives in my dissertation?

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Major Sociological Theories

A List of Sociological Theories, Concepts and Frameworks

• Key Concepts
• Major Sociologists
• News & Issues
• Research, Samples, and Statistics
• Recommended Reading
• Archaeology

Much of what we know about societies, relationships, and social behavior has emerged thanks to various sociology theories. Sociology students typically spend a great deal of time studying these different theories. Some theories have fallen out of favor, while others remain widely accepted, but all have contributed tremendously to our understanding of society, relationships, and social behavior. By learning more about these theories, you can gain a deeper and richer understanding of sociology's past, present, and future.

Symbolic Interaction Theory

The symbolic interaction perspective, also called symbolic interactionism, is a major framework of ​sociology theory. This perspective focuses on the symbolic meaning that people develop and rely upon in the process of social interaction.

Conflict Theory

Conflict theory emphasizes the role of coercion and power in producing social order . This perspective is derived from the works of Karl Marx , who saw society as fragmented into groups that compete for social and economic resources. Social order is maintained by domination, with power in the hands of those with the greatest political, economic, and social resources.

Functionalist Theory

Bettmann/Getty Images

The functionalist perspective, also called functionalism, is one of the major theoretical perspectives in sociology. It has its origins in the works of Emile Durkheim , who was especially interested in how social order is possible and how society remains relatively stable.

Feminist Theory

Feminist theory is one of the major contemporary sociological theories, which analyzes the status of women and men in society with the purpose of using that knowledge to better women's lives. Feminist theory is most concerned with giving a voice to women and highlighting the various ways women have contributed to society.

Critical Theory

Critical Theory is a type of theory that aims to critique society, social structures, and systems of power, and to foster egalitarian social change.

Labeling Theory

Labeling theory is one of the most important approaches to understanding deviant and criminal behavior . It begins with the assumption that no act is intrinsically criminal. Definitions of criminality are established by those in power through the formulation of laws and the interpretation of those laws by police, courts, and correctional institutions.

Social Learning Theory

Social learning theory is a theory that attempts to explain socialization and its effect on the development of the self. It looks at the individual learning process, the formation of self, and the influence of society in socializing individuals. Social learning theory is commonly used by sociologists to explain deviance and crime.

Structural Strain Theory

Robert K. Merton developed structural strain theory as an extension of the functionalist perspective on deviance. This theory traces the origins of deviance to the tensions that are caused by the gap between cultural goals and the means people have available to achieve those goals.

Rational Choice Theory

Economics plays a huge role in human behavior. That is, people are often motivated by money and the possibility of making a profit, calculating the likely costs and benefits of any action before deciding what to do. This way of thinking is called rational choice theory.

Game Theory

Game theory is a theory of social interaction, which attempts to explain the interaction people have with one another. As the name of the theory suggests, game theory sees human interaction as just that: a game.

Sociobiology

Sociobiology is the application of evolutionary theory to social behavior. It is based on the premise that some behaviors are at least partly inherited and can be affected by natural selection.

Social Exchange Theory

Social exchange theory interprets society as a series of interactions that are based on estimates of rewards and punishments. According to this view, our interactions are determined by the rewards or punishments that we receive from others, and all human relationships are formed by the use of subjective cost-benefit analysis.

Chaos Theory

Chaos theory is a field of study in mathematics, however, it has applications in several disciplines, including sociology and other social sciences. In the social sciences, chaos theory is the study of complex nonlinear systems of social complexity. It is not about disorder, but rather is about very complicated systems of order.

• Social Phenomenology

Social phenomenology is an approach within the field of sociology that aims to reveal what role human awareness plays in the production of social action, social situations and social worlds. In essence, phenomenology is the belief that society is a human construction.

Disengagement Theory

Disengagement theory, which has many critics, suggests that people slowly disengage from social life as they age and enter the elderly stage.

