what is the memory essay

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• How Memory Works

Memory is the ongoing process of information retention over time. Because it makes up the very framework through which we make sense of and take action within the present, its importance goes without saying. But how exactly does it work? And how can teachers apply a better understanding of its inner workings to their own teaching? In light of current research in cognitive science, the very, very short answer to these questions is that memory operates according to a "dual-process," where more unconscious, more routine thought processes (known as "System 1") interact with more conscious, more problem-based thought processes (known as "System 2"). At each of these two levels, in turn, there are the processes through which we "get information in" (encoding), how we hold on to it (storage), and and how we "get it back out" (retrieval or recall). With a basic understanding of how these elements of memory work together, teachers can maximize student learning by knowing how much new information to introduce, when to introduce it, and how to sequence assignments that will both reinforce the retention of facts (System 1) and build toward critical, creative thinking (System 2).

Dual-Process Theory

Think back to a time when you learned a new skill, such as driving a car, riding a bicycle, or reading. When you first learned this skill, performing it was an active process in which you analyzed and were acutely aware of every movement you made. Part of this analytical process also meant that you thought carefully about why you were doing what you were doing, to understand how these individual steps fit together as a comprehensive whole. However, as your ability improved, performing the skill stopped being a cognitively-demanding process, instead becoming more intuitive. As you continue to master the skill, you can perform other, at times more intellectually-demanding, tasks simultaneously. Due to your knowledge of this skill or process being unconscious, you could, for example, solve an unrelated complex problem or make an analytical decision while completing it.

In its simplest form, the scenario above is an example of what psychologists call dual-process theory. The term “dual-process” refers to the idea that some behaviors and cognitive processes (such as decision-making) are the products of two distinct cognitive processes, often called System 1 and System 2 (Kaufmann, 2011:443-445). While System 1 is characterized by automatic, unconscious thought, System 2 is characterized by effortful, analytical, intentional thought (Osman, 2004:989).

Dual-Process Theories and Learning

How do System 1 and System 2 thinking relate to teaching and learning? In an educational context, System 1 is associated with memorization and recall of information, while System 2 describes more analytical or critical thinking. Memory and recall, as a part of System 1 cognition, are focused on in the rest of these notes.

As mentioned above, System 1 is characterized by its fast, unconscious recall of previously-memorized information. Classroom activities that would draw heavily on System 1 include memorized multiplication tables, as well as multiple-choice exam questions that only need exact regurgitation from a source such as a textbook. These kinds of tasks do not require students to actively analyze what is being asked of them beyond reiterating memorized material. System 2 thinking becomes necessary when students are presented with activities and assignments that require them to provide a novel solution to a problem, engage in critical thinking, or apply a concept outside of the domain in which it was originally presented.  

It may be tempting to think of learning beyond the primary school level as being all about System 2, all the time. However, it’s important to keep in mind that successful System 2 thinking depends on a lot of System 1 thinking to operate. In other words, critical thinking requires a lot of memorized knowledge and intuitive, automatic judgments to be performed quickly and accurately.

How does Memory Work?

In its simplest form, memory refers to the continued process of information retention over time. It is an integral part of human cognition, since it allows individuals to recall and draw upon past events to frame their understanding of and behavior within the present. Memory also gives individuals a framework through which to make sense of the present and future. As such, memory plays a crucial role in teaching and learning. There are three main processes that characterize how memory works. These processes are encoding, storage, and retrieval (or recall).

• Encoding . Encoding refers to the process through which information is learned. That is, how information is taken in, understood, and altered to better support storage (which you will look at in Section 3.1.2). Information is usually encoded through one (or more) of four methods: (1) Visual encoding (how something looks); (2) acoustic encoding (how something sounds); (3) semantic encoding (what something means); and (4) tactile encoding (how something feels). While information typically enters the memory system through one of these modes, the form in which this information is stored may differ from its original, encoded form (Brown, Roediger, & McDaniel, 2014).

