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Super-efficient solar cells: 10 Breakthrough Technologies 2024

Solar cells that combine traditional silicon with cutting-edge perovskites could push the efficiency of solar panels to new heights.

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Beyond Silicon, Caelux, First Solar, Hanwha Q Cells, Oxford PV, Swift Solar, Tandem PV

3 to 5 years

In November 2023, a buzzy solar technology broke yet another world record for efficiency. The previous record had existed for only about five months—and it likely won’t be long before it too is obsolete. This astonishing acceleration in efficiency gains comes from a special breed of next-­generation solar technology: perovskite tandem solar cells. These cells layer the traditional silicon with materials that share a unique crystal structure.

In the decade that scientists have been toying with perovskite solar technology , it has continued to best its own efficiency records, which measure how much of the sunlight that hits the cell is converted into electricity. Perovskites absorb different wavelengths of light from those absorbed by silicon cells, which account for 95% of the solar market today. When silicon and perovskites work together in tandem solar cells, they can utilize more of the solar spectrum, producing more electricity per cell. 

Technical efficiency levels for silicon-­based cells top out below 30%, while perovskite-only cells have reached experimental efficiencies of around 26%. But perovskite tandem cells have already exceeded 33% efficiency in the lab. That is the technology’s tantalizing promise: if deployed on a significant scale, perovskite tandem cells could produce more electricity than the legacy solar cells at a lower cost. 

But perovskites have stumbled when it comes to actual deployment. Silicon solar cells can last for decades. Few perovskite tandem panels have even been tested outside. 

The electrochemical makeup of perovskites means they’re sensitive to sucking up water and degrading in heat, though researchers have been working to create better barriers around panels and shifting to more stable perovskite compounds. 

In May, UK-based Oxford PV said it had reached an efficiency of 28.6% for a commercial-size perovskite tandem cell, which is significantly larger than those used to test the materials in the lab, and it plans to deliver its first panels and ramp up manufacturing in 2024. Other companies could unveil products later this decade. 

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Harvard has halted its long-planned atmospheric geoengineering experiment

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Decarbonizing production of energy is a quick win 

Clean technologies, including carbon management platforms, enable the global energy industry to play a crucial role in the transition to net zero.

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To improve solar and other clean energy tech, look beyond hardware

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To continue reducing the costs of solar energy and other clean energy technologies, scientists and engineers will likely need to focus, at least in part, on improving technology features that are not based on hardware, according to MIT researchers. They describe this finding and the mechanisms behind it today in  Nature Energy.

While the cost of installing a solar energy system has dropped by more than 99 percent since 1980, this new analysis shows that “soft technology” features, such as the codified permitting practices, supply chain management techniques, and system design processes that go into deploying a solar energy plant, contributed only 10 to 15 percent of total cost declines. Improvements to hardware features were responsible for the lion’s share.

But because soft technology is increasingly dominating the total costs of installing solar energy systems, this trend threatens to slow future cost savings and hamper the global transition to clean energy, says the study’s senior author, Jessika Trancik, a professor in MIT’s Institute for Data, Systems, and Society (IDSS).

Trancik’s co-authors include lead author Magdalena M. Klemun, a former IDSS graduate student and postdoc who is now an assistant professor at the Hong Kong University of Science and Technology; Goksin Kavlak, a former IDSS graduate student and postdoc who is now an associate at the Brattle Group; and James McNerney, a former IDSS postdoc and now senior research fellow at the Harvard Kennedy School.

The team created a quantitative model to analyze the cost evolution of solar energy systems, which captures the contributions of both hardware technology features and soft technology features.

The framework shows that soft technology hasn’t improved much over time — and that soft technology features contributed even less to overall cost declines than previously estimated.

Their findings indicate that to reverse this trend and accelerate cost declines, engineers could look at making solar energy systems less reliant on soft technology to begin with, or they could tackle the problem directly by improving inefficient deployment processes.  

“Really understanding where the efficiencies and inefficiencies are, and how to address those inefficiencies, is critical in supporting the clean energy transition. We are making huge investments of public dollars into this, and soft technology is going to be absolutely essential to making those funds count,” says Trancik.

“However,” Klemun adds, “we haven’t been thinking about soft technology design as systematically as we have for hardware. That needs to change.”

The hard truth about soft costs

Researchers have observed that the so-called “soft costs” of building a solar power plant — the costs of designing and installing the plant — are becoming a much larger share of total costs. In fact, the share of soft costs now typically ranges from 35 to 64 percent.

“We wanted to take a closer look at where these soft costs were coming from and why they weren’t coming down over time as quickly as the hardware costs,” Trancik says.

In the past, scientists have modeled the change in solar energy costs by dividing total costs into additive components — hardware components and nonhardware components — and then tracking how these components changed over time.

“But if you really want to understand where those rates of change are coming from, you need to go one level deeper to look at the technology features. Then things split out differently,” Trancik says.

The researchers developed a quantitative approach that models the change in solar energy costs over time by assigning contributions to the individual technology features, including both hardware features and soft technology features.

For instance, their framework would capture how much of the decline in system installation costs — a soft cost — is due to standardized practices of certified installers — a soft technology feature. It would also capture how that same soft cost is affected by increased photovoltaic module efficiency — a hardware technology feature.

With this approach, the researchers saw that improvements in hardware had the greatest impacts on driving down soft costs in solar energy systems. For example, the efficiency of photovoltaic modules doubled between 1980 and 2017, reducing overall system costs by 17 percent. But about 40 percent of that overall decline could be attributed to reductions in soft costs tied to improved module efficiency.

The framework shows that, while hardware technology features tend to improve many cost components, soft technology features affect only a few.

“You can see this structural difference even before you collect data on how the technologies have changed over time. That’s why mapping out a technology’s network of cost dependencies is a useful first step to identify levers of change, for solar PV and for other technologies as well,” Klemun notes.  

Static soft technology

The researchers used their model to study several countries, since soft costs can vary widely around the world. For instance, solar energy soft costs in Germany are about 50 percent less than those in the U.S.

The fact that hardware technology improvements are often shared globally led to dramatic declines in costs over the past few decades across locations, the analysis showed. Soft technology innovations typically aren’t shared across borders. Moreover, the team found that countries with better soft technology performance 20 years ago still have better performance today, while those with worse performance didn’t see much improvement.

This country-by-country difference could be driven by regulation and permitting processes, cultural factors, or by market dynamics such as how firms interact with each other, Trancik says.

“But not all soft technology variables are ones that you would want to change in a cost-reducing direction, like lower wages. So, there are other considerations, beyond just bringing the cost of the technology down, that we need to think about when interpreting these results,” she says.

Their analysis points to two strategies for reducing soft costs. For one, scientists could focus on developing hardware improvements that make soft costs more dependent on hardware technology variables and less on soft technology variables, such as by creating simpler, more standardized equipment that could reduce on-site installation time.

Or researchers could directly target soft technology features without changing hardware, perhaps by creating more efficient workflows for system installation or automated permitting platforms.

“In practice, engineers will often pursue both approaches, but separating the two in a formal model makes it easier to target innovation efforts by leveraging specific relationships between technology characteristics and costs,” Klemun says.

“Often, when we think about information processing, we are leaving out processes that still happen in a very low-tech way through people communicating with one another. But it is just as important to think about that as a technology as it is to design fancy software,” Trancik notes.

In the future, she and her collaborators want to apply their quantitative model to study the soft costs related to other technologies, such as electrical vehicle charging and nuclear fission . They are also interested in better understanding the limits of soft technology improvement, and how one could design better soft technology from the outset.

This research is funded by the U.S. Department of Energy Solar Energy Technologies Office.

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Prof. Jessika Trancik speaks with Boston Globe reporter Aruni Soni about her new study that finds reducing the cost of solar energy will be accelerated by improvements in soft tech. “We found that the soft technology involved in solar energy really has not changed and hasn’t improved nearly as quickly as the hardware,” says Trancik. “These soft costs, in many systems, can be 50 percent or even more of the total cost of solar electricity.”

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A bibliometric evaluation and visualization of global solar power generation research: productivity, contributors and hot topics

• Research Article
• Open access
• Published: 04 January 2024
• Volume 31 , pages 8274–8290, ( 2024 )

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• Xiaozan Lyu 1 ,
• Tianqi Ruan   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-6866-3036 2 ,
• Wujun Wang 2 &
• Xiaojing Cai 3  

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The demand for sustainable energy is increasingly urgent to mitigate global warming which has been exacerbated by the extensive use of fossil fuels. Solar energy has attracted global attention as a crucial renewable resource. This study conducted a bibliometric analysis based on publication metrics from the Web of Science database to gain insights into global solar power research. The results indicate a stable global increase in publications on solar power generation and a rise in citations, reflecting growing academic interest. Leading contributors include China, the USA, South Korea, Japan, and India, with the Chinese Academy of Sciences emerging as the most prolific institution. Multidisciplinary Materials Science, Applied Physics, Energy and Fuels, Physical Chemistry, and Nanoscience and Nanotechnology were the most used and promising subject categories. Current hot topics include the systematic analysis of photovoltaic systems, perovskite as a solar cell material, and focusing on stability and flexibility issues arising during photovoltaic-grid integration. This study facilitates a comprehensive understanding of the status and trends in solar power research for researchers, stakeholders, and policy-makers.

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Introduction

Conventional power generation technologies rely on fossil fuels, exert pressure on the environment and ecosystems, and may become untenable in the future due to the scarcity of resources (Zhang et al. 2022 ). With the growing awareness of sustainable development, most countries have implemented policies and targets concerning renewable energy, and 57 have set goals to achieve 100% renewable energy utilization (REN21 2018 ). Consequently, renewable energy options like solar power, characterized by abundant resources and fewer negative environmental impacts, have become an important discussion topic for governments and energy stakeholders worldwide (Chen et al. 2020 ).

Solar energy has emerged as a promising alternative to traditional sources of electricity generation. This is accomplished through harnessing solar irradiance with two fundamental technologies: photovoltaics (PV) and concentrating solar power (CSP) (Pazheri et al. 2014 ; Azad and Parvin 2022 ). PV technology utilizes the photoelectric effect of specific chemicals, particularly silicon, to convert sunlight directly into electricity. Conversely, CSP is a technique that concentrates and directs sunlight onto high-temperature receivers, subsequently converting solar energy into thermal energy (Achkari and El Fadar 2020 ; Chen et al. 2020 ). To encourage the development of solar energy–related industries, most countries have enacted a suite of policies and regulations promoting renewable resources and fostering stable and sustainable growth for the PV sector. These measures include feed-in-tariffs, portfolio standards, tax credits, pricing laws, production incentives, quota requirements, and trading systems (Solangi et al. 2011 ; Chen et al. 2020 ). For example, the USA has implemented various policies to promote renewable energy usage, including renewable portfolio standards and federal investment tax credits. Additionally, federal loan guarantees have been provided to support the deployment of various types of renewable energy projects in the USA (Mehos et al. 2016 ). China’s solar power research programs, investment subsidies, and operational subsidies are geared toward achieving a 27.5% share of renewable energy by 2050, supported through various programs, subsidies, and policies (Mir-Artigues et al. 2019 ). Implementing supportive policies and regulations advances the transition toward a sustainable, low-emission future centered on alternative energy sources.

Since the 1970s, academic research on solar energy technologies has gained significant prominence due to its potential as a sustainable energy source. Over the past two decades, this topic has experienced substantial growth and advancements (Dong et al. 2012 ). Most research has focused on technological innovations and applications, including efforts to enhance production plans to improve efficiency (Cohen et al. 1999 ; Bacher et al. 2009 ), the application of novel technologies aimed at maximizing economic benefits (Cai et al. 2010 ; Verma et al. 2012 ), and forecasting improvements to mitigate uncertainties (Kayal and Chanda 2013 ; Brancucci Martinez-Anido et al. 2016 ; Kawamoto and Guo 2018 ). These investigations form the scientific framework to advance solar energy research. Furthermore, they provide essential data to assist researchers in exploring the solar energy developmental status on a global and macroscopic scale.

As a well-established quantitative research method, bibliometric analysis plays a crucial role in studying the current state of scientific research and forecasting future trends (Hicks and Melkers 2013 ) and has been widely adopted in various domains (Hood and Wilson 2001 ). Bibliometrics utilizes publication counts, patents, or citations to assess and interpret scientific and technological advancements. It summarizes scientific activities, explores fundamental scientific endeavors, gauges technical capabilities, and assesses research performance over time (Van Raan 1997 ; Hicks and Melkers 2013 ; Zhang et al. 2013 , 2014 ). Through bibliometric analysis, researchers and policymakers can obtain various internal and external characteristics of publications, identify research hotspots and trends, and provide scientific and rational guidance for research planning (Mao et al. 2015b ).

To the best of the authors’ knowledge, bibliometric analysis has been infrequently employed in solar power research at this time. While publications exist, several have a limited scope and fail to provide a comprehensive overview of a specific functional aspect (Moro et al. 2018 ). Alternatively, they might be generalized, encompassing several renewable technologies (Chen et al. 2016 ; Yu et al. 2016 ; Wang et al. 2017a , b ). Others are focused solely on research in specific regions or areas (Chen et al. 2016 ; Liang and Liu 2018 ). Some literature is outdated or covers a narrow time period, requiring further updates and supplementary work (Dong et al. 2012 ; Mao et al. 2015a ; De Paulo and Porto 2017 ; Wang et al. 2017a ). Consequently, there is a research gap regarding a comprehensive bibliometric analysis of solar power research.

This study evaluates solar power generation research over the past two decades comprehensively using bibliometric analysis and tools. The investigation encompassed multiple research perspectives, including scientific output, prolific countries and institutions, main subject categories and journals, and hot topics. Additionally, visualization tools reveal developmental trends in solar power research, providing guidance to researchers about related technical layouts and hotspots. The central research questions include identifying the publication trends, the countries, institutions, subject categories, and journals that contribute the most to solar power research, the directions and temporal evolution of solar power research, and which topics have gained attention.

This study facilitates a critical evaluation of solar power research and offers insights into academic publishing activities. Specifically, this research enhances the understanding of research trends in solar energy generation using bibliometric analysis, illuminating development patterns and research gaps. Additionally, visualization tools demonstrate current trends and how solar power research has evolved. This study contributes a deeper understanding of the academic landscape related to solar power generation, enabling researchers to identify limitations and opportunities for future research. This research is of interest to researchers, policymakers, and practitioners focusing on renewable energy research and development.