• The Major Theoretical Perspectives of Sociology
• Sociology of Deviance and Crime
• Famous Sociologists
• What Is Social Learning Theory?
• What Is Social Order in Sociology?
• Deviance and Strain Theory in Sociology
• Symbolic Interaction Theory: History, Development, and Examples
• Understanding Functionalist Theory
• What Is Symbolic Interactionism?
• The Sociology of Education
• Understanding Social Exchange Theory
• A Biography of Erving Goffman
• An Overview of Labeling Theory
• Sociology Of Religion
• Sutherland's Differential Association Theory Explained

Doctorate in Social Work (DSW) Dissertations

This series contains dissertations from Penn's Doctorate in Social Work program. For more information about University of Pennsylvania dissertation requirements and guidelines, please consult the dissertation manual .

Publication Type

Results per page, search results.

• Publication Technology as the Third Spouse - The Impact of Smartphones on Newlywed Couples ( 2021-05-15 ) Mandel, Sarah Show more Background Recent research has explored the impact of technology and smartphone use on relationships. This is the first study to address smartphone use in the newlywed stage of marriage. The newlywed time period is the foundational phase of a marital relationship. Technological changes have become part of our culture and smartphone technology has become central to individuals’ lives. The accessibility and size of the smartphone, along with the features it provides, is different from all other devices, thus creating a more intimate and dependent relationship with it. Methods The aim of this study was to expand upon the existing research related to smartphone technology by addressing the gap in the literature on smartphone use during the newlywed time period. This qualitative study explored the experiences of smartphone use in newlywed couples when in each other's presence and how smartphones were part of a newlywed couple’s interaction. Twenty newlywed couples, married between one and four years were interviewed separately, totaling a sample of 40 participants. Data were collected from June 2020 through July 2020 until saturation was met. Results The five themes that were illuminated in this study were, Vehicle, Mindset, Phone Rules, Interface, and Circular Use. The themes were developed based on the appreciation of the common experience of all the participants within their newlywed marriage in relation to their smartphone use (n=40). The results indicated that the smartphone is a neutral reflection of its user and is a vehicle that can be used to either magnify or minimize the value of the couple’s interaction when together. The user’s needs and mindset drive the use of the smartphone. Depending on the spouse’s mindset, the smartphone was used to either enhance bonding or to create a momentary outlet within the relationship. The unexpected finding that a person’s mindset effected their smartphone use informed the reason why individuals used their smartphone object in the moment when with their spouse. Discussion These findings support that when the newlywed couple either employed rules or made quality time a priority by putting the brakes on their smartphone consumption, smartphone use did not have a negative effect on their feelings of attachment to each other. This study suggests the importance of understanding a spouse’s mindset as a motivating factor for smartphone use during shared interactions in order for the couple to better acknowledge each other’s needs and support their developing marital bond. This research has provided information that stresses the importance of helping couples exchange their seeking of connection to their devices in exchange for live and conscious connection to their partner. Show more
• Publication The Impact of the Therapeutic Alliance, Therapist Empathy and Perceived Coercion on Engagement in Outpatient Therapy for Individuals with Serious Mental Health Conditions ( 2020-05-18 ) Mallonee, Jason R Show more Purpose: Individuals with serious mental health conditions disengage from treatment at a higher rate than other populations. Factors associated with treatment engagement for this population in other contexts, or in outpatient therapy for other populations, include the therapeutic alliance, therapist empathy, and perceived coercion. This study tested the hypothesis that a stronger therapeutic alliance, a greater degree of therapist empathy, and a lower degree of coercion will be associated with a higher degree of engagement in outpatient therapy for individuals with SMHC when controlling for other factors found to be associated with engagement. Methods: 131 participants completed an anonymous web-based survey measuring the study’s constructs with established scales. The relationship between variables was tested using hierarchical multiple regression analysis. Results: After separating the therapeutic alliance and therapist empathy in the multivariate analysis due to multicollinearity, both the therapeutic alliance and therapist empathy were found to be significant predictors of change in client engagement. Perceived coercion was not found to be a significant predictor of change in client engagement. It was also found that participant treatment utilization at the time of survey completion was significantly less intensive than their historical treatment utilization, and that participants reflect a range of symptoms and levels of impairment. Conclusions and Implications: The therapeutic alliance and the quality of therapist-client interactions are the most important factors in maintaining engagement in outpatient therapy for individuals with SMHC. Individuals with SMHC are managing their conditions with less intensive and less restrictive treatments, despite a varying range of symptom severity and functional impairment. Additional research is needed to better understand engagement in therapy for individuals with SMHC and to develop more sensitive measures for evaluating these constructs. Show more