• Retrieval . As indicated above, retrieval is the process through which individuals access stored information. Due to their differences, information stored in STM and LTM are retrieved differently. While STM is retrieved in the order in which it is stored (for example, a sequential list of numbers), LTM is retrieved through association (for example, remembering where you parked your car by returning to the entrance through which you accessed a shopping mall) (Roediger & McDermott, 1995).

Improving Recall

Retrieval is subject to error, because it can reflect a reconstruction of memory. This reconstruction becomes necessary when stored information is lost over time due to decayed retention. In 1885, Hermann Ebbinghaus conducted an experiment in which he tested how well individuals remembered a list of nonsense syllables over increasingly longer periods of time. Using the results of his experiment, he created what is now known as the “Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve” (Schaefer, 2015).

Through his research, Ebbinghaus concluded that the rate at which your memory (of recently learned information) decays depends both on the time that has elapsed following your learning experience as well as how strong your memory is. Some degree of memory decay is inevitable, so, as an educator, how do you reduce the scope of this memory loss? The following sections answer this question by looking at how to improve recall within a learning environment, through various teaching and learning techniques.

As a teacher, it is important to be aware of techniques that you can use to promote better retention and recall among your students. Three such techniques are the testing effect, spacing, and interleaving.

• The testing effect . In most traditional educational settings, tests are normally considered to be a method of periodic but infrequent assessment that can help a teacher understand how well their students have learned the material at hand. However, modern research in psychology suggests that frequent, small tests are also one of the best ways to learn in the first place. The testing effect refers to the process of actively and frequently testing memory retention when learning new information. By encouraging students to regularly recall information they have recently learned, you are helping them to retain that information in long-term memory, which they can draw upon at a later stage of the learning experience (Brown, Roediger, & McDaniel, 2014). As secondary benefits, frequent testing allows both the teacher and the student to keep track of what a student has learned about a topic, and what they need to revise for retention purposes. Frequent testing can occur at any point in the learning process. For example, at the end of a lecture or seminar, you could give your students a brief, low-stakes quiz or free-response question asking them to remember what they learned that day, or the day before. This kind of quiz will not just tell you what your students are retaining, but will help them remember more than they would have otherwise.
• Spacing.  According to the spacing effect, when a student repeatedly learns and recalls information over a prolonged time span, they are more likely to retain that information. This is compared to learning (and attempting to retain) information in a short time span (for example, studying the day before an exam). As a teacher, you can foster this approach to studying in your students by structuring your learning experiences in the same way. For example, instead of introducing a new topic and its related concepts to students in one go, you can cover the topic in segments over multiple lessons (Brown, Roediger, & McDaniel, 2014).
• Interleaving.  The interleaving technique is another teaching and learning approach that was introduced as an alternative to a technique known as “blocking”. Blocking refers to when a student practices one skill or one topic at a time. Interleaving, on the other hand, is when students practice multiple related skills in the same session. This technique has proven to be more successful than the traditional blocking technique in various fields (Brown, Roediger, & McDaniel, 2014).

As useful as it is to know which techniques you can use, as a teacher, to improve student recall of information, it is also crucial for students to be aware of techniques they can use to improve their own recall. This section looks at four of these techniques: state-dependent memory, schemas, chunking, and deliberate practice.

• State-dependent memory . State-dependent memory refers to the idea that being in the same state in which you first learned information enables you to better remember said information. In this instance, “state” refers to an individual’s surroundings, as well as their mental and physical state at the time of learning (Weissenborn & Duka, 2000). 
• Schemas.  Schemas refer to the mental frameworks an individual creates to help them understand and organize new information. Schemas act as a cognitive “shortcut” in that they allow individuals to interpret new information quicker than when not using schemas. However, schemas may also prevent individuals from learning pertinent information that falls outside the scope of the schema that has been created. It is because of this that students should be encouraged to alter or reanalyze their schemas, when necessary, when they learn important information that may not confirm or align with their existing beliefs and conceptions of a topic.
• Chunking.  Chunking is the process of grouping pieces of information together to better facilitate retention. Instead of recalling each piece individually, individuals recall the entire group, and then can retrieve each item from that group more easily (Gobet et al., 2001).
• Deliberate practice.  The final technique that students can use to improve recall is deliberate practice. Simply put, deliberate practice refers to the act of deliberately and actively practicing a skill with the intention of improving understanding of and performance in said skill. By encouraging students to practice a skill continually and deliberately (for example, writing a well-structured essay), you will ensure better retention of that skill (Brown et al., 2014).