This study is structured as follows. In the “ Methodology ” section, the methodology, data sets, and indicators are defined. The “ Results ” section presents the main findings of the reviews and the results of additional analyses. Finally, the “ Conclusion ” section concludes the study and discusses the implications of the empirical results.

Methodology

Data and indicators.

The present study utilized a bibliometric dataset extracted from the Science Citation Index Expanded (SCI-E) within the Web of Science (WoS) Core Collection database, made available by Clarivate Analytics. The SCI-E database, including over 8500 distinct academic journals across diverse disciplines, spanning from the natural sciences and engineering to technology and clinical medicine, has an extensive historical reach, with its earliest publications dating back to the year 1900. Footnote 1

The current study aimed to identify and analyze publications related to solar power generation from 2001 to 2021. Publication types, such as “Article” or “Review,” with terms, such as “solar power generate*,” “photovoltaic*,” “solar panel*,” and “solar cell*,” in the title field were retrieved using a bibliometric approach (Fig.  1 ). A total of 95,758 publications were obtained. Various bibliometric items, including publication year, journal, authors, addresses, author keywords, subject categories, and citation counts, were extracted and processed using specific algorithms. The data was analyzed and visualized using software, such as Microsoft Excel, Python, and VOSviewer (Van Eck and Waltman 2010 ). Not all publications related to the research topic of solar power generation were covered with our search strategy. However, a focused and precise approach is the most efficient for identifying publications with the most direct alignment with the core concept of “solar power generation.”

Data selection process and review methodology

The data provided an overview of current research on solar power generation globally. This included the annual scientific output, academic performance of prolific countries and institutions, distribution of publications in subject categories and journals, and clusters of high-frequency title terms. To ensure data consistency and reliability, publications from England, Scotland, Ireland, and Wales were manually grouped under the UK heading. In addition, publications resulting from international collaborations, i.e., involving more than two authors from at least two countries, were extracted as a separate group to analyze the degree of internationalization of countries and institutions. To facilitate a rigorous and comprehensive analysis, a series of indicators were used as the main proxies for measuring the research productivity and impact. These indicators are listed in detail in Table  1 , along with their corresponding definitions and calculations. By utilizing a diverse set of indicators, this study provides a comprehensive understanding of the research landscape in solar power generation.

At the global level, the indicator of TP i is the annual output of publications related to solar power generation, and AAC i is the degree of attention obtained from the academic community. At the country and institution levels, multiple indicators were applied to evaluate and compare the academic performance of certain countries and institutions engaged in relevant research from three perspectives as follows:

First, the productivity , including the number and percentage of publications ( TP and TP% ).

Second, the degree of internationalization in research, reflected by the share of internationally co-authored publications ( ICP% ).

Third, the academic impact , based on the proportion of cited publications ( CP% ) and top 10 percent highly cited publications ( Top-10% ), as well as the average citations ( AC ).

Overlay maps and VOSviewer

This study introduced overlay maps in the scientific mapping field, building on previous work done by Boyack ( 2009 ) and further developing these ideas into interactive overlays (Bensman and Leydesdorff 2009 ; Leydesdorff and Rafols 2009 ; Rafols et al. 2009 ). An overlay map was constructed on a base map with the location (or clusters) of units under study to visualize the properties or features of such units (Rafols et al. 2009 ). This study generated a network of high-frequency title terms based on their co-occurrence in publications, creating the base map of hot topics using VOSviewer. The text mining functionality of VOSviewer supported the creation of term maps based on a corpus of documents, following these steps (Van Eck and Waltman 2011 ):

Identifying noun phrases using an approach developed by Van Eck et al. ( 2010a , b ). The linguistic filter selected all word sequences that consisted exclusively of nouns and adjectives and ended with a noun, identifying noun phrases.

Selecting the most relevant noun phrases, or terms. For each noun phrase, we determined the distribution of (second-order) co-occurrences over all noun phrases. A higher difference between the two distributions indicated greater relevance of a noun phrase. Subsequently, noun phrases with high relevance were grouped into clusters.

Mapping and clustering of the terms. The unified framework for mapping and clustering (Van Eck et al. 2010a , b ; Waltman et al. 2010 ) was used in this step.

Visualization of the results obtained from mapping and clustering.

Visualizing research trends and characteristics is fundamental to scientific inquiry. VOSviewer, a software tool enabling the analysis and visualization of bibliometric data, is a valuable resource for researchers (Wong et al. 2021 ). VOSviewer has an overlay option using a network visualization that assigned colors to items based on their overlay scores. This allows the visualization of average publication year and citation counts of terms across the base map, providing an intuitive indication of the characteristics of different research topics. The overlay score in this context was defined as the average publication year and citation count of the high-frequency title terms. In the current study, the overlay employed a color range from white (low score) to red (high score).

Several analyses examined current research on global solar power generation. This section presents the results, including global scientific output, the most prolific countries and institutions, the main subject categories, journals, and hot topics that emerged from clusters of frequently used title terms. These analyses provide a comprehensive view of the existing knowledge landscape, enabling the identification of key focus areas and concerns for improved solar power generation.

Global scientific output

The present study examined the annual number of publications ( TP i ) and average citations ( AAC i ) related to solar power generation over twenty years (2001–2021), represented in Fig.  2 as bars and strip scatter, respectively. The annual output of global publications on solar power generation exhibited a linear trend ( R 2  > 0.94), indicating stable growth in academic interest. Approximately 2–5% of the annual publications from 2001 to 2020 have not been cited thus far. The proportion of publications not cited in 2021 is higher (approximately 10%) due to the more recent publication date and shorter citation window.

Annual output ( TP i ) and average citations (AAC i ) of publications. The bars represent the number of total publications each year, dots represent the average citations of all publications in the corresponding year, and color blocks represent phases based on the annual number of publications and the growth rate

Depending on the annual number of publications and the growth rate, three distinct phases were identified and marked with different colors (yellow, blue, and green). The initial phase from 2001 to 2009 revealed a modest output of academic research in solar power generation, with approximately 1000 publications and a low growth rate around 15%. During the second phase, 2010–2015, the number of publications increased rapidly, with an annual growth rate of approximately 30%. In 2010, the number of publications exceeded 3000, and by 2015 exceeded 7000, representing a substantial increase. However, in the third phase since 2016, the growth rate decreased significantly despite the continuous rise in the number of solar power publications, reaching approximately 8500 by 2020. It should be noted that there is a slight decrease in the number of publications in 2021 due to the time lag in the inclusion of the WoS database.

A distinct increase in the annual average citations ( AAC i ) during 2001–2009 indicated an increased focus on solar power research based on citations. The first peak in citation impact occurred in 2009, with an AAC i index of approximately 6.76. The index value then declined until a second peak in 2014 of approximately 5.68. Subsequently, the annual number of citations per publication has remained stable. The publications from 2020 and 2021 may have a shorter citation window (fewer than three years) and thus fewer citations. Despite fluctuations, solar power research has witnessed increased academic attention over the last decade.

Prolific countries and institutions

Full counting was used to calculate the scientific output of a given country, region, or institution. This assigned equal weight to all publications containing an author address from the specific country or institution under consideration, regardless of the frequency of occurrence. Full counting provided non-additive statistics, such as the total number of publications from individual countries or regions exceeding the total global publication count (Waltman 2016 ). Figure  3 depicts the total scientific output of different countries on solar power generation worldwide in distinct colors. China and the USA emerged as the leading countries for publications in this field.

Total number of publications in the dataset for each country globally. The color of each country on the map correlates with its number of publications; red indicates the largest total number of publications, and blue indicates the smallest total number of publications

Table 2 displays the top 10 most prolific countries and regions in solar power research for the period 2001–2021 in detail. Together, these countries and regions have contributed 76.5% of the global solar power papers. Certain Asian and European countries are global leaders in related research. Of the nine countries in the top 10 list, excluding the USA, four are in Asia, and five are European. China ranked the highest with approximately 30,000 publications, more than double the second-ranked USA. Chinese publications accounted for a substantial contribution of over 30% of global publications. The USA accounted for 13.6% of all publications worldwide. South Korea, Japan, and India ranked third to fifth, respectively, with a total output exceeding 6500 publications. These five countries were considered the core contributors to the development of solar power research. Other countries that contributed significantly included Germany, Taiwan (China), the UK, Australia, and Spain, with global shares ranging from 3.3 to 6.6%. These countries were prominent in solar power generation research and featured as the leading producers of solar power worldwide. According to the Solar Industry Update Report (Feldman and Margolis 2019 ), China, India, the USA, Japan, and Europe were among the most significant countries with the highest solar power generation capacity globally.

International collaboration has become a vital mode of academic research. Compared to Asian countries, developed regions like the European Union (EU) and the USA were more inclined toward participating in international collaborations. Table 2 shows the proportion of international co-authored publications ( ICP% ) for the UK, Australia, Spain, Germany, and the USA which exceeded 50%, while the proportion in China, South Korea, and Taiwan was less than 30%, and the proportion in Japan and India was slightly above 30%. Research from the top 10 countries has received widespread attention. More than 96% of all publications have received citations in each country, with the share of the top 10% highly cited publications ranking above the global average. Among these countries, the USA performed the best in citation impact, with the percentages of cited and top 10% highly cited publications far higher than those of the other countries, and its average citation per publication ( AC ) ranked first (79.4). The UK was also a representative of outstanding academic influence. Conversely, India needed to strengthen its performance for the proportion of highly cited publications ( Top-10% ) and overall citation impact ( AC ).

Figure  4 displays the collaboration network among the top 10 most prolific countries. The dot size indicates the total number of publications of a country. The intensity of collaboration is reflected by the line thickness, where the number of co-authored publications between one country and others determines the total strength of its relations. Figure  4 shows two primary networks that emerged in solar power research. The first was led by China (red cluster) and the second by Germany (green cluster). The USA is located centrally within the network, indicating that it collaborates more with members of both sub-networks and has a clear bridging role. In contrast, Australian collaboration with these leading countries was independent, forming a distinct blue cluster.

Collaboration network for the top 10 most prolific countries or regions. Each node represents a country or region on the map, and node size depicts the number of publications. The node color represents a cluster, edge connections display collaborations between countries or regions, and thicker lines represent closer collaboration

Table 3 presents a detailed investigation of the top 10 most prolific institutions globally. Mostly institutions from the USA (3), China (2), and European countries (4), such as France, Germany, and Switzerland, dominate solar power research. Among the institutions engaged in solar power research, the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) significantly outperformed the others in productivity, contributing more than 7% of global publications, which is almost three times that of the second-ranked U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) (2.5%). Following them are the University of Chinese Academy of Sciences from China, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) from France, and Swiss Federal Institutes of Technology Domain from Switzerland. These three combined accounted for approximately 2.0% of all publications worldwide. Helmholtz Association (Germany), Institute of Chemistry (CAS, China), Ecole Polytechnique Federale de Lausanne (Switzerland), Indian Institute of Technology System (IIT System) (India), and University of California System (USA) ranked fifth to tenth, respectively, with a global share of more than 1.4%. These institutions included national academy, government, nonprofit, academic, and research council or system types implying that solar-related research is an academic issue as well as a policy and social concern. Solar power, as one of the promising renewable technologies, has attracted more attention from the public and government due to the increasing awareness of sustainable development goals.

For international collaboration and citation impact, institutions in the USA and European countries performed better than their Asian counterparts. Almost all the USA and European institutions had an IPC% index of over 50%, whereas those of the Asian institutions remained below 30%. Among the top 10 institutions, the Ecole Polytechnique Federale de Lausanne and the Swiss Federal Institutes of Technology Domain, both in Switzerland, showed the highest degree of internationalization, with approximately 80% of their publications being co-authored by researchers from different nations. Similarly, the CNRS of France was distinctly inclined toward international collaboration, with an IPC% value exceeding 61%. In addition, the Ecole Polytechnique Federale de Lausanne, Swiss Federal Institutes of Technology Domain, and University of California System demonstrated superior academic influence compared to other institutions. The Ecole Polytechnique Federale de Lausanne had the highest percentage of publications in the top 10% tier ( Top-10% ), while the University of California System received the highest number of citations per publication ( AC ). Despite having the highest proportion of publications being cited (99.5%), the CAS performed moderately well in other citation-based indicators.

Main subject categories and journals

A total of 212 WoS subject categories were relevant to research on solar power generation. The top 10 subject categories with the greatest number of publications from 2001 to 2021 are displayed in Fig.  5 . The subject category ranked first, Multidisciplinary Materials Science, had a total of 46,404 publications, accounting for 48.5% of all publications related to solar power generation. Following this category was Physics-Applied (34,135), Energy and Fuels (27,996), and Chemistry-Physical (20,707), which in combination comprised approximately 30%. The third tier included Nanoscience and Nanotechnology (14,271, 14.9%), Chemistry-Multidisciplinary (14,005, 14.6%), and Physics-Condensed Matter (12,732, 13.3%), each comprising more than 10% of publications. Engineering-Electrical and Electronic (6894, 7.2%), Optics (4370, 4.6%), and Green and Sustainable Science and Technology (4033, 4.2%) were the remaining subject categories.

Number of publications ( TP ) of the top 10 most used subject categories

According to the dynamic evolution shown in Fig.  6 , the Applied Physics subject category demonstrated a publication output advantage during the early stages of the investigation. However, this category was superseded by Multidisciplinary Materials Science in 2008. Subsequently, Multidisciplinary Materials Science has been the foremost category, reflecting a stable increment annually. By 2017, publications within Multidisciplinary Materials Science had exceeded 50% with 4060 published documents. In contrast, there has been a noticeable decrease in the proportion of publications in Applied Physics. Compared to other categories, Condensed Matter Physics has witnessed a decline in the proportion of publications despite an increase in the total number. The outcomes of this investigation confirm, to a certain degree, that increased attention has been focused on foundational disciplines, such as chemistry and materials, within the large-scale implementation phase of solar power technologies (Dong et al. 2012 ).

Annual proportion of publications ( TP% ) of the top 10 most used subject categories. The color of each cell in the graph correlates with the percentage of publications; red indicates the highest percentage of publications and green the lowest

Several core journals contributed a significant percentage of publications. Table 4 below lists the top 10 journals with the greatest number of published publications.

Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells ranked first with 4495 publications, constituting approximately 4.7% of all publications in the dataset. Solar Energy ranked second with 3228 publications (3.38%), followed by ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces , Journal of Materials Chemistry A , and Applied Physics Letters. All three journals had a proportion of over 2% publications each. The remaining five journals, ranked from sixth to tenth, contributed more than 1.52%. These included Thin Solid Films , Journal of Physical Chemistry C , Organic Electronics , RSC Advances , and IEEE Journal of Photovoltaics . Our findings suggested that solar power research has attracted substantial attention from researchers in energy, materials, and physics. Additionally, the relatively large proportion (90% = 9/10 × 100) of journals in Q1 and Q2 illustrated the high quality of publications on solar power research. This contributed to improving its dissemination and impact throughout the academic community to a certain extent.

Hot topics and issues

Hot topics indicated by high-frequency title terms.

Titles play a crucial role in academic genres, offering a concise overview of significance (Hyland and Zou 2022 ). Terms within publication titles are indicators to identify current hot topics using bibliometric analyses (Katsurai and Ono 2019 ; Lyu and Costas 2022 ). This study employed high-frequency title terms to explore hot topics and their evolutionary trends in solar power research. VOSviewer is utilized to generate, cluster, and visualize the network of title terms from all publications in our dataset, employing a specific text mining approach (Van Eck and Waltman 2011 ) and a unified framework for mapping and clustering (Van Eck et al. 2010a , b ; Waltman et al. 2010 ). In addition, the overlapping visualization option in VOSviewer enabled further analysis of the evolution process (reflected by average publication year) and the degree of academic attention (reflected by normalized citations) of these research topics on a base map.

Figure  7 presents the clustering network (the base map) of more than 2600 high-frequency title terms (occurrence ≥ 20) based on their co-occurrence relations in publications, providing an overview of current hot research topics on solar power generation. Each item in the figure represents a term extracted from all the publication titles. The size of an item indicates the number of publications containing the corresponding title term, while the thickness of a line is directly proportional to the frequency of co-occurrence between two items. The color of an item represents the main cluster to which it belongs, and the distance between two items offers an approximate indication of the relatedness of their co-occurrences (Van Eck and Waltman 2017 ). Five clusters with different colors (green, blue, red, yellow, and purple) were identified via the special algorithm in VOSviewer. The list of the top 20 high-frequency title terms for each cluster is shown in Table  5 .

Clusters of high-frequency title terms of publications. Each node represents a title term on the map, and node size depicts the number of publications containing the term. The color of the nodes represents a cluster, and the edge connections show the frequency of co-occurrence between terms in the titles. The thickness of connecting lines represents the frequency of co-occurrence of the terms in titles

Cluster #1 (in red) included numerous items and linkages, primarily focusing on PV systems from a system level. The research emphasized grid integration, control, and optimization of solar cell systems. Rather than focusing on individual components, the cluster explored topics, such as maximum power point tracking (MPPT) technology and the versatility of PV systems. Furthermore, there was a focus on economic feasibility, with studies aiming to provide design options to maximize benefits based on empirical case studies. Government and public interest in solar power technologies, along with their prioritization of costs and benefits, contributed to the significance of this cluster.

Cluster #2 (in green) is predominantly focused on organic solar cells, particularly acceptors and organic electronics. The cluster emphasized polymer-fullerene bulk heterojunction solar cells, considered among the most promising types of organic solar cells, and attracted considerable attention from researchers. However, despite their high flexibility and mobility, these devices exhibited lower efficiency compared to other types due to their structure. Researchers in this cluster were actively exploring various materials and solutions to enhance the blending between acceptor and donor, aiming to optimize the configuration of the cells and achieve higher efficiency. Additionally, diverse schemes and strategies for designing cells were evaluated to improve overall performance.

Cluster #3 (in blue) focused on film solar cell modules, including various technologies that used different materials. Recently, copper indium gallium di-selenide emerged as a focus within this cluster. Additionally, research in this field investigated innovative approaches, including light trapping, Lambertian reflectors, and surface texturing. The nodes within this cluster exhibited a weak interdependence, suggesting less concentrated research activity and a more autonomous exploration of diverse aspects related to film solar cell modules. Cluster #3 demonstrated a close interaction with Cluster #1, particularly concerning system evaluation.

Cluster #4 (in yellow) focused on dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs). DSSCs are a hot topic and categorized as excitonic solar cells, focusing on organic dyes like triphenylamine. However, DSSCs remained in the nascent stages of development, and enhanced efficiency is a primary objective. Researchers within this cluster are exploring different materials for the integration and measurement of each component, including quantum dots for high light stability, solid-state electrolytes for better temperature response, and modified doping of TiO 2 to match the electrolytes used, such as carbon nanotubes and ZnO. Nonetheless, most investigations remained theoretical, requiring additional time for commercialization. Cluster #4 demonstrated close interaction with Cluster #1, particularly for organic dyes.

Cluster #5 (in purple) studied perovskite PV solar cells, focusing on modifying and comparing layer properties. Although this cluster included the fewest high-frequency title terms, the dense proximity of nodes attested to a high level of relevance. Hole-transporting layers (HTLs) constituted an essential component of perovskite PV solar cells, typically formed with polymer materials, such as P3HT, PTTA, and PEDOT, which Cluster #5 explored. This was also relevant to Cluster #4, particularly concerning electron transport and diffusion concerns. Research into novel organic materials for enhancing the performance of HTLs was a significant focus within this cluster. Cluster #5 had a strong interaction with Cluster #1, particularly through the examination of system performance.

Third-generation PV cells and their related components are currently the dominant focus in this field. The solar cell types listed in Clusters #2–#5 belong to the third-generation category. Additionally, the growing interest in building-integrated photovoltaics (BIPV) has led researchers to explore system performance.

Evolution of hot topics over time

Figure  8 complements the insights gained from Fig.  7 into the evolution of research hotspots over time by overlaying the base map of the average publication year of each title term. The color coding of each item was determined by its overlay score, representing the average publication year. Darker shades indicate a later publication year, suggesting a higher degree of novelty. The color progression was from the bottom left to the top right and middle, corresponding to clusters #2, #4, and #3, and #1 and #5, respectively, with clusters #1 and #5 representing relatively newer topics. While clusters #2 and #4 have darker dots, a significant proportion of these belong to the period before 2015 (depicted in white and yellow). Before 2013, the center of related research was likely cluster #2, which housed nearly all frequent title terms from that period. From 2016, the research focus shifted to the other three clusters, and the predominance of cluster #4 emerged. Subsequently, starting in 2018, clusters #1 and #5 began to house most topics, with cluster #5 representing the emerging field.

Average publication year of each title term. The color coding of each item is determined by its overlay score, i.e., the average publication year of all the publications containing the term. Darker colors indicate a later average publication year and a higher degree of novelty

Research on solar power generation over the last two decades has predominantly focused on third-generation solar cells, as illustrated in Fig.  8 . This inquiry commenced with investigations into organic solar cells, dye-sensitized solar cells, and thin-film solar cells, with the bulk of research being published before 2015. During this period, the solar power system was still in its nascent stage, and the solar cell was not sufficiently developed to function independently. However, with the growing advancement of materials, diverse kinds of solar cells emerged, and the solar power system gradually became recognized as an autonomous energy system. As the systems matured after 2015, they were subjected to increasing demands, especially for fulfilling performance and grid integration targets, leading to frequent optimization and efficiency improvements. Subsequently, from 2016 onwards, research on these new technologies began to dominate, with perovskite PV solar cells emerging as the benchmark after 2018. Research on hole transport layers (HTLs) is currently one of the most compelling emerging areas of inquiry.

Another topic is non-fullerene acceptors in organic solar cells, which have the potential for record power conversion efficiencies and improved chemical, thermal, and photostability. Research has evolved to consider socio-economic impacts alongside traditional technical performance analyses in system-level investigations. Considering sustainability goals and the increasing demand for electricity, solar power generation is predicted to expand significantly in future years. However, intermittency and instability remain significant bottlenecks, prompting researchers to explore the feasibility of battery integration and control algorithm optimization. Initial findings have yet to produce conclusive results. Finally, while research on the newest areas of inquiry remains small in scale and is yet to produce significant, published results, it is essential to the exploration stage. Conversely, the large dots represent long-term research topics that have been accumulated more publications over a longer period and are more established.

The combination of Figs.  7 and 8 revealed that the primary challenge in solar PV technology is the low efficiency in converting sunlight into electricity. Despite an efficiency increase attributed to the development of novel materials, the total numbers have remained low, with a maximum efficiency of 26% observed in laboratory conditions. This outcome was particularly notable in perovskite solar cells, which have attracted significant attention since 2018. Over the past 3–5 years, material development has stagnated, resulting in consistent efficiency levels despite the growing number of published articles. Discovering or producing a suitable material in the short term may pose a challenge. Consequently, developing coating layers for perovskite solar cells becomes a new focal point to enhance performances over the next several years.

Additionally, systematic analysis is crucial for PV applications, with power capacity as a key indicator. Rather than relying on rough assessments using annual or monthly data, hourly time steps with advanced algorithms offer a more accurate and representative output. Considering the sensitivity of PV power generation to weather conditions, further research is warranted to predict future power capacity under the influence of climate change. Lastly, as the lifespan of the initially installed PVs nears its end, finding a solution for their disposal, rather than resorting to current landfill practices, has become urgent. The recycling treatment of materials from these PVs will emerge as a prominent research area in the future.

Citations of hot topics and highly cited publications

Figure  9 illustrates the average category normalized citation index ( CNCI ) Footnote 2 of each title term in the base map, depicting the main academic focus of topics based on citations. The visualization used a color scale ranging from white and yellow to red, with darker colors signifying higher average normalized citation values and greater academic impact. Similar to Figs.  8 and   9 demonstrated a consistent trend toward darker colors from bottom left to top right, originating in clusters #2, #4, and #3 and culminating in clusters #1 and #5. Cluster #2 consistently corresponded to the lightest color, indicating the fewest citations. Conversely, clusters #1 and #5 exhibited significant advantages in citation impact, represented by the prevalence of darker points. Despite this, the topics attaining the highest number of citations did not necessarily correlate with the volume of publications. Novel topics with smaller sizes tended to attract greater attention from researchers.

Average normalized citations (The citation score used on the map is normalized by dividing by the mean. Thus, if the score of a title term exceeds 1.00, the average citation impact of publications containing that term exceeds the average.) for each title term. The color coding of each item is determined by its overlay score, i.e., the average category normalized citation index ( CNCI ) of each term. Dark colors indicate higher average normalized citations and higher academic attention

Solar power research predominantly focused on individual types or components rather than a comprehensive system. These solar cells faced numerous challenges, such as high costs, low efficiency, and potential pollution during manufacturing processes, necessitating innovative materials, components, and schemes. Current research primarily focuses on perovskite solar cells and non-fullerene acceptors. Considering the potential of solar power generation as a renewable option for future electricity networks, the field continued to attract significant interest from both academia and the public. The visual representation of the research landscape revealed that while larger dots attract attention, moderately smaller ones entail hot topics in established fields. The mature aspects, such as dye-sensitized solar cells, tend to receive less attention due to the abundance of preexisting literature, which, in turn, facilitates interest in uncharted areas.

Table 6 lists the top 10 most cited publications in our dataset. The analysis of these highly cited publications reveals common characteristics. Firstly, most of these publications were published around 2010 and have a lengthy citation window. Secondly, these publications were published in prestigious journals known for their wide dissemination and wide readership. Thirdly, the research topics of these publications largely center around technologies or materials for improving the performance of solar cells. This focus has resulted in high visibility and significant follower bases.

Solar energy, a principal renewable energy source, has attracted significant attention from the global academic community over the past two decades. This publication provides an up-to-date overview of the development of solar power research over the past 20 years on a global scale, using bibliometric methods and visualization techniques. The main conclusions are as follows:

From 2001 to 2021, the annual output of global publications on solar power generation has increased significantly, especially since 2009. Given the growing prominence of energy-related concerns, interest among academic researchers has increased regarding this topic. Despite fluctuations in the AACi index and academic impact, solar power research has gained widespread attention in the last decade. The rapid growth of solar power research is largely due to its socio-economic and political significance. Solar power research will continue to thrive, given the pressing demand for new energy sources. These trends underscore the constant evolution in solar power generation globally and the ongoing efforts to promote sustainable practices and address pertinent issues related to energy access and affordability.

Asian and European countries are the global leaders in solar power research. China emerged as the leading contributor, accounting for over 30% of all publications, followed by the USA. South Korea, Japan, and India rank third to fifth. These five countries are the core contributors to the development of solar power research. Additionally, Germany, Taiwan, the UK, Australia, and Spain demonstrate noteworthy scientific output. Compared to Asian countries, developed countries like the EU and the USA were more inclined to international collaborations. Certain core institutions, CAS significantly outperformed the others in productivity, while the Ecole Polytechnique Federale de Lausanne and Swiss Federal Institutes of Technology Domain rank higher in academic impact.

Solar power generation has attracted considerable attention from researchers across several subject categories, including fundamental areas of study. The five primary subject categories in related research were Multidisciplinary Materials Science, Applied Physics, Energy and Fuels, Physical Chemistry, and Nanoscience and Nanotechnology. Journal analysis confirms that energy and physics researchers are increasingly interested in solar power research. Prominent journals include Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells , Solar Energy , ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces , Journal of Materials Chemistry A , and Applied Physics Letters , which have published substantial numbers of solar power-related research, providing an essential platform for academic discourse. The relatively significant proportion of journals classified in Q1 and Q2 illustrates the high quality of publications on this topic which can be attributed to the enhanced dissemination and impact of achievements in solar power generation research.

In the last two decades, researchers have directed their attention toward improving the efficiency and enhancing the stability and flexibility of third-generation solar cells. Current research efforts focus on novel materials and devices to meet increasing technical and economic requirements. Additionally, optimizing system operations is a pertinent area due to the development of related technologies. From an academic standpoint, the current areas of inquiry are similar to those within the emerging field, but they are more targeted and concentrated on specific aspects, such as non-fullerene, transport hole layers, and algorithms. Highly used terms, such as “acceptor,” “perovskite solar cell,” and “algorithm,” are valuable topics of future research, as evidenced by their consistently higher average publication year and normalized citation. In addition, another two areas of interest are emerging: capacity prediction under the influence of climate change and the recycling management of retired PVs.

