quantitative case study interview

Career in Consulting

280 Free Case Interview Examples

Do you want to get access to over 280 free case interview examples (with answers)?

If you have interviews planned at McKinsey ,  The Boston Consulting Group , or any other consulting firm, you are probably looking for case interview examples.

So, to help you prepare, I have compiled a list of 280 free case interview examples:

• Over 30 free case interview examples (+ interview prep tips) from the websites of top consulting firms
• More than 250 free case interview examples from top business school case books

Moreover, you’ll get  my take on which case studies you will likely have in interviews.

In short, the resources listed hereafter will be very helpful if you are starting out or have already made good progress in preparing for your case interviews.

One last word : check out this free case-cracking course to learn how to crack the most recent types of case questions consulting firms use in actual interviews.

Let’s get started!

Table of Contents

Get the latest data about salaries in consulting, mckinsey: tips and case interview examples.

McKinsey & Company’s website is definitely one of my favorites.

Because this gives so much insightful information about the role of a consultant and what the hiring process looks like.

Therefore, I highly recommend spending time on their website, even if you are not targeting McKinsey.

In the meantime, here are 8 McKinsey case interview examples

• Electro-light
• GlobaPharma
• National Education
• Talbot trucks
• Shops corporation
• Conservation forever

Check out the McKinsey Hub : A library of 20+ free resources that cover everything you need to secure a job offer at McKinsey.

Besides, here is another McKinsey case interview example.

This case interview question has been recently asked in a real interview:

𝘦𝘊𝘢𝘳𝘊𝘰, 𝘢 𝘑𝘢𝘱𝘢𝘯𝘦𝘴𝘦 𝘭𝘦𝘢𝘥𝘪𝘯𝘨 𝘮𝘢𝘯𝘶𝘧𝘢𝘤𝘵𝘶𝘳𝘦𝘳 𝘰𝘧 𝘦𝘭𝘦𝘤𝘵𝘳𝘪𝘤 𝘱𝘢𝘴𝘴𝘦𝘯𝘨𝘦𝘳 𝘷𝘦𝘩𝘪𝘤𝘭𝘦𝘴, 𝘩𝘢𝘴 𝘣𝘦𝘦𝘯 𝘴𝘵𝘳𝘶𝘨𝘨𝘭𝘪𝘯𝘨 𝘸𝘪𝘵𝘩 𝘢 𝘭𝘰𝘸 𝘮𝘢𝘳𝘬𝘦𝘵 𝘴𝘩𝘢𝘳𝘦 𝘪𝘯 𝘵𝘩𝘦 𝘉2𝘉 𝘴𝘦𝘨𝘮𝘦𝘯𝘵. 𝘛𝘩𝘦𝘺 𝘦𝘯𝘫𝘰𝘺 𝘴𝘵𝘳𝘰𝘯𝘨 𝘱𝘰𝘴𝘪𝘵𝘪𝘰𝘯𝘴 𝘪𝘯 𝘵𝘩𝘦 𝘉2𝘊 𝘴𝘱𝘢𝘤𝘦, 𝘣𝘰𝘵𝘩 𝘥𝘰𝘮𝘦𝘴𝘵𝘪𝘤𝘢𝘭𝘭𝘺 𝘢𝘯𝘥 𝘪𝘯 𝘵𝘩𝘦 𝘪𝘯𝘵𝘦𝘳𝘯𝘢𝘵𝘪𝘰𝘯𝘢𝘭 𝘮𝘢𝘳𝘬𝘦𝘵. 𝘏𝘰𝘸𝘦𝘷𝘦𝘳, 𝘦𝘊𝘢𝘳𝘊𝘰’𝘴 𝘴𝘢𝘭𝘦𝘴 𝘵𝘰 𝘴𝘮𝘢𝘭𝘭 𝘢𝘯𝘥 𝘮𝘦𝘥𝘪𝘶𝘮 𝘴𝘪𝘻𝘦 𝘣𝘶𝘴𝘪𝘯𝘦𝘴𝘴𝘦𝘴 𝘤𝘰𝘯𝘵𝘪𝘯𝘶𝘦 𝘴𝘵𝘢𝘺𝘪𝘯𝘨 𝘧𝘢𝘳 𝘣𝘦𝘭𝘰𝘸 𝘦𝘹𝘱𝘦𝘤𝘵𝘢𝘵𝘪𝘰𝘯𝘴. 𝘛𝘩𝘦 𝘊𝘌𝘖 𝘩𝘢𝘴 𝘪𝘯𝘷𝘪𝘵𝘦𝘥 𝘺𝘰𝘶 𝘵𝘰 𝘩𝘦𝘭𝘱 𝘵𝘩𝘦𝘮 𝘰𝘶𝘵.

How would you approach this business problem?

When ready, check this video below where I present how to approach this problem.

BCG: Tips And Case Interview Examples

The Boston Consulting Group website  states something very important: the goal of the hiring process is to get to know you better, which means, in the context of Consulting interviews, understanding how you solve problems .

Remember this: in case interviews,  to show how you think is MUCH MORE IMPORTANT than to find an answer to the case .

As a result, you will have case study questions to showcase your problem-solving skills. Likewise, fit interviews have the same purpose: to show what problems you faced and how you resolved them.

• BCG interview prep tips
• BCG’s interactive case tool
• BCG case interview example: climate change challenge
• BCG case interview example: GenCo
• BCG case interview example: FoodCo

Check out the BCG Hub : A library of 20+ free resources that cover everything you need to secure a job offer at BCG.

Bain: Tips And Case Interview Examples

Bain & Company’s website highlights something very important: successful applicants manage to turn a case interview into a conversation between two consultants .

In other words, you don’t want to appear as a candidate but as a consultant !

To do this, you need to master the main problem-solving techniques that consulting firms want to see.

• Bain interview prep tips here and here
• Bain case interview examples: coffee , fashioco
• Bain case interview sample videos: a first video , a second video

Check out the Bain Hub : A library of 20+ free resources that cover everything you need to secure a job offer at Bain & Company.

Deloitte: Tips And Case Interview Examples

As for the BCG’s section above, the Deloitte website clearly states that in case interviews , it is much more important to show how you think and interact with your interviewer than to find the right answer to the case.

• Deloitte interview prep tips
• Deloitte case interview examples: here (more than 15 case interview examples)
• Deloitte case interview example: Federal Agency
• Deloitte case interview example: Recreation Unlimited
• Deloitte case interview example: Federal benefits Provider
• Deloitte case interview example: Federal Civil Cargo protection Bureau

Get 4 Complete Case Interview Courses For Free

You need 4 skills to be successful in all case interviews: Case Structuring, Case Leadership, Case Analytics, and Communication. Join this free training and learn how to ace ANY case questions.

Oliver Wyman: Tips And Case Interview Examples

Like the Deloitte website, Oliver Wyman’s website points out that, above all,  you must demonstrate your ability to think in a structured, analytical, and creative way.

In other words, there are no right or wrong answers, but only showing how you solve problems matters.

• Oliver Wyman interview prep tips
• Oliver Wyman case interview examples: here (Aqualine) and here (Wumbleworld)

Kearney: Tips And Case Interview Examples

Now it’s time to tell you something you could have heard a hundred times.

Yet too many candidates do it.

Do NOT force your solution to adapt to a standard framework . As a result, this will only take you to a place you don’t want to go: the pool of rejected candidates .

To learn more about this, check the “What Not To Do” section on the AT Kearney website .

• Kearney interview prep tips
• Kearney case interview examples: here and here
• Kearney case book: here

Strategy&: Interview Prep Tips

Strategy& doesn’t provide case study examples on its website, but it shares insights on career progression, which I recommend reading when you prepare for your fit interviews.

• Strategy& interview prep tips

Roland Berger: Tips And Case Interview Examples

I like the examples of case studies presented on the Roland Berger website .

Because the two examples of case studies are very detailed and illustrate the kind of solutions your interviewers expect during case discussions.

• Roland Berger interview prep tips
• A first Roland Berger case interview example: part 1 and part 2
• A second Roland Berger case interview example: part 1 and part 2

Alix Partners: Interview Prep Tips

Like Strategy&, Alix Partners doesn’t provide case study examples on its website.

However, they give an overview of what they are looking for: they want entrepreneurial, self-starter, and analytical candidates, which are skills that all consulting firms highly appreciate .

• Alix Partners interview prep tips

OC&C: Interview Prep Tips

Here are two case study examples from OC&C:

• Imported spirit
• Leisure clubs

253 Case Studies From Business School Case Books

Most of these 253 case study examples are based on case interviews used by consulting firms in real job interviews .

As a result, you can have a good idea of the case study questions you can have when interviewing at these firms .

The Full List Of 253 Free Case Study Examples

• Chicago business school
• Australian Graduate School of Management
• Columbia business school
• Harvard business school
• Wharton business school (2009)
• Wharton busines school (2017)
• Darden business school

Do you want to practice a specific type of case study? Now you can…

I have sorted this list of 253 case studies by type:  profitability, market expansion, industry analysis, pricing, investment or acquisition,  and guesstimates (also known as market sizing questions).

Bonus #1: Know The Types Of Cases You Are Likely To have During Your Interviews

• Profitability cases (29% of cases from that list)
• Investment cases (19% of cases from that list)
• Market sizing questions (15% of cases from that list)

As a result, assuming you’ll have 6 interviews (and therefore 6 case interviews) during the recruitment process:

• “Profitability cases are 29%”  means that chances to have 2 profitability case studies during your recruitment process are very high
• “Investment cases are 19%”  means that chances to have 1 investment case study during your recruitment process are very high.
• “ Guesstimates are 15%”  means that chances of having  1 market sizing question during your recruitment process are high.

Bonus #2: The 10 Cases I Recommend You Doing Now

Over 250 examples of case interviews are a great list, and you may not know where to start.

So, I’ve compiled a list of my 10 favorite case studies.

The 5 case studies I recommend doing if you are a BEGINNER

1. stern case book: drinks gone flat (starting at page 24).

This is a good introduction to a common type of case (declining sales here). I liked the solution presented for this case, particularly how it started by isolating declining sales (what range of products? Volumes or prices, or both?).

2. Stern case book: Sport bar (starting at page 46)

This is an investment case (should you invest in a new bar). Even if the solution presented in this case book is not MECE , it covers the most common quantitative questions you might have in such a case. I recommend doing this case.

3. Stern case book: MJ Wineries (starting at page 85)

This is a profitability case. I liked the solution presented in this case because it illustrates how specific good candidates should be. The case concerns wine, so a good candidate should mention the quality of lands and grapes as important factors.

4. AGSM case book: Piano tuners (starting at page 57)

This is a typical market sizing question. How to answer this type of question is a must-know before going to your interviews.

5. Darden case book: National Logistics (starting at page 49)

Again, this is a very common case (how to reduce costs). I liked the broad range of questions asked in this case, covering key skills assessed by consulting firms during case interviews: brainstorming skills (or creativity), quantitative skills, and business sense.

The 5 case studies I recommend if you are more ADVANCED in your preparation

1. stern: the pricing games (starting at page 55).

This case study asks you to help your client assess different business models. I liked this case because the range of issues to tackle is quite broad.

2. Wharton 2017: Engineer attrition at SLS Oil & Gas Services (starting at page 55)

I liked this case study because the case prompt is uncommon: your client has been facing a very high attrition rate among its population of Engineers. As a result, it’s very unlikely that your solution fits a well-known framework, and you’ll have to demonstrate your problem-solving skills by developing a specific solution.

3. Wharton 2017: Pharma Company Goes International, Outsources Benefits, Integrates New Technology (starting at page 95)

This case is about a client considering outsourcing a part of their activity. Even though I don’t know if this type of case study is very common, I had many case studies like this when I passed my interviews a few years ago. And I always found them difficult!

4. Insead: Gas retail case (starting at page 73)

The question in the problem statement is very broad, making this case difficult. So, only good candidates can have a structured case discussion here.

5. Darden: Fire Proof (starting at page 84)

This is a market entry case. Try to solve it by developing a structure as MECE as possible.

CareerInConsulting.com's Free Resources

Access my exclusive free training to help you prepare for your case interviews .

Besides, you can learn my step-by-step guide to answering market sizing questions .

You’ll get my formula to solve all market sizing questions.

Moreover, if you are a beginner, you can read my article on how to solve business cases (+ a 4-week prep plan to get case interview ready).

Also, check these 11 must-know frameworks to ace your case interviews.

Finally, you can read the articles in the blog section of my website.

That’s quite a list.

To complete this list, check this free case interview course , where you’ll find case questions recently asked in actual interviews.

Now, I’d like to hear from you.

Which key insights were new to you?

Or maybe I have missed something.

Either way, let me know by leaving a comment below.

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You need 4 skills to be successful in all case interviews: Case Structuring, Case Leadership, Case Analytics, and Communication. Enroll in our 4 free courses and discover the proven systems +300 candidates used to learn these 4 skills and land offers in consulting.

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Case Interview Math: The Insider Guide

Last Updated on March 27, 2024

Embarking on a career in consulting at leading firms demands mastery over consulting math problems. Statistically speaking, a staggering 85% of management consulting case interviews put candidates to the test with case interview math questions. At top consultancies such as McKinsey , BCG , and Bain , this expectation skyrockets to nearly 100%.

During case interviews, candidates are tasked with dissecting complex mathematical business puzzles, delving into the qualitative aspects that underpin these numbers, and ultimately crafting strategic recommendations.

These mathematical challenges often emerge as the largest hurdle for many aspiring consultants. Drawing from our extensive background in conducting interviews at McKinsey and coaching thousands of interviews on platforms such as PrepLounge and StrategyCase.com, we’ve observed that the lion’s share of mishaps during case interviews arises within this quantitative segment.

Developing math skills in consulting interviews is crucial for candidates aiming for top-tier firms. The ability to navigate these numerical problems not only sets the foundation for success in case interviews but also mirrors the analytical challenges consultants face in real-world scenarios.

This article is your ultimate guide to consulting interview preparation, with a focus on math challenges. Our insights in this expert article aim to demystify the numerical proficiency required by top-tier consulting firms, preparing you to tackle these challenges head-on with confidence and strategic insight. It includes all relevant tips for solving consulting math problems, making complex calculations manageable.

It is a critical installment in our comprehensive consulting case interview prep series:

• Overview of case interviews: what is a consulting case interview?
• How to create a case interview framework
• How to ace case interview exhibit and chart interpretation
• How to ace case interview math questions (this article)
• How to approach brainstorming questions in case interviews

Why Candidates Struggle with Case Interview Math

The conundrum of case interview math is not intrinsically tied to the difficulty of the mathematical problems themselves, which often do not surpass high school-level arithmetic. You have solved similar problems before, maybe not in a business or interview context, but in a classroom setting.

Let’s start with some positivity.

There is no need to fear quantitative problems in case interviews. The level of math required is not more complex than what you have already learned in school and you do not need a specific degree to pass the case interviews.

The true challenge emerges from the synthesis of multiple skills under the high-pressure environment of a case interview.

Logical thinking is paramount, as you must not only arrive at the correct approach but do so swiftly and efficiently. This is compounded by the need to execute calculations with potentially large numbers accurately and quickly, all while maintaining composure to manage the interviewer’s impression. Communication also plays a critical role; articulating your thought process and conclusions in a clear and concise manner is essential.

When faced with the task of juggling these aspects simultaneously, it’s common for candidates to experience panic, leading to a decrease in overall performance. However, by deconstructing these skills and mastering each individually – logical problem-solving, fast and accurate arithmetic, effective communication, and impression management – you can significantly bolster your confidence. This strategic preparation not only mitigates the fear associated with case interview math but equips you with the comprehensive skill set necessary to excel.

That being said, as with every other element in a case interview ( structuring , brainstorming , exhibit and data interpretation ), there is a very specific way of approaching case interview math, which candidates are not used to from their previous academic or professional experience. Learn how to apply business case math to real-world consulting scenarios.

Let’s get to it!

Case Math Mastery Course and Drills

Learn how to tackle case interview math questions with the insight and precision of an experienced consultant with the most comprehensive preparation program on the market. Learn from our McKinsey interviewer experience and benefit from the detailed curriculum of the guidebook and the video program as well as 40 hours of practice.

The Purpose of Case Interview Math

Numerical analysis forms the backbone of decision-making and strategic recommendations in case interviews, reflecting the real-world consulting emphasis on data-driven insights.

In the context of a business problem usually found in a case interview, quantitative analyses are conducted for two reasons.

Identifying problems and quantifying their impact

Initially, consultants are tasked with identifying underlying issues within a business context. Through quantitative analysis, they delve deep into the problem, quantifying its impact to uncover root causes and, subsequently, potential solutions.

In the condensed format of a case interview, you’re expected to mirror this investigative approach, albeit in a more abbreviated manner.

Supporting recommendations

Quantitative data underpins every business recommendation, providing a solid foundation for decision-making. In consulting practice, every suggestion or strategic plan presented to a client is supported by numerical evidence.

Similarly, during a case interview, the quantitative analyses you conduct will critically inform your final recommendations.

Test of your quantitative skills

Moreover, case interviews serve as a proving ground for your quantitative skills, simulating the analytical rigor required in consulting. I cannot remember a single day in my McKinsey career, where I was not running some form of quantitative analysis.

Therefore, honing your ability to devise strategic, logical approaches to quantitative challenges and execute precise calculations is crucial not only for acing case interviews but also for thriving as a consultant.

This skillset ensures you’re well-equipped to deliver insights that drive impactful business decisions, marking your capability to thrive in the consulting domain.

A simplified version of reality

In the case interview context, the mathematical problems presented are invariably a streamlined representation of real business challenges, often drawn from the interviewer’s direct experience with actual clients. This means that while the scenarios aim to mimic the complexities of business decision-making, the approach and calculations are deliberately simplified for the sake of brevity and clarity.

For instance, scenarios might feature fewer market segments or shorter time periods than those in actual business cases, and variables are designed to be more straightforward, allowing for easier manipulation and calculation. It’s also common practice for candidates to round numbers to simplify the process further. Unlike the exhaustive analyses that can span weeks on the job as new insights emerge, a typical math problem in a case interview is designed to be resolved within a succinct 5 to 8-minute window from start to finish. That should give you an idea of how complex it can really be.

This distilled version of reality, however, does not make the task at hand any less challenging. The dual demands of strategizing your steps and executing calculations unfold under the watchful eye of the interviewer, all within a high-pressure, calculator-free environment.

Yet, mastering the basics – quick mental arithmetic, fundamental operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, percentages, and fractions), and the ability to make judicious estimates – proves invaluable. These skills equip you to tackle most interview problems effectively, without the need for advanced mathematical knowledge.

While some problems might feature a complexity that demands logical problem-solving and potentially multiple calculation steps, the essence of case interview math lies in its reduced complexity, designed to assess your analytical acumen rather than your prowess in advanced mathematics.

The myth of perfection

In the high-stakes environment of case interviews, there’s a prevalent myth that perfection is the key to success. This belief leads many to think that any mistake, particularly in math, spells automatic rejection. However, this couldn’t be further from the truth. Mistakes, whether in calculations or pacing, are not uncommon and do not necessarily jeopardize your chances of success.

It’s important to recognize that errors, to an extent, are expected. You might miscalculate, take a bit longer to arrive at an answer, or even find the interviewer stepping in to guide you. These instances, in isolation, aren’t deal-breakers. They’re often seen as part of the process, providing insights into your problem-solving approach and resilience.

The critical factor is how you handle mistakes. An isolated error or a moment of slowness doesn’t doom your interview outcome. However, repeated errors, especially if they’re indicative of a pattern within the same interview or across multiple interviews, can raise concerns. Moreover, a single mistake leading to a cascade of follow-up errors, triggered by loss of confidence or panic, can be detrimental. This reaction, rather than the initial mistake itself, can hinder your performance significantly. I have seen this hundreds of times in live settings.

One key strategy to mitigate the impact of mistakes is to excel in other aspects of the case interview. Demonstrating exceptional analytical skills, creative problem-solving, or outstanding communication can offset occasional mathematical errors. Interviewers are looking for a well-rounded skill set, so performance spikes in areas other than math can greatly enhance your overall evaluation.

Ultimately, how you respond to mistakes is crucial. Viewing them as learning opportunities rather than failures can transform your interview experience. Showing the interviewer your ability to quickly recover, correct errors, and proceed with confidence speaks volumes about your potential as a consultant. It demonstrates resilience, adaptability, and a growth mindset.

Effective Strategies for Tackling Case Interview Math Questions

Different skill levels, same problem.

Understanding the unique challenges and logic behind math questions in case interviews reveals an interesting observation:

Candidates from various academic backgrounds might find themselves revisiting basic mathematical concepts not engaged with since high school. Conversely, individuals with a strong quantitative foundation, such as engineers, may need to simplify their analytical approach to align with the straightforward nature of case interview math. This adjustment is crucial for all candidates, regardless of their initial competency levels, to adapt to the nuances of case interview calculations effectively.

Both types of backgrounds need to adapt to the specific case interview math principles and process.

Unlike traditional math problems, case interview questions prioritize the relevance and application of mathematical solutions to the business scenario at hand. The aim is not merely to arrive at precise numerical answers but to receive directionally correct results to leverage these findings and inform strategic decisions within the case’s context. Thus, achieving perfectly accurate results is less critical than developing a sound, strategic approach that yields directionally correct insights swiftly.

It’s better to get directionally correct results swiftly and interpret them correctly than getting 100% accurate results and not providing any insights into the case problem. Approach case interview math with this mantra

Adopting a mindset that embraces quantitative analysis as an integral part of every case scenario is essential. This involves not just solving the problem at hand but also considering the broader implications of your calculations on the strategic recommendations you propose. The ability to relate different numerical factors and assess their impact on the business challenge is key.

The apprehension some candidates feel towards case math can be mitigated by understanding that these calculations are designed to reflect real-world business problems in a simplified manner. Therefore, embracing the opportunity to demonstrate logical thinking and analytical prowess through these mathematical exercises is vital.

Even more so, have a quantitative angle in every case, even if the interviewer does not explicitly ask you for it. For example, try to relate numbers to each other, think about the potential quantitative impact of your recommendation, etc.

Many candidates are simply scared of digging into the mathematics of a case. Don’t be that person! rather go where no one else is going and highlight your numerical prowess at every opportunity.

As we delve further, I aim to equip you with the knowledge and strategies to confidently tackle both the structuring and calculation aspects of math questions in case interviews, ensuring you’re well-prepared to handle the quantitative analysis that underpins effective case interview performances.

My approach to every case math problem

Mastering the art of solving quantitative problems in case interviews involves a two-pronged approach: developing a universal strategy applicable across various case scenarios and executing calculations to arrive at concrete insights.

How, then, should one tackle the numerical aspects of case interviews with a structured strategy that you can always rely on? Proving essential math skills for case interviews is less daunting with my step-by-step guide.

• Listening : Engage fully, paying close attention to the information provided by your interviewer. Active listening forms the foundation of your analytical process.
• Clarification : Pause to ensure clarity around the data presented or derived from visual aids such as charts and tables. It’s crucial to confirm the accuracy of these figures and understand the objective of your analysis before proceeding.
• Strategizing : Outline a clear, logical plan for your calculations. For complex problems, don’t hesitate to request a brief moment – typically a minute or two – to organize your thoughts and structure your approach on paper.
• Articulating your strategy : Communicate your planned methodology to the interviewer. This step is vital for preemptively identifying any potential errors and ensuring alignment on the approach.
• Calculation execution : With the interviewer’s nod, carry out your calculations diligently. It’s advisable to work through this phase methodically, allowing yourself time to focus without interruption.
• Verification : Review your work to catch and correct any errors. Ensuring your numbers are reasonable and accurate is key to building a solid argument.
• Presentation of results : Share your findings in a clear, concise, and assertive manner, avoiding presenting your conclusion as a question. Highlight the most critical results, adhering to a top-down communication style as recommended by the Pyramid Principle .
• Interpretation and next steps : Beyond just presenting numbers, interpret what they mean in the context of the case. How do they influence your analysis and recommendations? Always connect your findings back to the larger case narrative, exploring their implications and forming hypotheses based on these insights. Propose next steps.