For more information...

Brown, P.C., Roediger, H.L. & McDaniel, M.A. 2014.  Make it stick: The science of successful learning . Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Gobet, F., Lane, P.C., Croker, S., Cheng, P.C., Jones, G., Oliver, I. & Pine, J.M. 2001. Chunking mechanisms in human learning.  Trends in Cognitive Sciences . 5(6):236-243.

Kaufman, S.B. 2011. Intelligence and the cognitive unconscious. In  The Cambridge handbook of intelligence . R.J. Sternberg & S.B. Kaufman, Eds. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.

Osman, M. 2004. An evaluation of dual-process theories of reasoning. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review . 11(6):988-1010.

Roediger, H.L. & McDermott, K.B. 1995. Creating false memories: Remembering words not presented in lists.  Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition . 21(4):803.

Schaefer, P. 2015. Why Google has forever changed the forgetting curve at work.

Weissenborn, R. & Duka, T. 2000. State-dependent effects of alcohol on explicit memory: The role of semantic associations.  Psychopharmacology . 149(1):98-106.

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Psychology Discussion

Essay on memory: (meaning and types).

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Read this Comprehensive Essay on Memory: Meaning, Nature and Types of Memory !

Meaning and Nature :

Memory is one of the important cognitive processes. Memory involves remembering and forgetting.

These are like two faces of a coin. Though these two are opposed to each other by nature, they play an important role in the life of an individual.

Remembering the pleasant experiences makes living happy, and on the other hand remembering unpleasant experiences makes living unhappy and miserable. So here forgetting helps individual to forget unwanted and unpleasant experiences and memories and keeps him happy.

In this way, remembering the pleasant and forgetting the- unpleasant both are essential for normal living. In the case of learners, remembering is very important, because without memory there would be no learning.

If learning has to progress, remembering of what is already learnt is indispensable, otherwise every time the learner has to start from the beginning.

The memory is defined as ‘the power to store experiences and to bring them into the field of consciousness sometime after the experience has occurred’. Our mind has the power of conserving experiences and mentally receiving them whenever such an activity helps the onward progress of the life cycle.

The conserved experience has a unity, an organisation of its own and it colours our present experience.

However, as stated above we have a notion that memory is a single process, but an analysis of it reveals involvement of three different activities- learning, retention and remembering.

This is the first stage of memory. Learning may be by any of the methods like imitation, verbal, motor, conceptual, trial and error, insight, etc. Hence, whatever may be the type of learning; we must pay our attention to retain what is learnt. A good learning is necessary for better retention.

Retention is the process of retaining in mind what is learnt or experienced in the past. The learnt material must be retained in order to make progress in our learning. Psychologists are of the opinion that the learnt material will be retained in the brain in the form of neural traces called ‘memory traces’, or ‘engrams’, or ‘neurograms’.

When good learning takes place –clear engrams are formed, so that they remain for long time and can be remembered by activation of these traces whenever necessary.

Remembering:

It is the process of bringing back the stored or retained information to the conscious level. This may be understood by activities such as recalling, recognising, relearning and reconstruction.

Recalling is the process of reproducing the past experiences that are not present. For example, recalling answers in the examination hall.

Recognising:

It is to recognise a person seen earlier, or the original items seen earlier, from among the items of the same class or category which they are mixed-up.