Further discussion

Despite certain limitations, including excluding the humanities and social sciences research, the findings provide valuable data for researchers, policymakers, the public, and newcomers.

The main contributors (i.e., countries and institutions), science landscape (i.e., subject categories and journals), and hotspots (i.e., high-frequency title terms) of global solar power research are identified. Solar power has emerged as one of the most promising renewable technologies, demonstrating substantial progress over the past two decades. These advancements include efficiency improvement, system integration, and cost reduction. Awareness of these advancements provide guidance newcomers and enhance awareness of technological developments in this area.

Future focal points for researchers and institutions in the solar power domain will include new materials with higher efficiency and greater commercial availability and implementing improved operation strategies that integrate grid and storage systems. Solar power research is vital in supporting this emerging field, achieving global sustainable development goals, such as carbon neutralization, and promoting collaboration among researchers from different domains. The growing demand has resulted in an influx of new talent and investors. Hence, long-term growth will be sustained. This study demonstrates that solar power has made significant progress and highlights areas that require further attention to continue its growth trajectory.

Data availability

Data will be made available upon request.

https://apps.webofknowledge.com/

The Category Normalized Citation Index ( CNCI ), developed by Clarivate, is a normalized citation indicator calculated by dividing the citation counts received by a publication by the average citations garnered by publications published within the same research field, document type, and publishing year.

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Open access funding provided by Royal Institute of Technology. This study was supported by the Zhejiang Soft Science Program by Grant No. 2023C35102 and Hangzhou City University by Grant No. ZJ2022YB-03.

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Lyu, X., Ruan, T., Wang, W. et al. A bibliometric evaluation and visualization of global solar power generation research: productivity, contributors and hot topics. Environ Sci Pollut Res 31 , 8274–8290 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-023-31715-x

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• Published: 17 July 2023

Recent advances in solar photovoltaic materials and systems for energy storage applications: a review

• Modupeola Dada   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-9227-197X 1 &
• Patricia Popoola 1  

Beni-Suef University Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences volume  12 , Article number:  66 ( 2023 ) Cite this article

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In recent years, solar photovoltaic technology has experienced significant advances in both materials and systems, leading to improvements in efficiency, cost, and energy storage capacity. These advances have made solar photovoltaic technology a more viable option for renewable energy generation and energy storage. However, intermittent is a major limitation of solar energy, and energy storage systems are the preferred solution to these challenges where electric power generation is applicable. Hence, the type of energy storage system depends on the technology used for electrical generation. Furthermore, the growing need for renewable energy sources and the necessity for long-term energy solutions have fueled research into novel materials for solar photovoltaic systems. Researchers have concentrated on increasing the efficiency of solar cells by creating novel materials that can collect and convert sunlight into power.

Main body of the abstract

This study provides an overview of the recent research and development of materials for solar photovoltaic devices. The use of renewable energy sources, such as solar power, is becoming increasingly important to address the growing energy demand and mitigate the impact of climate change. Hence, the development of materials with superior properties, such as higher efficiency, lower cost, and improved durability, can significantly enhance the performance of solar panels and enable the creation of new, more efficient photovoltaic devices. This review discusses recent progress in the field of materials for solar photovoltaic devices. The challenges and opportunities associated with these materials are also explored, including scalability, stability, and economic feasibility.

The development of novel materials for solar photovoltaic devices holds great potential to revolutionize the field of renewable energy. With ongoing research and technological advancements, scientists and engineers have been able to design materials with superior properties such as higher efficiency, lower cost, and improved durability. These materials can be used to enhance the performance of existing solar panels and enable the creation of new, more efficient photovoltaic devices. The adoption of these materials could have significant implications for the transition toward a more sustainable and environmentally friendly energy system. However, there are still challenges to be addressed, such as scalability, stability, potential environmental effects, and economic feasibility, before these materials can be widely implemented. Nonetheless, the progress made in this field is promising and continued reports on the research and development of materials for solar photovoltaic devices are crucial for achieving a sustainable future. The adoption of novel materials in solar photovoltaic devices could lead to a more sustainable and environmentally friendly energy system, but further research and development are needed to overcome current limitations and enable large-scale implementation.

1 Background

Energy and environmental problems are at the top of the list of challenges in the world, attributed to the need to replace the combustion exhaust of fossil fuels, which has resulted in environmental contamination and the greenhouse effect as opposed to renewable energy sources [ 1 ]. This replacement will be achieved while keeping pace with the increasing consumption of energy resulting from an increase in population and rising demand from developing countries since the use of non-renewable energy sources would not meet the energy demand because they are an exhaustible and limited source of energy [ 2 ]. Thus, the search for clean and sustainable renewable energy resources has become an urgent priority. Researchers regard solar energy as one of the alternative sustainable energy resources that is low-cost, non-exhaustible, and abundantly available, giving solid and increasing output efficiencies compared to other sources of energy solutions and energy sources of renewable energy [ 3 ]. The sun radiates at 3.8 1023 kW, intercepting the Earth at 1.8 1014 kW, while the remaining energy is scattered, reflected, and taken in by clouds [ 4 ]. 1.7 × 1022 J of the energy from the sun in 1.5 days is equal to the energy produced from three trillion barrels of oil reserves on Earth [ 5 ]. The total annual energy used by the world in 1 year is 4 s.6 × 1020 J, and the sun provides this energy in 1 h [ 5 ]. The solar photovoltaic (SPV) industry heavily depends on solar radiation distribution and intensity. Solar radiation amounts to 3.8 million EJ/year, which is approximately 10,000 times more than the current energy needs [ 6 ]. Solar energy is used whether in solar thermal applications where solar energy is the source of heat or indirectly as a source of electricity in concentrated solar power plants, photo-assisted fuel cells, generating electricity in SPVs, hydrocarbons from CO 2 reduction, and fuels such as hydrogen [ 7 ].

Each technology harvests sunlight rays and converts them into different end forms. For instance, solar energy can be naturally converted into solar fuel through the process of photosynthesis. Also, through photosynthesis, plants store energy from the sun, where protons and electrons are produced, which can be further metabolized to produce H 2 and CH 4. Thus, 11% of solar energy is utilized in the natural photosynthesis of biomass [ 8 ]. Photovoltaics convert photons into electrons to get electrical energy, while in solar thermal applications, the photons are absorbed and their energy is converted into tangible heat [ 9 ]. This heat is used to heat a working fluid that can be directly collected and used for space and water heating [ 10 ].

However, the energy converted may be too low for consumption, and production efficiency can be improved by producing fuel from water and carbon dioxide through artificial bio-inspired nanoscale assemblies, connecting natural photosynthetic pathways in novel configurations, and using genetic engineering to facilitate biomass production [ 11 ]. One of the major challenges for photovoltaic (PV) systems remains matching intermittent energy production with dynamic power demand [ 12 , 13 ]. A solution to this challenge is to add a storage element to these intermittent power sources [ 14 , 15 ].

Furthermore, intermittent sources like SPV are allowed to address timely load demands and add flexibility to storage devices like batteries [ 16 , 17 ]. Nonetheless, compared with the photosynthesis process, which has conversion efficiencies of 5–10%, photovoltaic cells have better solar conversion efficiencies of approximately 22.5% [ 6 , 18 ]. There are other technologies used for enhancing the efficiency of PV systems encountered by temperature changes, which include floating tracking concentrating cooling systems (FTCC), hybrid solar photovoltaic/thermal systems (PV/T) cooled by water spraying, hybrid solar photovoltaic/thermoelectric (PV/TE) systems cooled by a heat sink, hybrid solar photovoltaic/thermal systems cooled by forced water circulation, improving the performance of solar panels through the use of phase change materials, and solar panels with water immersion cooling techniques [ 19 , 20 ]. SPV panels with transparent covering (photonic crystal cooling), hybrid solar photovoltaic/thermal systems (PV/T) having forced air circulation, and SPV panels with thermoelectric cooling [ 21 ]

This review discusses the latest advancements in the field of novel materials for solar photovoltaic devices, including emerging technologies such as perovskite solar cells. It evaluates the efficiency and durability of different generations of materials in solar photovoltaic devices and compares them with traditional materials. It investigates the scalability and cost-effectiveness of producing novel materials for solar photovoltaic devices and identifies the key challenges and opportunities associated with the development and implementation of novel materials in solar photovoltaic devices, such as stability, toxicity, and economic feasibility. Hence, proposing strategies to overcome current limitations and promote the large-scale implementation of novel materials in solar photovoltaic devices, including manufacturing processes and material characterization techniques, while assessing the potential environmental impact of using novel materials in solar photovoltaic devices, including the sustainability and carbon footprint of the production process.

2 Main text

2.1 solar photovoltaic systems.

Solar energy is used in two different ways: one through the solar thermal route using solar collectors, heaters, dryers, etc., and the other through the solar electricity route using SPV, as shown in Fig.  1 . A SPV system consists of arrays and combinations of PV panels, a charge controller for direct current (DC) and alternating current (AC); (DC to DC), a DC-to-AC inverter, a power meter, a breaker, and a battery or an array of batteries depending on the size of the system [ 22 , 23 ].

Schematic diagram of the solar photovoltaic systems

This technology converts sunlight directly into electricity, with no interface for conversion. It is pollutant-free during operation, rugged and simple in design, diminishes global warming issues, is modular, has a lower operational cost, offers minimal maintenance, can generate power from microwatts to megawatts, and has the highest power density compared to the other renewable energy technologies [ 24 , 25 ]. A high rate of 100 megawatts (MW) of capacity installed per day in 2013 has been used to illustrate the rise in research interest in PV systems, with a record of 177 gigawatts (GW) of overall PV capacity taking place in 2015 [ 26 , 27 ]. However, according to Nadia et al. [ 19 ], solar photovoltaic systems have considerable limitations, including high prices as compared to fossil fuel energy resources, low efficiency, and intermittent operation. Hence, the solar tracker systems shown in Fig.  2 were designed to mitigate some of these challenges by keeping the solar devices at the optimal angle to track the sun’s position for maximum power production.

Solar tracking systems

Various environmental pressures and characteristics, such as angle of photon incidence, panel orientation, photovoltaic module conductivity, the material of solar cells, and time to measure the direction of the sun, can all impact the output of solar panel cells; therefore, before using tracker systems, a large number of measurement results are necessary [ 29 ]. There are active and passive tracking systems. Active tracking systems move the solar panel toward the sun using motors and gear trains, while passive tracking systems rely on a low-boiling-point compressed gas fluid through canisters generated by solar heat [ 30 ]. The disadvantages of passive solar tracking systems are their reliance on weather conditions and the selection of the right gas and glass to develop an efficient passive solar tracking system since the glass absorption levels depend on the color, strength, and chemical properties of the glass. While active solar is high maintenance and reduces power output if the panel is not directly under the sun [ 31 ]. There are also single- and double-axis solar trackers and closed- and open-loop solar trackers. Some trackers use electro-optical units, while others use microprocessor units [ 32 ]. However, the initial cost and running cost of the tracking system, coupled with the cost of energy generated by a PV tracking system, are greater than the cost of energy generated by a fixed system, making their tracking system’s economic advantages unclear. Thus, most recent research on tracking systems has concentrated solely on the optimization of tracking technologies, with little attention devoted to all other critical elements influencing cost and efficiency, PV cell materials, temperature, solar radiation levels, transport, auxiliary equipment, and storage techniques [ 6 ]. Hence, the future outlook on tracking systems includes developing innovative ways for tracking the sun cost-effectively and efficiently. Jamroen et al. [ 32 ] proposed the design and execution of a low-cost dual-axis solar tracking system based on digital logic design and pseudo-azimuthal mounting systems. Their findings reveal that the suggested tracking system improves electrical energy efficiency by 44.89% on average with power costs of 0.2 $/kWh and 0.3 $/kWh, which is relatively low when compared to other tracking methods. Chowdhury et al. [ 35 ], on an 8-bit microcontroller architecture, developed a stand-alone low-cost yet high-precision dual-axis closed-loop sun-tracking system based on the sun position algorithm. Their simulation results showed a very high prediction rate and a very low mean square error, which was concluded to be better than neutral and fuzzy network principles as photovoltaic energy sources.

2.1.1 Photovoltaic energy sources

Photovoltaic energy sources are used as grid-connected systems and stand-alone systems. Their applications include battery charging, water pumping, home power supplies, refrigeration, street lighting, swimming pools, hybrid vehicles, heating systems, telecommunications, satellite power systems, military space, and hydrogen production [ 28 , 29 ]. SPV and storage systems are classified into grid-tied or grid-direct PV systems, off-grid PV systems, and grid/hybrid or grid interaction systems with energy storage [ 30 , 31 ]. The grid-tied solar PV system does not have a battery bank for storage, but a grid-tied inverter is used to convert the DC generated into AC; hence, power can be generated and utilized only during the daytime, which may also be a limiting factor [ 31 , 32 ]. However, the disadvantage of only using the system during the day can be overcome by using a battery bank to store the generated power during the daytime, but this new setup will eventually increase the cost of the system [ 6 , 34 ]. Hence, just using this system during the day makes the grid-tied SPV system very cost-effective, simple to design, easily manageable, and requires less maintenance. Furthermore, solar panels mostly produce more electricity than is required by the loads. Hence, this excess electricity can be given back to the grid instead of being stored in batteries [ 35 , 36 ].

The off-grid PV system, on the other hand, uses a battery for the storage of the generated electricity during the daytime, which can be used in the future or during any emergency. This is beneficial when the load cannot be easily connected to the grid [ 37 , 38 ]. This system not only gives sufficient energy to a household, but it can also power places that are far away from the grid; hence, these systems use more components and are comparatively more expensive than grid-direct systems. Grid-connected PV systems run in parallel and are linked to the electric utility grid [ 39 , 40 ]. The power conditioning unit (PCU) or inverter is the main component of grid-connected PV systems, converting the DC power produced by the PV array into AC power that meets the voltage and power quality requirements of the utility grid for either direct use of appliances or sending to the utility grid to earn feed-in tariff compensation [ 41 , 42 ]. Grid-connected PV systems without backup energy storage (ES) are environmentally friendly, while systems with backup ES are usually interconnected with the utility grid [ 43 , 44 ].