• Publication THE DEVELOPMENT OF A SYSTEMIC, TRAUMA-INFORMED GROUP MODEL TO REDUCE SECONDARY TRAUMATIC STRESS AMONG VIOLENCE INTERVENTION WORKERS ( 2019-05-20 ) Vega, Laura Show more ABSTRACT THE DEVELOPMENT OF A SYSTEMIC, TRAUMA-INFORMED GROUP MODEL TO REDUCE SECONDARY TRAUMATIC STRESS AMONG VIOLENCE INTERVENTION WORKERS Laura Vega, MSW, LCSW Lani Nelson-Zlupko, Ph.D., LCSW Secondary Traumatic Stress (STS) among violence intervention workers is pervasive and increases the risk of negative psychosocial and health outcomes. Compelling evidence demonstrates the virulent impact of STS on individual workers, clients, and organizations (Bride, 2007; Figley, 1995; Pearlman & Saakvitne, 1995). STS is an occupational hazard and organizations have an ethical obligation to implement strategies to address it, ultimately protecting workers and clients. However, research is limited on effective interventions to address this issue, with existing interventions focusing narrowly on self-care strategies. Due to the significant and consistent trauma exposure inherent in violence intervention work, it is essential for STS interventions to be proactive, ongoing, and agency-based. This dissertation identifies key risk and protective factors, reviews existing interventions, and describes gaps in those interventions. The development of a group model, Stress-Less Initiative, is presented, an evidence-informed, theoretically grounded intervention that is proactive, ongoing, and embedded within the organization to prevent secondary trauma. The Stress-Less Initiative is a team-based model that provides a safe context to reflect on the impact of trauma work while increasing collegial support, coping strategies, team cohesion and resilience. Recommendations for agency use of this intervention are provided and implications for practice, research and policy are presented. Show more
• Publication PARENTAL "SENSE OF AGENCY": A QUALITATIVE STUDY OF PARENTS EXPERIENCES ASSISTING THEIR CHILDREN IN OUTPATIENT COMMUNITY MENTAL HEALTH TREATMENT. ( 2022-08-05 ) Erickson, Eric G Show more Parental “Sense of Agency”: A Qualitative Study of Parents Experiences Assisting their Children in Outpatient Community Mental Health Treatment. ABSTRACT In the United States, there are approximately 17 million children under the age of 17 that have commonly diagnosed mental health disorders which include ADHD, behavior problems, anxiety, and depression (Bitsko et al., 2019). In efforts to provide access to mental health treatment, there are approximately 11,682 mental health facilities as of 2018, 62% of which are comprised of community mental health centers and outpatient mental health clinics that provide mental health services for children and families (SAMSHA, 2018). The purpose of this qualitative phenomenological study is to explore the experiences of parents and/or primary caregivers “sense of agency” in reference to working with mental health professionals in outpatient community mental health settings. For the purposes of this study, “sense of agency” is defined as actions that are experienced as voluntary and in which we may not feel as simply happening to us rather, we experience agency when we are in control of our actions (Synofzik et al., 2008; Moore, 2016). The assumption in the study is that parents “sense of agency” is a critical aspect of parents being able to effectively engage and implement evidenced based interventions utilized for their children in outpatient community mental health settings. Furthermore, parents increased or improved “sense of agency” would have a lasting impact on their ability to assist their children with mental health conditions even after their children are no longer receiving mental health treatment. The theoretical framework that was utilized in the study to explore parents “sense of agency” was Bowen’s Family Systems Theory. The study was comprised of N=10 participants who had one or more children participating in one outpatient clinic in Central Harlem. Parents engaged in a one-hour semi-structured interview which explored their experiences assisting their children in mental health treatment and their interactions with their child, mental health practitioners and other supports. After the study was completed, four major themes emerged. The four themes included: parents locus of control, parental activation, parental attributions, and issues related to the utilization of psychotropic medication by some of the children in the study. These themes impacted parents “sense of agency” in