Relearning:

Relearning is also known as saving method. Because we measure retention in terms of saving in the number of repetition or the time required to relearn the assignment. The difference between the amount of time or trials required for original learning and the one required for relearning indicates the amount of retention.

Reconstruction:

Reconstruction is otherwise called rearrangement. Here the material to learn will be presented in a particular order and then the items will be jumbled up or shuffled thoroughly and presented to the individual to rearrange them in the original order in which it was presented.

Types of Memory :

There are five kinds of memory. These are classified on the basis of rates of decay of the information.

a. Sensory memory:

In this kind of memory, the information received by the sense organs will remain there for a very short period like few seconds. For example, the image on the screen of a TV may appear to be in our eyes for a fraction of time even when it is switched off, or the voice of a person will be tingling in our ears even after the voice is ceased.

b. Short-term memory (STM):

According to many studies, in STM the memory remains in our conscious and pre-conscious level for less than 30 seconds. Later on this will be transferred to long-term memory.

c. Long-term memory (LTM):

LTM has the unlimited capacity to store information which may remain for days, months, years or lifetime.

d. Eidetic memory:

It is otherwise called photographic memory in which the individual can remember a scene or an event in a photographic detail.

e. Episodic memory:

This is otherwise called semantic memory which is connected with episodes of events. The events are stored in the form of episodes and recalled fully in the manner of a sequence.

Related Articles:

• 11 Factors that Influence Memory Process in Humans
• 7 Main Factors that Influence Retention Power | Memory | Psychology
• Essay on Forgetting: Causes and Theories
• Memory Types: 3 Main Types of Memory | Remembering | Psychology

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What Is Memory?

How memories help us

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Daniel B. Block, MD, is an award-winning, board-certified psychiatrist who operates a private practice in Pennsylvania.

Fabio / Getty Images

• Organization

Why We Forget

How to improve memory.

• How to Protect Memory

Memory refers to the psychological processes of acquiring, storing, retaining, and later retrieving information. There are three major processes involved in memory: encoding, storage, and retrieval.

Human memory involves the ability to both preserve and recover information. However, this is not a flawless process. Sometimes people forget or misremember things. Other times, information is not properly encoded in memory in the first place.

Memory problems are often relatively minor annoyances, like forgetting birthdays. However, they can also be a sign of serious conditions such as Alzheimer's disease  and other kinds of dementia . These conditions affect quality of life and ability to function.

This article discusses how memories are formed and why they are sometimes forgotten. It also covers the different types of memory and steps you can take to both improve and protect your memory.

How Memories Are Formed

In order to create a new memory, information must be changed into a usable form, which occurs through a process known as encoding . Once the information has been successfully encoded, it must be stored in memory for later use.

Researchers have long believed that memories form due to changes in brain neurons (nerve cells). Our understanding today is that memories are created through the connections that exist between these neurons—either by strengthening these connections or through the growth of new connections.

Changes in the connections between nerve cells (known as synapses ) are associated with the learning and retention of new information. Strengthening these connections helps commit information to memory.

This is why reviewing and rehearsing information improves the ability to remember it. Practice strengthens the connections between the synapses that store that memory.

Much of our stored memory lies outside of our awareness most of the time, except when we actually need to use it. The memory retrieval process allows us to bring stored memories into conscious awareness.

How Long Do Memories Last?

You can't discuss what memory is without also talking about how long memories last. Some memories are very brief, just seconds long, and allow people to take in sensory information about the world.

Short-term memories are a bit longer and last about 20 to 30 seconds. These memories mostly consist of the information people are currently focusing on and thinking about.

Some memories are capable of enduring much longer—lasting days, weeks, months, or even decades. Most of these long-term memories lie outside of immediate awareness but can be drawn into consciousness when needed.

Why Do We Remember Painful Memories?

Have you ever noticed that many times, painful memories tend to hang on for long periods of time? Research suggests that this is because of increased biological arousal during the negative experience, which increases the longevity of that memory.