Essential characteristics of PV technology are the operating range of 1 kW up to 300 MW, which can be used as fuel on residential, commercial, and utility scales. The efficiency of PV cells is about 12–16% for crystalline silicon, 11–14% for thin film, and 6–7% for organic cells [ 44 ]. There is no direct environmental impact due to the lack of CO 2 , CO, and NO x emissions. These systems have low operating and maintenance costs. The few drawbacks are higher installation costs, fluctuating output power due to the variation in weather patterns, and the need for mechanical and electronic tracking devices and backup storage for maximum efficiency. Installation costs can vary from 600 to 1300 USD/kW, while operation and maintenance annual costs vary from 0.004 and 0.07 USD/kWh (ac) for utility-scale generation and grid-connected residential systems, respectively [ 21 ].

3 Solar photovoltaic materials

Solar photovoltaic materials shown in Fig.  3 , when exposed to light, absorb the light and transform the energy of the light photons into electrical energy. Commercially available photovoltaic systems are based on inorganic materials, which require costly and energy-intensive processing techniques.

Schematic diagram of the solar photovoltaic materials

Moreover, some of those materials, like CdTe, are toxic and have a limited natural abundance. These problems are preventable by using organic photovoltaics. Nonetheless, the effectiveness of organic-based photovoltaic cells is still far below that of solely inorganic-based photovoltaic systems. Photovoltaic devices usually employ semiconductor materials to generate energy, with silicon-based solar cells being the most popular. Photovoltaic (PV) cells or modules made of crystalline silicon (c-Si), whether single-crystalline (sc-Si) or multi-crystalline (c-Si) (mcSi). PV modules, which are fundamental components, can function in harsh outdoor environments and deliver high energy density to electronic loads. These are the most common forms of solar cells, accounting for over 90% of the PV industry. PV modules must have an efficiency of at least 14%, a price of less than 0.4 USD/Wp, and a service life of at least 15 years [ 22 ]. Now, wafer-based crystalline silicon technologies have best satisfied the criteria because of their high efficiency, cheap cost, and extended service life, and they are projected to dominate future PV power generation due to the abundance of materials. The greatest known energy conversion efficiency for research on crystalline silicon PV cells is 25%, although ordinary industrial cells are restricted to 15–18%. Optimizing these cells is a hard undertaking; hence, novel solutions to break past the efficiency barrier of 25% are wafer-slicing technologies and equipment for ultrathin (50 m) wafer technologies, and equipment for direct slicing ultrathin wafers with negligible kerf loss, solar cell and module manufacturing technologies and equipment based on ultrathin wafers. High-quality polycrystalline ingot technologies that outperform monocrystalline cells, contact-forming processes, and materials that are less expensive than screen-printed and burned silver paste are used. To reduce overall PV system costs, low-concentration, and high-efficiency module technologies are used [ 22 , 23 ].

Crystalline silicon solar cells are spectrally selective absorbers that are semiconductor devices. The percentage of incident solar irradiance absorbed by the cell is the absorption factor of a PV cell. Under operational settings, this absorption factor is one of the key criteria controlling cell temperature. The absorption factor may be calculated experimentally using reflection and transmission data. According to Santbergen et al. [ 23 ], using a two-dimensional (2D) computational model that agrees with experimental results, the AM1.5 absorption factor of a typical encapsulated c-Si photovoltaic cell can reach 90.5%. The existence of an appropriate steepness texture at the front of the c-Si wafer was used to obtain such a high absorption factor. As a result, by limiting reflecting losses over the solar spectrum, c-Si cell AM1.5 absorption may potentially be improved to 93.0%. Notably, there is widespread use of c-Si bifacial PV devices compared to their monofacial counterparts due to their potential to achieve a higher annual energy yield. Factors that promote these devices are the bifacial PV performance measurement method/standard for indoor characterization and comprehensive simulation models for outdoor performance characterization [ 24 ]. Non-commercial 3D tools such as PC3D, an open-source numerical analysis program for simulating the internal operation of silicon solar cells, have been reported to provide accurate simulation results that are only ≈1.7% different from their commercial counterparts [ 25 ]. In recent studies, Sun et al. [ 27 ] studied the high-efficiency silicon heterojunction solar cells, which were reported to be the next generation of crystalline silicon cells. The authors reported that increasing the efficiency limits can be achieved by increasing the short-circuit current while maintaining its high open-circuit voltage, and for mass production, there should be minimal consumption of indium and silver. Ibarra et al. [ 6 ] stated that high water quality is now commonplace for crystalline silicon ( c -Si)-based solar cells, meaning that the cell's efficiency potential is largely dictated by the effectiveness of its carrier-selective contacts based on highly doped-silicon, which can introduce negative side effects such as parasitic absorption. According to Chee et al. [ 37 ], carrier-selective crystalline silicon heterojunction (SHJ) solar cells have already achieved remarkable lab-scale efficiencies, with SiOx/heavily doped polycrystalline silicon (n + -/p + -poly-Si) creating the most attractive polysilicon-on-oxide (POLO) junctions.

As a result, industry trends will shift away from p-Si passivated emitter and rear polysilicon (PERPoly) designs and toward TOPCon architectures. Costals et al. [ 38 ] described how vanadium oxide films provide excellent surface passivation with effective lifetime values of up to 800 s and solar cells with efficiencies greater than 18%, shedding light on the possibilities of transition metal oxides deposited using the atomic layer deposition technique. To solve the challenge of realizing a high aspect ratio (AR) of the metal fingers in a bifacial (BF) copper-plated crystalline silicon solar cell, Han et al. [ 31 ] created a new type of hybrid-shaped Cu finger device, electromagnetically fabricated in a 2-step deposition BF plating process, which shows a front-side efficiency of 22.1% and a BF factor of 0.99. Finally, using a grading technique to increase the efficiency of c-Si solar cells, Pham et al. [ 32 ] attained a conversion efficiency of 22%.

Other materials currently in use are low-cost solar cells based on hybrid polymer semiconductor materials containing a light-harvesting material, which absorbs photons with energy equal to or greater than the energy of the band gap ( E g). This leads to the creation of excitons (bound electron–hole pairs) ranging from 5 to 15 nm in most organic semiconductors, which diffuse in the material and may either undergo dissociation to the separate charge carriers or recombination with the emission of energy [ 32 ]. To improve the dissociation of excitons and enhance the efficiency of the PV cell, the photoactive material is combined with a strong acceptor of electrons of high electron affinity. Then, the separated electrons and holes migrate through different materials in the internal electric field generated across the device and are accommodated by the appropriate collecting electrodes. Organic particle–polymer (PCBM-P3HT) solar cells’ conversion efficiencies are much lower than those obtained for semiconductor devices [ 6 ]. Recent research on hybrid cells discusses performance analysis and the parameter optimization of hybrid PV cells [ 34 , 35 ], while porous organic polymer cells have received current research attention for drug delivery and biomedical applications [ 36 , 37 , 38 ].

Thin films (TF) only represent 10% of the global PV market. However, researchers around the world are exploring other options to produce electricity more efficiently using solar cells; hence, R&D for developing new materials is currently going on. A strategic approach to tuning absorbance, grain size rearrangement, conductivity, morphology, topography, and stoichiometric compositions for absorber layer solar cell applications is the incorporation of foreign dopants in the CdSe host lattice. Chasta et al. [ 18 ] using the thermal-evaporation approach, thin films of CdSe:Cu alloys with 1%, 3%, and 5% Cu contents were grown and annealed at 350 °C. Because of their efficiency, simplicity of manufacturing, and low cost, hybrid organic–inorganic halides are regarded as excellent materials when utilized as the absorber layer in perovskite solar cells (PSCs). According to Marí-Guaita et al. [ 39 ], its lower efficiency using MASnI3 as an absorber is more stable, which could be improved by enhancing the bandgap alignment of MaSnI3 [ 39 ]. Tarbi et al. [ 40 ] stated that the physical parameters of the absorption coefficients are more related to the variation of pressure than the temperature variation and deformation of a double-junction solar cell (Jsc) equal to 47.03 mA/cm 2 , and this results in a shift from maximum current density to low voltages while retaining its maximum value of 36.03 mW/m 2 . According to Chaudhry et al. [ 49 ], improving the optical absorption and current density in an active layer, under the standard AM-1.5 solar spectra, is achieved through the inclusion of semiconductor nanoparticles (NPs). The efficiencies were raised by 10% for the aluminum nanoparticles (NPs) design and by 21% and 30% for solar cells with and without anti-reflective thin film coating, respectively. In another study, Al- and Cu-doped ZnO nanostructured films were deposited using a sputtering technique, and doping resulted in enhanced conductivity as well as improved mobility in Al–ZnO and Cu–ZnO films in comparison with pure ZnO films, resulting in efficiencies of 0.492% and 0.559% for Al–ZnO- and Cu–ZnO-based solar cells, respectively.

Dye-sensitized solar cells (DSC) shown in Fig.  4 are an alternative concept to present-day p–n junction photovoltaic devices for optoelectronics applications. DSC is made up of a cathode, a photoactive layer, an electrolyte, and an anode [ 53 ]. The functional layers for flexible DSC, notably the electrodes that also serve as active layer substrates, must be flexible. In contrast to typical systems in which the semiconductor performs both light absorption and charge carrier transport, light is absorbed by a sensitizer attached to the surface of a wide-band semiconductor in this system [ 54 ]. The dye sensitizer absorbs incoming sunlight and uses the energy to initiate a vectorial electron transfer process. Around 10% of overall solar-to-current conversion efficiencies (IPCE) have been achieved [ 55 ]. However, DSC has no practical conversion efficiency breakthrough and suffers from low mechanical stability and problematic sealing, but enhancing the properties of the sensitizers, metal oxide/semiconductor film, substrate, redox electrolyte, and counter electrode (CE) accelerates DSC applications [ 56 ].

Schematic diagram of the dye-sensitized solar cells (DSC)

The N3 dye was reported to be stable as a pure solid in the air up to 280 °C, where decarboxylation occurs. It lasts 108 redox cycles under long-term light with no obvious loss of function. Metal oxides, such as TiO 2 , SnO 2 , ZnO 2 , In 2 O 3 , CeO 3 , and NbO 3 , have been employed as photoanodes to investigate materials for effective photoanodes [ 57 ]. Hence, the breakthrough in DSC was the use of a high-surface-area nanoporous TiO 2 layer, and the outstanding stability is the very rapid deactivation of its excited state via charge injection into the TiO 2 , which occurs in the femtosecond time domain [ 58 ].

TiO 2 became the preferred semiconductor because of its low cost, non-toxicity, and abundance. Although the N3/N3 + pair exhibits reversible electrochemical activity in various organic solvents, showing that the lifespan of N3 + is at least several seconds under these conditions, the oxidized form of N3 + , the dye created by electron injection, is significantly less stable [ 59 ]. However, when maintained in the oxidized state, the dye degrades through the loss of sulfur. To avoid this undesirable side reaction, regeneration of the N3 in the photovoltaic cell should occur quickly, i.e., within nanoseconds or microseconds [ 60 ]. Cell failure may occur due to the circumstances of the dye renewal. Recent advances in the field of sensitizers for these devices have resulted in dyes that absorb over the visible spectrum, resulting in better efficiencies. The DSC may be based on a huge internal interface prepared in a simple laboratory environment without strict demands on the purity of the materials or the absence of a built-in electric field. DSC offers low production costs and, interestingly, much lower investment costs compared with conventional PV technologies. It offers flexibility, lightweight, and design opportunities, such as transparency and multicolor options (building integration, consumer products, etc.). There is feedstock availability to reach the terawatt scale, and there is also a short energy payback time (< 1 year), where the enhanced performance is under real outdoor conditions, which are relatively better than competitors at diffuse light and higher temperatures [ 61 ].

In high-efficiency DSCs, ruthenium (Ru) complex dyes and organic solvent-based electrolytes such as N719, N3, and black dye are commonly utilized. Ru dyes, on the other hand, are costly and require a complicated chemical method. Its products, such as ruthenium oxide (RuO 4 ), are also very poisonous and volatile. Organic solvents are also poisonous, ecologically dangerous, and explosive, and their low surface tension can cause leakage difficulties [ 48 , 50 , 52 ]. Hence, organic solvents and Ru-based complex dyes may need to be replaced to realize low-cost, biocompatible, and environmentally benign devices. Water and natural dyes derived from plants could be excellent alternatives, according to Kim et al. [ 56 ]. Yadav et al. [ 60 ] assembled TiO 2  nanorod (NR)-based hibiscus dye with different counter electrodes such as carbon, graphite, and gold. The authors measured efficiencies of 0.07%, 0.10%, and 0.23%, respectively. The key to the breakthrough for DSCs in 1991 was the use of a mesoporous TiO 2 electrode with a high internal surface area to support the monolayer of a sensitizer and the increase in surface area by using mesoporous electrodes [ 42 ]. The standard DSC dye was tris (2,2′-bipyridyl-4,4′-carboxylate) ruthenium (II) (N3 dye), and the carboxylate group in the dye attaches the semiconductor oxide substrate by chemisorption; hence, when the photon is absorbed, the excited state of the dye molecule will relax by electron injection to the semiconductor conduction band. Since 1993, the photovoltaic performance of N3 dye has been irreplaceable by other dye complexes [ 42 ]. Bandara et al. [ 43 ] mentioned that recent developments comprising textile DSCs are being looked at for their sustainability, flexibility, pliability, and lightweight properties, as well as the possibility of using large-scale industrial manufacturing methods (e.g., weaving and screen printing) [ 62 ].

A conducting polymer such as pyrrole was electrochemically polymerized on a porous nanocrystalline TiO 2 electrode, which was sensitized by N3 dye. Polypyrrole successfully worked as a whole transport layer, connecting dye molecules anchored on TiO2 to the counter electrode. Conducting polyaniline has also been used in solid-state solar cells sensitized with methylene blue.