The benefit of adopting a structured approach to quantitative problems in case interviews is twofold. Firstly, it showcases to the interviewer your ability to navigate complex situations with a level-headed, systematic strategy, effectively demonstrating case leadership qualities. This organized methodology signals that you possess the poise and strategic foresight necessary to dissect and solve business challenges – a trait highly valued in consulting.

Secondly, this approach creates an optimal environment for you to perform at your peak. By delineating the processes of thinking, communicating, and calculating, you’re able to maintain a sharp focus at any given moment. This separation ensures that each step of the problem-solving process receives your undivided attention, significantly enhancing your efficiency and effectiveness.

Conversely, when candidates attempt to juggle multiple aspects simultaneously – such as solving the problem while overly concentrating on managing the interviewer’s impression – results tend to suffer. This scattered focus often leads to underperformance in case interviews, as it dilutes the clarity and precision necessary for success.

By adhering to a structured approach, you not only present yourself as a composed and capable candidate but also set the stage for demonstrating your best analytical and problem-solving skills.

Exercise caution with mental math

For those adept at mental arithmetic, a word of caution: always jot down your calculations. Relying solely on mental computations can lead to significant challenges if errors occur. Without a written record, pinpointing and rectifying mistakes becomes a daunting task, necessitating a complete reevaluation of your work. This not only hampers your ability to quickly identify where you went wrong but also prevents the interviewer from offering guidance or corrections.

Moreover, maintaining written documentation of your steps and intermediate results serves a dual purpose. It enables the interviewer to follow your thought process more effectively, providing an opportunity for intervention if necessary. Furthermore, it allows you to efficiently review your calculations, ensuring accuracy and clarity throughout the problem-solving phase.

Typical Case Interview Math Problems and Key Formulas

3 types of case math problems.

In case interviews, math problems predominantly fall into three main categories, each designed to test your analytical prowess and decision-making capabilities. Understanding these categories not only aids in your preparation but also equips you with the insight to tackle these challenges methodically.

Roughly 90% of case interview math problems can be categorized as follows, guiding you toward strategic recommendations:

• Market or segment sizing : This type of problem requires you to estimate the size of a market or a specific segment within a market. For instance, you might be asked to calculate the potential sales of sports cars in China over the next five years. Alternatively, you might be asked to estimate something, i.e. the impact of an initiative. This involves understanding key influencing variables and making reasonable assumptions to provide a well-reasoned estimate.
• Operational calculations and decisions : These problems focus on the operational aspects of a business and often involve making calculations to improve efficiency, reduce costs, or enhance productivity. A typical question might involve calculating the total time saved if the lead time for each production step is reduced by 15%. Such questions require an analysis of current operations and an understanding of how changes can impact overall performance.
• Investment and financial strategic decisions : This category involves assessing various investment options or financial strategies to determine the most beneficial course of action. For example, you might need to compare the returns of two investment options, where Investment A offers a 12% annual return and Investment B offers a 5.5% return every six months. These problems test your ability to apply financial concepts and formulas to real-world scenarios, evaluating options based on their potential returns, risks, and strategic fit with the client’s objectives.

Extending beyond these primary categories, case interview math problems may also touch upon areas such as cost-benefit analysis, pricing strategies, and financial forecasting. Each type of problem requires a blend of quantitative skills, logical reasoning, and strategic thinking, allowing you to demonstrate your comprehensive understanding of business fundamentals. As you prepare for your case interviews, focusing on these core categories will help you develop a robust footing for tackling mathematical challenges, enabling you to approach each problem.

Case math formulas

Market sizing. When it comes to market or segment sizing questions, it’s perfectly acceptable to seek clarification from your interviewer on specific figures, such as the population of a particular country. Nonetheless, arming yourself with a foundational knowledge of key statistics can streamline your analysis and enhance your efficiency during these exercises. Familiarizing yourself with essential data points, including:

• Global population
• Populations of major countries such as the US, UK, Germany, China, India
• Demographic specifics of regions pertinent to your geographic area
• Average life expectancy rates
• Typical household sizes
• General income brackets

Equipping yourself with these statistics not only speeds up your calculation process but also demonstrates your preparedness and broad understanding of global and regional demographics. For a deeper dive into tackling market sizing questions with confidence and accuracy, including common formulas and strategic approaches, be sure to explore our dedicated article on market sizing questions . This resource is crafted to further refine your skills in estimating market potential, a critical component of case interview success.

Operational calculations. Operational calculations in case interviews demand a tailored approach, requiring you to devise formulas that are directly applicable to the case’s specific context and challenges. Unlike predefined equations, these formulas need to be thoughtfully constructed on the fly, taking into account the unique aspects of the business scenario at hand. Whether it’s streamlining processes, optimizing resource allocation, or improving operational efficiency, your ability to craft and apply these custom formulas is key.

In many instances, you might find yourself tackling optimization problems. These are designed to identify the most efficient way to allocate resources or adjust processes to maximize or minimize a particular outcome, such as cost, time, or production output. Understanding the principles of optimization and how to apply them in various business contexts can significantly enhance your problem-solving toolkit.

To get started, familiarizing yourself with a couple of foundational operational formulas can prove invaluable:

• Utilization rate = Actual output / Maximum output
• Capacity = Total capacity / capacity need per unit​
• Resources needed = Demand / Supply (e.g., Employees needed per day = 80 hours of customer requests per day / 8 daily working hours per employee; 10 employees are needed per day)
• Output = Rate (per time) x Time (e.g., Rate = 5 pieces per hour, Time = 5 hours; Output for 5 hours = 25)

These formulas serve as a foundational base from which to approach operational challenges within case interviews.

To evaluate the financial impact of decisions, these few formulas are key.

• Profit = Revenue – Cost
• Revenue = Price x Quantity
• Cost = Fixed cost (the cost that cannot be changed in the short term, e.g., rent) + Variable cost (the cost that changes with the number of products produced or services rendered, e.g., material cost)
• Contribution margin = Price – Variable cost
• Profitability (Profit margin) = Profit / Revenue
• Market share = Revenue of one product / Revenue of all products (in one market)
• Total market share = Total company revenue in a market / Total market revenue
• Relative market share = Company market share / (largest) Competitor market share
• Growth rate = (New number – Old number) / Old number
• Payback period = Investment / Profit per specific time frame (e.g., annual)
• Breakeven number of sales = Investment / Profit per product
• Return on investment = (Revenue – Cost of investment) / Cost of investment = Profit / Cost of investment
• Depreciation refers to the reduction in the value of an asset over time

There are also more advanced concepts, which are common for more specialized financial case interviews, not for generalist roles:

• The NPV is the present value of the sum of future cash in and outflows over a period (t = number of time periods, e.g., years) and is used to analyze the profitability of an investment or project
• Rule of 72: To find out how long it takes for a market, company, or investment to double in size, simply divide 72 by the annual growth rate
• The CAGR shows the rate of return of an investment or a project over a certain period of years (t = the number of years), expressed as an annual percentage
• The perpetuity is an annuity that lasts forever
• The ROE measures how effectively equity is used to generate profit
• The ROA measures how effectively assets are used to generate profit
• It measures how a change in price affects the change in demand
• Gross profit = Revenue from sales – Cost of goods sold (COGS, e.g., materials)
• Operating profit = Gross profit – Operating expenses (e.g., rent) – Depreciation (the spread of an asset’s cost over its useful lifetime, e.g., of a machine) – Amortization (the spread of an intangible asset’s cost over its useful lifetime, e.g., of a patent)
• Gross profit margin = Gross profit / Revenue
• Operating profit margin = Operating profit / Revenue
• The EBITDA looks at the profitability of the core business

Case Interview Math Tips and Tricks

Keep the following tips in mind to 3x your case interview math performance and speed, while reducing the potential for errors and mistakes.

Tackle the problems aggressively

Tackle case study math questions with confidence. Consulting interviewers want to see highly driven candidates who show self-initiative and engagement. If you hesitate whenever a number pops up or make mistakes in the quantitative section of the case, interviewers will test if this is just an anomaly or happens repeatedly. Candidates who struggle with math get more quantitative challenges during the case, whereas candidates who proceed flawlessly through the initial math question(s) often get shortcuts for the remaining quantitative parts or even whole results readily delivered by the interviewer as they have collected enough positive data points about their candidate’s performance in that area.

Hence, it is important to tackle math problems aggressively and with confidence. In most of my client interviews, I notice a hesitancy once the case moves into a more quantitative direction. Many are simply scared of digging into the numerical parts of a case or of discussing things in a quantitative context. Do not be that person!

If you mess up one calculation, you should not let this have a negative impact on the next one.

Re-learn and practice basic calculus

(Re-)learn simple arithmetic operations and practice until you can perform them in your sleep. While case math is never difficult, many candidates struggle with the concept of being watched while doing these basic operations. Therefore, the better your skill to compute quickly in a stressful environment, the bigger your quantitative muscle in the interview.

Practice calculations both mentally and with pen and paper under time pressure and the vigilant eyes of friends and peers. Go through number generators and math drill exercises to work on large-number additions, subtractions, multiplications, and divisions. Work with averages, percentages, and fractions. This certainly helps to build resilience and stamina.

Consider the numerical impact in your analysis

Get a feeling for numbers, percentages, and magnitudes. You should be able to accurately and approximately estimate percentages, percentages of percentages, as well as magnitudes on the spot. This helps you to interpret results and put them into context as well as to spot more obvious mistakes.

You should always have a critical eye on the quantitative aspects of a situation, even if the interviewer does not explicitly ask you about it. For example, relate numbers to each other (e.g., “The total is x, which represents a y% increase” ) or automatically think about the potential financial impact of your recommendation (e.g., “While these measures would definitely help improve our client’s customer satisfaction, I would be curious to understand how much the implementation would actually cost.” ). In addition, put numbers you hear into perspective (e.g., “I heard you say a 12% decrease is needed to achieve our planned cost reduction. I believe that in the current market environment with increasing commodities prices, this could be a difficult undertaking.” ). By interpreting numerical results in that way, you demonstrate strong business sense and judgment. You spot the implications of your outcomes and conclude correctly by discussing the so-what? of your analysis.

Putting numbers into perspective is also a valuable skill during a sanity check (e.g., “Is it really possible that we could increase our revenue by 200 million if we currently only make 50 million? Let me check my calculations again because that doesn’t seem right.” ).

On the other hand, if you are basing your recommendation solely on the outcome of a calculation, it makes sense to also discuss qualitative arguments to demonstrate your holistic big-picture thinking. Management consulting math goes beyond simple calculations, involving strategic thinking and analysis. For instance, if you recommend choosing a supplier solely because it is cheaper than the others, you could discuss that you would also like to look at the quality of their products, the supply chain, the availability, etc. Supplement a quantitative result with qualitative factors and vice versa.

Express problems quantitatively

Instead of approaching problems purely from a qualitative side, make a habit of using equations to describe relationships, ideas, and parts of the issue tree (if appropriate). It helps your thinking, shows that you are structured in your approach, and demonstrates that you are not afraid to get your quantitative hands dirty. A brief example: “Our client’s train tracks on Route A suffer from more than 100% utilization during the peak hours, leading to delays for many trains and passengers. What ways can you think of that could improve the capacity issue?”

To investigate and improve the over-utilization of the route, you could come up with the following equation: Utilization = demand / capacity. From this equation, you can instantly see that you need to either decrease demand or increase the capacity to improve the utilization situation. Demand and Capacity could be potential top-level buckets for your issue tree. You can now list investigative areas or ideas below each to structure your problem analysis. This approach would help you to quickly isolate quantitatively where the problem is coming from and how big it is, then quantify your remedies as you go along, indicating the best levers to pull and the best course of action.

Sanity check everything

Quantitative problems come with the most potential for errors and mistakes as they involve multiple challenging steps and actions you need to go through before reaching a sensible outcome. You want to avoid mistakes in the first place, but we all know that they do happen; even on the job later on. If you cannot avoid a mistake, at least try to catch your own mistakes before the interviewer does. How can you do that?

• Do not assume that the approach you came up with on the spot is correct without double-checking or thinking it through properly (the importance of taking time) .
• Remain vigilant and aware that mistakes are common in the math section. Never communicate the outcome of a calculation before double-checking that it is at least in the right ballpark and not the result of a careless mistake (the importance of sanity checking).

This also applies (or even more so) when you think that the math seems to be relatively easy. I have seen many interviewees getting caught off guard with simple math problems since they pay less attention to them compared to more difficult examples, then falling into a trap or making avoidable mistakes.

In sum, sanity-check your approach to the problem and outcome of each (intermediate) calculation. Use your judgment to spot calculation and estimation results that seem out of line (e.g., 18.3% vs. 183%). There are eight typical error sources:

• The logic is off or too complex.
• Your calculation is wrong (e.g., forgetting to carry the one, magnitude errors).
• You use the wrong numbers for the right approach. I see this often when candidates do not have organized notes and – in the heat of the moment – plug in the wrong numbers to calculate, even though their approach is correct.
• Your assumptions are off.
• You round numbers too generously or simplify the calculations too much (more on rounding later in this chapter).
• You fail to keep track of units and compare apples and oranges (more on that next).
• You forget one or several steps of your calculation. I see this often when candidates are glad to have made it through the math section yet forget to work on the final step of their approach (e.g., adding up two numbers).
• You interpret the results in the wrong way. I see this often when candidates are happy to have finished their calculations and then jump to a conclusion without thinking first. For instance, if we are comparing several scenarios and are interested in the alternative with the best net benefit, you would want to recommend the alternative with the highest result (highest net benefit). Some candidates do not think and select the alternative with the lowest number (lowest net benefit) as they somehow confuse lower with being better in this situation, by mixing it up with costs in their mind. Always make sure to interpret your results correctly and define what your outcome should be when drafting and communicating your approach.

If you spot a mistake and have not yet communicated the faulty result, ask for more time to sanity-check the calculation or the approach. If you have already blurted out a wrong number, state “This cannot be right.”  Then, go back to think about your approach or re-do the calculation. Provide reasons why your numbers might be off. Fix the problem quickly if the interviewer does not intervene. Most importantly, do not get thrown off by a mistake, and keep your composure.

Do not go faster after a mistake. Often, follow-up mistakes occur due to your newfound sense of urgency and disappointment in your performance. From my experience, more than 50% of candidates who make a math mistake make another one in the next two minutes. Rather, slow down and take some extra time to pick yourself up! It is not necessarily over yet unless you let it impact your performance going forward.

Keep track of units

Do not lose track of your units. Is it kg or tons, is it USD or EUR, etc.?

• When receiving the brief for a math question, write down every number including its unit.
• While setting up the calculation already prepare (either mentally or preferably on paper) a space for the end result including the correct unit.
• Keep the units for your intermediate results organized and label every number.

Interviewers might use different units for different numbers to check if you are paying close attention or simply just to confuse you. Stay vigilant, play back the units to make sure you have noted them down correctly. You must track the units of the input variables, and manipulate them correctly (i.e., convert all to the same unit), to then get to the right output. Do not compare apples and oranges.

Sometimes interviewers also use multiple units for one variable. For instance, “Our client would pay USD 500 per employee per year with option #1 and USD 1000 per three employees for 10 months with option #2.” Pay close attention in such cases and convert both options to the same units before comparing them, e.g., cost per employee per year.

Use shortcuts in your approach

Set up efficient and effective calculations. Most analyses in the business world rely on multiple assumptions and reasonable estimates, therefore not requiring a 100% level of precision. Hence, most of the time, close-to-correct answers are expected. Employ shortcuts in your approach to get accurate and directionally correct answers. Less is often more.

A couple of examples:

• When drafting formulas, always look for the simplest way to get to an accurate answer. For instance, if you are asked to decide between two potential suppliers by comparing the cost of both over a 40-week period, yet all information in the brief is on a weekly basis, for your decision it is enough to calculate and compare the weekly cost for each. If for some reason you want to calculate the difference over 40 weeks, first take the difference of the weekly cost, then multiply it by 40. Alternatively, you could calculate the cost for each supplier for 40 weeks, and then calculate the difference, but you would end up with more calculation steps and more difficult calculations since larger numbers are involved.
• Think critically about what outcome is needed to support your decision. For instance, if you must find out if the profit margin of a deal for 30 aircraft is more than 10% there is no need to calculate the profit margin for all 30 units but calculating the profit margin for one aircraft is sufficient to evaluate the deal. This leaves you with smaller numbers which are easier to handle and interpret.
• When evaluating which option out of several is the best, only look at metrics that differ for every option. For instance, if the fixed cost for every option is the same, yet the variable cost and revenue are different, you would only need to consider the latter two to provide a recommendation (given that you are not asked to evaluate the total value of each option but just to pick the best).

Always explain your logic, shortcuts, and simplifications to the interviewer. They need to understand why your approach is enough to answer the question. Ninety-nine percent of the time, they will agree. Your final results won’t be 100% accurate either way and are not expected to be for most cases. Use plausible shortcuts in your approach and calculation to reach plausible numbers. The same is true for rounding.

Simplify and round numbers

Like the point above, use rounding to make your calculations easier and minimize the risk of mistakes. Ask the interviewer if it is okay to round beforehand and explain exactly how you want to do it. For instance, if you come up with a revenue number of 82.5 million, ask to use 80 million instead. State beforehand that you will trim the fat a bit; if the interviewer agrees, proceed with your calculation. Similarly, if you get 42.65 as an intermediate result say that in the following calculations, this will be rounded down to 40. Other examples include:

• 83 million Germans become 80 million
• 331 million Americans become 320 or even 300 million (by making some clever assumptions explaining why not everyone in the population should be included in your approach, e.g., by excluding certain demographic segments or areas)
• 365 days in a year become 350 or even 300 days (by making some clever assumptions about bank holidays, opening hours, weekends, etc.)
• USD 983 million in revenue becomes one billion.

The tricky part about rounding numbers is to know when it is a good time to do so. Some case math questions demand precise results. For example, if you are asked whether an investment has an ROI above 12% and you can already spot that the final result is close to that number, it would be wise to calculate with precision. Similarly, if you are comparing two alternatives or outcomes, be careful. Outcomes could be very close to each other so extensive rounding might just flip their ranking and the direction of your answer. That is why you should always ask if you can round and provide details on how you would like to do it. That way, the interviewer could provide feedback on whether rounding is a good idea or not.

On the other hand, rounding is especially helpful when 100% precise answers are not needed. For instance, when you calculate a singular outcome, i.e., not comparing multiple numbers or outcomes. You might also round if your calculations yield only directionally correct results anyway, and precise answers are not expected, for instance, when you need to rely on (multiple) assumptions in your approach. Examples would be estimating the size of a market or the impact of a measure, which come with many assumptions and degrees of uncertainty.

What are the best practices related to rounding?

You should round only within a ten percent margin, ideally less, and within five percent. Otherwise, you might skew the results, over or understate the outcome, and provide false recommendations. Think about the impact of rounding consecutive numbers. You can either get more precise results because the effects cancel each other out or magnify the blur of rounding.

For instance, if you want to calculate the revenue, which is quantity times price and the quantity is 9,500 units and the price is USD 35, you could calculate with a quantity of 10,000 and a price of USD 30. That roughly keeps you in a 10% margin of the precise result. If you round both numbers in the same direction, up or down, you would already be off by around 20% from the precise result.

To create a general rule: When you sum two numbers or multiply them, make sure to round one number up and the other one down, essentially rounding in the opposite direction. If you want to subtract or divide, make sure to round both numbers either up or down, rounding in the same direction. Lastly, whenever you deal with indivisible items, round them up to a whole. For instance, if you calculate that you would need to purchase 533.4 new cars for a taxi company to meet their demand, round it up to 534. There are no half-cars.

Take your time

The single biggest lever to improve the outcome of your quantitative analysis is to take time and perform numerical tasks on your terms. What this means is that you should not get pressured to answer or calculate on the spot but rather ask the interviewer for some time to prepare your logic and then, again, to perform your calculations. One minute is usually fine for the logic and up to three minutes are okay for the actual calculations. Of course, faster is better but faster and wrong is worse than slow, steady, and accurate.

Remember our initial discussion. You do not need to have a spike in every area of the case, yet you should avoid mistakes at all costs. A slow but accurate math answer helps you get the offer if you demonstrate spikes in other areas. A wrong but fast answer might lead to a rejection, even if you spike in other areas.

Do not feel pressured to talk to the interviewer while you are thinking or calculating. Focus on one thing at a time. Only communicate your logic, your results, or if you want, your intermediate outcomes once you are done with each step.

Watch the 0s

You would not believe how many candidates fall into this trap. Many people struggle with large numbers, simplify them by cutting zeros, and then end up losing zeros along the way or even adding some to the result. Watch out for zeros that you have trimmed or left out to facilitate your calculations. There are two best practice solutions to deal with and keep track of zeros:

• scientific notation.

For labels, add k for thousand (000), m for million (000,000), and b for billion (000,000,000) when manipulating larger numbers. That way you can simplify and keep track of your zeros.

Alternatively, by applying the scientific notation, you can trim the power of 10s and then perform simple calculations. Once you reach a conclusion you can add your zeros back. Let’s look at one example: Calculate 96 x 1,300,000.

First, just calculate 96 x 13 x 10 5 , essentially getting rid of the five zeros of the second number: 96 x 13 = 96 x 10 + 96 x 3 = 1,248

Add the 5 zeros back, which makes it to 124,800,000.

Another example, a division: 1.4bn / 70mn = (1.4 x 10 9 ) / (7 x 10 7 ) = 0.2 x 10 2 = 20

When adding the zeros back, for a multiplication you would add the superscripted numbers, for a division you would subtract one from the other.

Adopt one of the two options discussed above when practicing so it becomes second nature to you. You will never struggle with zeros again.

Case Interview Math Practice Questions

Practice case math question #1.

It’s important to understand what to expect when preparing for your case interviews.

Let’s look at the following case interview math example:

Scenario : Imagine you are a consultant working for a beverage company, “RefreshCo,” which is considering launching a new line of herbal tea products. RefreshCo aims to understand the potential market size, profitability, and key financial metrics associated with this launch to make an informed decision. Your task is to help RefreshCo by analyzing if the breakeven will be achieved within 5 years. Data provided : RefreshCo estimates the initial investment for launching the new herbal tea line at $2 million. The expected lifetime of the product in the market is 5 years. The target market size for herbal tea in Year 1 is estimated at 2 million potential purchases initially, with a 5% annual growth rate. RefreshCo aims to capture a 10% market share in Year 1, with a 10% growth in market share each subsequent year. The selling price per unit is set at $4, with the cost of goods sold (COGS) at $2.5 per unit. Fixed costs (excluding the initial investment) are estimated at $500,000 per year. Prompt for a case interview math problem

Take some time to work on this question and then come back to the solutions below.