Using Memory

To use the information that has been encoded into memory, it first has to be retrieved. There are many factors that can influence this process, including the type of information being used and the retrieval cues that are present.

Of course, this process is not always perfect. Have you ever felt like you had the answer to a question just out of your reach, for instance? This is an example of a perplexing memory retrieval issue known as lethologica or the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon.

Organizing Memory

The ability to access and retrieve information from long-term memory allows us to actually use these memories to make decisions, interact with others, and solve problems . But in order to be retrievable, memories have to be organized in some way.

One way of thinking about memory organization is the semantic network model. This model suggests that certain triggers activate associated memories. Seeing or remembering a specific place might activate memories that have occurred in that location.

Thinking about a particular campus building, for example, might trigger memories of attending classes, studying, and socializing with peers.

Certain stimuli can also sometimes act as powerful triggers that draw memories into conscious awareness. Scent is one example. Smelling a particular smell, such as a perfume or fresh-baked cookies, can bring forth a rush of vivid memories connected to people and events from a person's past. 

In order to identify a scent, a person must remember when they have smelled it before, then connect it to visual information that occurred at the same time. So, when areas of the brain connected to memory are damaged, the ability to identify smells is actually impaired.

At the same time, researchers have found that scent can help trigger autobiographical memories in people who have Alzheimer's disease. This underscores just how powerful memories can be.

Types of Memory

While several different models of memory have been proposed, the stage model of memory is often used to explain the basic structure and function of memory. Initially proposed in 1968 by Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin, this theory outlines three separate stages or types of memory : sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.

Sensory Memory

Sensory memory is the earliest stage of memory. During this stage, sensory information from the environment is stored for a very brief period of time, generally for no longer than a half-second for visual information and three or four seconds for auditory information.

People only pay attention to certain aspects of this sensory memory. Attending to sensory memory allows some of this information to pass into the next stage: short-term memory.

Short-Term Memory

Short-term memory, also known as active memory, is the information we are currently aware of or thinking about. In Freudian psychology, this memory would be referred to as the conscious mind . Paying attention to sensory memories generates information in short-term memory.

While many of our short-term memories are quickly forgotten, attending to this information allows it to continue to the next stage: long-term memory. Most of the information stored in active memory will be kept for approximately 20 to 30 seconds.

This capacity can be stretched somewhat by using memory strategies such as chunking , which involves grouping related information into smaller chunks.

The term "short-term memory" is often used interchangeably with "working memory," which refers to the processes that are used to temporarily store, organize, and manipulate information.

In a famous paper published in 1956, psychologist George Miller suggested that the capacity of short-term memory for storing a list of items was somewhere between five and nine. Some memory researchers now believe that the true capacity of short-term memory is probably closer to four.

Long-Term Memory

Long-term memory refers to the continuing storage of information. In Freudian psychology , long-term memory would be called the preconscious and unconscious .

This information is largely outside of our awareness but can be called into working memory to be used when needed. Some memories are fairly easy to recall, while others are much more difficult to access.

One model suggests that there are three main types of memory: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory. Sensory memory is very brief, short-term memory is slightly longer, and long-term memory can last a lifetime.

Forgetting is a surprisingly common event. Just consider how easy it is to forget someone’s name or overlook an important appointment. Why do people so often forget information they have learned in the past?

There are four basic explanations for why forgetting occurs :

• Failure to store a memory
• Interference
• Motivated forgetting
• Retrieval failure

Research has shown that one of the critical factors that influence memory failure is time. Information is often quickly forgotten, particularly if people do not actively review and rehearse the information.

Sometimes information is simply lost from memory and, in other cases, it was never stored correctly in the first place. Some memories compete with one another, making it difficult to remember certain information. In other instances, people actively try to forget things that they simply don’t want to remember.