Light-emitting diodes based on halide perovskites have limited practical uses [ 63 ]. Additional drawbacks of the technique include a lack of knowledge of the influence of the electric field on mobile ions present in perovskite materials, a drop in external quantum efficiency at high current density, and limited device lifetimes [ 63 , 64 ]. Nonetheless, the technology has advanced rapidly in recent years, and it can currently provide external quantum efficiencies of more than 21%, equivalent to silicon solar cells [ 64 ]. Perovskite solar cells (PSCs) were created in the same way as other SPV materials like organic photovoltaics, dye-sensitized solar cells, and vacuum-processed PVs such as CdTe and CIGSOne. PSCs have a high open-circuit voltage (VOC), which distinguishes them from all other photovoltaics (PVs). The loss in VOC induced by non-radiative recombination in the case of PSCs is significantly low, even as low as that reported for vacuum-processed Si. By enhancing the high open-circuit voltage VOC, all-inorganic and tin-based perovskites have the potential to exceed the Shockley–Queisser (S–Q) limitations [ 65 ]. Luo et al. [ 80 ] used a (FAPbI 3 )0.95(MAPbBr 3 )0.05 perovskite to produce a VOC of 1.11 V and an efficiency of 21.73% using a new fluorinated iron (III) porphine dopant for PTAA. Unlike Wu et al. [ 81 ], who achieved a 1.59 eV hybrid perovskite, the Jen group obtained a VOC of 1.21 V and a high efficiency of 22.31%.

Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) have demonstrated a significant potential for enhancing polymer material characteristics. CNTs have better electrical and thermal conductivity, they are highly stiff, robust, and tough. Combining CNTs with brittle materials allows one to convey some of the CNTs' appealing mechanical qualities to the resultant composites, making CNT a good choice for reinforcement in polymeric materials. Zhu et al. [ 109 ] used carbon nanotubes (CNTs) with single walls to strengthen the epoxy Epon 862 matrix. The molecular dynamics method is used to investigate three periodic systems: a long CNT-reinforced Epon 862 composite, a short CNT-reinforced Epon 862 composite, and the Epon 862 matrix itself. The stress–strain relationships and elastic Young's moduli along the longitudinal direction (parallel to CNT) are simulated, and the results are compared to those obtained using the rule-of-mixture. Their findings reveal that when longitudinal strain rises, the Young's modulus of CNT increases whereas that of the Epon 862 composite or matrix drops. Furthermore, a long CNT may significantly increase the Epon 862 composite's Young's modulus (approximately 10 times stiffer), which is consistent with the prediction based on the rule-of-mixture at low strain level. Even a short CNT can improve the Young's modulus of the Epon 862 composite, with a 20% increase when compared to the Epon 862 matrix. Sui et al. [ 110 ] made CNT/NR composites after CNTs were treated in an acid bath and then ball-milled using HRH bonding methods. The thermal properties, vulcanization properties, and mechanical properties of CNT/NR composites were studied. When compared to CB, the absorption of CNTs into NR was quicker and consumed less energy. CNT/NR composites' over-curing reversion was reduced. The dispersion of CNTs in the rubber matrix and the interaction between CNTs and the matrix enhanced after acid treatment and ball milling. When compared to plain NR and CB/NR composites, the addition of treated CNTs improved the performance of the CNT/reinforced NR composites. Medupin et al. [ 111 ] used multi-walled carbon nanotube (WMCNT) reinforced natural rubber (NR) polymer nanocomposite (PNC) for prosthetic foot applications. On an open two-roll mill, the components were mixed according to the ASTM D-3182 standard during vulcanization. The nanocomposites (NCs) were cured in an electrically heated hydraulic press for 10 min at a temperature of 1502 °C and a pressure of 0.2 MPa. Mechanical testing found that NR/ MWCNT-3 had the maximum tensile and dynamic loading capability (449.79 MPa). It also had better filler dispersion, which increased crystallinity and cross-linking. The newly created prosthetic material is also said to have better wear resistance than conventional prosthetic materials as shown in Fig.  5 . The developed nanocomposite from MWCNTs for reinforced natural rubber is suited for the construction of the anthropomorphic prosthetic foot.

Wear rate of the carbon nanotube composites

4 Efficiency, stability, and scalability of solar photovoltaic materials

4.1 economic feasibility.

The economic feasibility of solar photovoltaic devices refers to their cost-effectiveness compared to other sources of energy. In the past, solar panels were relatively expensive, and their high cost made them less attractive to many consumers. However, in recent years, the cost of solar panels has dropped significantly, making them much more affordable. Recent advances in SPV technologies have driven this cost reduction in manufacturing technology and economies of scale. Additionally, many governments around the world offer incentives and subsidies to encourage the use of renewable energy sources like solar power, further increasing their economic feasibility. Angmo et al. [ 77 ] prepared polymer solar cell modules directly on thin flexible barrier polyethylene terephthalate foil, which is a cost-effective alternative to ITO-based devices with potential applications in information, communications, and mobile technology (ICT) where low humidity (50%) and lower temperatures (65 °C) are expected and operational lifetimes over one year are estimated.

4.2 PV device efficiencies

Several procedures are required to generate electricity from PVs. Strongly bonded holes and electron pairs, known as photo-produced excitons, are formed by incoming light and separated at the interface between the donor and acceptor. Materials with a greater electron affinity take electrons, while materials with a low electronization potential admit holes. The produced electrons and holes are then carried through the p-type and n-type material phases, respectively, toward both electrodes, resulting in an external photocurrent flow. Hence, the efficiency of power conversion in organic solar cells is determined by the combination of the following steps: dissociation of electron–hole pairs at the p-n interface; exciton formation following incoming solar light absorption; charge collection at the electrodes; and transport of electrons and holes to both electrodes. The first-generation solar cell has a recorded performance of around 15–20%, as displayed in Fig.  6 . The second-generation solar cell is made of amorphous silicon, CdTe, and CIGS and has a 4–15% efficiency. Because second-generation technologies do not rely on silicon wafers, they are less expensive than first-generation technologies.

Solar photovoltaic materials and their efficiencies

Hence, first-generation solar cells have higher reported efficiencies than thin-film solar cells, but they are more expensive due to the use of pure silicon in the production process. Thin-film solar cells, on the other hand, use less material, take less time, and are less expensive. Solar cells of the first generation are non-toxic and bountiful in nature. Second-generation solar cells have a lower per-watt price and efficiency when compared to other technologies. Organic materials and polymers are used in the third-generation solar cell. As compared to other varieties, the third-generation solar cell is more efficient and less expensive. The process for producing third-generation cells is simple and unique, but it has yet to be verified. The third-generation new kind of solar cell technology, the perovskite solar cell, has a record efficiency of more than 25% [ 78 ]. Nevertheless, UV light, oxygen, and moisture can all contribute to the poor stability of polycrystalline perovskite materials, the most pressing issue that must be addressed before the application of perovskite photovoltaic technology is the long-term stability of PSCs [ 79 ].

4.3 Stability of photovoltaics

The stability of solar photovoltaic devices refers to their ability to maintain their efficiency and reliability over time. In the past, solar panels had a reputation for being unreliable due to their sensitivity to weather and the environment. However, modern solar panels are much more stable and durable than earlier versions. They can withstand extreme temperatures and harsh weather conditions, making them suitable for use in a wide range of environments. Additionally, advances in solar panel technology have made them more efficient, which means they produce more energy for longer periods. However, increasing the long-term stability of perovskite solar cells is currently one of the most crucial concerns. According to Lee et al. [ 94 ], nanoscale metal–organic frameworks (MOFs) with chemically, moistly, and thermally stable nanostructures have better PSCs’ stability as well as higher device performance, which has increased the interest of the perovskite photovoltaic community in recent times. This can be attributed to MOF’s flexible structure, considerable pore volume, high surface area, high concentration of active metal sites, controllable topology, and tuneable pore diameters [ 81 ]. MOFs are used to improve device stability in applications such as gas separation and storage, optoelectronics, and catalysis devices [ 67 , 82 , 83 ]. Furthermore, to improve operational stability in hybrid perovskite solar cells, a thorough understanding of photodegradation and thermal degradation processes is required [ 84 ]. Additionally, interfacial engineering with hydrophobic materials, or the 2D/3D concept, has significantly improved long-term stability.

4.4 Scalability of photovoltaics

Furthermore, the ability of solar photovoltaic devices to meet rising energy demands is referred to as their scalability. Solar panels can be installed on a wide range of structures, from homes to commercial and industrial structures. They can also be scaled up for utility-scale power generation, allowing solar energy to power entire communities. Furthermore, advancements in solar panel manufacturing have increased their efficiency, allowing them to be more scalable in terms of the amount of energy they can produce from a given surface area. The challenges for scaling up perovskite solar cells include developing scalable deposition strategies for the uniform coating of all device layers over large-area substrates, including the perovskite photoactive layer, electron-transport layer (ETL), hole-transport layer (HTL), and electrodes. Other challenges include developing procedures for fabrication and achieving better control of film formation across the device stack at large scales by improving the precursor chemistry to match the processing methods. Nonetheless, despite the challenges, in 2019, a stable solid-state perovskite solar cell with a certified power conversion efficiency (PCE) of 25.2% was recorded [ 75 ]. Although small-area cells are extremely efficient, scaling-up technology is required for commercialization. Scalable Technologies is now focused on high-efficiency module production and large-area perovskite coating, where dimethyl sulfoxide or N, N-dimethylformamide (DMF), which are perovskite precursor solutions used for spin coating and scalable depositions, may not be feasible due to sluggish evaporation and significant interactions with Lewis acid precursors. For producing a homogeneous perovskite coating over a large area substrate, Park [ 87 ] suggested using acetonitrile or 2-methoxyethanol solvents, while Li et al. [ 89 ] mentioned blade coating, meniscus coating, slot-die coating, spray coating, screen-printing, inkjet printing, and electrodeposition as scalable solution deposition processes for perovskite development. Altinkaya et al. [ 90 ] reported that tin oxide (SnO 2 ) is a scalable alternative to mesoporous titanium dioxide (TiO 2 )/compact TiO 2 stacks as electron-selective layers (ESLs) due to its wide bandgap, high carrier mobility, high optical transmission, decent chemical stability, and suitable band alignment with perovskites.

Finally, the scalability, stability, and economic feasibility of solar photovoltaic devices have all improved significantly in recent years. Advances in technology and manufacturing have made solar panels more efficient and affordable, while incentives and subsidies have encouraged their use. As a result, solar energy is becoming an increasingly popular source of renewable energy capable of meeting growing energy demands sustainably and reliably.

5 Environmental effects of solar photovoltaics

PV systems are recognized as clean and long-term energy sources. Although PV systems may generate little pollution while in operation, the environmental effects of such systems observed from manufacture through disposal must not be disregarded. The environmental problems of PV systems include the generation of hazardous chemicals, the pollution of water resources, and the emission of air pollutants during the production process, and the impact of PV installations on land utilization. According to Tawalbeh et al. [ 68 ], by improving PV design, recycling solar cell materials to reduce GHG emissions by up to 42%, creating novel materials with improved properties, improving cell lifespans, avoiding hazardous components, recycling, and making careful site selection, the negative environmental impacts of PV systems may be considerably reduced. These mitigation actions will reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, restrict solid waste accumulation, and save essential water resources. PV systems have a carbon footprint of 14–73 CO 2 -eq/kWh, which is 10 to 53 orders of magnitude lower than the emissions observed from oil burning (742 CO2-eq/kWh from oil). The carbon footprint of the PV system might be lowered by using novel production materials. When compared to traditional solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs), Smith et al. [ 69 ] proposed the use of these novel material combinations leads to a reduction in embodied materials and toxicological impact, but a higher electrical energy consumption during manufacturing. Their findings provide support for the drive to reduce the operating temperatures of SOFCs using unique material designs, resulting in a lower overall environmental impact due to the lower operational energy from the constituents of the selected material. Blanco et al. [ 70 ] reported that thin-film silicon and dye-sensitized cells lead the way in terms of total environmental impact, followed by thin-film chalcogenide, organic, and silicon. Chetyrkina et al. [ 71 ] analyzed the constituents of perovskite cells for their environmental hazards: lead, tin, or bismuth iodide on the one hand, and methylammonium, formamidinium, or cesium iodide on the other. The authors stated that bismuth iodide was the least hazardous in the first round of cell testing. Cesium and formamidinium iodides were less harmful to cells than methylammonium iodide. This study argued that their reports show that perovskite cells will fully phase out silicon-based cells since the former is not as toxic as the latter [ 72 ].

6 Summary and outlook

Covalent organic frameworks (COFs) have been reported to exhibit covalent bond-supported crystallinity as well as capture and mass transport characteristics [ 90 ]. Organic semiconductors are gaining popularity in research, and materials for organic electronics are currently intensively researched for other purposes, such as organic photovoltaics, large-area devices, and thin-film transistors, benefiting from the emergence of non-fullerene acceptors (NFAs) and the organic light-emitting diode (OLED) [ 91 ]. There have also been reports of issues arising from applications such as displays on flexible substrates, OLED lighting, huge area displays, and printable or solution processible greater area solar cells. Inorganic halide templates in carbon nanotubes of 1.2 nm, which are currently the smallest halide perovskite structures, have been reported to function as solar cells [ 92 ]. While other research has developed strategies to increase the durability of perovskites by using computer models based on density functional theory (DFT) to determine which molecules would be best at bridging the perovskite layer and the charge transport layers since the interface between the perovskite layer and the next layers is a critical location of vulnerability in perovskite solar cells. The results showed that inverted perovskite solar cells containing 1,3-bis(diphenylphosphine)propane, or DPPP, had the best performance because the cell's total power conversion efficiency remained high for around 3,500 h [ 93 ].

There are also environmental problems with PV systems, from production through installation and disposal [ 94 ]. Moreso, because perovskites are unstable, they must be protected with transparent polymers. Perovskite decomposes into chemicals that may pose environmental and human health hazards when this protection deteriorates [ 95 ]. Hence, PV solar systems have a carbon footprint of 14–73 g CO 2 -eq/kWh, which is lower than gas (607.6 CO 2 -eq/kWh), oil (742.1 CO 2 -eq/kWh), and coal-fired (975.3 g CO 2 -eq/kWh) power plants. New materials and/or recycled silicon material can reduce GHG emissions by up to 50% [ 96 ]. Floating PV systems and self-cleaning installations offer the benefit of using less water during the cleaning process. Except during installation, the PV modules have little noise and visual impact [ 97 ]. The life cycle analysis revealed that PV systems cannot be considered zero-emission technology due to the potential environmental effects imposed by land use, air quality, water use, the inclusion of hazardous materials, and possible noise/visual pollution; however, these effects can be mitigated by novel technologies such as hybrid power systems and/or floating PV systems [ 98 , 99 , 100 ]. Overall, future materials for solar photovoltaic devices must balance efficiency, cost, durability, toxicity, availability, and integration to provide a sustainable and cost-effective source of renewable energy [ 100 , 101 , 102 , 103 , 104 , 105 , 106 , 107 , 108 ].