Let’s go through the calculations for each section in detail:

Market size calculation

The market size for each year is calculated using the compound growth formula: Market size=Initial market size×(1+Growth Rate)^Years

• Year 1 : 2,000,000 (Given)
• Year 2 : 2,000,000×(1+0.05)=2,100,000
• Year 3 : 2,000,000×(1+0.05)^2=2,205,000
• Year 4 : 2,000,000×(1+0.05)^3=2,315,250
• Year 5 : 2,000,000×(1+0.05)^4=2,431,013

You could also calculate each year based on the number of the previous year.

Revenue projections

Revenue is calculated as the product of potential customers and selling price, considering the annual growth in market share.

• Year 1 Revenue : 800,000 (Calculated based on market share, which is growing by 10% every year, and the selling price)
• Year 2 Revenue : 924,000
• Year 3 Revenue : 1,067,220
• Year 4 Revenue : 1,232,639
• Year 5 Revenue : 1,423,698

Profitability analysis

Profit for each year is calculated by subtracting total costs (COGS per unit multiplied by the number of units sold plus fixed costs) from total revenue.

• Year 1 Profit : −200,000 (Revenue minus costs)
• Year 2 Profit : −153,500
• Year 3 Profit : −99,792
• Year 4 Profit : −37,760
• Year 5 Profit : 33,887

Break-even analysis

The break-even point is not reached within the 5-year period as cumulative costs exceed cumulative revenues throughout the period. Based on the calculations, RefreshCo will not achieve breakeven within the first 5 years of launching the new line of herbal tea products.

By the end of the 5th year, the cumulative profit (including the initial investment as a negative profit) is still negative, amounting to approximately -$2,457,166 .

To facilitate and speed up your calculations you could also work with shortcuts such as generous rounding or estimating the impact of the growth rate in market size and market share. The result would still be directionally correct, indicating that this is not a good business idea.

Practice case math question #2

Let’s look at another example:

Scenario : AutoPartsCo is a manufacturer specializing in automotive parts. Due to increasing demand, the company is exploring ways to optimize its production process for one of its key products: brake pads. The company operates two production lines, Line A and Line B, each with different capacities, costs, and output levels. Your task as a consultant is to analyze the provided data and recommend which production line should be optimized to maximize efficiency and reduce costs, based on average cost per unit. Data provided : Line A : Capacity: 10,000 units/month Current monthly production: 8,000 units Fixed costs: $120,000/month Variable cost per unit: $15 Line B : Capacity: 15,000 units/month Current monthly production: 12,000 units Fixed costs: $150,000/month Variable cost per unit: $12 Based on the average cost per unit, recommend which production line AutoPartsCo should focus on optimizing. Consider factors like capacity utilization and potential for cost reduction. Prompt for a case interview math problem

• For Line A and Line B, calculate the total costs (fixed costs + total variable costs) and then divide by the number of units produced to find the average cost per unit.
• Total Variable Costs for each line are calculated as the product of the variable cost per unit and the number of units produced.
• Compare the average costs per unit between Line A and Line B to determine which line is currently more cost-efficient.
• Assess the capacity utilization for each line (current production divided by total capacity) to identify potential for optimization.
• Based on the cost efficiency and capacity utilization, recommend which production line offers the best opportunity for optimization and why.

Average cost per unit:

• Line A : The average cost per unit is $30.
• Line B : The average cost per unit is $24.5.

Capacity utilization

• Both Line A and Line B have a capacity utilization rate of 80%.

Recommendation

Based on the average cost per unit, Line B is currently more cost-efficient than Line A, with a lower average cost per unit of $24.5 compared to $30 for Line A. Additionally, both production lines are operating at the same capacity utilization rate of 80%, suggesting that neither line is currently overburdened.

Considering the lower average cost per unit and equal capacity utilization, AutoPartsCo should focus on optimizing Line B . Optimizing Line B could further reduce costs and enhance efficiency, given its already lower cost base and potential for increasing production closer to its full capacity without the immediate need for significant capital investment.

This recommendation is made with the assumption that demand can absorb the increased production and that similar quality standards can be maintained across both lines. Further analysis could involve exploring ways to reduce the variable and fixed costs of Line A or increasing its production volume to improve its cost efficiency.

Mental Math Concepts and Shortcuts

Mental math for consulting requires practice and strategy. Below are some tricks to become faster, more accurate, and more comfortable with case math as well as more advanced concepts that you might encounter during interviews. The more often you employ these tricks during practice and work with certain concepts, the more it becomes second nature to you. Sometimes you might be able to combine a couple of tricks to become even faster.

While there are many specific calculation shortcuts (e.g., when multiplying a number by eleven), you should focus on a couple of shortcuts that are replicable and can be used for most situations. Don’t try to memorize many different shortcuts that only have highly isolated use cases. Internalize and use a few shortcuts well. Like everything else in consulting interviews: Do not boil the ocean.

Basic arithmetic calculations

Master quick and effective arithmetic shortcuts essential for acing Bain, BCG, and McKinsey math case interviews:

Learn these simple shortcuts and use the examples below as pointers.

Build groups of 10

When adding up numbers, build groups of numbers that add up to 10 or multiples of 10.

7 + 3 + 12 + 8 + 5 + 5 = 40

(10) + (20) + (10) = 40

Go from left to right

356 + 678 = (356 + 600) + 70 + 8 = (956 + 70) + 8 = 1026 + 8 = 1034

This is a simple way to become faster and more accurate once you have internalized it.

Subtractions

Make it to 10

When performing quick subtraction, figure out what makes it to 10.

For instance: 4 2 – 2 5

• Reverse the subtraction for the unit digit (5 – 2 = 3)
• Add the number that would make it to 10 (3 + 7 = 10); this is the units digit of the result
• Add 1 to the digit on the left of the number you are subtracting (2 + 1 = 3)
• You end up with 7 on the unit digit and 4 – 3 = 1 on the 10s place, which is 17

Let’s use another example: 3853 – 148

• Reverse the unit digit (8 – 3 = 5)
• Add the number that would make it to 10 (5 + 5 = 10)
• Add 1 to the digit on the left of the number you are subtracting (4 + 1 = 5)
• You end up with 5 on the unit digit, 5 – 5 = 0 on the 10s place, and 8 – 1 = 7 on the hundreds place, which gives you a result of 3705

With a bit of practice, the what do you need to add to make it to 10 becomes an automated habit for your subtractions: 1 + 9, 2 + 8, 3 + 7, 4 + 6, 5 + 5, 6 + 4, 7+ 3, 8 + 2, 9 + 1

You can use the same approach we’ve discussed for additions for subtractions as well:

42 – 25 = (42 – 20) – 5 = 22 – 5 = 17

Multiplications

Get rid of 0s

To make your calculations simpler, get rid of the zeros at first, adding them again at the end. For instance, if asked to calculate 34 x 36,000,000: convert it into 34 x 36m, which is 1,224, then add six zeros to that number which is 1,224,000,000

Use the label method ( “m” ) or the scientific notation (x10 6 ). If you had to multiply 3,400 times 36,000,000: convert again to 3.4k x 36m, which is 122.4, then move the comma to the right side of the 4 and add eight zeros (the sum of the zeros you got rid of in the beginning: 3 + 6), which is 122,400,000,000. Using the scientific notation, we would end up with this: (3.4 x 10 3 ) x (36 x 10 6 ) = 122.4 x 10 9 = 122,400,000,000.

Break apart multiplications by expanding them and breaking one of the terms into simpler numbers. For instance: 18 x 5 = 10 x 5 + 8 x 5 OR (20 – 2) x 5 = 20 x 5 – 10 = 90

Factor with five

Factor common numbers to simplify your calculations when dealing with multiples of 5. For instance: 17 x 5 = 17 x 10 / 2 = 85.

Another example would be 20 x 15 = 20 x 10 x 3 / 2 = 300

The most common numbers to keep in mind are: 5 = 10 / 2; 7.5 = 10 x 3 / 4; 15 = 10 x 3 / 2; 25 = 100 / 4; 50 = 100 / 2; 75 = 100 x 3 / 4

Exchange percentages

Sometimes you can exchange percentages to simplify the calculation. For instance:

60 x 13% = 0.6 x 13 or 6 x 1.3 = 7.8

Convert to yearly data

If you want to convert daily to yearly data, instead of multiplying by 365, multiply by 30 and then by 12, which would add up to 360 days. For most cases, this is close enough and can be argued for well by using certain assumptions, e.g., bank holidays, and downtimes. Always notify interviewers about your assumptions and simplifications.

Convert percentages

Convert percentages into divisions. For instance: 20% of 500 = 500 x 1 / 5 = 500 / 5 = 100

Split into 10ths

Split numbers into 10ths. For instance: 60% of 200 = 10% of 200 x 6 = 120

Apply expansion in a similar manner as described already for multiplications:

• Simple example: 35 / 5 = 30 / 5 + 5 / 5 = 6 + 1 = 7
• More complex example: 265 / 5 = 200 / 5 + 60 / 5 + 5 / 5 = 40 + 12 + 1 = 53

This can be extremely useful when trying to estimate a number as you do not need to perform all calculations up to the last digit to get to a ballpark estimate, e.g., 200 / 5 + 60 / 5 = 52 ≈ 50

Advanced case math concepts

In case interviews, calculating the average is popular since it is simple, yet demands several calculations to arrive at a result. It is a good pressure test for candidates. For example, you might be presented with a table containing data on three products, each with different production costs and the same production quantity. You might have to calculate the average production cost for one unit. The average is the sum of terms divided by the number of terms. For instance, the production cost of Product A is 5, of Product B, 10, and of Product C, 15. The average production cost is (5 + 10 + 15) / 3 = 30 / 3 = 10 for one unit.

A common variation is weighted averages . Instead of each of the data points contributing equally to the final average, some data points contribute more than others and therefore, need to be weighted differently in your calculations. If the weights add up to one, multiply each number by its weight and sum the results. If the weights do not add up to one, multiply each variable by their weight, sum the results, and then divide by the sum of the weights.

To stick with the example above, Product A might be responsible for 20% of the sales, whereas Product B and C for 30% and 50% respectively. Alternatively, it could be written as the following: There are 40 units of Product A, 60 units of Product B, and 100 units of Product C. The weighted average is: 5 x 20% + 10 x 30% + 15 x 50% = 5 x 0.2 + 10 x 0.3 + 15 x 0.5 = 1 + 3 + 7.5 = 11.5. For the second set, you could calculate it as: (5 x 40 + 10 x 60 + 15 x 100) / 200 = 11.5. Other common contexts, where you are asked to calculate averages could be growth rates, demographics, economic data, geographies and countries, product categories, business segments and units, revenue streams, prices, cost data, etc.

Fractions, ratios, percentages, and rates

Fractions, ratios, percentages, and rates are all different sides of the same coin and can help expedite your calculations.

For instance, fractions can be used to represent a number between 0 and 1. Expressing numbers as fractions and using them for additions and subtractions as well as multiplication and divisions can help you solve problems faster and more conveniently through simplification. For example, you can write 0.167 as 1/6, or 0.5 as 1/2. You can also combine fractions with large number divisions. For instance, let’s assume you want to see how much percent 400k is of 1.7m.

Write it as a fraction: 4/17 = 1/17 x 4

Now look at the division table for 1/17, which is 0.059, essentially 0.06.

1/17 x 4 = 0.06 x 4 = 0.24 or 24%

If you had calculated it more accurately by taking three times as long, you would get to 0.235 or 23.5%, rounding it up again to 24%.

As you can see, using fractions for larger number divisions can be a huge time saver. I would recommend you learn all fractions up to a divisor of 20 (e.g., 1/20) by heart, using the fraction table I shared earlier. It increases your speed and accuracy in interviews.

Ratios are comparisons of two quantities, telling you the amount of one thing in relation to another. If you have five apples and four oranges, the ratio is 5:4 and you have nine fruits in total. In case interviews, one tip is to write ratios as fractions of the total, e.g., apples are five out of a total of nine fruits, which is 5/9.

Percentages are a specific form of ratios, with the denominator always being fixed at 100. From experience, almost 80% of case interviews include some reference to or use of percentages, pun intended. Discussion points such as “Revenue increased by 15%” or “Costs are down four percent over the last six months” are common. Percentages are also useful when you want to put things into perspective, state your hypotheses, or guide your next steps. For instance, “That would translate to a 15% increase compared to our current revenue. Now, is a 15% increase realistic? What would we need to do to achieve this?”

Be careful not to mix percentage points with percentages. A percentage point or percent point is the unit for the arithmetic difference of two percentages. For example, moving up from 40% to 44% is a four-percentage point increase, but it is a 10% increase in what is being measured. Interviewers might ask for one or the other.

Rates are ratios between two related quantities in different units, where the denominator is fixed at one. If the denominator of the ratio is expressed as a single unit of one of these quantities, and if it is assumed that this quantity can be changed systematically (i.e., is an independent variable), then the numerator of the ratio expresses the corresponding rate of change in the other (dependent) variable. To make this more practical, let’s look at common rates. One common type of rate is per unit of time , such as speed or heart rate. Ratios with a non-time denominator include exchange rates, literacy rates, and many others. Case interviews might include some of the following rates:

• Growth rate: the ratio of the change of one variable over a period versus the starting level
• Exchange rate: the worth of one currency in terms of another
• Inflation rate: the ratio of the change in the general price level in a period to the starting price level
• Interest rate: the price a borrower pays for the use of the money they do not own (ratio of payment to amount borrowed)
• Price-earnings ratio: the market price per share of stock divided by annual earnings per share
• Rate of return: the ratio of money gained or lost on an investment relative to the amount of money invested
• Tax rate: the tax amount divided by the taxable income
• Unemployment rate: the ratio of the number of people who are unemployed to the number of people in the labor force
• Wage rate: the amount paid for working a given amount of time, or doing a standard amount of accomplished work (ratio of payment to time)

If you are not familiar with these or others that might come up, it is always okay to ask the interviewer for a clarification of the definition. Keep an eye on the time frames rates are expressed in. This could be annually (per annum = p.a.), quarterly, per month, etc. Often, information is provided for different time frames, divisors, or units (e.g., “the top speed of vehicle A is two miles per minute, the top speed of vehicle B is 150 miles per hour” ). Interviewers often use different units for different figures to trick you. For instance, when dealing with two different currencies, always convert all numbers to the same currency by using the exchange rate first. Otherwise, you are comparing apples and oranges. Convert to the same before conducting your analysis, calculations, or comparisons.

Growth rates

You should be able to work with growth rates, which is easy for one time period.

• (Increase of 30% in year 1): 100m x 1.3 = 130m

It gets trickier when you must calculate growth over multiple periods. You need to get the compound growth rate first.

• (Increase of 30% in year 1, 30% in year two): 100 x 1.3 x 1.3 = 100 x 1.69 = 169

The latter can be done quickly if you want to calculate growth over two to three time periods. Everything beyond that becomes tedious and lengthy. If you want to calculate growth for several periods, it is better to estimate the outcome. A shortcut is to use the growth rate and multiply it by the number of years.

• (Increase of 4% p.a. over 8 years): 4% x 8 years ≈ 32%; 100 x 1.32 = 132

If you use the exact compound annual growth rate (CAGR), you end up with roughly 137, more accurately 100 x (1+0.04)^8= 136.85. The total deviation of five or roughly 3.5% (5 / 137) due to your simplified approach is close enough. However, be aware that the divergence (the underestimation) increases with larger numbers, higher annual growth rates, and the number of years. In a case interview, you can account for that by adding between 1% and 10% to your outcome value, depending on the numbers you are dealing with. Keep it simple. Adding 5% to the 132 brings us to 138.6, even closer to the exact number.

To use the same approach with varying growth rates, sum them up. For instance:

• (Increase of 4% in year 1, 10% in year 2, 5% in year 3, 7% in year 4): 4% + 10% + 5% + 7% = 26%; 100 x 1.26 = 126

If we calculate the exact number, it is 128.5; again, the shortcut is close enough and much faster. If you add 1% or 2% you are even closer.

You can apply the same tricks to negative growth rates, keeping in mind that you are overestimating the decrease. Lastly, you can use this trick for combinations of positive and negative growth rates as well.

Expected value and outcomes

You might have to compare the impact and success of different recommendations or the expected return on investment. One way to do this is to work with probabilities and calculate the expected value (EV) for a course of action. The expected value for each recommendation is calculated by multiplying the possible outcome by the likelihood of the outcome. You can then compare the expected value of each option and make a decision that is most likely to achieve the desired outcome.

For example, if you have to decide between two projects and your analysis shows that Project A yields USD 50 million with a likelihood of 80% and Project B yields an outcome of USD 100 million with a likelihood of 30%, you will decide for Project A, with an expected value of USD 40 million (Project B: USD 30 million).

• EV(A) = 50m x 0.8 = 40m
• EV(B) = 100m x 0.3 = 30m

If you want to compare the outcome of bundles of recommendations, the expected value is calculated by multiplying each of the possible outcomes by the likelihood of each outcome and then summing all values for each bundle. Sometimes, interviewers keep it simple and set the expected outcome for each alternative to 100%. In such cases, just take the alternative with the better outcome, i.e., the one with a lower cost or the one with a bigger (net) benefit, depending on the question or goal.

Avoid the Most Common Pitfalls and Mistakes

There are several potential pitfalls you need to avoid when approaching case interview math problems.

Avoiding these common pitfalls requires thorough preparation, including practicing mental math, familiarizing oneself with quick calculation techniques, and simulating the interview environment to improve performance under pressure.

What Should You Do When You Get Stuck?

Most candidates start to panic when they don’t know how to structure a math problem. Not all is lost at this point if you stay calm and collected and have a plan to deal with the situation. So, what can you do when you get stuck and don’t know how to proceed?

Before you ask for help, think through the following checklist:

• Do I know what the objective is? What do I need to solve? If you don’t have an answer for that, clarify with the interviewer.
• Do I understand the problem and the details of the question? If you are missing some context, clarify with the interviewer.
• Do I have all the data that I need? Am I missing something, or am I confused due to a large amount of (irrelevant) data?
• What would be the simplest way to approach this? Am I approaching this from a too complex perspective? This is a big sticking point for most candidates.
• Is this similar to something I have worked on during practice?

If you are still not able to move forward, ask for help in a targeted way by offering the interviewer something in exchange. Do not say: “I don’t know what to do. Can you help me?”

Do not stay silent either. Rather explain your current understanding of the situation to the interviewer (e.g., “I believe that in this case, I would need to look at the net benefit of the decision.”).

Discuss your thinking about how you would like to solve the problem on a higher level but are currently missing one or two steps to make it work; then ask for guidance (e.g., “I need to compare the additional costs and revenues. It is clear to me how to get to the revenue numbers. For the additional costs I am not 100% certain that I am approaching this correctly, would you have any input on that” ).

Interviewers want you to succeed and a little push on the math approach does not automatically lead to a rejection unless it happens more frequently in one case or across cases or you need support in more areas of the case.

How to Prepare for Case Interview Math

General practice recommendations.

Incorporate case interview math practice into your preparation plan .

Regardless of your current quantitative reasoning skills, devote time during your case interview preparation to brush up on your mental and pen-and-paper math skills. If you are struggling with math or are dealing with a couple of insecurities in this area, there is no reason not to practice case math drills for at least two hours per day for a couple of weeks.

At the end of your preparation, shortly before your interviews, you want to be in a state where you can tackle every problem you see flawlessly and swiftly with confidence and without anxiety. Your structuring, overall problem-solving, and chart interpretation can be in the highest percentile of all candidates, but if you do not fix your math issues and insecurities, you will still be rejected.

I want to stress this point because most candidates fail due to issues with their quantitative reasoning, something that is entirely preventable with effort and time. I would even go so far as to say that if you do not feel 100% ready to tackle any section of the case, postpone your interviews if you have the chance until you feel fully ready.

There are several things you could do to get up to speed with mental and pen-and-paper math. The trick is to be confident in your ability to efficiently work through simple math and resilient enough to face external pressures in the process. If you are starting out, (re)-learn and practice basic calculus such as additions and subtractions, multiplications and divisions, averages, percentages, and fractions.

Free practice resources and habits

Get used to numerical reasoning by working with numbers you encounter in your daily life, be it the bar tab, the grocery store receipt, or figures and data you find in the news, especially business reporting. Perform simple arithmetic operations on the numbers you encounter in your head or with pen and paper. Do not use a calculator. Work on some simple business cases. For instance, while waiting at the doctor, calculate how much profit they make a month, a year, etc. The opportunities are endless.

Practice with the following free iOS and Android apps.

• Magoosh Mental Math
• Mental Math Cards Challenge
• Coolmath Games: Fun Mini-Games
• Matix Mental Math Games
• Math Games and Mental Arithmetic

Do all of this in a stressful environment. You want to build stamina and resilience to outside influences and stressors. Use the apps in the crowded and noisy subway, calculate during mock interviews with unpleasant interviewers who stress you out, in front of friends and family, or simply with time limits.

Free case interview math drill generator

Boost your case interview preparation with our Case Interview Math Drill Generator. Seamlessly create tailored math problems designed to boost your speed and accuracy and stand out in the interview process field.

You can access the tool for free here:

Our Case Interview Math Mastery Academy

Our comprehensive preparation strategy encompasses two distinct components designed to enhance your case interview readiness, regardless of your current skill level.

First, our “ Case Interview Math Mastery ” course and drills offer a multi-tiered learning experience. This program is meticulously crafted to support you at any stage of your preparation journey, from mastering basic calculations to tackling advanced numerical challenges, exhibit math problems, solving intricate business problems, and navigating full case math scenarios.

It comes with a 25-part video series and 2000 practice drills. Whether you’re starting to build your foundation or refining your skills, our course is structured to elevate your skills comprehensively.

Second, my personalized coaching sessions provide targeted guidance to further your case interview and problem-solving capabilities. With a track record of over 1,600 interviews, each receiving a five-star rating, and hundreds of offers generated for my clients, this coaching service is a testament to my commitment to excellence.

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Frequently Asked Questions: Case Interview Math

Mastering consulting firm interview math can significantly boost your chances of landing a job at top consulting firms. Preparing for case interviews at top consulting firms like McKinsey, BCG, and Bain involves mastering the art of solving quantitative problems efficiently and accurately. Understanding the basics is crucial, but candidates often have more nuanced questions about improving their performance in case interview math.

Below, we answer the most pressing questions to help you navigate the complexities of case interview math with confidence.

What specific math topics should I review to prepare for consulting case interviews? To excel in consulting case interviews, focus on reviewing arithmetic operations, percentages, ratios, basic algebra, and estimation techniques. Understanding these foundational topics is crucial for analyzing business scenarios and making data-driven decisions. Read through our comprehensive guide to management consulting math to equip yourself with the necessary concepts and learn how to prepare for case interview math with my structured approach.

How can non-quantitative background candidates improve their math skills for case interviews? Candidates from non-STEM or non-business backgrounds should start with basic arithmetic and gradually progress to more complex topics through online courses, practice problems, and math-focused case interview preparation materials. Consistent practice and application of math in real-life scenarios can also enhance proficiency. Elevate your quantitative analysis for consulting interviews by practicing with our curated examples. Practice drills for consulting interview math are essential.

Are there any common mathematical errors to avoid during consulting case interviews? Yes, common errors include incorrect rounding, magnitude errors, note-taking issues, mixing up units of measurement, and overlooking simple arithmetic mistakes. Double-checking your work and practicing mental math in stressful conditions can help avoid these pitfalls.

How do consulting firms evaluate candidates’ mathematical reasoning in case interviews? Consulting firms assess candidates’ ability to logically approach quantitative problems, perform accurate calculations under pressure, and derive meaningful insights from numerical data. Demonstrating clarity in thought process and precision in results is key.