No matter how great your memory is, there are probably a few things you can do to make it even better. Useful strategies to deal with mild memory loss include:

• Write it down : The act of writing with a pen and paper helps implant the memory into your brain—and can also serve as a reminder or reference later on.
• Attach meaning to it : You can remember something more easily if you attach meaning to it. For instance, if you associate a person you just meet with someone you already know, you may be able to remember their name better.
• Repeat it : Repetition helps the memory become encoded beyond your short-term memory.
• Group it : Information that is categorized becomes easier to remember and recall.
• Test yourself : While it may seem like studying and rehearsing information is the best way to ensure that you will remember it, researchers have found that being tested on information is actually one of the best ways to improve recall .
• Take a mental picture : Systematically trying to make a mental note of things you often forget (such as where you left your car keys) can help you remember things better.
• Get enough rest : Research has also found that sleep plays a critical role in learning and the formation of new memories.
• Use memorization techniques : Rehearsing information, employing mnemonics, and other memorization strategies can help combat minor memory problems.

Using strategies to boost memory can be helpful for recall and retention. By learning how to use these strategies effectively, you can sidestep the faulty areas of your memory and train your brain to function in new ways.

How to Protect Your Memory

While Alzheimer's disease and other age-related memory problems affect many older adults, the loss of memory during later adulthood might not inevitable. Certain abilities do tend to decline with age, but researchers have found that individuals in their 70s often perform just as well on many cognitive tests as those in their 20s.

By the time people reach their 80s, it is common to experience some decline in cognitive function. But some types of memory even increase with age.

To help protect your brain as you age, try some of these lifestyle strategies:

• Avoid stress : Research has found that stress can have detrimental effects on areas of the brain associated with memory, including the hippocampus.
• Avoid drugs, alcohol, and other neurotoxins : Drug use and excessive alcohol consumption have been linked to the deterioration of synapses (the connections between neurons). Exposure to dangerous chemicals such as heavy metals and pesticides can also have detrimental effects on the brain.
• Get enough exercise : Regular physical activity helps improve oxygenation of the brain, which is vital for synaptic formation and growth.
• Stimulate your brain : When it comes to memory, there is a lot of truth to the old adage of "use it or lose it." Researchers have found that people who have more mentally stimulating jobs are less likely to develop dementia.
• Maintain a sense of self-efficacy : Having a strong sense of self-efficacy has been associated with maintaining good memory abilities during old age. Self-efficacy refers to the sense of control that people have over their own lives and destiny. A strong sense of self-efficacy has also been linked to lowered stress levels.

While there is no quick fix for ensuring that your memory stays intact as you age, researchers believe that avoiding stress, leading an active lifestyle, and remaining mentally engaged are important ways to decrease your risk of memory loss.

A Word From Verywell

Human memory is a complex process that researchers are still trying to better understand. Our memories make us who we are, yet the process is not perfect. While we are capable of remembering an astonishing amount of information, we are also susceptible to memory-related mistakes and errors.

National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke. Brain basics: The life and death of a neuron .

Kark S, Kensinger E. Physiological arousal and visuocortical connectivity predict subsequent vividness of negative memories . Neurorep . 2019;30(12):800-804. doi:10.1097/WNR.0000000000001274

Zemla JC, Austerweil JL. Estimating semantic networks of groups and individuals from fluency data .  Comput Brain Behav . 2018;1(1):36-58. doi:10.1007/s42113-018-0003-7

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Glachet O, El Haj M. Emotional and phenomenological properties of odor-evoked autobiographical memories in Alzheimer's disease .  Brain Sci . 2019;9(6):135. doi:10.3390/brainsci9060135

Camina E, Güell F. The neuroanatomical, neurophysiological and psychological basis of memory: Current models and their origins .  Front Pharmacol . 2017;8:438. doi:10.3389/fphar.2017.00438

Norris D. Short-term memory and long-term memory are still different . Psychol Bull . 2017;143(9):992-1009. doi:10.1037/bul0000108

Cowan N. The magical number 4 in short-term memory: a reconsideration of mental storage capacity . Behav Brain Sci . 2001;24(1):87-114. doi:10.1017/s0140525x01003922