7 Conclusion

Recent advancements in solar photovoltaic (PV) materials and systems have resulted in considerable efficiency, cost, and durability improvements. PV has become a more realistic choice for a wide range of applications, including power production, water pumping, and space exploration, as a result of these advancements. The creation of high-efficiency crystalline silicon (c-Si) solar cells has been one of the most significant recent developments in PV technology. C-Si solar cells can currently convert more than 20% of the sun's energy into electricity.

This is a huge advance over early c-Si solar cells, which could only convert roughly 10% of the sun's energy into power. The creation of thin-film solar cells is another significant recent advancement in PV technology. Thin-film solar cells are constructed from substantially thinner materials than c-Si solar cells. As a result, they are lighter and less expensive to produce. Thin-film solar cells are also more flexible than c-Si solar cells, allowing them to be used in a broader range of applications. In addition to advancements in PV materials, substantial advancements in PV systems have occurred. PV systems today feature a number of components that aid in efficiency, durability, and dependability.

Solar trackers, inverters, and batteries are among the components. PV has become a more realistic choice for a wide range of applications due to advancements in PV materials and systems. PV is currently used to power homes and businesses, as well as to pump water and power satellites and other spacecraft. PV technology is expected to become more commonly employed in the future as it improves.

Other recent advances in solar PV materials and systems include the development of new materials, such as perovskites, that have the potential to achieve even higher efficiencies than c-Si solar cells, the development of new manufacturing processes that can lower the cost of PV modules, and the development of new PV applications, such as solar-powered cars and homes. These advancements make solar PV a more appealing alternative for a broader range of applications. As the cost of PV continues to fall, solar PV is anticipated to become the major form of renewable energy in the future.

Availability of data and material

Not applicable.

Abbreviations

• Solar photovoltaic

Photovoltaic

Floating tracking concentrating cooling system

Hybrid solar photovoltaic/thermal system

Hybrid solar photovoltaic/thermoelectric

Hybrid solar photovoltaic/thermal

Direct current

Alternating current

Power conditioning unit

• Energy storage

Two-dimensional

Three-dimensional)

Silicon heterojunction

Polysilicon-on-oxide

Perovskite solar cells

Open-circuit voltage

Junction solar cell

Nanoparticles

Dye-sensitized solar cells

Counter electrode

Shockley–Queisser

Information and communications and mobile technology

Ultraviolet

Metal–organic frameworks

Electron-transport layer

Hole-transport layer

Power conversion efficiency

N-dimethylformamide

Electron-selective layers

Solid oxide fuel cells

Covalent organic frameworks

Non-fullerene acceptors

Organic light-emitting diode

Density functional theory

1,3 Bis(diphenylphosphino)propane

Greenhouse gas

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Dada, M., Popoola, P. Recent advances in solar photovoltaic materials and systems for energy storage applications: a review. Beni-Suef Univ J Basic Appl Sci 12 , 66 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1186/s43088-023-00405-5

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Sustainable Energy & Fuels

Design and development of nanostructured photocatalysts for large-scale solar green hydrogen generation.

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a Department of Chemistry, Siksha ‘O’ Anusandhan Deemed to be University Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India E-mail: [email protected] , [email protected]

The production of clean hydrogen through artificial photosynthesis is the most intriguing research topic that offers hope for meeting the world's energy demands. The evolution of green hydrogen via visible light-driven photocatalysis is challenging but feasible. Photocatalytic solar power systems primarily rely on utilizing the complete range of solar spectrum. The synthesis of an optimal photocatalyst should address all the influencing parameters with an efficient scaling method, which remains yet to be elucidated despite several advancements in photocatalytic water-splitting applications. Real-time solutions are necessary to overcome the lack of photocatalytic efficacy of semiconducting nanomaterials in solar-powered systems. In addition to the proposal of designing solar-powered systems for hydrogen generation, this review paves the way for highlighting the difficulties associated with water reduction methods. It also offers some strategies to improve charge separation and migration in a semiconducting photocatalyst by enhancing light absorption and altering their band positions. Moreover, a cost-effective, eco-friendly, and photostable heterogeneous nanocatalyst must be designed for visible light-harvesting water-splitting processes. This article reports various nanomaterial-based photocatalysts, which act as the base surface for photocatalytic solar water splitting. These include oxides, chalcogenides, and nitrides of metals, noble metals, plasmonic metals, ultrathin 2D covalent–organic frameworks (COFs), metal–organic frameworks (MOFs), and metal-free polymeric graphitic carbon nitrides. The integration of multi-component nano-materials can be more appropriate than single-component photocatalysts to maximize their catalytic activity. Thin-film photocatalysis is considered the most effective method for increasing hydrogen production rates compared to powder suspension-based photocatalysis. This article presents the latest advancements in thin film-based photocatalytic technology, outlining all the critical factors, prerequisites, and techniques for thin film preparation. Future research on advanced photocatalysis focuses on harvesting green hydrogen for in situ carbon dioxide reduction, fine chemical synthesis, nitrogen fixation, and hydrogen peroxide synthesis. Experimentally, photocatalytic solar-powered systems utilize natural sun light. However, the synthesis of ideal photocatalysts via effective scaling approaches remains a challenge. This paper paves the way for finding solutions and designing a practical solar-powered system for green hydrogen production.

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P. K. Sahu, A. Champati, A. Pradhan and B. Naik, Sustainable Energy Fuels , 2024,  8 , 1872 DOI: 10.1039/D4SE00056K

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‘Revolutionary’ solar power cell innovations break key energy threshold

Next generation cells surpass limits of today’s cells and will accelerate rollout of cheaper, more efficient solar power

Solar power cells have raced past the key milestone of 30% energy efficiency, after innovations by multiple research groups around the world. The feat makes this a “revolutionary” year, according to one expert, and could accelerate the rollout of solar power.

Today’s solar panels use silicon-based cells but are rapidly approaching their maximum conversion of sunlight to electricity of 29%. At the same time, the installation rate of solar power needs to increase tenfold in order to tackle the climate crisis, according to scientists.

The breakthrough is adding a layer of perovskite, another semiconductor, on top of the silicon layer. This captures blue light from the visible spectrum, while the silicon captures red light, boosting the total light captured overall. With more energy absorbed per cell, the cost of solar electricity is even cheaper, and deployment can proceed faster to help keep global heating under control.

The perovskite-silicon “tandem” cells have been under research for about a decade, but recent technical improvements have now pushed them past the 30% milestone. Experts said that if the scaling-up of production of the tandem cells proceeds smoothly, they could be commercially available within five years, about the same time silicon-only cells reach their maximum efficiency.

Two groups published the details of their efficiency breakthroughs in the journal Science on Thursday, and at least two others are known to have pushed well beyond 30%.

“This year is a revolutionary year,” said Prof Stefaan De Wolf, at King Abdullah University of Science and Technology in Saudi Arabia. “It’s very exciting that things are moving rapidly with multiple groups.”

The current efficiency record for silicon-only solar cells is 24.5% in commercial cells and 27% in the laboratory. The latter may well be as close the cells can practically get to the theoretical maximum of 29%.

But one group, led by Prof Steve Albrecht at the Helmholtz Center Berlin for Materials and Energy in Germany, has now published information about how they achieved efficiencies of up to 32.5% for silicon-perovskite cells. The other group, led by Dr Xin Yu Chin at the Federal Institute of Technology in Lausanne, Switzerland, demonstrated an efficiency of 31.25% and said tandem cells had the “potential for both high efficiency and low manufacturing costs”.

“What these two groups have shown are really milestones,” said De Wolf. His own group achieved 33.7% efficiency with a tandem cell in June, but has yet to publish the results in a journal. All the efficiency measurements were independently verified.

“Overcoming the 30% threshold provides confidence that high performance, low-cost PVs can be brought to the market,” said De Wolf. Global solar power capacity reached 1.2 terawatts (TW) in 2022. “Yet to avert the catastrophic scenarios associated with global warming, the total capacity needs to increase to about 75TW by 2050,” he said.

The solar industry is also part of the race to high efficiency. Chinese company LONGi, the world’s biggest producer of solar cells, announced in June they had reached 33.5% in their research. “Reducing the cost of electricity remains the perpetual theme driving the development of the photovoltaic industry,” said Li Zhenguo, the president of LONGi.

“The industry is running very, very fast,” De Wolf said. “And I’m sure that multiple companies are working on this in China.” Europe and the US need to increase its research and development funding to keep up and contribute to an accelerating roll out of solar power, he said.

All of the high-efficiency tandem cells above 30% efficiency are small so far, measuring 1cm by 1cm. They now need to be scaled up to the size of commercial cells, which are 15cm squares or larger.

The scale-up is already under way with UK company Oxford PV announcing in May a record 28.6% efficiency for a commercial-size cell . “Solar is already one of the least expensive and cleanest forms of energy available, and our technology will make it even more affordable,” said Chris Case, chief technology officer at Oxford PV.

The Oxford PV cell was made using the same production line that is already producing commercial-sized tandem cells with 27% efficiency in increasing volumes. Tandem cells may prove to be more expensive than silicon-only cells, but the cells are only a small part of the cost of producing and installing solar panels, De Wolf said.

One issue that remains to be resolved is how fast the tandem cells degrade over time in real-world conditions. Today’s solar cells still have 80-90% of their capacity after 25 years and De Wolf said tandems would have to match that, but that there was only limited data on their stability to date.

The key to the higher efficiencies of the tandem cells from the German and Swiss groups was tackling tiny defects on the surface of the perovskite layer. These allow some electrons liberated by solar photons to flow back into the perovskite, rather than contributing to the cell’s electrical current and therefore reducing its efficiency.

The solution was to put a layer of organic molecules between the perovskite and the conducting layer through which the current flows, which compensated for the defects.

Significantly, all the groups used different methods to address the problem, giving more options in the search for the best commercial design, said De Wolf. “There’s still lots of room to go further,” he said. “I believe that the practical limit is well beyond 35%.”

Prof Rob Gross, director of the UK Energy Research Centre, said: “Solar is already a low-cost way to generate electricity and has a wide resource base across the world. The cost reductions already achieved are the main reason solar now plays such a large role in scenarios of decarbonised energy systems. Improvements in efficiency have the potential to increase the output of solar and therefore will help to reinforce that effect.”

There are other technologies, such as multi-junction cells, which can have efficiencies as high as 47% , but these are very expensive to produce and would only be suitable for niche uses such as on space satellites or when sunlight is highly concentrated on to the cells .

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March 25, 2020

Photovoltaics Pioneer and NREL Alumna Sarah Kurtz Honored by National Academy of Engineering

World-renowned photovoltaics expert and longtime NREL alumna Sarah Kurtz was recently elected to the National Academy of Engineering for her contributions to the development of high-efficiency solar cells and leadership in solar cell reliability and quality.

March 17, 2020

Analysis Reveals PV Systems in the U.S. Operating as Expected

The vast majority of solar panels are living up to expectations for energy production after five years, according to a new analysis of 100,000 photovoltaic (PV) systems across the United States.

March 5, 2020

News Release: NREL Research Boosts Stability of Perovskites, Helps Silicon Solar Cells

A change in chemical composition enabled scientists to boost the longevity and efficiency of a perovskite solar cell developed at NREL. The new formula enabled the solar cell to resist a stability problem that has so far thwarted the commercialization of perovskites.

Feb. 19, 2020

News Release: Researchers Improve Safety of Lead-Based Perovskite Solar Cells

Researchers at NREL and Northern Illinois University have developed a technique to sequester the lead used to make perovskite solar cells, a highly efficient emerging photovoltaic technology.

Feb. 6, 2020

HOPE Program Offers Students Unparalleled Access to World's Leading Solar Researchers

The Hands-On Photovoltaic Experience is aimed at providing in-depth training and expertise on the latest in solar technology and advancements, with the benefit of individualized research training and access in a small-group setting.

Jan. 23, 2020

International Effort Aims to Establish Protocols for Assessing, Reporting Perovskite Stability

Perovskite solar cells have rapidly emerged in the past decade as an extremely efficient method to transform sunlight into electricity, but the issue of stability has so far kept them from commercialization. Four NREL researchers are part of a global consensus on the ways in which stability of perovskite solar cells should be assessed and reported.

Jan. 14, 2020

NREL Secures 21 Awards to Further CSP and PV Research

On November 6, 2019, the U.S. Department of Energy Solar Energy Technologies Office awarded $128 million to 75 new projects that will advance solar technologies in five major areas. The National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) earned a major portion of this funding—nearly $20 million.

Scientists unlocked solar patterns that could help understand space weather

The sun is emitting high energy radiation in weird patterns.

The sun is more than a heat lamp for Earth. It is constantly spitting streams of solar particles our way and, sometimes, powerful pockets of solar material that can jolt our planet. Now, scientists are unlocking another puzzle piece on what may drive extreme solar activity, which could bombard Earth and disrupt our technology.

The missing piece could be linked to unusual patterns of high energy bursting from the sun’s surface, according to recent research .

We’re used to hearing about the sun’s ultraviolet radiation, which we protect ourselves against with sunscreen. The sun also emits much more powerful gamma rays, which are the most energetic waves on an electromagnetic spectrum . Each gamma ray photon carries a billion times as much energy as an ultraviolet photon.

Gamma rays don’t directly affect people on Earth’s surface because the photons are absorbed by our atmosphere. But scientists are investigating if some of these very energetic rays could trace solar activity, such as the sun’s powerful outbursts like solar flares or eruptions on its surface. Such strong events can create “space weather,” which can hit Earth, affect satellite operations and knock out railway or electric systems.

Predicting extreme solar events would be a huge improvement in our understanding of the sun, like predicting an earthquake before it strikes.

In a recent study, scientists found that some portions of the sun emit more intense gamma ray radiation than others — a surprising finding because models previously hinted that gamma radiation should be uniform across the sun. The latest research found the sun’s poles emitted the highest radiation during the moments the sun’s north and south magnetic fields flipped.

“It’s about having better tools to predict the solar activity,” said Bruno Arsioli, co-author and researcher at the University of Lisbon and University of Trieste. “Maybe we could use this new information from very high energies to help our models predict the behavior of the sun.”

The scientific reasoning for the strange orientation is still a mystery, the authors say. But the sun’s magnetic field is likely to flip in the next year or two , allowing the scientists to observe this oddity in real time and gather more data to explain the phenomenon.