Can you provide examples of complex case interview math problems and how to solve them? Complex case interview math problems often involve multiple steps, such as calculating market sizes, revenue growth over time, or cost optimization strategies. Breaking down the problem into smaller, manageable parts and using a structured approach to solve each part is an effective strategy. For free practice examples, please check this link here . For a professional case interview math course with 2000+ drills, please check out our Math Academy .

How important is speed in solving math problems during consulting case interviews? While directionally correct accuracy is paramount, speed is even more important in case interviews. Being able to quickly perform calculations and reach an outcome in the right ballpark allows more time for analysis and developing recommendations. Practice is essential to improve both speed and accuracy.

What are the best practices for presenting mathematical findings clearly in a case interview? Best practices include summarizing key findings succinctly, explaining the logic behind your calculations, and discussing the implications of your results in the context of the case. Use clear, concise language and structure your response logically. Advanced quantitative problem-solving in case interviews demands not just skill, but also strategic thinking.

How can I practice case interview math under realistic conditions? Simulate the interview environment by practicing math problems under timed conditions, without the use of a calculator, and ideally with a partner or professional case coach to mimic the pressure of real interviews. Online simulators and practice tests can also provide a realistic challenge. Overcoming math challenges in consulting case studies is achievable with the right mindset and tools.

What role does mental math play in consulting case interviews, and how can I improve it? Mental math is crucial for quickly estimating and calculating during discussions. Improving mental math involves regular practice with drills, learning shortcuts, and challenging yourself to do everyday calculations in your head. Mental math is also relevant when talking about strategies for acing McKinsey , BCG , and Bain math tests.

Arming yourself with these insights can dramatically improve your performance in consulting case interviews, setting you on the path to success in your consulting career.

Struggling with case interview math?

Tackling math problems in case interviews can feel overwhelming, but remember, you’re not the only one facing this hurdle. Math, especially under pressure, can be challenging, but it’s a skill that can be honed with practice and the right strategies. If you find yourself puzzled by specific problems or methodologies, don’t hesitate to share your questions below in the comment section. We are happy to help you out!

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Florian spent 5 years with McKinsey as a senior consultant. He is an experienced consulting interviewer and problem-solving coach, having interviewed 100s of candidates in real and mock interviews. He started StrategyCase.com to make top-tier consulting firms more accessible for top talent, using tailored and up-to-date know-how about their recruiting. He ranks as the most successful consulting case and fit interview coach, generating more than 500 offers with MBB, tier-2 firms, Big 4 consulting divisions, in-house consultancies, and boutique firms through direct coaching of his clients over the last 3.5 years. His books “The 1%: Conquer Your Consulting Case Interview” and “Consulting Career Secrets” are available via Amazon.

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9 Types of Questions in Actual Case Interviews

Case interviews at management consulting firms are among the most difficult job interviews, but they are also quite predictable. Once you know the types of questions they ask, preparation is straightforward.

Using years of experience at McKinsey, as well as field reports from thousands of candidates, I’ve crafted a list of 8 common case interview questions, and in this article, I’ll show you how to answer each of them.

Case interview questions – Overview

Types of case interview questions .

Most questions in case interviews belong to one of these 9 types:

1. Framework/issue tree questions 2. Market-sizing and guesstimate questions 3. Valuation questions 4. Brain teaser questions 5. Chart insight questions 6. Value proposition questions 7. Information questions 8. Math problems 9. Solution-finding questions

In this article, we’ll discuss how to answer each question, along with the necessary tips and tricks.

How to answer case interview questions

There are the fo ur basic steps to answer case interview questions:

• Step 1: Clarify any unclear points in the question
• Step 2: Announce approach and ask for time
• Step 3: Draw issue trees to solve the given problem
• Step 4: Pitch your answer and end with a takeaway conclusion.

This general outline may vary depending on each type and each question – for example, brain teasers or information questions need only the last step, while market-sizing and framework questions need all four steps to deliver the perfect answer.

Type 1 – Framework/Issue tree questions

These are on top of the list among popular case interview questions!

If the interviewer asks you to identify factors contributing to a problem or to break down an entity (such as the revenue of a business), he/she is telling you to draw an issue tree.

And to draw a spot-on issue tree, you need to master consulting problem-solving foundations , the MECE principle , and common consulting frameworks . You should check out our other articles on these topics before moving on, because mastering the issue tree is the key to acing every possible case interview.

You also need good business intuition to draw good issue trees, so that’s all the more reason to start reading every day.

Gastronomia – a gourmet restaurant chain has found the turnover rate among its highly-skilled chefs increasing dramatically for the last 3 years; this has led to a noticeable decline in food quality and increased training costs, among other negative effects.

Which factors would you consider when tackling this turnover problem?

Job: Factors from the job itself. Further divided into 3 sub-branches

• Compensations: are the salaries, bonuses, and benefits attractive enough?
• Difficulty: is the job too difficult?
• Nature: is the job too boring, too unengaging, too repetitive…?

Company: Factors from the work environment within the restaurant chain, surrounding the affected jobs. Further divided into 2 sub-branches

• Cultural environment: is the culture at Gastronomia compatible with the chefs?
• Physical environment: is the physical working environment at Gastronomia safe, comfortable, convenient…?

Competitors: Factors from outside the restaurant chain, related to competing job offers. Further divided into 2 sub-branches.

• Inside industry: are other restaurant chains competing with Gastronomia for skilled personnel?
• Outside industry: are there new career options or changes in existing alternatives that draw chefs away from restaurant chains like Gastronomia?

For detailed guides on issue trees, frameworks and their principles, see the articles on Issue Trees , Case Interview Frameworks, and MECE Principle

Type 2 – Market-sizing & guesstimate

These questions go along the lines of “How many trees are there in Central Park?” or “What’s the market size of pick-up trucks in the USA?”

The key to nailing market-sizing and guesstimate questions lies in not the closest results, but the most logical and structured approaches. In fact, the interviewer expects you to follow these four steps:

Step 1: Clarify: Make sure you and the interviewer are on the same page regarding every detail and terminology, so you won’t be answering the wrong question.

Step 2: Break down the problem: Break the item in the question (number of trees in Central Park, market size of pickup trucks) down into smaller, easy-to-estimate pieces.

Step 3: Solve each piece: Estimate each small piece one at a time; each estimation should be backed by facts, figures, or at least observations.

Step 4: Consolidate the pieces: Combine the previous estimations to arrive at a final result; be quick with the math, but don’t rush it if you aren’t confident.

Unless you come up with something about 10 times the reasonable estimate, don’t worry about being “wrong” – the interviewer is unlikely to have a “correct” number in mind, he/she just wants to see your structured mindset.

This question type is so common, we devote a whole article to it, and our Case Interview End-to-End Secrets Program have a separate package on these questions. Check out our comprehensive guide on Market-Sizing & Guesstimate Questions for more details!

Now, here’s a quick example for you to try and get used to this type:

How many smartphones are sold each year, globally?

• Smartphones are phones using exclusively touch-screens.
• “Sold” means sold to the end-consumers. 
• The market size is calculated at present.

Break down the problem:

The global smartphone market can be divided into three segments – developed countries, developing countries, and undeveloped countries.

In each segment, the annual unit sales of smartphones depend on four variables:

• The percentage of “phone-owning age” people among the population
• The percentage of smartphone owners within the “phone-owning age” group.
• The average, annual, per capita “consumption” of smartphones for those owners.

Solve each piece:

• The population is 1.5 billion in developed countries, 5.5 billion in developing countries, and 1 billion in undeveloped countries.
• 80% of the world population is in the “phone-owning age” (Global life expectancy is 70 and everyone older than 15 years counts towards the “phone-owning age” group)
• 100% of the phone-owning age in developed countries will own a smartphone; the figure in developing countries is 75%, while in undeveloped countries it’s 10%.
• The average smartphone user replaces their phone every 3 years – so they “consume” 0.33 phones each year.

=> Estimated global smartphone market: 1.53 billion units per year

=> Actual 2019 global smartphone sales:  1.37 billion units (error margin: 11.7%).

This market-sizing question is solved using a four-step process, which is explained in this article:  Market-Sizing & Guesstimate Questions

Type 3 – Valuation questions

Valuation questions are about estimating the monetary value of a business, and these are very popular in case interviews too!

Valuation questions are a blend of guesstimation/market-sizing, math, and business. They also require basic finance knowledge. There are three ways to estimate the value of a business:

• The NPV Method: take the net cash flow generated by the business, and discount it to the present to account for time value of money. Basically “this company is worth X dollars because it gives me Y dollars over Z years”. This approach works best when the cash flow from the business is positive and stable.
• The Market Method: take one index of the firm (which can be stocks or anything depending on the industry) and multiply it with an industry multiple (the value of one unit of the said index). In other words, “this company is worth AxB dollars because it has A traffic and each traffic is worth B dollars”. This approach works best when the market is transparent and data on similar firms are accessible – usually with major, established industries such as commercial airlines.

In real case interviews, you have to justify your approach then ask the interviewer to give you the necessary data.

Our client wants to sell his organic-food restaurant (called “Cato’s Cabbage Farm”) to retire. How much is his restaurant worth?

(Supposed the interviewer gives you the following data: his current income from the restaurant is $100,000 per year; two other restaurants in the neighborhood – one with 2 times more customers, and another about 0.75 times, have been sold at $1,800,000 and $1,000,000 respectively).

NPV Method: Cato’s Cabbage Farm value = $100,000 / 10% = $1,000,000

Market Method:

Assume the number of customers for Cato’s Cabbage Farm is 1 “customer unit”, then the two neighborhood restaurants get 2 and 0.75 “customer units”.

• Industry multiple: ($1,800,000+$1,000,000) / (2+0.75) = ~$1,018,182
• Cato’s Cabbage Farm value = $1,018,182 x 1 = $1,018,182

Type 4 – Brain teasers

Brain teasers are the least predictable case interview questions – but even these can be learned!

Brain teasers are riddles designed to test unconventional, creative, and logical thinking. A famous example of this is Accenture’s “How do you put a giraffe in a fridge?”.

Although not as popular as before, brain teasers might still appear in consulting interviews; therefore, you should spend some time to prepare.

Most brain teasers can be allocated into these seven types:

• Logical questions are pure logic riddles – there’s no trick, no illusion, no creativity.

In our Case Interview End-to-End Secrets Program , there are +200 brain teasers to help you prepare for these “unpredictable” questions. You can also read our article about Case Interview Brain Teasers for insights on all of these exciting brain teasers, as well as 30 example questions and answers!

How do you put a giraffe in a fridge?

Open the fridge, put the giraffe in, then close the fridge. The question never says how big the fridge or the giraffe is.

For the logic and approach behind each kind of brain teasers, see the article on Brain Teasers.

Type 5 – Chart insight questions

You can’t be a management consultant without mastering the use of charts – the complex, scary-looking real-world charts such as those included in our Case Interview End-to-End Secrets Program.

In management consulting and case interviews, most charts are one (or a combination) of these four basic types:

• Bar charts compare the values of several items at one point in time, or 1-2 items at several time intervals.
• Line charts illustrate time-series data, i.e trends in data over a continuous period.
• Pie charts illustrate proportions, i.e “parts of a whole” analyses.
• Scatter-plots use data points to visualize how two variables relate to each other.

To read these charts and answer chart-insights questions effectively, you must follow a structured, comprehensive process:

You can find a more detailed guide in the Charts section in our article about Consulting Math.

What can you draw from the following chart?

Trends in chart:

• Steady rise in the number of confirmed deaths to about 70-80 per million;
• Both changes started around March 10-11.
• These sudden rises can be explained by events occurring in early-March, and 2.
• If number of cases is kept low, the threat from COVID-19 will remain minimal, considering a mortality rate of only 2%.

Type 6 – Value proposition questions

No business or consulting candidate can succeed without understanding the customers!

Value-proposition questions are not only about correctly identifying customer preferences, but also about analyzing and delivering the answer in a structured fashion. The former relies heavily on business knowledge and intuition, but the latter can be trained methodically and quickly. Personally, I use a “double issue-tree” – essentially a table with customer segments on one axis and proposed values on the other:

For segmenting customers, you can use the following table. However, don’t over-rely on it, since there may be more relevant and insightful question-specific segmentations.

In some cases, clarification is also necessary – both to avoid “answering the wrong question” and to narrow down the range of customers/values you need to cover in the answer.

What will a customer consider when buying a Toyota sedan?

Clarification: A sedan must be branded “Toyota” to be a Toyota sedan – cars with other Toyota-owned brands such as Lexus or Ranz do not count in this question.

Situational Assessment:

Toyota sedans occupy the entry-level and mid-range price segments, so Toyota customers will be more price-conscious than, for example, Lexus customers.

They are also less likely to lean considerably towards one particular factor, so achieving a balance is extremely important.

Functionality factors:

• Comfort: Toyota sedans are mostly for everyday use, so customers should feel comfortable being inside the car.
• Utility: Toyota sedans are used for multiple purposes, so convenience for a wide range of uses is important.

Cost factors

• Purchase price: A car can be an expensive investment while Toyota’s low-to-mid-range customers are more price-conscious, so having a cheap/reasonable price is important.
• Fuel and maintenance: Maintenance and fuel costs over time are likewise inversely related to the decision to buy a Toyota sedan.

Physical factors

• Performance: Customers are usually drivers themselves, who often pay attention to the technical characteristics of the car (speed, acceleration, handling, etc.)
• Visual design: The car should possess the same level of visual appeal as other competitors in the same segment.
• Build quality: Parts of the car should be assembled in a reasonably good manner.

Emotional factors

• Branding: The car should come from a well-known, reputable brand
• Personal preferences: Some customers choose specific cars simply because they “like” the car.

Type 7 – Information questions

In any problem-solving process, information is one of the overarching concerns!

“Information questions” essentially ask if the piece of data you use is obtainable in the first place. In real consulting work, data is not always available – client team members may refuse to cooperate or there’s simply no data on the subject.

There are many kinds of information sources in case interviews/consulting works, but I’ll divide them into primary and secondary sources. Primary sources means you must do the research yourself (or pay someone else to do it for you), such as customer surveys or mystery shoppings. If someone already did that research, and you use their results, it’s called a secondary source – you can get these from the client , the consulting firm you work for, or third-parties such as market research firms or external industry experts.

You can find out more about these sources and how to cite them in real case interviews through this free Prospective Candidate Starter Pack, which contains a glossary of data sources in consulting.

Our Prospective Candidate Starter Pack has a sheet containing all the possible sources of information in case interviews and consulting projects, among numerous other free resources; you can download and use it to answer these questions, by subscribing to our newsletter at the end of this article.

How do you assess your target customer’s preferences for sports cars?

Primary sources: customer survey, customer interviews, Secondary sources: industry reports, client sales reports, third-party expert interview, client expert interview

Type 8 – Math problems

A lot of information in case interviews and consulting work comes in the quantitative form, so you won’t escape Math by joining the consulting industry!

When you have to do the math, perform back-of-the-envelope calculations in a structured fashion, and say out loud what you’re writing. For one thing, it’s safe; for another, you show that you’re careful, organized, and reliable – just like actual consultants.

We have a Math Practice Tool right here! Use it every day, and you’ll be a master of mental calculations in no time flat!

We have a dedicated article on Consulting Math, which you should definitely read.

Type 9 – Solution-finding questions

What’s the point of analyzing a problem, if not to solve it?!

When dealing with solution questions, keep these four points in mind:

• Firstly, in case interviews as well as real consulting projects, solutions must always solve every root cause of a problem, so remember to check if your solutions are relevant and comprehensive.
• Secondly, every solution must be actionable – if your solutions are too expensive, too time-consuming, etc. for the client, they’re useless.
• Thirdly, the interview expects a highly-structured answer; so segment your solutions based on their characteristics (long-term vs short-term is the easiest segmentation)

Last but not least, deliver at least two solutions, preferably three to five. Otherwise, you’ll appear uncreative and lazy to the interviewer’s eyes.

Nailing these questions relies on having excellent business intuition; our Case Interview End-to-End Program has a dedicated Business Intuition package, but you should also train a habit of reading consulting and business articles daily, to sharpen your business mind.

A restaurant that relies solely on on-premise dining found the loss of adjacent parking space (due to termination of contract) harming their revenue. How can they fix that?

The solutions for the restaurant’s parking space problem can be divided into two types:

• Short-term solutions: Find new parking space around the neighborhood, or renegotiate for old parking space (possibly at a higher price).
• Long-term solutions: Introduce takeaway items and off-premise dining.

Reminders on case interview questions

The questions are not clear-cut in candidate-led cases.

There are two extremes in consulting case interview format: interviewer-led (McKinsey) and candidate-led (BCG, Bain).

Interviewer-led cases, on one hand, consist of multiple, clear-cut questions in a larger business case context; the candidate navigates through these questions to arrive at the solutions.

Candidate-led cases, on the other hand, have one big problem, which the candidate must break down into small pieces to identify the root causes and deliver solutions.

This list, therefore, is much more relevant to the interviewer-led format; nonetheless, this guide is still quite beneficial for candidate-led cases, because when solving that big problem, you’ll have to tackle small issues similar to the 8 aforementioned question types.

Mastering the fundamentals is crucial to consistent performance

Although it’s good to study the case interview questions, it is no substitute for mastering the fundamental principles.

Learning the exercises without the basics is like building a house without a foundation. My poor neighbor’s house developed a huge crack right down the center because of its weak foundation, so make sure to build your case interview prep a strong one by knowing the basics first.

Once you’ve mastered the fundamentals, you’ll become much more flexible – this quality is getting increasingly important because case interviews are getting less predictable, and more realistic.

If you haven’t, I advise you to read these articles (especially the first 4) before practicing the question types:

• Case Interview 101
• Issue Tree – The Complete Guide
• MECE Principle
• Case Interview Frameworks
• McKinsey Case Interview – Interviewer-led Format
• BCG & Bain Case Interview – Candidate-led Format

Expect the unexpected

If you study those nine question types, rest assured that you’ve covered the majority of questions in case interviews.

However, these are not all the possible questions you might be given. In actual cases, there are always questions that cannot be categorized neatly. If you do not prepare for these questions, it’s easy to be thrown off-balance.

So, how do you prepare for “the unexpected”?

• Master the basics: Focus your efforts on the basics, once you’ve mastered them it’d be comfortable to move on to higher, more sophisticated levels.
• Business Intuition : You need business intuition for a business-related job, it’s simple as that. Nearly every case concerns business in one way or another – even public sector cases. This is why we also teach business intuition in our Case Interview E2E Secret Program.
• Have mock case interviews : Practice case interviews with ex-consultants will help you get a sense of what might happen or how you might be evaluated in actual cases. Highly experienced coaches from MConsultingPrep will review your performance, giving you the most valuable feedback and actionable tips & techniques.

Scoring in the McKinsey PSG/Digital Assessment

The scoring mechanism in the McKinsey Digital Assessment

Related product

Case Interview End-to-End Secrets Program

Elevate your case interview skills with a well-rounded preparation package

Six types of charts in case interview are: Bar/Column chart, Line chart, Percentage chart, Mekko chart, Scatter plot chart, Waterfall chart.

A case interview is where candidates is asked to solve a business problem. They are used by consulting firms to evaluate problem-solving skill & soft skills

Case interview frameworks are methods for addressing and solving business cases.  A framework can be extensively customized or off-the-shelf for specific cases.

Consulting Career Academy

The Complete Guide to a Management Consulting Case Study Interview

Candidates attempting to launch a career in management consulting by applying for positions with firms like McKinsey, Boston Consulting Group (BCG) and Deloitte are waiting nervously for that invitation to interview. And, increasingly, management consulting position interviews with employers like these include a case study component. Adequately preparing for these case study interviews is a key step in the recruitment process.

This introduction to and overview of the case interview process from the experts at The MBA Exchange can help you nail your management consulting case interview. We’ve got all the examples, samples, explainers and tips you need to answer case interview questions with confidence and land your targeted management consulting position.

Serious management consulting candidates need to prepare with care for case interviews, ideally working with a partner or other consulting field expert. 

What is a Case Interview?

Case study interviews provide recruiters from consulting companies with a window into your analytical problem-solving capabilities. These skills that key for any management consulting career . And it’s difficult to show your ability to work on dynamic issues without a “live test,” so to speak. That’s what case study questions are for!

Case study questions ask you to come up with practical solutions to real-world business problems, grounding your answer in hard data, logical reasoning and effective communication. Case interviews are less about demonstrating correct knowledge, or your ability to hit to a “right” answer, than showing off your ability to reason on the fly.

What is the focus and format of the case interview?

The form of case interviews can vary. You might face a stand-alone interview with a partner, or case study questions may be part of an interview that also includes more traditional interview questions designed to gauge “fit.” Case interview questions can vary dramatically from applicant to applicant, so it’s not worth much of your time to try to guess or anticipate them. 

How long is a case interview? Case study interviews usually last about 45 minutes. Some companies may send you the case question and some data 24 hours in advance for you to study. Others will present the case at the start of the interview. You will be expected to ask questions to elicit more information during the interview, and use that information to resolve the problem with specific recommendations.

What is a quantitative case interview?

If you plan to apply for positions with firms like McKinsey, Bain or BCG , you should be prepared for quantitative case study questions and answers. 

Quantitative case interviews focus on your mathematical and logical problem-solving capabilities, a must for our data-driven reality. Often, quantitative case interviews form a core element of the management consulting recruitment process. You might also encounter quantitative case study interview questions in interviews for positions in general management, marketing or even engineering.

Quantitative interview questions reveal the key strengths that you as a candidate will need to become a successful consultant. Here are some examples of questions from different case interview question categories:

• Market sizing: “Estimate the total industry-wide sales of bicycles in the US”
• Revenue estimate: “Estimate annual sales for Starbucks retail stores in the US”
• Breakeven: “A running shoe manufacturer sells shoes for $100 a pair. To produce each pair, the company spends $10 in material and $5 in labor. They have $1M in monthly operating costs. If they sell 30,000 pairs a month, what is their monthly profit?”
• Price elasticity: “The price of a one-way ticket from Seattle to New York is $400. Should JetBlue raise their price to $450?”
• Lifetime value: “What is the customer lifetime value of a Visa card holder over the next three years?”

You need to be prepared to field questions like these, no matter the twists and turns your interview takes! Remember to demonstrate mathematical dexterity: We’re used to doing math with calculators and designing and running complex data analysis algorithms. As a result, we don’t have as much experience doing math by hand. Often, a quick back-of-the-envelope analysis is needed to test that you are on the right path. Quantitative interviews test your ability to manipulate numbers manually at speed. 

What Are Top Consulting Companies Really Looking for?

The case study is not meant to test your domain knowledge or your ability to get to a “right” answer. Instead, what companies will look for is:

• Problem-solving abilities – what approach you take to start addressing the question presented in the case study. Today’s business world has many new and ambiguous problems. Consultants need to be able to tackle unfamiliar challenges with incomplete information and devise a logical framework for setting a course of action. Can you?
• Analytical and creative thinking: What role does creativity play? It informs how you attack the problem, the kinds of probing questions that you ask, the connection you forge with the interviewer and the conclusions you present at the close of the case. Your creativity will certainly set you apart from the rest.
• Presentation of qualitative and/or quantitative data or evidence and logic to support your analysis and recommendations
• Communication skills: Work gets done by teams. To persuade team members and leaders to your point of view as a consultant, you must be able to convince others with logical, objective arguments backed by numbers. Ability to ask insightful questions as well as answer follow-up questions
• Demeanor and poise: Good consultants are calm and inspire confidence. Poised individuals communicate with an approach that is balanced, not emotional. That balanced approach is based on a strategy of sound logic and hard numbers. If you can show these key qualities during your case interview, you’ll be well on your way to management consulting success.