how they were able to engage in their child’s treatment, what they believed were potential causes of their child’s mental health condition, their orientation of control (whether external or internal) in reference to their child’s progress in treatment, as well as, navigating their children’s resistance to psychotropic medication. Social work practice implications would incorporate interventions that can increase parents “sense of agency”, specifically due to its relational nature which may lead to a transmission of agency to future generations considering the ongoing systemic challenges that families may face in their own communities. The implications for future studies may focus not only on parents “sense of agency” during their child’s mental health treatment but parents “sense of agency” before the start of their child’s treatment process in relation to their capacity to implement interventions that are formulated alongside the mental health practitioner. Furthermore, studies may seek to follow up with parents after their child’s completion of treatment in efforts to understand parents’ experiences or changes in their “sense of agency” as it relates to their children’s mental health. These studies would further allow to improve the understanding between parents “sense of agency” and long-term outcomes in mental health treatment for their children. Show more
• Publication A Comparative Effectiveness Study of the Trauma Recovery Empowerment Model (TREM) and an Attachment-Informed Variation of TREM ( 2017-05-15 ) Masin-Moyer, Melanie Show more Abstract A Comparative Effectiveness Study of the Trauma Recovery Empowerment Model (TREM) and an Attachment-Informed Variation of TREM (ATREM) Melanie Masin-Moyer, University of Pennsylvania Dr. Phyllis Solomon, Dissertation Chair, University of Pennsylvania Dr. Malitta Engstrom, Dissertation Committee Member, University of Pennsylvania Objective: An evidenced-based women’s trauma group was modified to create a new protocol, Attachment-Informed Trauma Recovery Empowerment Model (ATREM), which included attachment-based concepts and strategies to determine if well-being could be enhanced beyond the Trauma Recovery Empowerment Model (TREM). A quasi-experimental design was used to test the hypothesis that ATREM would be associated with greater improvement in attachment security, perceived social support, emotion regulation, substance use, depression, anxiety, and PTSD symptoms than TREM. Methods: Sixty-nine women completed the group interventions (n = 37 ATREM; n = 32 TREM), along with pre- and-post-test questionnaires. The questionnaires included sociodemographic questions and the following standardized scales: Relationship Scale Questionnaire, Social Group Attachment Scale, Social Support Scale, Difficulties in Emotional Regulation, Brief Symptom Inventory 18, PTSD Symptom Scale, and modified versions of the Lifetime Stressor Checklist Revised and the Addiction Severity Index. The continuous variables were analyzed using paired t-tests for within-group comparisons and independent t-tests for between-group comparisons, and the categorical variables were analyzed using Chi-Square or Fisher’s Exact Test. Results: Both ATREM and TREM were associated with statistically significant within-group improvement in individual and group attachment styles, perceived social support, emotion regulation capacities, depression, anxiety, and PTSD. Only ATREM was associated with statistically significant improvement in individual attachment avoidance. The gains associated with ATREM did not exceed those associated with TREM as hypothesized. Conclusion: This pilot study extends prior findings on TREM by demonstrating that novel infusions of attachment-focused strategies into this evidence-based practice can facilitate comparable growth across a variety of measures of well-being. ATREM was also able to promote significant reductions in individual attachment avoidance, a style of interacting often considered challenging to modify. ATREM’s integrated design with cognitive-behavioral and psychodynamic elements holds potential to enhance responsiveness and effectiveness of TREM in meeting the diverse needs of women who have experienced trauma. Further, this study demonstrates the effectiveness of brief trauma-focused group therapy and provides insight into the emerging concept of group attachment style. Show more
• Publication It’s the Journey: The Developmental and Attachment Implications of Animal Assisted Play Therapy(TM) for Children in Emergency Housing ( 2018-05-14 ) Wenocur, Katharine P Show more BACKGROUND: Child homelessness is correlated with a wide range of health and psychosocial challenges including poor school performance, juvenile justice involvement, and heightened risk of exposure to early-life violence and trauma. Despite this, participation in therapy tends to be low. Animal Assisted Play TherapyTM (AAPT), a comprehensive model that systematically integrates trained therapy animals into play therapy, serves as a compelling modality for engaging this population into treatment. The tenets of AAPT are aligned with several clinical goal areas that homeless children might address in therapy, including the strengthening of attachment relationships with primary caregivers. METHODS: The study integrated analysis of projective drawings and accompanying narratives with the treatment records of 11 children (ages 6-11) who received canine assisted therapy while residing in an urban, mid-Atlantic family homeless shelter. All children worked with a clinician trained in AAPT and participated in at least three therapy sessions with a qualified therapy dog present. Each child created a drawing in response to the prompt: “Draw a picture of a child and a dog”, and told a story based on the contents of their drawing. Parent/caregivers of each child participated in a qualitative interview that elicited feedback and reflections on the therapy process. Grounded constructivist theory and interpretive description were used to conduct both individual and cross-participant analysis. Analysis was further informed by children’s case history files and parent interviews about children’s developmental history. RESULTS: The projective drawings communicated aspects of homeless children’s relationships with the therapy dog and, in turn, with their primary caregivers. Developmentally, children drew at lower levels than would be expected for their age. Each child personalized their drawing, either by identifying the protagonist as their gender, or including a physical characteristic (e.g. clothing, hairstyle) unique to the child; this suggests that the children tapped into their personal experience. Several themes emerged from analysis of the drawings and narratives including representations of lived and wished-for attachment experiences. Children depicted relationships between the characters in their drawings and narratives that were characterized by emotional closeness as well as frequent separations and reunions. Children also highlighted the importance of learning tasks related to training and caring for the dogs. These themes were reflected in the children's treatment records and the parent/caregiver interviews. Parent/caregivers described their child's experience in therapy positively, and identified the therapy dog as a component of the treatment's success. IMPLICATIONS: Projective drawings enabled homeless children to communicate their attachment experiences in a manner sensitive to their developmental needs. Themes that emerged from this study inform further research on specific benefits of animal assisted therapy. Specifically, the themes of lived and wished-for attachment experiences suggest that further research on this modality might focus on the ways that the modality allows children to build new relationships and strengthen existing ones. The drawings created during this study are a valuable tool in understanding the experiences of homeless children, and lay the groundwork for further study of the use of projective drawings for exploring children's experiences in therapy. Show more
• Publication TRAUMA-INFORMED CASE MANAGEMENT PRACTICE FOR YOUTH EXPERIENCING HOMELESSNESS: CONNECTION, HEALING AND TRANSFORMATION ( 2018-05-14 ) McAlpin, Frank Show more Young people experiencing homelessness in the United States are some of the most resilient individuals in our society. They, like all young people, are filled with extraordinary potential. However, the multiple and chronic trauma that these young people experience, caused by systemic injustices such as poverty, violence and oppression, both before and while experiencing homelessness, deeply violate their dignity and human rights. For youth experiencing homelessness, their very survival physically, mentally, emotionally, spiritually and economically is threatened daily. Experiences such as: abuse, neglect, poverty, housing instability, loss, family and community violence, victimization, exploitation, hunger, illness, criminalization, social isolation, rejection and marginalization profoundly influence a young person’s sense of safety and ultimately their health and wellbeing. The purpose of this project is to create a response to youth homelessness that restores and enhances dignity and provides opportunities for connection, healing and transformation. This will be accomplished by the creation of a Trauma-Informed Case Management Toolkit for case managers working with youth experiencing homelessness. In short, this response addresses the individual needs of young people experiencing homelessness while also encouraging social change. The trauma-informed case management toolkit, a holistic guide in delivering case management services, connects theory to practice for case managers, infusing principles of trauma-informed care, attachment theory, youth development and social justice into case management practice with youth experiencing homelessness. The intention is that the trauma-informed case management toolkit can be used as part of the larger response in addressing youth homelessness from an individual, community, societal, and policy perspective. Show more