Peering under the sun’s surface

Gamma rays are the kings of all energy. They are generated from the most energetic objects in our universe, such as supernova explosions or neutron stars. Nuclear explosions and lightning on Earth can also produce gamma rays.

The sun can also emit gamma rays through a few avenues. When an eruption on the sun sends off gas and plasma from its surface, gamma rays can also be emitted but in relatively small energy levels.

The bigger source of solar gamma radiation comes when very energetic particles emitted from supernova and neutron stars across the universe, called cosmic rays, bombard the sun. When the charged cosmic particle hits the sun, it gets turned around by the sun’s magnetic field and comes back out. On its way out, it hits gas on the sun’s surface and excites solar particles into gamma ray photons.

This gamma ray conversion, astrophysicist Tim Linden said, probably takes place 100 to 1,000 kilometers below the sun’s surface, where the magnetic field is strong enough to turn the cosmic rays around.

“With gamma rays in the sun, we get to see a few thousand kilometers below,” said Linden, an astrophysicist at Stockholm University who was not involved in the new study. “That can give you a probe of what’s happening very deep below the solar surface.”

A surprising finding

The sun’s activity is not constant. Every 11 years, our host star goes through a costume change where its north and south magnetic poles switch places, known as a solar cycle. As the poles flip, the level of activity at the sun’s surface changes. The sun is the least active at the beginning, known as a solar minimum, and most active around the middle when the magnetic poles officially flip, known as a solar maximum. The sun is expected to hit its solar maximum in the next year or so.

In the new study, researchers studied how the sun’s gamma radiation changed across an entire solar cycle, using data collected from NASA’s Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope. They found gamma radiation was the most intense at the sun’s poles as solar activity peaked during the cycle — coinciding when magnetic fields officially flipped.

“This was not expected,” said Arsioli. “It’s just something new we are finding out about the sun.”

The finding was surprising because the actual strength of the sun’s magnetic field doesn’t change much over the 11-year period, Linden added. During peak activity, the sun’s magnetic field becomes more tangled , which leads to more activity like flares and eruptions on the surface, but the overall strength doesn’t necessarily change.

“No one had any model that said that certain portions of the sun would be brighter than others as a function of the solar cycle,” but previous studies hinted at an unusual pattern, said Linden. He showed that certain areas of the sun are brighter than others in a previous study , but this new study analyzes the trends in more detail.

Now, the models and understanding of our sun’s gamma energies would need to be revised. Arsioli said because this lopsided structure shows up at the time the sun is going through its magnetic flip, the gamma rays could be connected to magnetic configuration and solar activity.

The exact explanation is still a mystery said Elena Orlando, a study author and researcher at University of Trieste and Stanford University. One idea could be the cosmic rays are hitting different regions during solar maximum. Or, perhaps, there is something special about the poles during solar maximum that attracts more cosmic rays to hit. There could also be a completely different explanation.

“This suggests that the gamma rays are carrying information about the solar activity,” said Arsioli. “It kind of opens up a new area to study this connection.”

Potential tool to predict solar activity

Predicting an extreme solar event is like anticipating an earthquake. Processes below the surface start to shift and can trigger activity on the surface, but it’s difficult to forecast exactly when and where.

“This study helps extend our knowledge of where exactly on the sun’s surface the gamma rays are originating,” said particle physicist Mehr Un Nisa, who was not involved in the study.

Previous studies also hinted that gamma rays did not glow uniformly across the sun, but this is the first study to show a change during solar peak activity.

Gamma rays could help provide an early look at processes coming to surface and give clues about the overall condition of the sun, Orlando said. For instance, an increase in gamma radiation at the poles could signal the sun’s magnetic field is in the process of flipping and that the sun’s activity is increasing — leading to more solar eruptions that could hit Earth.

Future studies could also look at how gamma radiation changes before a large solar flare, Linden said, potentially using observations as a forecast tool — much like determining if it will rain on Earth from atmospheric conditions.

“The same magnetic fields that are responsible for modulating the high energy particles that produce these gamma rays are also responsible for the ebbs and flows of space weather,” Nisa said. “Regardless of whether life is disrupted by space weather, getting the physics of our nearest star right will only add to our knowledge of our place in the universe.”

This article is part of Hidden Planet , a column that explores wondrous, unexpected and offbeat science of our planet and beyond.

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Measuring High and Low

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The Sun will be at peak activity this year, providing a rare opportunity to study how solar storms and radiation could affect future astronauts on the Red Planet.

In the months ahead, two of NASA’s Mars spacecraft will have an unprecedented opportunity to study how solar flares — giant explosions on the Sun’s surface — could affect robots and future astronauts on the Red Planet.

That’s because the Sun is entering a period of peak activity called solar maximum, something that occurs roughly every 11 years. During solar maximum, the Sun is especially prone to throwing fiery tantrums in a variety of forms — including solar flares and coronal mass ejections — that launch radiation deep into space. When a series of these solar events erupts, it’s called a solar storm.

Earth’s magnetic field largely shields our home planet from the effects of these storms. But Mars lost its global magnetic field long ago, leaving the Red Planet more vulnerable to the Sun’s energetic particles. Just how intense does solar activity get on Mars? Researchers hope the current solar maximum will give them a chance to find out. Before sending humans there, space agencies need to determine, among many other details, what kind of radiation protection astronauts would require.

“For humans and assets on the Martian surface, we don’t have a solid handle on what the effect is from radiation during solar activity,” said Shannon Curry of the University of Colorado Boulder’s Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics. Curry is principal investigator for NASA’s MAVEN (Mars Atmosphere and Volatile EvolutioN) orbiter, which is managed by NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Maryland. “I’d actually love to see the ‘big one’ at Mars this year — a large event that we can study to understand solar radiation better before astronauts go to Mars.”

MAVEN observes radiation, solar particles, and more from high above Mars. The planet’s thin atmosphere can affect the intensity of the particles by the time they reach the surface, which is where NASA’s Curiosity rover comes in. Data from Curiosity’s Radiation Assessment Detector, or RAD , has helped scientists understand how radiation breaks down carbon-based molecules on the surface, a process that could affect whether signs of ancient microbial life are preserved there. The instrument has also provided NASA with an idea of how much shielding from radiation astronauts could expect by using caves, lava tubes, or cliff faces for protection.

When a solar event occurs, scientists look both at the quantity of solar particles and how energetic they are.

“You can have a million particles with low energy or 10 particles with extremely high energy,” said RAD’s principal investigator, Don Hassler of the Boulder, Colorado, office of the Southwest Research Institute. “While MAVEN’s instruments are more sensitive to lower-energy ones, RAD is the only instrument capable of seeing the high-energy ones that make it through the atmosphere to the surface, where astronauts would be.”

When MAVEN detects a big solar flare, the orbiter’s team lets the Curiosity team know so they can watch for changes in RAD’s data. The two missions can even assemble a time series measuring changes down to the half-second as particles arrive at the Martian atmosphere, interact with it, and eventually strike the surface.

The MAVEN mission also leads an early warning system that lets other Mars spacecraft teams know when radiation levels begin to rise. The heads-up enables missions to turn off instruments that could be vulnerable to solar flares, which can interfere with electronics and radio communication.

Beyond helping to keep astronauts and spacecraft safe, studying solar maximum could also lend insight into why Mars changed from being a warm, wet Earth-like world billions of years ago to the freezing desert it is today.

The planet is at a point in its orbit when it’s closest to the Sun, which heats up the atmosphere. That can cause billowing dust storms to blanket the surface. Sometimes the storms merge, becoming global .

While there’s little water left on Mars — mostly ice under the surface and at the poles — some still circulates as vapor in the atmosphere. Scientists wonder whether global dust storms help to eject this water vapor, lofting it high above the planet, where the atmosphere gets stripped away during solar storms . One theory is that this process, repeated enough times over eons, might explain how Mars went from having lakes and rivers to virtually no water today.

If a global dust storm were to occur at the same time as a solar storm, it would provide an opportunity to test that theory. Scientists are especially excited because this particular solar maximum is occurring at the start of the dustiest season on Mars, but they also know that a global dust storm is a rare occurrence.

NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Maryland, manages the MAVEN mission. Lockheed Martin Space built the spacecraft and is responsible for mission operations. JPL provides navigation and Deep Space Network support. The Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics at the University of Colorado Boulder is responsible for managing science operations and public outreach and communications. 

Curiosity was built by NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory, which is managed by Caltech in Pasadena, California. JPL leads the mission on behalf of NASA’s Science Mission Directorate in Washington. The RAD investigation is supported by NASA’s Heliophysics Division as part of NASA’s Heliophysics System Observatory (HSO).

Additional information about the missions can be found at:

https://mars.nasa.gov/maven/

http://mars.nasa.gov/msl

Nancy Neal Jones Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, Md. 301-286-0039 [email protected]

Andrew Good Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, Calif. 818-393-2433 [email protected]

Karen Fox / Charles Blue NASA Headquarters, Washington 301-286-6284 / 202-802-5345 [email protected] / [email protected]

Related Terms

• Curiosity (Rover)
• Goddard Space Flight Center
• Heliophysics
• Mars Science Laboratory (MSL)
• MAVEN (Mars Atmosphere and Volatile EvolutioN)

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A new kind of solar cell is coming: is it the future of green energy?

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Rooftop solar panels in China. Tandem cells could boost power density in crowded urban areas. Credit: VCG/Getty

On the outskirts of Brandenburg an der Havel, Germany, nestled among car dealerships and hardware shops, sits a two-storey factory stuffed with solar-power secrets. It’s here where UK firm Oxford PV is producing commercial solar cells using perovskites: cheap, abundant photovoltaic (PV) materials that some have hailed as the future of green energy. Surrounded by unkempt grass and a weed-strewn car park, the factory is a modest cradle for such a potentially transformative technology, but the firm’s chief technology officer Chris Case is clearly in love with the place. “This is the culmination of my dreams,” he says.

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The Use of Optimization Techniques in Solar Energy

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Solar energy systems are considered one of the most important solutions to the continuous increase of global energy demand and environmental concerns. However, the high cost and limited energy conversion are still challenging aspects that need further investigation. Moreover, the intermittent nature of solar ...

Keywords : optimization, solar photovoltaic, solar thermal, solar hybrid systems, AI methods, techno-economic assessment, environmental effects

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15 Topics for Solar Energy Research

Solar energy is a renewable resource that can help to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and dependence on fossil fuels.

Additionally, solar energy research can lead to the development of new technologies and jobs in the solar industry.

Finally, solar energy research can help to improve the efficiency of solar cells and make them more affordable for consumers.

Machine learning

Bionic leaf, others five topics, solar energy research topics for high school, how is solar energy the future, how does solar energy work (for your research), what are the 2 main disadvantages of solar energy, 15 topics for you to do solar energy research.

Solar energy research and development is a big topic. Here are 15 different solar energy topics you can write about for your next solar energy research paper:

Researchers at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign developed a machine learning program to forecast the performance of future solar photovoltaic materials, including “virtual” compounds that do not yet exist.

The technique was developed in collaboration with Industry Partner CSIRO and is now freely accessible and simple to use for research teams all over the world.

It will significantly accelerate the development of more efficient solar cells, which are increasingly important as renewable energy’s popularity rises and carbon emissions reduction becomes more crucial.

Scientists recently created a model named bionic leaf that can separate sunlight into water into hydrogen and oxygen. With bacteria engineering, it converts carbon dioxide and hydrogen into a liquid fuel called isopropanol. The efficiency of this process is 1 percent, and you can turn sunlight into fuel.

This research is currently in the initial stage, and you can improve it if you are interested. This is a possible process that can become an outstanding source of renewable energy. The improvement of energy recreation will be a great solution. It allows scientists to use natural resources for energy production.

Some other topics you can start researching are listed below. The thin film solar is one of the key directions that many governments want to develop due to its advantages. If you are super serious about your subject, you can dig deeper into that field and maybe, spend more time on the lab, connect to others in the solar e, and who knows, in the future, we will have a new technology that can save a million trees.

• Thin Film Solar
• Carbon-Based Solar Cells
• Polymer Solar Cells
• Solar Concentration Technology
• Lignocellulose Hydrolysis Technology

Those are topics for your next research paper. If you are a high school student and want to do some research about solar energy, below are some simpler topics that you can learn and present in front of the class.

• The cost of solar energy research and development
• Solar energy storage methods
• Solar power in transportation
• Solar energy in the home
• Solar water heating
• Solar space heating and cooling
• Solar cooking
• Solar pool heating
• Passive solar building design
• Active solar building technologies
• Solar air conditioning
• Solar photovoltaic cells
• Solar thermal power plants
• Solar desalination
• The future of solar energy research and development

I have listed a few possible topics for you to write about in your solar energy research paper. These are only a few of the many possibilities available to you. Be sure to brainstorm other ideas and do some preliminary research before settling on a topic. Good luck!

The future of solar energy is very bright. Solar energy is a clean, renewable resource that can be used to generate electricity, heat homes and businesses, and power transportation. With the right policies in place, solar energy could provide a significant portion of the world’s energy needs.

Solar energy works by trapping sunlight in solar panels and converting it into electricity. Solar panels are made up of a series of cells that contain semiconductors, such as silicon. When sunlight hits the cell, it causes an electric field to be created. The electricity generated can then be used to power homes and businesses.

First, solar energy is not a consistent source of energy because it is dependent on the amount of sunlight available. Second, solar energy is also relatively expensive to set up compared to other forms of energy generation.

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• The event will highlight the increasing importance of solar thermal energy as a key technology for the heat transition. It will focus on the potential of solar thermal energy for heat generation in various areas of application and its role in the production of sustainable fuels.

The program of the colloquium addresses various topics in the field of concentrating solar technologies, including qualification and measurement technology for industry, concentrating solar thermal energy for the heat transition and the large-scale development of CST components in DLR test facilities. Other presentations will provide an overview of solar production processes for synthetic fuels and the demonstration of solar chemical processes and components in DLR's Jülich facilities, the solar towers and the Synlight solar simulator. The challenges and opportunities of defossilization in the chemical industry will also be examined.

A highlight of the event is a visit to Synhelion's DAWN plant at Brainergy Park Jülich and a visit to the Jülich solar towers .

We warmly invite interested parties to Jülich to learn more about current developments in sustainable energy generation and to discuss current trends and the future of solar technology.

Registration is expected to be possible from 13 May. Further information can be found here and on LinkedIn .

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