In a case interview, the consultant is looking to see how the candidate will attack the problem. Will they grasp the main question that needs to be solved? Will they ask the pertinent questions to get the relevant information needed to come up with an answer? Will they develop a logical solution based on the evidence? 

In addition to solving the problem, or “cracking the case,” the intangibles in the situation also matter. Does the candidate walk through their logic clearly? Are they comfortable doing calculations in their head? How do they present themself? Are they confident and positive? Are they building rapport with the consultant? 

Case Study Interview Examples

Check out these examples of the types of case interview questions you can expect from major management consulting firms. How well would you do, if you had to craft a response on the spot?

“You are a product manager at a well-established ride-sharing company operating in a highly competitive market. Recently, you read an article in the “Weekend Journal” section of the Wall Street Journal that examines how senior citizens engage with the digital economy. The article describes how a team of researchers from a reputable US university conducted focus groups with senior citizens who frequently use ride-sharing apps because they are no longer able to drive. One of the findings was that seniors are frustrated by how quickly their cars arrived – often in under five minutes – after the ride was booked. With this information in mind, describe what recommendations you would make to your ride-sharing company (if any).”

“The Weston Group is a Canadian retailer that is facing limited growth. The CEO has proposed creating a new tablet, the ‘Hudl’, that will be affordable and target the 75% market in Canada that does not have tablets. Do you think that this is an innovative idea? Should Weston Group pursue this venture?”

“Assume you have taken over Nokia as CEO. Following the major sale to Microsoft, what steps would you take to ensure the company’s profitability and future survival?”

Case interviews are not a cause for panic or concern: you should welcome them as an open-ended opportunity to demonstrate your understanding of, and comfort with, analytical problem-solving. Rather than a “correct” answer, the interviewer is seeking to understand how you think and communicate.

How to Answer Consulting Case Interview Questions

The key to success in case interviews is to think logically and follow a linear thought process, while still leaving space for creativity in your final response. Here is a general format for you to follow:

• Listen very carefully and take notes on the case as presented by your interviewer. Pay attention to subtle cues and guidance that could help you justify your proposed solution.
• Ask for clarification if you don’t understand something significant. Your questions will be “on the record” so be articulate and thoughtful. Pose a “framing” question to elicit more information than you were given upfront. For instance, if you are given a case about a venture capital firm considering an investment in a startup, you can ask: “Does this VC have other portfolio companies in the same industry and therefore might be planning a roll-up of multiple companies?”
• Paraphrase the situation and the key issues/problems/opportunities. For instance, “Company X is losing market share despite a growing market for its products. The CEO must decide whether to reduce price to increase demand, differentiate the offerings to justify a higher price or seek a merger partner to add scale and reduce manufacturing cost.”
• Walk through the steps of your analysis clearly. Make simplifying assumptions as necessary. You can use paper and pencil to do your calculations, and you can share any simple illustrations, like a 2×2 matrix, that illustrates your problem-solving process.
• Develop your potential solution and test your answer to make sure it is achievable. For example, are your sales projections reasonable given the size of the total market and current growth rates? Are there additional criteria that need to be checked to reach success? For example, does the company have an adequate supply chain to sustain its projected growth? Look for disconfirming evidence to ensure your solution is robust.
• Confidently summarize the problem that was posed and your hypothetical solution, identifying three convincing support points for your solution. For instance, if you think Company X should seek a merger partner, your support would be: the market is already price sensitive, there is excessive supply available, and other companies with more efficient factories are also feeling pain.” Three points of convincing support should shore up your suggested solution, giving you a solid tripod of elegant evidentiary reasoning.

Case Interview Prep for Consulting

You don’t need to panic when it comes to case interview preparation. You can’t control when you’ll be invited to consulting interviews with companies like BCG and McKinsey, or who you’ll interview with when the time comes. You can’t even control what the subject matter of the case will be. But you can control your ability to perform well during the case with your prep for case interviews.

Preparing on your own

Candidates who are serious about pursuing a career in consulting should set aside a significant portion of their time to practice their case interviewing skills. Did you know that the best practice case interview questions actually often come from business news articles in major publications like the Wall Street Journal or The New York Times? Find an article about a company that is facing a difficult business decision, and describe for yourself what and how you would address it as the CEO. There you go, that’s case interview prep!

At a minimum, you should prepare yourself for success by committing to practicing your case techniques for several weeks before your interview. Doing 50–70 cases is common. However, it is just as important to practice the right way if you want to achieve your management consulting career goals .

Welcome these open-ended opportunities to demonstrate your understanding of, and comfort with, analytical problem-solving. Solving cases is a skill that can be learned and developed. Just as you would have better chances of scoring well on the SAT, GRE or GMAT by studying the format of the test, doing practice tests and developing a strategic approach, you can improve your case-solving skills during your consulting case prep.

Preparing with others

The best practice is doing cases with someone who can give you targeted feedback not only on the obvious factors such as correct case math, appropriate frameworks, and logical structure, but also on the intangible components of the evaluation, such as your communication skills and client-facing presence.

It’s a good idea to look for some guidance and support from people familiar with the industry as you build your business case prep plan. Practicing written cases with your peers helps you internalize the logic for cracking cases. However, a peer will not know what the evaluation criteria are for top tier firms and won’t be able to evaluate how you are performing versus your competition. 

For a realistic assessment of your strengths and weaknesses, you should do some case interview practice with someone from the industry — either an industry contact who is willing to practice with you, or a firm like the Career Consulting Academy.

The more you practice, the more comfortable you will feel and the better you will do on interview day. In addition to the guidance provided above, top management consulting firms such as McKinsey, Bain and BCG feature valuable suggestions and sample case interviews that you can use to prepare. In order to ensure that you are practicing the right skills, look for some guidance and support from people familiar with the industry.

Strategic preparation for consulting case interviews

A strategic approach to preparing for case interviews involves:

• Working through cases out loud with an expert coach
• Receiving constructive feedback on your strengths and weaknesses
• Developing a plan on how to improve your case interview skills
• Building skills and confidence in the case interview process

Understand and internalize key frameworks, don’t try to memorize them. A common mistake is the desire to remember the solution to every single case in every single industry. Clearly, that’s impossible. Understanding how case solutions are structured and internalizing the key logical steps to take to solving a case is much more effective than memorizing fifteen frameworks and trying to think through what framework matches the problem you’ve been presented with during the interview.

Get comfortable with oral math. Nothing is more off-putting than someone who cannot perform simple multiplication, division, taking percentages, etc. out loud. Wean yourself off of your calculator and learn how to make meaningful estimates that simplify your calculations.

Remember that half of the evaluation will be on intangibles — your executive presence, your skill at building rapport with the interviewer, and your oral communication skills. If you think it’s all about the “right answer,” you’re wrong!

With these steps, you can step into case interview or qualitative case interview situations with confidence and mental clarity, providing instant evidence of how competently you can handle the challenges of a top-tier management consulting career at your consulting interviews and impressing potential employers when it matters most. 

Who is The Career Consulting Academy?

We’re a team of 20 former management consultants with extensive experience from working in worldwide offices of 11 leading management consulting firms. We know what this industry is about and what it values most in new hires. We’re also skilled advisors from The MBA Exchange who have helped more than 5,000 applicants gain admission to highly selective business schools worldwide. We have a CPA-verified track record for helping individuals compete and win against all odds.

As consultants, we are reviewing resumes and giving fit and case interviews regularly, and making hiring decisions. We have a grounded understanding of what separates those who get offers and those who don’t. These experiences allow us to give targeted feedback on your strengths and weaknesses, which help our clients develop focused prep plans. Consulting Career Academy would love to have a conversation with you to answer any questions and propose the best approach for your management consulting career plans.

Ready to start your journey to a career in management consulting? With our decades of experience, we can help! Have a 15-minute chat with a former McKinsey, BCG or Bain consultant to discuss your career interests, needs and priorities – there’s no cost or obligation!

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Preparing for the Quantitative Component of Management Consulting-style Case Interviews

Many candidates aren’t sure what to expect in, don’t prepare adequately for, and/or don’t know how to prepare for, the quantitative component of case interviews. this article explains it all…, by matthew a. tambiah, about the author, matthew a. tambiah.

• Former McKinsey Consultant
• Bachelors from Harvard
• MBA from MIT
• Creator of FastMath ™

What Is a Case Interview?

A “ Case Interview ” is a specific type of interview originally given to candidates applying to Consulting positions at Management Consulting firms like McKinsey, Bain, and BCG. These firms are some of the most prestigious companies in the world, and many future business leaders have worked at these and other Management Consulting firms. Anybody interviewing at a Management Consulting firm for a consulting position can expect Case Interviews with a quantitative component as part of their interview process.

Former Management Consultants from companies like McKinsey, Bain, and BCG have subsequently taken jobs at other companies in Strategy, Marketing, Finance, Product Management or Business Development in many industries like software and technology, pharmaceuticals, financial services, and consumer products — they’re everywhere — and have taken the Case Interview with them. Case Interviews are therefore frequently used to evaluate candidates applying for jobs in many industries and roles outside of Management Consulting.

The term “Case Interview” in this article refers to the style of Case Interviews used in Management Consulting, regardless of whether they are given by a Management Consulting firm or another firm using the same style of interview.

The Case Interviews require the interview candidate to discuss, analyze, diagnose, and (ideally) solve a business problem encountered by a company. These “Cases” are usually based on a real project the Management Consulting firm has done for a client — internally, they call these client projects ‘Cases.’ These Case Interviews frequently have a quantitative component that requires candidates to perform quantitative analysis without calculators, spreadsheets, or other electronic aids. A candidate’s performance in the quantitative component of the Case Interview often plays a significant factor in their overall evaluation and decision of whether or not to extend an offer.

Math Problems within the Context of Case Interviews

A candidate’s quant skills are assessed within the context of a consulting “ Case Interview, ” which typically represents a scenario the consulting firm encountered when doing work for a real client. Some problems or questions frequently encountered in Case Interviews are: how a client can increase profits, increase revenue, or increase revenue growth rates; how a client can cut costs; whether the client should buy another company; or what the client’s international expansion strategy should be. Candidates will frequently need to quantitatively evaluate different potential actions to determine which one will have the most value to the client — often measured by the resulting increase in profit, revenue or valuation for a for-profit company, and/or other non-financial metrics for non-profit or government clients.

As an example, the overall Case could focus on identifying how a large multinational manufacturing firm could increase profits after having seen several years of declining profits (or increasing losses). As a candidate, you should begin by providing a Structure for the areas you would like to investigate further, and then ask more detailed Questions about each of these areas to specify what information you would like to gather. This phase of the Case Interview is meant to mimic the actual research you would conduct as a Consultant if you faced this scenario. For example, in your Structure, you might say you would look at the different Products the manufacturing firm sells, the Competitors, overall Market Dynamics, and Cost information. For your more detailed problems, you might find it useful to know the  Revenue and  Profit  for each Product the firm offers. You might also want to know  Revenue and Market Share percentages for the Competitors. You would ask relevant and more specific Questions for each topic in your Structure. If you identify the “right” areas to investigate and ask the “right” Questions, then the interviewer will usually provide additional quantitative Data and ask you to Analyze it.

The specific type of quantitative analysis required of candidates in Case Interviews varies substantially from interview to interview. You could be given numerical data and be asked to calculate metrics, where the specific mathematical operations you need to perform are relatively clear. An example of this type of calculation would be if you are given the Price and Quantity (number of units sold) for a series of Products and are then asked to calculate the Revenue for each Product, which would be the Price multiplied by the Quantity for each Product. You then be given  Cost  or  Gross Margin  information, and asked to calculate overall Profits. Next, you might be given a target overall level of  Profit  or  Gross Margin, and asked what  Price or Quantity for a single Product (while keeping all other variables constant), is required to hit the target — several examples appear later in the article.

You could also be asked to perform more complex analysis where you need to identify the approach — and the specific calculations required may not be clear. For example, you may be asked how the client should prioritize their limited production capacity among several different products. You would then need to determine the criteria you would use to prioritize the products and perform the required analysis. You might be given data or shown graphs and asked what conclusions or insights you can draw from that data. Or, you may not be given any data until you ask specifically for data relevant to the Case. Once you ask the “proper questions” the interviewer will usually provide some guidance on the analysis they would like you to perform. Candidates are also frequently given charts, graphs or data tables and asked to interpret them.

After performing your analysis, you will usually be asked to provide Recommendations for the client, and you may be asked to Brainstorm creative ways to solve the problem. Finally, you will usually be asked to Summarize the overall problem, your research, and your “Findings.”

• Understand the quant question
• Determine what information or data is relevant
• Identify if additional data (beyond what has currently been given to you) is required and ask for that data
• Identify how to calculate the answer
• Perform the calculation
• Develop recommendations based on the result within the context of the business case

There may multiple iterations in the flow, where the results of one phase of Analysis will prompt more questions, which will lead to more Data, and further Analysis. Two phases of analysis is common, and some Cases may require three or more phases of Analysis to complete.

Example Quant Case Interview Problems

To illustrate the quant skills needed in Case Interviews, below are a few examples of quant problems and calculations given in real Management Consulting Interviews.

Example 1: Breakeven & Profitability Analysis

A very common question is to calculate the number of units of a certain product that need to be sold in order to “Break Even.” Related problems are finding the number of units a company needs to sell to achieve a certain amount of profit, or finding the  Profit  given a production quantity.

Your client is considering opening a number of MRI scanning clinics. Each MRI clinic will have two MRI machines, two Technicians and two Radiologists. The table below shows annual costs for a single unit of these and other line items required to run a clinic. Each MRI scan will generate $570 in revenue and will have $85 of costs for disposable medical products, and $135 of cost for other consumables (i.e., items consumed in the scanning process).

Question 1:

How many MRI Scans will a clinic need to perform annually in order to break even?

3,000 Scans.

Question 2:

How many scans would be required to achieve $1.4 Million annual profit per clinic?

7,000 Scans.

The entire purpose of a Breakeven Analysis is to quickly estimate whether the Breakeven Quantity is realistically achievable. You might need some additional information in order to determine this. An outstanding interview candidate would proactively identify the additional information you would need in order to answer this question and ask the interviewer for this information. If you don’t proactively do this, the Interviewer may ask you whether you think the Breakeven Quantity is achievable. Proactively doing this type of analysis shows you can anticipate questions and interpret results, and is usually viewed positively by interviewers.

So, what information do you think you’d need to answer this question?

You’d need to know the average duration of an MRI Scan, and the number of hours the MRI clinic is open per week.

Let’s say the interviewer tells that you that an average MRI scan takes 30 minutes, and the clinic is open 14 hours per day.

Based on this information you can determine that you would need to complete 60 Scans per week, which is 30 Scans per machine per week (since there are two Scanners). Since each scan is less than an hour, and the center is open about 100 hours per week, this is easily achievable as long as sufficient customers can be attracted.

See the next topic of Market Sizing & Estimation problems.

Question 3:

How much profit would an MRI clinic generate annually if it were open from 8:00 AM – 10:00 PM, seven days per week, and operated at full utilization (i.e., all available time slots are used to perform MRIs on customers)? How much profit would it generate if it operated at 80% utilization or 50% utilization (i.e., only 80% or 50% of available time slots are used to perform MRIs)?

Example 2: Market Sizing & Estimation Questions

Another common Case Interview question is to estimate the Market Size (i.e., annual sales) for a given Product Category in a country or region, or to estimate another figure related to the Market Size. The following are example Market Sizing & Estimation questions candidates were asked in real Case Interviews:

• What are the total annual sales for McDonald’s restaurants in the United States?
• Approximately how many school buses are there in operation in the United States?
• How many weddings occur each year in the United States?
• How many gas stations are in the United States?
• How many passenger automobiles are sold annually in Germany?

This is only a small sample of potential Market Sizing questions. The interviewer could ask you to estimate the market size for any product category in any country or geographic region. Interviewers are most likely to ask candidates to estimate the Market Size of products in the country in which the candidate is interviewing or in other local countries with large economies, in industrial countries (e.g., US, UK, Germany, France), or in the largest developing economies in the world (e.g., China and India).

Try estimating these values before reading the Answers below.

Market Sizing Answers

• What are the annual sales for McDonald’s restaurants in the United States? In 2016, McDonald’s restaurants in the United States had total sales of $36.3 Billion. This includes sales at both franchise restaurants (which are owned by third parties) and sales at restaurants owned by McDonald’s Corporation (“Company owned”).
• Approximately how many school buses are there in operation in the United States? There are approximately 500,000 school buses in operation in the United States.
• How many weddings occur each year in the United States? Approximately 2.4 Million weddings occur annually in the United States.
• How many gas stations are in the United States? There aren’t exact figures on the number of gas stations, and it depends on how a gas station is defined, and which sources you refer to. Most official figures state there are between 100,000 and 200,000 gas stations in the United States.
• How many passenger automobiles are sold annually in Germany? From 2004–2015, between 2.9 Million and 3.8 Million cars were sold annually in Germany. In 2015, 3.2 Million passenger vehicles were sold in Germany. Source: https://www.statista.com/statistics/416827/passenger-car-sales-in-germany/

FastMath Ace the Case has detailed video explanations of how to approach Market Sizing and estimation problems, and how to efficiently perform the required calculations. You can see a video solution of estimating the revenue of McDonald’s restaurants here: McDonald’s Market Sizing Example .

Desired Accuracy

Note that, for Market Sizing and Estimation problems, getting an answer within 2 x or 3 x of the actual number is usually considered a “good” estimate. In some cases, within an “Order of Magnitude (i.e., within 10 x ) is acceptable. Some interview preparation resources state that you need to be within 10% – 20% of the actual value for your answer to be considered “correct” — this is generally false!

Given the level of uncertainty on most of these questions, accuracy to within 10% – 20% is often not possible or   would take a considerable amount of time, and usually isn’t what the interviewer is looking for. Instead, I recommend that you try to get within 2 x to 3 x  as fast as possible. Of course, the closer you are, the better, but there is a tradeoff between speed and accuracy. Even answers within 10 x are often useful for clients.

Example 3: Compound Growth Calculations

A common Case Interview problem is to be given annual Revenue for a company (or a Product Line) and an annual percentage growth rate, and then be asked to estimate Revenue at some point in the future, or some point in the past. The growth rates can even vary over time.

A company had annual Revenue of $400 Million in its latest calendar year, and their Revenue is projected to grow at 4% per year. Approximately, what will the company’s Revenue be six years in the future?

A PC manufacturing firm had the number of PCs sold grow by 4% per year for eight years, and then shrink by 3% per year for two years. What was the net change (as a percentage) in PCs sold over that 10 year period?

Why Management Consulting Firms Assess Quant Skills

Before going further, I think it’s worth explaining why Management Consulting firms, and other companies, assess a candidate’s quantitative (quant) skills. The short answer is that strong math and quantitative skills are essential skills for Management Consultants.

Clients frequently engage Management Consultants to develop recommendations that will maximize profitability or valuation for the client. To do this Management Consultants perform comprehensive quantitative analysis and model the financial results of a range of options the client could pursue. Therefore, the ability to perform quantitative analysis on data and develop insights and recommendations based on that quantitative analysis is a critical skill for Management Consultants.

In addition to being able to perform quantitative analysis, effective Management Consultants need several additional quantitative skills. They need the ability to determine what kinds of quantitative analysis are relevant to accomplishing the client’s specific goals. Furthermore, Management Consultants need to be able to identify what specific data and information are relevant to the client’s specific problem, and are required to perform the necessary analysis. Having these skills allows Management Consultants to collect only the data relevant to the problem, and to determine what additional data is needed beyond what is currently available.

Clients hire Management Consultants primarily for fact-based analytical research and quantitative analysis, and not for “creative” or “communications” work, such as developing advertising campaigns or for PR/communications. Companies will usually work with a specialized firm like an advertising agency, PR or communications firm for these needs. Historically, Management Consultants have not been very involved in the creative aspects of Product Design. Frequently, the quantitative and analytical work Management Consultants do will influence Product Design by showing that certain consumers’ needs are unmet . Recently, Management Consulting firms have begun to start doing more Product Design (often called “Design Thinking”), and McKinsey recently acquired several Product Design consulting firms (Lunar and Veryday). Management Consulting firms are generally not involved with the creative aspects of advertising.

Since quantitative skills are required to be an effective Management Consultant, Management Consulting firms naturally assess these skills in their interviews. Leading Management Consulting firms also have a surplus of qualified candidates, which would be magnified if the consulting firms did not eliminate people for having sub-par quant skills or did not include quant skills in their overall assessment of a candidate. For these reasons Management Consulting firms use a candidate’s quantitative skill level as an important factor in selecting candidates.

Management Consultants are often hired to provide advice on the best course of action, which naturally requires modeling the expected financial impact of each of these actions. Many of the quant problems in Case Interviews therefore ask candidates to calculate the financial impact of various actions and select the best option considering all information available.

No Calculators Allowed in Case Interviews

Be aware that, in Case Interviews, you cannot use calculators or spreadsheets. All your calculations must be done with pen and paper — or purely mentally.

There are a number of reasons calculations must be done without calculators or spreadsheets. First, the Management Consulting firms want their Consultants to be comfortable with numbers and don’t want employees to rely on calculators for simple calculations.

Also, consider the client perspective — do you know how much clients pay per consultant?

Clients pay over $1 Million per year for consultants for top firms. The cost can range from $100 Thousand  – $120 Thousand per month, depending on the specific deal with the client.

Since clients are paying a lot of money, they expect the consultants they hire to be able to do basic math without making mistakes. Consulting firms would therefore lose a significant amount of credibility if their consultants make numerical mistakes in front of clients.

In short, Management Consulting firms evaluate a candidate’s quant skills because quant skills are important — and because they can; top Management Consulting firms can still find enough qualified candidates if they include quantitative skills in their evaluation criteria. Consider it from the Consulting firm’s perspective: given two strong candidates who are otherwise equal — except that one has strong quant skills and the other has poor quant skills and could potentially damage the firm’s credibility with clients — which candidate would you choose?

Weight of Quant Skills in Interviews

Quant skills are only one of the skills assessed in Case Interviews. As a candidate, you are evaluated on your overall combination of skills and your perceived potential. Generally, a candidate’s quantitative assessment consists of 20% – 25% of the overall interview evaluation weight. The goal of Management Consulting firms is to find the set of candidates with what they perceive are the best set of skills overall.

Most firms have a “minimum bar” for quant skills for their candidates, which means you are unlikely to receive an offer if you do not exceed this bar , unless you are otherwise a highly exceptional candidate — such as being a Rhodes Scholar. At some firms, dramatically exceeding this “bar” does not strengthen your candidacy — that is, the quantitative evaluation is binary: you either pass the quant assessment or you don’t. At other firms, such as McKinsey, if you can demonstrate very strong quantitative skills, it will differentiate you from other candidates. The quant problems from these firms can be more complex, which allows candidates with strong quant skills to fully demonstrate their ability. The corollary is that, for some very difficult quant problems, you don’t need to correctly solve all the components to receive an offer.

The relative importance of quantitative skills in the Case Interview varies by firm, office and the individual interviewer. As an example, if you are interviewing with a Consulting firm partner who has a PhD in a very quantitative field like Applied Mathematics or Physics, they may ask more challenging quant questions and place a greater emphasis on quant skills in their interviews. McKinsey, in particular, places more emphasis on quant skills than other firms, and, as mentioned previously, demonstrating exceptional quant skills can greatly strengthen your candidacy at McKinsey.