• Publication Client-Clinician Texting: An Expansion of the Clinical Holding Environment ( 2015-05-19 ) Innocente, Gina M Show more While there has been a surge in the texting literature related to the innovative uses of mobile technology in clinical social work practice, there is a dearth of knowledge related to the use of texting between clients and clinicians. Regardless of a clinician’s individual preference for using texting, cultural paradigm shifts in communication and interpersonal expectations will require incorporation of texting technology to meet client demands. This two-part dissertation provides a critical review of the literature that chronicles the rapid diffusion of texting into American culture and identifies its current use in psychotherapy. It demonstrates a significant gap related to its impact on the therapeutic relationship, as well as the absence of theoretical evolution to guide practice. An accompanying article expands relational theory as a way to conceptualize texting and texting behaviors in order to make responsible and purposeful decisions when integrating this technology. Composite case vignettes will demonstrate how “theoretical knowing” can be translated into “clinical doing” to address this current gap between theory and practice. Show more
• Publication EXPLAINING THE LONG-DISTANCE PARENT CAREGIVING BURDEN OF THE UNITED STATES FOREIGN SERVICE AND MILITARY ( 2022-08-05 ) Holmes, Christine D Show more Purpose: To respond to global trends in aging, healthcare, technology and mobile labor markets, this cross-sectional, correlational study examined the burden of long-distance parent caregivers, or adults coordinating parent care remotely, by using a convenience sample of U.S. active-duty military personnel and Foreign Service Officers. Methods: 79 respondents completed an anonymous online survey containing standardized scales. The relationship between variables was tested using multiple regression analysis and One-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA). Results: Preparedness for caregiving was negatively correlated with subjective and objective caregiving burden in multiple regression analysis. One-way ANOVA revealed a statistically significant difference in subjective burden based on caregiving intensity. There was also a significant difference in objective burden based on the reason the recipient needed care, but post-hoc analysis found no inter-group differences that passed the Bonferroni adjusted cutoff for significance. Multiple regression analysis demonstrated that the gender of the caregiver, availability of a sibling support network and instrumental support were not significantly correlated with burden. Conclusions and Implications: Preparedness for caregiving had the strongest relationship to distance caregiving burden in this study. Findings may inform intervention strategies to limit the strains of caregiving and support other distance caregiver subgroups, such as other U.S. Government employees and other Americans living overseas. Future longitudinal research is needed to understand causality and the relationship between variables in the long-distance caregiving trajectory over time. Show more
• Publication THIRD CULTURE KIDS (TCKs) GO TO COLLEGE: A RETROSPECTIVE NARRATIVE INQUIRY OF INTERNATIONAL UPBRINGING AND COLLEGIATE ENGAGEMENT ( 2018-05-14 ) Espada-Campos, Shakira Show more BACKGROUND: Third Culture Kids (TCKs) are those who have been raised in a culture outside of the culture of their parents, usually in a host country that differs from the country of their birth, because of their parents’ work or religious endeavors. Some of the groups that identify themselves as TCKs include children of military service members stationed overseas, children of members of the Foreign Service, and the children of missionaries. These children are growing up in a culture and society that is different from their parents’ passport country and may vastly differ in language spoken, religious beliefs, and cultural norms. Pollock and Van Reken (2001) explain TCKs as being between cultures, stating that the third culture is developed by the child to explain an identity that is different from that of the host country or the parents’ home country. This retrospective narrative inquiry explored the undergraduate college experiences of Adult Third Culture Kids (ATCKs) to understand the risk and protective factors associated with repatriation and collegiate engagement. METHODS: This study employed a qualitative approach combining heuristic analysis and procedures of grounded theory during data collection, analysis, and interpretation of findings. Twelve semi-structured interviews were conducted face-to-face with individuals who self-identified as ATCKs and had completed a four year undergraduate program earning a degree. RESULTS: Concepts related to understanding the self, and meaningful connections and relationships emerged from the data revealing how repatriation can be simultaneously volatile and emotionally grounding. Themes uncovered during data analysis included perceptions of self-identity, investment, the concept of home, uneven development, and factors contributing to college choice. DISCUSSION: Research findings suggest the need for culturally informed administrative practices to mitigate psychosocial challenges associated with academic engagement. Interventions related to student identification procedures, supportive resources, and campus life programs should be incorporated to support multicultural students starting at the time of application and continuing through to graduation. Show more
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