Given the large weighting of 20% – 25% that quant skills have in Consulting interviews — and the quant “minimum bar” at most Consulting firms — you can certainly sink your chances of receiving an offer if you perform poorly in the quant portion of the interview.

How to Prepare for the Quantitative Component of Case Interviews

The best way to prepare for the quantitative portion of Case Interviews is to practice the types of calculations you will need to perform on the types of numbers you are likely to encounter in Case Interviews and then learn how to apply these methods to the types of problems you are most likely to encounter in order to solve them quickly and efficiently.

Properties of Case Numbers

The good news is that most of the numbers you encounter in Case Interviews (what I will call “Case Numbers” ) are “Round” numbers and have only a few significant digits (i.e., only a few digits are non-zero), but may be in the Millions or Billions. For example, the number 200 Thousand, which is 200,000 in long form, has a single digit that is not zero (“ 2 ”), and so has one significant digit. The number 2.5 Million, which is 2,500,000 in long form, has two non-zero digits (“ 2 ” and “ 5 ”), and therefore has two significant digits. Case Numbers frequently have only one or two significant digits, less frequently three significant digits, and in rare cases four or more significant digits. The term Case Calculation refers to a calculation required in a Case Interview, and may provide specific Case Numbers or refer to a general calculation without specifying the numbers involved, such as calculating Revenue , given Price and Quantity .

As a reminder, calculators and spreadsheets are not permitted in Case Interviews, but candidates may use pen and paper. All the calculations required in Case Interviews (Case Calculations) take this into account, and the specific numbers involved in Case Interviews (what I will call “Case Numbers”) often have specific properties you can use to simplify the calculations — if you know the proper method!

Math Skills Required in Case Interviews

The specific math and calculation skills and knowledge required in Case Interviews is rather narrow. The specific calculation skills you need are:

• Subtraction
• Multiplication

You’ll need to be able to perform these operations with large numbers, fractions, decimals and percentages.

In addition, you’ll need to understand the following mathematical concepts:

• Percentages and percentage change
• Compound percentage growth
• Averages and expected value
• Algebra: solving linear equations with one or two variables; if there is a second variable, it is often easily eliminated.
• Net Present Value (NPV)

People generally learn the basic calculation skills required for Case Interviews in elementary school, and cover the mathematical concepts needed in their first year of Algebra, which many people take by the age 13 or 14 . The only exception is Net Present Value (NPV), which is relatively straightforward and for which there are many resources available to learn. The calculations methods for NPV problems required in a Case Interview are covered in the FastMath Ace the Case Online Course.

Most candidates have learned these math concepts but encounter several challenges in Case Interviews. The first significant challenge is that many people have trouble performing the calculations required in Case Interviews with large numbers quickly and without calculators or spreadsheets — the pressure is further compounded (pun intended) given that a six-figure salary and your future career are on the line.

Another significant challenge for many people is that they are given types of question they aren’t familiar with, and don’t know how to solve. That is, they aren’t even able to identify the specific set of calculations that will give the correct answer — this is even worse than performing the calculations incorrectly!

If any of the problems in this article fall into this category for you, then you should definitely take FastMath Ace the Case .

Addition and Subtraction

While the numbers usually have only a few significant digits, the values can be in the thousands, millions or billions, so some candidates find it challenging to manage the zeroes. Furthermore, the numbers sometimes involve decimals. If the numbers have two or more significant digits, the last significant digit will often be “5” — but not always.

Example 1: Add 250,000,000 , 150,000,000 , and 300,000,000 , and subtract 125,000,000 from the result.

Example 2: A company has Revenue from two products of $15.2 Million and $ 3.1 Million, respectively, and combined costs of $5.7 Million — what is their overall Profit ?

It is highly unlikely you will need to add or subtract a series of numbers with more than three significant digits, where all the digits are effectively random, such as: 147,368 and 434 (where the last significant digits are not “ 25 ” or “ 75 ”).

Multiplication and Division

Multiplication and division are two of the most common calculations (operations) required in Case Interviews — and ones where candidates frequently make mistakes. Multiplication is very common, and required for calculating Revenue and Profit , and in Market Sizing and Estimation Problems.

Candidates are often given Price and Quantity and asked to calculate Revenue , or given Price , Quantity and Profit Margin and are then asked to calculate Profit . These calculations require multiplication as:

Furthermore, you may be given other parameters and asked to solve for Price , or asked to calculate a Gross Margin or Percentage Change , which would require division.

As you can see from the prior examples, candidates need to perform multiplication and division calculations using numbers in the Thousands, Millions or even Billions (but with a limited number of significant digits). In Case Interviews, candidates often need to perform multiplication and/or division with percentages, decimals and fractions. For example, you might need to multiply a number by a percentage (e.g., calculate 25% of $500 Million), or divide two numbers and express the result as a percentage (e.g., what percentage of $80 Million does $16 Million represent?). Similar operations using fractions instead of percentages are also frequently required.

Most of the Case Numbers you need to multiply or divide will be Round numbers with only a few significant digits. In a Case Interview, you are unlikely to receive a similar problem where the number of Units Sold is something like 9,618,493 , which has many significant digits that appear random. The percentage values you need to multiply/divide within Case Interviews will also usually have only a few significant digits. A typical Case Calculation would be calculating 20% or 25% of another number. It is unlikely you would need to calculate 23.7% of a value in a Case Calculation.

Multiplication Example: Your client sells a product for $160 per unit and sells 35,000,000 units per year.

Many people have trouble with handling the zeroes for a calculation like this, and doing the multiplication without writing out all the numbers involved.

I’ll show you the FastMath solution method to the above problem, which will show you a simple way to handle this calculation without longhand multiplication. The steps in the FastMath solution method are different from how most people would normally perform the calculation, but each step is very simple.

• Don’t write out all the zeroes in 35,000,000 — we’ll replace them with “Million” which  leaves us with 160 × 35 Million
• What’s 160 ÷ 2 ? Answer 80
• What’s 35 × 2 ? Answer 70
• What’s 80 × 70 Answer 5,600 Guess what? That’s the same answer as 160 × 35 … Go ahead and check with longhand multiplication or a calculator!We get the same answer by cutting 160 in half (which is 80 ), and doubling 35 (which is 70 ) and then multiplying these results: 80 × 70 .Essentially, we cut one number in half, and double the other number. This is known as the Halve & Double method and it will work for any set of numbers. Halve & Double works well for this set of numbers because 35 ends in “5” ; so, when you double it, you get a “0” at the end — and 160 is an even number so, when you cut it in half, the result is also a whole number. The original multiplication problem of 160 × 35 would require four single-digit multiplication operations and several additional operations. We simplified this to 80 × 70 that requires one non-zero single digit multiplication operation (8 × 7) , which is much simpler.
• So we are left with 5,600 Million , which is 5.6 Billion, which is the final answer.

FastMath Ace the Case provides a comprehensive set of methods for multiplying and dividing Case Numbers. I’ll teach you how to utilize the specific properties of the numbers themselves to efficiently perform the required calculations for any set of numbers you are likely to encounter in a Case Interview.

I’ll teach you methods for handling all the zeroes, without writing out all the zeroes. The approach is incredibly simple and easy to learn, and the full online course provides numerous practice problems to reinforce the material.

Compound Growth

Candidates also need to understand compound percentage growth and how compound growth behaves in several situations. It is a very common Case Calculation to be given a firm’s Revenue (or another metric), and the associated Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) , and be asked to estimate that value at some point in the future or in the past. The growth rates can even vary over time.

A company had annual Revenue of $400 Million in its latest calendar year, and their Revenue  is projected to grow at 4% per year. Approximately, what will the company’s  Revenue  be six years in the future?

A PC manufacturing firm had the number of PCs sold grow by 4% per year for 8 years, and then shrink by 3% per year for two years. What was the net change (as a percentage) in PCs sold over that 10-year period?

Candidates therefore need to be comfortable making compound growth calculations in Case Interviews. FastMath Ace the Case provides a comprehensive set of methods for quickly and efficiently performing compound growth calculations for Case interviews.

Net Present Value

This is an application of Compound Growth, and is the only concept not usually covered in a high school Algebra class. Another common Case Calculation involves assigning a financial value to monetary payments that will occur in the future. Management Consultants usually determine the current value of future payments using a financial method called Net Present Value or NPV . Hence, candidates need to be able to calculate the NPV under a variety of scenarios.

NPV Example 1: How much would your company be willing to pay for another company that generates $20 Million in profit annually, if your firm requires an annual Return on Investment of 10% ?

NPV Example 2: A real estate development firm is evaluating a project that involves buying a parcel of land and building condominiums on that parcel. The company forecasts they can sell the condominiums for a total of $250 Million six years in the future.

What is the maximum the real estate company would be willing to spend now to buy the land and develop the condominiums, if all the associated costs for the project would be incurred today, and they require a 12% annual return on invested capital?

Mental Math Is Extremely Valuable in Case Interviews

Because you cannot use calculators in Case Interviews — and because you may need to perform a large number of math operations — being able to do calculations mentally (without relying on pen and paper for the mechanics of calculations) is very helpful during Case Interviews.

Consider the table below, which gives Price , Quantity, and Profit Margin for three different products, and imagine you are asked to calculate the percentage of the firm’s overall Revenue and Profit contributed by each product.

If you are able to do these operations purely mentally (and write down the answers) without writing out all the multiplication operations in Longhand, you will have a significant advantage in calculation speed. Longhand multiplication refers to doing a multiplication calculation like 7 × 25 as shown below:

In order to do longhand multiplication for a particular calculation, you would first need to copy the multiplication terms from the table onto pen and paper, and then execute each calculation. Since several multiplication operations are required to calculate the Revenue and Profit for all the Products, a person dependent on Longhand multiplication will be much slower than a person who can do the calculations mentally, as somebody who can do these calculations mentally can simply look at the table, do the calculations, and then write down the answer(s) to refer to later. They won’t need to write out the original numbers from the table to perform Longhand multiplication, and so will be much faster!

The speed improvement of mental calculations is magnified if you need to multiply several numbers together when calculating a value.

For example, in Case Interviews you frequently need to calculate Revenue and Profit given Price , Quantity and Profit Margin for multiple products, which requires multiple multiplication operations (say that twenty times fast).

For mental calculations, it is very helpful to “mentally picture” the numbers with which you are calculating — which I may refer to as “thinking” of a certain number or numbers. After doing a calculation mentally, you should always write down the result so you don’t forget it.

Given the benefits of mental calculations in Case Interviews, FastMath Ace the Case teaches a comprehensive set of mental calculation methods specifically designed for Case Interviews. These methods are also helpful for pen-and-paper calculations for those not fully comfortable doing the calculations purely mentally.

Quant Problem Types

Once you have learned the basic calculation skills required for Case Interviews, you’ll need to learn how to apply them to the different Quantitative Problem Types you are likely to encounter in a Case Interview.

Solving Breakeven & Profitability Analysis Problems

One of the simplest question types concerns what I will call Simple Breakeven Analysis and Profitability Analysis. In this problem type, you will be asked to calculate the number of units of a certain product that need to be sold in order to “Break Even,” or to calculate the number of units a company needs to sell to achieve a certain amount of profit, or to find the Profit given a production Quantity . This problem type assumes a constant Marginal Cost , a constant Price , and Fixed Costs for a single product. More complex problems do not fall into this category.

Question 1: MRI Example

The prior example of the MRI scanning clinic falls into this category:

Your client is considering opening a number of MRI scanning clinics. Each MRI clinic will have two MRI machines, two Technicians and two Radiologists. The table below shows annual costs for a single unit of these and other line items required to run a clinic. Each MRI scan will generate $420 in revenue and will have $45 of costs of disposable medical products, and $25 of costs for other consumables (i.e., items consumed in the scanning process).

Question A:

How many MRI scans will a clinic need to perform annually in order to break even?

Question B:

How many scans required to achieve $1.4 Million annual profit per clinic?

Question C:

How much profit would an MRI clinic generate annually if it were open from 8:00 AM – 10:00 PM, seven days per week, and operated at full utilization (i.e., all time slots are used to perform MRIs on customers)? How much profit would it generate if it operated at 80% utilization or 50% utilization (i.e., only 80% or 50% of available time slots are used to perform MRIs)?

Here are a few other problems that fit this category

• How many units do they need to sell annually to break even?
• How many units do they need to sell annually to have a profit of $9 Million ?
• What would their annual profit be if they sold 65 Thousand units per year?  
• How many units does the company need to sell annually to break even?
• How many units would they need to sell to have annual profit of $300 Million ?
• How many units would they need to sell to have annual profit of $1.2 Billion ?
• What would their profit be if they sold 6 Million  units per year?
• What would their profit be if they sold 2.8 Million  units per year?
• How many unites does the company need to sell annually to break even?
• How many units would they need to sell to have annual profit of $21 Million ?
• How many units would they need to sell to have annual profit of $49 Million ?
• What would their profit be if they sold 400 Thousand  units per year?

Breakeven and Profitability Analysis in  FASTMATH  Resources

FastMath Ace the Case explains how to quickly and efficiently solve this type of problem. In particular, the course gives very efficient methods for performing related calculations under multiple scenarios with the same basic information — i.e., changing the Quantity or Profit given the same Cost and Price information.

The course has more than 40 examples of this type with detailed solution methods for each of these problems, and includes video-based explanations for this problem, and many other problems. This is the simplest problem type you are likely to encounter in a Case Interview, so you want to make sure you are well prepared for this type of problem.

Solving Market Sizing & Estimation Questions

As a reminder, below are a few example Market Sizing & Estimation questions candidates have been asked in real Case Interviews:

You could be asked to estimate the market size for any product category in any country or geographic region around the world. It’s not an effective use of time to memorize lots of statistics regarding market sizes for different products and industries around the world.

You need an approach that will allow you to estimate the market size for any product or industry in any country!

Global Demographics Data

You should start by learning basic demographic and statistical data about the largest economies in the world. Things like population, GDP per capita, and persons per household are the most important to know.

Do you know what the top 10 largest economies are in the world, and their GDP?

Can you list the top 10 countries with the largest GDP in order?

What is their GDP per capita in relation to the U.S.?

Do you know the GDP per capita of China and India?

What’s the population and GDP per capita of South Korea?

You should learn this information before going into a Case Interview.

Next, you’ll need a framework for estimating the market size of a given product category or industry.

Last, you’ll need to practice your method with many examples, and fine tune your method based on the accuracy.

Market Sizing and Estimation Questions in FASTMATH Resources

FastMath Ace the Case covers Market Sizing and Estimation problems in depth. First, the course has all the demographic and statistical data you need in easy-to-read tables and downloadable files. The course also has a universal framework and procedure for estimating the market size for any industry or product. Furthermore, the calculation methods covered in the course are directly applicable to Market Sizing and estimation problems as you will usually need to multiply many values together to get your estimate.

FastMath Ace the Case also covers topics like the optimal range for the number of parameters, the tradeoff between speed and accuracy, and how to recognize when you reach diminishing returns. The course also has numerous practice problems with detailed solution methods — not just the answer — that you can compare with your solution method so you can learn how to calculate the answer more efficiently.

Other Quant Problem Types

There are a wide variety of other quantitative problem types frequently asked in Case Interviews. Below is a sample of the types of problems you might encounter:

• Investment Decision Analysis
• Price Optimization
• Chart Reading
• Growth Rate Analysis
• Economies of Scale
• NPV Analysis
• Production Analysis
• Response Rate Analysis
• Pipeline Analysis

Quant Problem Types in FASTMATH Resources

FastMath Ace the Case provides examples and detailed solution methods for each of these types of problems. Furthermore FastMath Ace the Case explains what to do when you encounter a type of problem you haven’t seen before or aren’t familiar with. Hint — return to first principles.

Lastly, FastMath Ace the Case shows candidates how to take the results of the quantitative calculations and develop case-specific recommendations and insights.

FASTMATH Ace the Case Online Course

When I was in business school at MIT, I saw that many of my classmates struggled with the quant component of Case Interviews. At the time, there weren’t good resources to teach people how to do calculations without calculators — as needed in Case Interviews. This experience inspired me to create FastMath Ace the Case . I designed this course to specifically teach the quantitative and mental calculation skills needed to succeed in Case Interviews. Math is always something that came naturally to me, and, in this course, I’ll teach you the calculation methods and approach to math I have used throughout my educational and professional career.

FastMath Ace the Case teaches fast and efficient calculation methods designed to solve the calculations most frequently encountered in Case Interviews. The course also demonstrates the most efficient solution methods to the most important quantitative Case Interview problem types, such as Market Sizing and Estimation problems and Breakeven Analysis problems. The methods in this course are specifically designed for typical Case Calculations, and all the examples are based on questions given in actual Case Interviews.

FastMath Ace the Case is different from other quant resources because it uses on-demand video lessons to teach efficient calculation and problem solving methods — instead of simply providing practice problems and answers — and is tailored to the problems and calculations actually encountered in Case Interviews. Thousands of MBA students from leading schools such as Wharton, Harvard Business School, Columbia, London Business School, MIT Sloan, and many other schools have used FastMath Ace the Case to prepare for Case Interviews and ultimately join elite Management Consulting firms such as McKinsey, Bain, BCG, PwC, Accenture, and many other leading consulting firms.

The video lessons in this course also show candidates how to develop relevant insights based on quantitative calculations. Discover simple and intuitive calculation methods that will save you time and effort while delivering results in your interviews.

Course Features

• 7+ hours of on-demand video lessons
• 50+ lessons/modules
• Hundreds of practice problems and solutions
• Detailed solution methods to all problems
• Market sizing data tables
• McKinsey PST methods and material
• Downloadable reference files
• Mobile accessible platform (iPad, iPhone, and Android)
• 30-day money-back guarantee
• All calculation methods and examples are based on real Case Interview calculations

Learn more about FastMath Ace the Case

Capital One Case Interview (Questions, Process, Prep)

Today we're going to cover everything you need to prepare for your Capital One case interview.

If you're a business analyst, senior data analyst or strategy analyst, and you're not used to case interviews, they can be challenging. That's why we've put together the ultimate guide to the Capital One analyst interview to maximise your chances of success.

Here's an overview of what we'll cover:

• Assessment tests
• Case interviews
• Product questions
• Behavioural questions
• Preparation tips

Click here to practise 1-on-1 with case interview experts

NB: If you're a software engineer interviewing at Capital One, check out our engineering interview guides .

1. Capital One: doing things differently

Capital One is unique. As of the time of this article, it's the 13th largest bank ($450bn in assets)  in the United States, behind firms like  Goldman Sachs , JP Morgan , and Morgan Stanley , despite being founded as a single-business  bank in 1994. The business was initially only focused on credit cards but now include the following 3 verticals:

• Credit Cards
• Consumer Banking
• Commercial Banking

The company's success has been driven largely by its clever use of data . They've developed sophisticated strategies for identifying and directly marketing to profitable customers. This has created a competitive advantage vs. traditional banks, which have historically focused on broad (rather than targeted) marketing.

Capital One also has their own  strategy group , which essentially serves as an internal consulting firm.

Although Capital One is a top player in the banking industry, their unusual history and technology focus, has created a unique culture. It has more of a "tech firm" feel, than you'd expect from a giant financial institution. Another notable area where Capital One is different from their peers, is in their interview process.

2. Capital One interview process

The type of work (and the nature of the interview) you can expect at Capital One varies across group and role. They hire for roles ranging from call center reps, to software engineers and business analysts.

This guide is primarily written for business analyst candidates, but most of what we say here is applicable for anyone with a case interview at Capital One, including senior data anlaysts and strategy analysts.

The application process includes 4 main stages:

• Resume & cover letter submission
• Pre-interview online assessment tests
• First-round interview

Power Day of 3-5 interviews

Let's take a closer look at each step in the Capital One interview process.

2.1 Resume & cover letter submission

First, recruiters will look at your resume and assess if your experience matches the open position. This is the most competitive step in the process—we’ve found that 90% of candidates don’t make it past this stage.

You can use  this free resume guide  and this  free cover letter guide  to help tailor your application to the position you’re targeting. 

And if you’re looking for expert feedback, you can also get input from our  team of  expert recruiters , who will  cover what achievements to focus on (or ignore), how to get more impact from your bullet points, and more.

2.2 Capital One online assessment tests

After the initial application, you'll face the   online assessment tests.

For the business analyst position, the BA quantitative assessment usually consists of 11 questions that aim to assess basic analytical skills. You'll be given a data set and you'll need to use a spreadsheet to solve mathematical and analytical problems.

Example Capital One online assessment question

• Ali and Sophie are budding musicians who have been playing Thursday night shows at a local live music venue. The venue told them that over the course of the last four weeks, they’ve had 900 tickets sold for their shows. They are curious to see how many people are repeat fans, coming to more than one show. The venue’s recent customer survey says that 60% of fans have come once, 30% have come twice, 6% have come three times, and 4% have come four times. How many unique people have seen an Ali and Sophie show during this time period?

2.3 First round mini case interview

If you pass the online assessment, you make it to the first round 'mini case interview', which will be conducted via phone or video call. Be ready to hit the ground running in this interview, don't expect much "getting to know you" discussion because they usually get straight to the case. This interview will normally last 30 minutes.

2.4 Final round Power Day

The final round, often referred to as a "Power Day" or a "Super Day", is  a series of 3-5 back-to-back interviews .

For the role of business analyst, you can expect two case interviews and one product interview, with behavioral questions thrown in at the start of each interview.

If you're interviewing for a more technical role, such as senior data analyst, you will face a technical interview such as coding or a data challenge, one case interview and one behavioral interview.

Now you know the interview process, let's go deeper into what questions you can expect to face.

3. Capital One interview questions

In this section we'll take a look at the type of questions you can expect to face in your Capital One interview. We'll start with the most important, and the most challenging: case interview questions.

3.1 Capital one case interviews

Case interviews are the most important part of the Capital One interview process. The company has published a video tutorial, which shows the style of their case interviews.

We've embedded it for your reference below. It's a great resource, but it's pretty long (about 20 minutes), so we've also summarised the key take-aways and added some additional commentary below.

Capital One case interviews include 3 sections:

• Business situation and framework
• Quantitative question
• Recommendation

Each section of the case interview has particular things you'll need to prepare for. Let's look at each one in-depth.

A. Business situation and framework

The first several minutes of the interview will cover the business scenario and case framework. This typically begins with the recruiter providing a brief statement about the business or industry where you'll focus for the case. In the sample case (in the video), you're the CEO of Ice Cream Corporation. 

Typically, the recruiter will end their opening statement with a broad question. For example: "What are the key factors you would consider when developing a strategy to grow profits for Ice Cream Corporation?" For this stage of the interview, you should have two objectives.

First, you should ask clarification questions to make sure that you understand the situation correctly. For instance, in the video above the first candidate asks exactly what role the CEO has with regards to "pricing" and to "sales". Many candidates skip that initial step, but it's actually essential because it will help you put together a more relevant framework.

Second, once you fully understand the situation and question the interviewer is asking you, you should put a simple case framework together to answer the interviewer's question. The objective of this framework is to identify and communicate key areas that you will consider to answer the interviewer's main question. For instance, the candidates in the video mention areas including pricing, number of markets, number of competitors, their size, etc.

If you're familiar with the different types of case interviews, you'll notice that Capital One uses the interviewer-led approach. This is similar to the method used by McKinsey in their application process .

That said, we still recommend that you try and drive the case forward yourself to a certain extent, by communicating the implications of your answer with the interviewer. This will show them that you're able to think a few steps ahead and take an active approach to problem-solving.

B. Quantitative question

The second stage of the interview is heavily focused on maths skills. The recruiter will provide you with some data, and ask you to perform calculations.

In the sample case, you're asked to calculate total monthly profit for Ice Cream Corporation, given the following data:

• Price per carton = $5
• Cost per carton = $1
• Demand = 100 cartons/month

It's important to ask questions at this stage, as the recruiter may have additional data which they have not yet provided. The video shows a great example of this, when the candidate asks how much of the cost is variable vs. fixed cost. 

• Variable cost per carton = $1
• Fixed cost per carton = $0

At this point, the calculation is straight-forward.

• ($5-$1) X 100 cartons = $400 profit

Make sure you talk through your logic, to show the recruiter your problem-solving skills. This will also help them to steer you back on track, if you've misheard any of the data.

Don't expect all of the calculations in your interview to be this simple. There are 2 additional examples provided in the video, which include elasticity of demand and break even calculations. These require a little extra work, but your approach will be the same:

• Understand the data provided
• Ask for more information when necessary
• Lay out your approach
• Perform the calculations

In our experience, the best candidates brush up ahead of their interview, so they can   have confidence in their maths skills . If you do the same, this will give you a polished reaction during interviews, which recruiters will notice. Compared with the case interviews used at consulting firms, the case interviews at Capital One tend to have a greater focus on quantitative questions. So you should expect to spend more time on these types of quant problems during your interview, and less time on other areas, like creative brainstorming.

C. Recommendation

In the final stage of the interview, you'll be expected to make and defend a recommendation. To form your recommendation, draw on the calculations from the previous stage (e.g. the results of the break-even analysis). Consider the numbers, use your intuition, and make a decision . 

For example, this might be your conclusion: "since frozen ice cream is a non-perishable, I think it would be reasonable to expect most of the additional sales from a promotion, to come from stock-up behavior. I'd recommend looking for other opportunities to increase sales."

The specific strategy you suggest, is less important than your logic and ability to defend it . Expect the recruiter to question your approach. For a recommendation like this, they may ask you to explain how you would go about identifying other opportunities.

Additional tips for your Capital One case interview:

• Don't be surprised if you're given a case from outside the finance industry
• Take notes on the information provided by the recruiter.
• Ask for a minute to organize your thoughts when needed.
• Talk through your thought process, show your work as you do it.
• If you don't understand a topic, ask the interviewer for clarification.
• Call out important assumptions.
• Notice directional cues, as the recruiter may want to steer the conversation.
• You're usually allowed a calculator, so bring one that's easy to use

3.2 Capital One behavioural and fit interview questions

In addition to case interviews, Capital One also uses behavioural questions/interviews, like most companies do. While you may not get a whole interview devoted specifically to behavioral questions, you can expect to face them at the start of your case and product interviews.

Behavioural interview questions asked at Capital One fall into two main categories:

• Fit questions. These are generic questions such as “Why financial services?” or “ Why Capital One? ”.
• Personal Experience Interview (PEI) questions. These are questions such as “Tell me about a time when you lead a team through a difficult situation.” Or “Tell me about a time where you had to manage a team conflict”

We've written extensively about   fit / PEI questions   in another guide. But in summary here are the top 5 fit and PEI questions you should prepare for at Capital One, or other firms.

Top 5 fit questions:

• Why Capital One?
• Why financial services?
• Walk me through your resume
• Tell me about something not on your resume
• Tell me about your greatest accomplishment

Top 5 PEI questions. Tell me about a time when ...

• You failed at work
• You worked in a team and had to manage a conflict
• You had a disagreement with a colleague / boss
• You had to change someone's / a group's mind
• You led a team through a difficult situation

Capital One is known to favor the STAR method when it comes to answering behavioral questions. So, for your interview, plan to answer behavioural questions using the following format:

• S - Situation

This approach will help you to answer each question in a clear, and methodical way, which are great qualities to demonstrate when interviewing with Capital One. 

3.2.1 "Why Capital One?" interview question

You're almost guaranteed to be asked this question, so let's dive a bit deeper into how you should answer it. Here are 3 ways to make your answer stand out:

Name-drop: Before the interview, make an effort to meet with or call one or more current employees of the firm. Ask them what it’s like working there, why they chose Capital One and what is unique about it. This will give you good, specific talking points for your answer, and mentioning their names shows the interviewer that you’ve put in effort to get to know the company.

Be specific. Test out your answer by swapping another bank’s name with the one you’ve got in mind. If your answer could also apply to this other bank, then you need to fine tune it.

Keep up with recent activity : Being aware of the latest deals and developments in the department you’re applying to will give you an idea of what kind of projects you’ll get to work on, and whether they sound interesting to you. Bringing them up in the interview will show the interviewer that you’ve done your research and stay up to date on market news.

Example answer: "Why do you want to work at Capital One?"

“I want to work at Capital One for three main reasons. First, I want to work in a very data-driven environment and to have access to a vast amount of data when working strategically. I've been really impressed with Capital One's pioneering use of data and machine learning in the banking sector, which has helped it gain market share across its verticals.

Second, I've also been impressed with Capital One's strategy regarding a banking-as-a-service model and embedded finance. I saw an interview with Richard Fairbank (CEO) talking about how all banks needed to collaborate with fintech apps to provide instantaneous results for customers, rather than working in silos, and I thought he articulated a really strong vision.

And finally, I’ve had a few conversations with Seth White and Tamara Grey, associates in the McLean office, both of whom gave me a great impression of the firm as a whole. Seth in particular encouraged me to apply to the Travel team, as we share a similar educational background, and he was complimentary of the opportunities he’s been given to succeed."

See more details on how to answer the "Why this company?" interview question .

3.3 Product questions

If you're interviewing for a business analyst role, one of your Power Day interviews will be a product interview. Compared to the very quantitative case interviews, the product interview is a lot more qualitative and you'll need to think more creatively.

In almost all the interview reports we've seen over the last year or so, the candidate was asked to improve a product in some way. We recommend you read our article on How to answer product improvement questions to help you structure your response.

Example Capital One product questions from business analyst candidates:

• Describe 12 uses for an alarm clock
• How would you redesign an alarm clock?
• What is the customer base for this product?
• Describe 10 ways to improve an umbrella
• How would you improve this water bottle?
• What's your favorite product and how would you improve it?

4. How do I prepare for a Capital One case interview?

Here's how we recommend you prepare for your Capital One case interview. First, use Capital One case studies to research the company. Second, become really confident at maths. Then, learn a consistent method to approach case interview problems. Fourth, practise a lot and learn from your mistakes. And finally, do mock interviews to hone your case interview technique.

4.1 Use Capital One case study examples for research

Case interviews require no prior knowledge. However, you can bet that overall your interviews at Capital One will go a lot better if you go in having done some research on the company and the wider financial industry.

Capital One shares some case studies on its website, which are well worth looking over. Also take a look at some of the articles on Capital One's insights center . Elsewhere in the media, we liked this piece on how Capital One uses data to get an advantage .

If you're coming from a finance background, you may already have a good knowledge of Capital One's place in the sector. If not, check out Investopedia for a brief summary.

4.2 Become really confident at maths

You don't have to have a perfect GPA or GMAT score to succeed at case interview maths. And in any case, during your Capital One interviews, you will be allowed to use a calculator. That said, it will help if you're confident performing mental maths quickly and accurately.

In order to do this, it’s essential to know the formulas for common metrics, like return on investment or breakeven point. And it’s also helpful to know a few maths shortcuts to help you solve problems more quickly. To learn more about these topics, check out our free guide to case interview maths . 

In our experience, the most successful applicants start their interview preparation by practising maths skills, so make sure you prioritise this step.

4.3 Develop a consistent method to crack cases

One of the biggest challenges of interviewing with Capital One  is solving cases that you’ve never seen before. Each case can be difficult, and you’ll have to perform well across multiple case interviews in order to get an offer.

As a result, it’s critical for you to have a consistent approach for solving cases. Capital One  uses interviewer-led case interviews, which can be broken down into the following types of questions:

• Framework development
• Quant question – Data provided
• Creativity question

If you can crack each type of question (within a case), then you can crack the overall case.

Use this list of example case interviews to practice with. The companies listed here are consulting companies rather than banks, but doesn't matter as case interviews use examples from all sorts of industries, not just the one you're interviewing for.

4.4 Learn from every mistake you make

During case interview preparation, the quality of your preparation is just as important as the quantity of time that you dedicate. It's better to do 20 cases thoughtfully than to rush through 40 cases. 

We recommend that you keep a notebook where you record improvement opportunities and specific things you did well for each case. 

The notebook and self-evaluation will help you to be more strategic (and efficient) with your preparation. It's also a good idea to go back and re-do old cases. For example, after you have done case #20, you could go back to case #1, to make sure you are not repeating the same mistakes.

The minimum preparation time required to succeed in case interviews is probably around 30 hours. However, if you don't prepare thoughtfully, it may take much longer. So take notes, be strategic, and keep practising!

4.5 Do mock interviews

How you solve each case is important, but your interviewers will also be evaluating how you COMMUNICATE your answers. It's important to speak in a structured way that makes it easy to clearly understand your points.

The best way to hone your communication skills is to practise interviewing out loud, and you can do that in three main ways:

• Interview yourself (out loud)
• Practise interviewing with friends or family
• Practise interviewing with ex-interviewers

Practising by yourself is a great way to get started, and can help you get more comfortable with the flow of a case interview. However, this type of practice won’t prepare you for realistic interview conditions. 

After getting some practice on your own, you should find someone who can do a mock interview with you, like a friend or family member.

We’d also recommend that you practise 1-1 with ex-interviewers from top consulting firms . This is the best way to replicate the conditions of a real case interview, and to get feedback from someone who understands the process extremely well.

Click here to book your mock case interview.

That's all you need to know about the Capital One case interview, from all of us at IGotAnOffer, good luck!

Hacking the Case Interview

Capital One uses case interviews to identify promising candidates to hire for many of their business roles, including their business analyst, data analyst, and strategy analyst roles.

In a Capital One case interview, you’ll be placed in a hypothetical business situation and asked to develop a recommendation or answer to a business problem.

Capital One’s use of case interviews may be surprising to some people because case interviews   are typically used in consulting interviews. Capital One is a bank and financial institution, not a consulting firm.

However, there are two reasons why Capital One uses case interviews.

The first reason is that compared to other traditional banks, Capital One likes to position itself as a data company that happens to be in the financial services industry. There is a heavy emphasis on using data to drive business decisions. Therefore, case interviews are an effective way to assess problem solving and quantitative thinking.

The second reason is that Capital One hires a lot of former consultants from top consulting firms such as McKinsey, BCG, and Bain. A lot of the business divisions at Capital One are run by former consultants who run their teams like a consulting team. Capital One wants to hire people that can do the same type of work that consultants do .

For business analyst, data analyst, and strategy analyst roles, there are typically two rounds of interviews. 

• Capital One first round interview : one 30-minute case interview. There will be minimal time for any behavioral or fit interview questions.
• Capital One final round interview : three to four 30-40 minute interviews. One interview will be focused on behavioral or fit interview questions while all the other interviews will be focused on Capital One case interviews.

In order to receive your Capital One job offer, you will need to nail all 3 to 4 of your case interviews.

If you have an upcoming Capital One case interview, we have you covered. In this article, we'll go through in detail:

• What qualities do Capital One case interviews assess?
• Differences between Capital One and consulting case interviews
• How to solve Capital One case interviews
• Capital One case interview tips
• Capital One case interview examples
• Recommended Capital One case interview resources

If you’re looking for a step-by-step shortcut to learn case interviews quickly, enroll in our case interview course . These insider strategies from a former Bain interviewer helped 30,000+ land consulting offers while saving hundreds of hours of prep time.

What Qualities do Capital One Case Interviews Assess?

Capital One case interviews assess four main qualities: logical and structured thinking, quantitative skills, communication skills, and business judgment.

Logical and structured thinking : Capital One looks for candidates that are organized and methodical problem solvers.  

• Can you structure complex problems in a clear, simple way?
• Can you use logic and reason to make appropriate conclusions?

Quantitative skills : Capital One looks for candidates that have strong analytical skills to solve complex business problems and make important business decisions

• Can you read and interpret data well?
• Can you perform math computations smoothly and accurately?
• Can you conduct the right analyses to draw the right conclusions?

Communication skills : Capital One looks for candidates that can communicate in a clear, concise, and persuasive way.

• Can you communicate in a clear and concise way?
• Are you articulate and persuasive in what you are saying?

Business judgment : Capital One looks for candidates with strong business instincts that help them make the right decisions and develop the right recommendations.

• Do you have a basic understanding of fundamental business concepts?
• Do your conclusions and recommendations make sense from a business perspective?

Differences between Capital One and Consulting Case Interviews

There are three main differences between Capital One and consulting case interviews. Capital One case interviews focus on quantitative analysis, Capital One allows calculators, and Capital One cases may require some basic understanding of their financial products.

1. Capital One case interviews focus on quantitative analysis

Traditional case interviews have a balance between answering qualitative questions and solving quantitative problems. Capital One case interviews almost exclusively focus on the quantitative aspects of case.

Let’s consider a case interview in which you are trying to decide whether a friend should open up a mini-golf course as an investment.

In a traditional case interview, you would look into both qualitative and quantitative factors to make a recommendation. You would look at the market attractiveness, the competitive landscape, your friend’s capabilities, and the expected profitability.

For a Capital One case interview, you will focus almost exclusively on the expected profitability. Your framework would look at the expected revenues and expected costs of opening a mini-golf course to see what annual profits would be.

If annual profits are high, you would recommend opening a mini-golf course. If annual profits are negative or low, you would not recommend opening a mini-golf course.

In a Capital One case interview, you may cover some qualitative factors at the end of your calculations when you are discussing risks, but the qualitative factors will not be a critical component of solving the case.

Since most Capital One case interviews come down to setting up and solving math equations, they can be simpler and more straight forward than traditional consulting case interviews.

2. Capital One case interviews allow a calculator

Another big difference between Capital One case interviews and traditional consulting case interviews is that Capital One allows candidates to use calculators.

While this may sound like this makes the case interview easier, that is not necessarily the case. Since you are allowed to use a calculator, you’ll typically be dealing with bigger and messier numbers during a Capital One case interview.

While traditional case interviews use round numbers that are easy to work with, Capital One case interviews use large and more precise numbers. This makes some calculations too tedious to solve by hand, which is why you are allowed to use a calculator.

3. Capital One case requires may require familiarity with financial products

Traditional case interviews don’t require any specialized knowledge in order to solve the case. You do not need to research any industries beforehand.

While this is generally true for Capital One case interviews, it does help to be familiar with how basic financial products work. In your final round interviews, you may be given a case focused on credit cards or checking and savings accounts.

If you understand how these financial products work, you’ll have an easier time with the case interview and the interviewer will not need to explain as much background information to you.

Here are the basics of what you should know.

Credit cards generate revenue through an annual fee, interchange, and interest.  

• An annual fee is a fee that the cardholder must pay in order to keep the credit card active
• When a cardholder uses their credit card at a merchant, the merchant pays the credit card company a small percentage of the transaction amount. This is known as interchange and covers the cost of transaction and the cost to handle fraud.
• Credit card companies charge interest on balances that are not fully paid off at the end of the billing cycle.

The major costs of credit cards are service costs and charge offs.  

• Service costs include the costs to keep the credit card active and the costs to provide support to the cardholder
• Charge offs occur when a cardholder can no longer pay their credit card debt and the credit card company fails to recover the amount of money the cardholder has borrowed on the credit card

Checking and savings accounts are simpler to understand. The bank makes money by lending a portion of the money that customers have deposited into their accounts. They give customers a small amount of interest for their deposits.

The interest rates that banks charge for loans are much higher than the interest rates that the bank pays to customers for their deposits, which is how banks make money.

How to Solve a Capital One Case Interview

There are six steps to solving a Capital One case interview:

• Take notes on the case background information
• Synthesize the information and verify the objective of the case
• Ask clarifying questions
• Create a framework
• Perform calculations
• Discuss the implications of your answer
• Deliver a recommendation

1. Take notes on the case background information

Capital One case interviews begin with the interviewer giving you the case background information. Let’s say that the interviewer reads you the following information:

Interviewer : As an investment, your friend is considering opening up a mini-golf course. Should they do it?

As the interviewer reads you the case information, take notes. It is important to understand what the objective is.

2. Synthesize information and verify the objective of the case

After the interviewer finishes giving you the case information, confirm that you understand the situation and objective. Provide a concise synthesis like the following:

You : To make sure I understand correctly, our friend is considering opening up a mini-golf course as an investment. The goal of this case is to decide whether they should open up a mini-golf course.

Interviewer : Exactly. That is correct.

3. Ask clarifying questions

Next, you’ll be able to ask clarifying questions . Try to limit your questions to only the most critical questions that you need answers to in order to solve the case.

You : Before I begin structuring a framework, can I ask what our friend’s financial targets are for the investment?

Interviewer : Your friend is hoping to make at least $200,000 in profit in the first year.

4. Create a framework

Next, lay out a framework for how you are going to solve the case. A framework is simply a tool that helps you structure and break down complex problems into simpler, smaller components.

For this Capital One case interview example, your framework may look like the following:

You : To determine whether or not our friend should open a mini-golf course, we will need to calculate the expected annual profit. To do this, we need to calculate expected revenues and expected costs.

To calculate revenues, we need to estimate how many people will visit the mini-golf course per year. 

We can calculate this by estimating the number of people that come per hour and multiply this by the number of hours per day the mini-golf course is open. To annualize this, we can multiply by the number of days per year the course is open

If we know the number of annual visitors, we can multiply by the price that the mini-golf course charges for admission to get total annual revenue.

To calculate costs, we need to add up all of the different costs associated with running a mini-golf course. The major costs that come to mind are construction costs, rent, and staff costs to operate the mini-golf course. There are also other minor costs such as the costs of golf balls and golf clubs.

Interviewer : That approach makes sense to me.

5. Perform calculations

Once you have presented your framework to the interviewer and the interviewer has approved of your approach or given you feedback, you will move onto doing calculations.

When you are performing calculations, make sure you are walking the interviewer through each step. You do not want to be doing calculations in silence.

By walking the interviewer through each step of your math, the interviewer can easily follow what you are doing and provide suggestions or further information to help you.

Interviewer : Let’s move onto the calculations. I have the following information for you.

You : Let’s calculate revenue first. The mini-golf course is open 12 hours per day.

From 10AM – 5PM, the mini-golf course gets 10 visitors per hour. This gives us 70 visitors over seven hours. From 5PM – 10PM, the course gets 50 visitors per hour. This gives us 250 visitors over five hours. So, the mini-golf course gets 320 visitors per day.

The course is open 360 days per year, so 360 days times 320 visitors gives us 115,200 visitors. If each visitor pays $15 for admission, that is $1,728,000 in revenue per year.

Looking at costs, rent is $24,000 per month or $288,000 per year. 

There are 12 staff members at all times. They work 12 hours per day at $12 per hour. This gives us $1,728 in staff costs per day. Multiplying this by 360 days, this gives us $622,080 in staff costs per year.

Adding construction costs, equipment costs, rent costs, and staff costs gives us a total cost in the first year of $1,525,080.

Therefore, profit in the first year is $1,728,000 minus $1,525,080, which is $202,920. 

6. Discuss the implications of your answer

When you have finished your calculations, discuss the implications of your answer. How do the results of your calculations help you answer the overall case question? What are other considerations you should take into account?

Interviewer:  How would you interpret your answer?

You : Since profit in the first year is $202,920, this just meets our friend’s financial objective of reaching $200,000 in profits in the first year.

However, I noticed that construction costs and equipment costs are a one-time fixed cost. Although there will probably be future maintenance costs, our friend would not incur $615,000 of these costs again in the following years. I’d expect profits in year two and beyond to be much larger than the first year.

I also noticed that the mini-golf course employs 12 people at all times. Is there a reason for this? I’m wondering if there are opportunities to use machines to replace some of the repetitive and manual tasks that these employees do. This may further increase profits by decreasing costs.

7. Deliver a recommendation

At the end of the Capital One case interview, the interviewer will prompt you for a recommendation. Make sure to structure your recommendation so that it is clear and easy to follow. You can use this simple, but effective structure:

• State your recommendation
• Provide 2 – 3 reasons that support your recommendation
• Propose next steps

Here is an example of what a recommendation could look like:

Interviewer : Thanks for all of the work that you have done so far. What is your final recommendation?

You : I recommend that our friend should open up a mini-golf course. There are two reasons that support this.

One, the mini-golf course is expected to generate $202,920 in profits in the first year. This meets our friend’s financial objective of having at least $200,000 in profits in the first year.

Two, profits in year two and beyond will be much higher because our friend will not incur another $500,000 in construction costs or $115,000 in equipment costs. There will still be maintenance and repair costs, but profits could be as high as $817,920.

For next steps, I’d want to determine if our friend has the capabilities to successfully run and operate a mini-golf course. I’d also want to look at competitors to see how strong they are. They may try to take away visitors and revenues from our friend’s golf course.

Interviewer : Thanks for the recommendation. This concludes the case interview.

Learn the basics of Capital One case interviews in 30 minutes

We've summarized all of the basics of case interviews in a 30-minute video below. We highly recommend that you watch the video in its entirety.

Capital One Case interview Tips

Follow the five tips below to avoid making common mistakes in Capital One case interviews.

Tip #1: Share your thinking and reasoning out loud

Many candidates make the mistake of not communicating what they are thinking or doing. Remember, you get no credit for great ideas if they are not communicated to the interviewer.

When creating a framework for the case interview, walk your interviewer through it. When performing math calculations, walk your interviewer through each step.

For each decision that you make, communicate why you are making that decision so that the interviewer can understand the approach and rationale that you are using.

This way, the interviewer can give you credit for your ideas and thinking. Additionally, the interviewer may offer you suggestions or guidance to help you solve the case. The interviewer cannot provide you with support if they do not know what you are thinking or planning to do.

Tip #2: There is not always one correct answer

Like most case interviews, there is not always one correct answer. For the same Capital One case interview, two candidates can give completely opposite recommendations and still both receive job offers.

Although math calculations typically only have one right answer, there are many ways to interpret the final figure that you have calculated. As long as your recommendation is supported by data and evidence, your recommendation will be accepted by the interviewer.

Tip #3: Stay organized when working with a lot of data

Capital One case interviews will have a lot of data and information in the form of tables, charts, and graphs. When working with a lot of data, it is important to stay organized.

Make sure you do your calculations on a separate sheet of paper to keep your calculations separate from your notes and framework.

As you calculate different numbers, circle important numbers that you are likely to use over and over again. This makes your numbers easier to find and will prevent you from having to recalculate a figure that you have already calculated.

Draw a box around your final calculated answer to distinguish it from your other numbers and calculations.

Tip #4: Check your units

Make sure to check the units of the data you are working with.

Capital One case interviews often include data that have different units. For example, revenue may be given in terms of revenue per week while costs may be given in terms of costs per month.

Whenever you perform calculations, make sure the numbers are in the appropriate units. Working with the wrong units will make your answer wrong by orders of magnitude.

Tip #5: Know how to use a calculator quickly and efficiently

Capital One case interviews are one of the few interviews where you are allowed to use a calculator. You will most likely need to use the calculator during the interview when you are given large numbers that are tedious to calculate by hand.

Capital One is strict on only allowing standard, non-scientific calculators. Therefore, become familiar with using this type of calculator, which can only perform basic addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division.

These calculators have much less functionality than scientific calculators, so it may take some practice to get used to using them.

Capital One Case Interview Examples

Capital One provides a video explaining their case interview process. They also provide examples candidates answering case interview questions. The video is embedded below:

Below are some Capital One case interview questions that candidates have received in the past.

Example #1 : An arcade is considering whether they should be open on Tuesdays, the day of the week in which they typically see the lowest number of customers. We'll start by brainstorming the primary drivers of revenue and costs for an arcade and then calculate expected profits on Tuesdays to make a decision.

Example #2 : What is the typical annual profits of a movie theater? Let's brainstorm what the major sources of revenues are and what the major cost items are. Afterwards, I'll provide you with some data to calculate annual profit.

Example #3 : Let's calculate the average profit per credit card opened. What are the major revenue sources stemming from credit card use? What are the major costs?

Example #4 : A new credit card that is launched typically sees a spike in charge-offs (money lost because the credit card owner cannot make their payments) after 6 to 9 months of launch. What can banks do to: 1) reduce the amount of charge-offs and 2) reduce the spikiness of when they happen?

Recommended Capital One Case Interview Resources

Here are the resources we recommend to learn the most robust, effective case interview strategies in the least time-consuming way:

• Comprehensive Case Interview Course (our #1 recommendation): The only resource you need. Whether you have no business background, rusty math skills, or are short on time, this step-by-step course will transform you into a top 1% caser that lands multiple consulting offers.
• Hacking the Case Interview Book   (available on Amazon): Perfect for beginners that are short on time. Transform yourself from a stressed-out case interview newbie to a confident intermediate in under a week. Some readers finish this book in a day and can already tackle tough cases.
• The Ultimate Case Interview Workbook (available on Amazon): Perfect for intermediates struggling with frameworks, case math, or generating business insights. No need to find a case partner – these drills, practice problems, and full-length cases can all be done by yourself.
• Case Interview Coaching : Personalized, one-on-one coaching with former consulting interviewers
• Behavioral & Fit Interview Course : Be prepared for 98% of behavioral and fit questions in just a few hours. We'll teach you exactly how to draft answers that will impress your interviewer
• Resume Review & Editing : Transform your resume into one that will get you multiple interviews

Learn Case Interviews 10x Faster

Complete, step-by-step case interview course. 30,000+ happy customers.

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Home should be a place for social activities that satisfy both physical and social needs. Real estate developers in Jeddah currently show little consideration for cultural and social patterns of users in residential interior layouts. Therefore, this study aims to investigate apartments released by real estate developers in Jeddah from users’ perspectives. Qualitative and quantitative approaches are applied through in-depth interviews with 21 participants. The interviews investigate participants’ satisfaction, desire to make changes, reasons for making changes, and reasons for not making changes. This study finds that the majority of participants want to make changes to the layout of their homes owing to social activities. The SPSS analysis shows that most participants are less satisfied with the home layouts of RED than homes that are self-built, with a statistical significance of P = 0.002. This study recommends that RED companies should consider open spaces when designing apartments for sale so as to allow users to divide the interior layouts of reception and living zones according to their needs. In order to achieve this by RED, the study recommends more study by electrical engineer for electricity switches location, architects for window location, and construction engineers for column arrangement.

Article Highlights

This study investigates satisfaction with apartments bought in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia.

The study discusses finding in comparison between self-builder and Real estate- developer.

The study conducts 21 interviews with residents and applies a mixed qualitative– quantitative approach for the analysis.

The study discussed privacy, safety and room size or layout as factors for making changes.

In this study a self-builder refers to an owner who deals with a contractor to build a home on their land.

RED refers to Real estate developers

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1 Introduction

Home is the most important place for all people, as it is where they perform most of their activities, such as sleeping, eating, relaxing, cooking, and working. In the Middle East, major, economic and social changes have occurred over the last 10 years, with major shifts in the cities of most countries [ 1 ]. As a result, noticeable changes in economy and culture have occurred, reflecting people’s behaviors and lifestyles, including those related to housing [ 2 ]. Based on these changes, the Saudi 2030 vision aims to increase the number of Saudis who own homes, a common dream in Saudi Arabia [ 3 ].

Many studies have discussed the provision of affordable housing design. They have highlighted insufficient housing as a major issue in many countries [ 4 , 5 ]. For instance, Mulliner and Algrnas [ 6 ] investigated whether housing design fulfill residents’ need and results in housing satisfaction. Ali [ 7 ] argued that home design quality requires further investigation. Other studies, stated that professionals do not focus on thermal comfort or sustainability as much as they care about finishing, building quality, internal layout, and design [ 4 , 8 ]. Meanwhile, many studies have asserted that internal layout and residents’ needs at home are not considered in current design in different countries [ 4 , 5 , 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 ]. In Saudi Arabia, public-private partnership is established to increase the involvement of private sector in order to help in financing and providing affordable house [ 13 ].

2 Factors influencing home purchases

Al-Nahdi, Nyakwende [ 11 ] studied the factors that influence the purchase of homes in Saudi Arabia. He asserts that attitude, subjective norms, perceived behavioral control, and finance are the major factors guiding Saudi consumers to purchase real estate. Many studies agree that attitude is a major factor influencing people ’s home [ 11 , 14 , 15 ]. Attitude is defined as a person favoring or disfavoring an action [ 16 ]. It is also defined as the way in which a person reacts to an object [ 17 ]. Therefore, customers compare the available service with what they expect; if they feel that the provided service does not meet their expectations, it would dissatisfy them. However, if customers meet their expectations and feel satisfied, they purchase from a service provider [ 18 ]. This is in line with [ 19 ], who asserted that purchasers’ feelings are a factor affecting those who buy prefabricated houses. This indicates that the psychological mechanisms underpinning human needs must be considered in home design to fulfill essential human needs [ 20 ]. Meanwhile, many studies have discussed how cultural values and changes in social lifestyles affect people’s preferences for home [ 21 , 22 ] as home reflects social changes [ 2 ].

2.1 Society and culture

Some studies have claimed that a residence is an image that shows the connection between the built environment and cultural values. Therefore, the residence is a window that shows the relationship between culture and the built environment according, create community identity[ 23 ].

This does not end as a building face; it also continues to the interior layout as culture can be recognized from the home layout [ 24 ]. The interior Layout of a residence is a major indicator of its culture and lifestyle [ 22 , 25 ]. Shehab and Kandar [ 21 ] found a strong relationship between home layouts and social changes in Jordan. According to Yazdanfar and Naserdoost [ 26 ] homes are places where people perform their social activities, but there is a noticeable ignorance of the behavioral, cultural, and residential patterns of users in the contemporary design construction industry. Many studies have discussed the relationship between the home and sociocultural values that affect user activities. These factors vary from social norms, cultural values, lifestyles, social status, social network, hospitality, gender segregation, safety, and privacy [2, 9, 21, 22, 24, 25].

The governments of some countries, such as Nigeria, have started to encourage optimal housing design to accommodate user preferences, leading to the production of homes that consider the sociocultural attributes of residence [ 27 ]. According to Mnea and Zairul [ 4 ] architectural design that fulfills social needs in Saudi Arabia is called “ socially based design, ” as many studies have confirmed the importance of home, health, and social factors that reflect home design housing [ 4 , 28 ]. Abed, Obeidat [ 12 ] found that sociocultural factors play a major role in residents’ satisfaction and unit layout transformation. The author asserts that sociocultural factors lead people to change their home layouts. The four main reasons for layout transformation are gender segregation, privacy, social networking, and safety. The quantitative and qualitative analyses in this study revealed that privacy is a major social factor in the internal layout.

The issue of privacy has been addressed in many studies, as it plays a major role in spatial design. It is one of the reasons why residents change their interior layout after renting or buying a home [ 2 , 9 ]. Although privacy is important to all humans, it is highly connected to religion and culture in the Middle East [ 29 , 30 , 31 ].

2.2 Layout transformation

Layout transformation differs from rearrangement. rearrangement changes the color of walls or furniture. Meanwhile, structural transformations, such as breaking or adding walls, result in home layout transformation, which can occur over time in a series of processes [ 32 ] . Others have defined residential layout changes as the process of expanding or modifying interior or exterior layout arrangements. These changes can occur in small or large parts of a home, leading to structural changes. This is done for various reasons such as social, growth, and self-expression [ 33 ]. Similarly, Makachia [ 34 ], van Griethuijsen [ 35 ] concurred that this transformation is a result of the physical, behavioral, and cultural needs of residents. Therefore, understanding residents’ social and physical needs helps create relationships between the motivational factors for users and the housing layout. According to Abed, Obeidat [ 12 ] layout transformation is a common phenomenon that require s” identification in terms of cause and effect ”.

Other studies have discussed cultural changes and home layouts in the Western and Eastern regions [ 2 , 12 , 24 , 31 ]. Additionally, Rapoport [ 36 ] states that home layouts can be supportive or disruptive of residents’ social and cultural needs. Therefore, changes in culture

should be considered in housing design, as it is an important determinant of residents’ satisfaction [ 22 ]. Coming along with Farhat and Alaeddine [ 37 ] claimed that respect for users’ needs should be considered in many aspects, including psychological and economic aspects. Privacy is considered a major psychological and physical aspect affecting residents’ comfort. Privacy is either visual or physical and is a major part of cultural and religious beliefs [ 2 , 30 , 31 ]. This is in line with other studies that have found that ignoring cultural needs, such as privacy, leads to residents’ dissatisfaction and making changes in their home layout [ 2 , 12 ]. Privacy requires gender segregation between the same family or between the family and guests [ 2 , 12 , 31 , 38 ]. Tomah, Ismail [ 29 ] assessed home layouts in Amman to discover how new domestic designs affect users’ privacy in their homes. He analyzed different home layouts in terms of privacy and functional zones. This study found that the number of zones and privacy increased in the homes. He asserted that there is a real need to study different space layouts to achieve a high level of privacy, which will result in an increase in the quality of life.

Avogo [ 39 ] highlighted that transforming the layout of public homes is an essential part of human life. In the same context, a study by Obeidat, Abed [ 9 ] highlighted the importance of creating levels of flexibility in public residential layouts. He asserted that if architects consider residents' satisfaction and spatial flexibility in their design, they can help stakeholders understand these points during the planning and design stages. Minami [ 10 ] investigated layout changes in different types of apartments in Japan and found that the room layout changed in most cases to increase the size of living rooms or private rooms. He also found that most layout changes occur after children become older and leave home. They moved the partitioning wall to separate the two rooms to adapt to the changing needs of the residents. Similarly, Agyefi-Mensah S [ 40 ] asserted that most residents modified their home layout after moving home to fulfill their needs.

The concept of flexibility in home design involves creating movable parts or open plans [ 41 ]. For example, in traditional Malay housing, social and religious values are reflected through the application of spatial flexibility. Flexibility refers to an open plan with fewer walls and boundaries to create open spaces [ 42 ]. Flexible domestic practices provide an opportunity for users to participate in their home design, such as arranging their living areas according to their needs and life changes. This indicates that flexible housing helps users develop a sense of belonging to their living space, as they can adapt it according to their different demands [ 41 ].

Studies have investigated the concept of layout transformation from a historical perspective, such as [ 2 ] or from socioeconomic, cost, and price policies [ 3 ]. Other studies in Japan, Jordon investigated the phenomena of home layout transformation according to their culture needs [ 9 , 10 , 24 ]. Despite the importance of such studies, little attention has been paid to home layout transformations in Saudi Arabia. Mohanna [ 43 ]studies housing preferences across Saudi Arabia in Dammam. The study found that of the three types of homes–villas, detached duplexes, and semi-detached duplexes–detached duplexes are most preferred for nuclear families. However, the statistics show that apartments are the most purchased type of residence in Jeddah. Therefore, this study focuses on home layout transformation, particularly in Jeddah City, which is the second most important city in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. In addition, the

city has faced a boom in apartments designed by real-estate developers over the last 10 years. The high cost of houses in Jeddah has led people to buy apartments.

2.3 Domestics in Jeddah

Jeddah City is located on the west coast of Saudi Arabia and experiences hot and humid weather [ 44 ]. It is the second largest urban area and an important commercial center in the Kingdom [ 45 ]. The Population in Jeddah has grown rapidly over the last 10 years, reaching an estimated 3,712,917 million. The number of people who owned apartments in Jeddah was 109, 870, and 39,464, respectively. Meanwhile, the number of people who own a house is 65,184 and 24, 426 rent a house [ 46 ]. This shows that Apartment is more preferred by people in Jeddah even if they dream of owning a house due to high cost of living [ 47 ]. This made the release of apartments a trend in Jeddah City, as finance is a major factor affecting customers’ decisions when purchasing housing. Similarly, Paço [ 48 ] claims that finance is sometimes the most influential purchaser decision when buying a home. In Saudi Arabia, most reports assert high demand in the real estate market for real estate units, especially residences, write the number of home needs [ 49 ]. To help Saudis own their homes by providing funds. This fund is called the Real Estate Development Fund (REDF). It reached 500, 000 SR with no interest. The condition for this fund, which takes a maximum of 25 years to return, is to be above 21 years old and did not receive the fund before, so it was once per life. However, people seek homes that fulfill their needs; therefore, it is important to investigate the factors guiding people to buy a home in the Saudi market [ 11 ]. Therefore, this study aims to investigate satisfaction with apartments bought in Jeddah from users’ perception in relation to type of builder either self-builder and Real estate-developer as little studies have been conducted to discuss this subject. In order to fulfill this gap in Knowledge, the study conducted 21 interviews with residents and apply a mixed qualitative– quantitative approach to analyze reasons for making changes in home is such as privacy, safety, and room size or layout, and obstacles for not making changes.

3 Methodology

This study applied a mixed-method qualitative and quantitative approach to investigate participants’ satisfaction with their purchased apartments. It also discusses participants’ desire to make changes and reasons for making changes or for not being able to make them. Face-to-face, in-depth, semi-structured interviews were conducted with space owners (only females). Spatial architecture plans of the participants' apartments were discussed through interviews to help them discuss the issues in the apartment plan; however, most plans could not be displayed here, as most participants requested.

3.1 Interviews

The research explained study objectives, aim, and role of participants in the study. A verbal consent upon starting interview was obtained from all participants. The researcher conducted in- depth semi-structured interviews with 21 residents who owned apartments in Jeddah to collect the data required for the study. The interview questions were presented in Arabic because most

participants spoke Arabic only. All Interviews were conducted face-to-face, and the participants brought a printed copy of the apartment floor plan. The interviews lasted 30–45 min. The aim of these interviews was to understand why residents changed the layout of their apartments either before or after they lived in it. NVivi 12 software was used to analyze the data and identify the main points from the participants’ discussions. Interviews were conducted after obtaining permission from participants. the following axes are addressed:

First axis: Demographic questions, gender, age, family members, and type of home.

Second axes: years living in the apartments, type of builder.

Third axes: satisfaction with the apartments.

Fourth axis: The three major factors for layout transformation are privacy, safety, room size, and flat layout.

Fifth axes: obstacle that stops them from making the change.

A previous study discussed the reasons for layout changes, such as privacy, safety, hospitality, and social values, as shown in Table 1 . The reasons discussed in this study are safety, privacy, room size, and flat layout.

3.2 Study sample

A total of 21 female were interviewed to represent the study sample. Table 2 organizes participants according to their demographic information, age, family members, and type of home.

3.3 Data analysis

Analysis of the interview transcript theme organization was performed using NVivo 12. NVivo helps the researcher to categorize, count, and organize the number of participants who discussed certain themes or gave similar answers. The analysis was performed in five steps as shown in Fig. 1 . First, participants were asked whether they were self-builders or real estate developers. It discussed the participants’ desire to make changes (whether they did or did not). Subsequently, the changes made by the participants and the reasons for these changes were analyzed. Subsequently, we discuss the reasons for these changes. It is important to highlight whether these changes were related to the type of builder used. Also, the author’s observation of current floor plans for RED that is for sale is analyzed.

Source: Author (2024)

Steps of data analysis.

3.4 Statistical analysis

To support the interview findings, a statistical analysis of the 21 participants was performed to determine whether the type of builder or years of living in the flat created any significant differences in terms of the need for layout transformation or participants’ satisfaction. SPSS software was used to perform statistical analysis (version 27). A chi-square test was used to examine the participants’ satisfaction and type of builder or years of living in the flat, which resulted in any significant differences needed for layout transformation. The data presented in the results are frequencies. Statistical significance was set at be statistically significant.

4 Results and discussion

4.1 type of builder.

Table 3 illustrates that the majority of participants (6%) had bought their homes in the last 5 years through a real estate development company. Only 47% of participants had self-built. It is important to note that 28% participant out of 47% owned a home 10 years previously. This indicates that real estate developers were more likely to be major sellers in the last 5 years. It was also found that the most common age for buying a home was 40 years and older. This could be because time was needed to save money, as participants mentioned. It is also found that 13 out of 21 own home in east and south zone of Jeddah. This is because homes in these zones are less expensive than those in the northern or western zones of the city. This is in line with the two most influential factors affecting buyer decisions to own a house: location and price (Nowilaty and Saci [ 50 ]). Finance is a strong factor affecting home purchases in Saudi Arabia [ 11 ].

4.2 Layout transformation

Previous studies have revealed that the lack of sociocultural considerations in designing houses’ internal layouts limits residents’ satisfaction [ 2 , 22 , 30 ]. Users change their residential interior layout in public housing because of a lack of flexibility [ 51 ]. Other studies have revealed that gender segregation and privacy are two major factors for layout transformations in residence [ 9 , 12 ]. Previous studies have discussed reasons for layout changes, including privacy, safety, hospitality, and social values [ 9 , 12 ]. Safety affects housing layout, as it makes residents cover balconies and add new entrances [ 12 ].

In this study, Fig. 2 shows compares the desire to make changes in relation to years of residence and type of builder. The majority of participants (50%) who bought homes from real estate developers wanted to make up to four changes within less than 5 years of living. Meanwhile, only 20% participants who had built their own homes wanted to make changes. Fig. 3 Privacy was the main reason, with 63% citing this as the reason for changes, followed by apartment layout and room size (44%) and safety (40%). Participants discussed that the room size is much larger if it is built by a self-builder, especially before 10 years. Regarding safety, Fig. 4 illustrates that 45% of participants claimed that in real estate developer apartments, windows had no safety iron on the outside to protect children, as in the past for self-built homes. Furthermore, an open kitchen was an issue for 31% of participants, as they found that it was not safe for children. In addition to safety, Fig. 5 shows that,18% of participants found that open kitchens were not private if there were guests.

Reasons for making changes.

Number of changes participants want to make at their home in relation to years of residence and type of builder.

Safety issues in participants home design.

Privacy issues with participants’ home design.

In the last 5 years, flat layout and room size have decreased. This is in line with Minami [ 10 ], who found that in Japan, residents change their home layout to increase the size of living rooms or private rooms. In align with Minami, observation in this study indicates that breaking walls to make one large room from two rooms was a common change among the participants. Participants made this change in the reception and dining rooms. Table 4 shows the observation of architectural and constructional Issues at participants' floor plan. It highlights that distance between two columns is small, which will not help if residence want to open two rooms to become one big room. It also shows that the number of doors can be an issue when arranging furniture. Additionally, big façade window with no safe balcony for cleaning needs more study by architects. One of the most important observations that roof apartments do not have big window for view, which is also recommended by residences. Hence, the internal design does not provide enough space for domestic Worker room, storage spaces for machines such as Vacuum, and laundry room. Bedroom must have enough space for closet to store clothes. Therefore, Specialists in designing interior spaces must intervene in the design, meaning that the plans can be presented as competitions in architecture colleges in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia to come up with the best design that is compatible with the needs of the Saudi family.

The SPSS analysis in Table 5 shows the main causes of the changes in houses. Among safety, privacy, and number of rooms, only privacy was statistically significant (P=0.02). For individuals who made changes in their houses, privacy scored the lowest at 2.8± 1.6 whereas for individuals who did not apply changes, privacy scored higher at 4.2±1.1.

4.3 Data presented as mean and stander division

Table 6 presents the relationships between satisfaction, years of living, and type of builder. General satisfaction was not related to years of living or the type of builder. A statistical significant correlation was observed between satisfaction with distribution and type of builder, where individuals who bought their homes from real estate developers had a lower satisfaction score of 1.8± 1.2 compared with self-builders, who scored 3.9± 1.3 (P=0.002).

4.4 Reasons for not making changes

As Al-Nahdi, Nyakwende [ 11 ], Paço [ 48 ], Abd Rahman, Sulong [ 52 ] showed, finance is the main reason users buy houses or flats. This study found that financial reasons were a major reason for not making changes in the participants’ homes after purchasing, as shown in Fig. 6 . This indicates that 59% of participants claimed that they could not make changes because of financial reasons. Then, 50% cited building rules for making external changes, such as making a balcony because a window was large and could not be cleaned from the outside, necessitating a small balcony. Time and leaving home were cited least often as the reasons at 27% and 13%, respectively.

Reasons for not making changes.

The SPSS analysis in Table 7 represents the barriers to not making changes to the house. Although there were no statistically significant differences between individuals who made changes and those who did not (P>0.05), the financial barriers for not making changes scored highest at 4.2±1.4, followed by building rules 4±1.6, going out 3±1.6, and time 2.6±1.5.

5 Conclusion

The Saudi 2030 vision aims to increase the number of Saudis who own home, a common dream in Saudi Arabia [ 3 ]. This makes home ownership an important investment for Saudi families, as most people spend a considerable amount of time at home. Thus, home design should consider residents’ needs [ 12 ]. Mulliner and Algrnas [ 6 ] investigated whether housing design fulfills residents’ needs and results in housing satisfaction. Ali [ 7 ] argued that home design quality requires further investigation. Meanwhile, many studies have asserted that internal layout and residents’ needs at home are not considered in the current design of homes in different countries [ 4 , 5 , 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 ]. In aligned with the above studies, this study revealed that participants; needs should be considered by real estate developers in Jeddah. This study discussed participants’ need for layout transformation in their own apartments in Jeddah. A qualitative approach was employed to conduct interviews with 21 female residents. The study found that the majority of participants wanted to make changes to their homes owing to considerations of privacy, safety, and room size or layout. However, this is another expense on top of the high cost of buying a home. The study found that financial reasons were the main reasons constraining the study participants from making changes to their homes. Residents were not fully satisfied with the layout of most apartments designed for sale in Jeddah. The were differences in satisfaction of house distribution between homes bought from real estate developers and self-built homes, where self-builders were more satisfied than those who bought from real estate developers.

In Conclusion, it is important to highlight that this study is only limited to on city, which is Jeddah. Further studies need to be conducted in different cities of Saudi Arabia. Also, the study recommends that real estate development companies should consider open spaces in the design of apartments for sale to allow users to divide the interior layouts of reception and living zones according to their needs.

6 Recommendations

This study also recommends Stakeholders more survey about open space sale apartments.

Further research by construction engineers to study column arrangement, as this is one of the obstacles to making changes.

Study by electrical engineers is recommended as switches location for open space is important.

Availability of data and materials

Data are available upon reasonable request from corresponding author.

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The author would like to thank all participants for their participation in the study.

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Alaa M. Shatwan

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Shatwan, A.M. Real estate developments in residential architecture: a case study of Jeddah. J. Umm Al-Qura Univ. Eng.Archit. (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s43995-024-00059-z

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Received : 12 February 2024

Accepted : 31 March 2024

Published : 08 May 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s43995-024-00059-z

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