Darby K, Sloutsky V. The cost of learning: Interference effects in memory development .  J Exp Psychol Gen . 2015;144(2):410-431. doi:10.1037/xge0000051

Mueller PA, Oppenheimer DM. The pen is mightier than the keyboard: Advantages of longhand over laptop note taking . Psychol Sci . 2014;25(6):1159-68. doi:10.1177/0956797614524581

McEwen BS, Nasca C, Gray JD. Stress effects on neuronal structure: Hippocampus, amygdala, and prefrontal cortex .  Neuropsychopharmacology . 2016;41(1):3-23. doi:10.1038/npp.2015.171

National Institutes of Health. A well-aged mind: Maintaining your cognitive health .

Goodman J, Packard MG. Memory systems and the addicted brain . Front Psychiatry . 2016;7. doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2016.00024

Mandolesi L, Polverino A, Montuori S, et al. Effects of physical exercise on cognitive functioning and wellbeing: Biological and psychological benefits .  Front Psychol . 2018;9:509. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00509

Kivimäki M, Walker KA, Pentti J, et al. Cognitive stimulation in the workplace, plasma proteins, and risk of dementia: three analyses of population cohort studies . BMJ . 2021;n1804. doi:10.1136/bmj.n1804

Beaudoin M, Desrichard O. Memory self-efficacy and memory performance in older adults: the mediating role of task persistence . Swiss J Psychol . 2017;76(1):23-33. doi:10.1024/1421-0185/a000188

Schönfeld P, Brailovskaia J, Zhang XC, Margraf J. Self-efficacy as a mechanism linking daily stress to mental health in students: a three-wave cross-lagged study . Psychol Rep . 2019;122(6):2074-2095. doi:10.1177/0033294118787496

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

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Memory: from the laboratory to everyday life

Daniel l. schacter.

Department of Psychology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA

One of the key goals of memory research is to develop a basic understanding of the nature and characteristics of memory processes and systems. Another important goal is to develop useful applications of basic research to everyday life. This editorial considers two lines of work that illustrate some of the prospects for applying memory research to everyday life: interpolated quizzing to enhance learning in educational settings, and specificity training to enhance memory and associated functions in individuals who have difficulties remembering details of their past experiences.

The study of memory lias progressed rapidly over the past few decades, and as illustrated by the papers in the current issue, it remains a thriving endeavor with many exciting new discoveries and ideas. But memory is not only a target for laboratory study; it is also fundamentally important in many domains of everyday life. This point is nicely illustrated by several articles in this volume addressing memory changes in neurological and psychiatric conditions that can have a profound impact on an individual's ability to function in daily life. Memory research has also been applied extensively in legal settings, where such issues as how to construct effective lineups and how to deal with the inaccuracy of eyewitness testimony are of paramount importance. 1 , 2 In this editorial, I discuss briefly some recent applications of memory research in educational and clinical settings that show promise for providing meaningful benefits in everyday life.

Enhancing attention and memory in educational settings

During the past several years, a rapidly expanding number of studies have attempted to apply principles and methods of cognitive psychology to educational settings. For example, one basic question concerns whether memory research can be used to increase the effectiveness with which students study for exams. In a recent comprehensive review, Dunlosky and colleagues 3 evaluated the effectiveness of ten different study methods, and characterized each one as being of either high, moderate, or low utility based on available research. Some of the popular methods commonly embraced by students—including rereading, summarizing, and highlighting—received low utility assessments. Only two techniques, both supported by data from numerous laboratory studies, received high utility assessments: distributed study, which involves spreading out study activities so that more time intervenes between repetitions of the to-be-learned information (as opposed to mass study or “cramming”), and practice testing, where students are intermittently given brief quizzes about what they have learned prior to taking a formal test.

The beneficial effects of practice testing for students are based mainly on studies demonstrating that the act of retrieving information can be a highly effective means of strengthening memory for the retrieved information. 4 Recent work in my laboratory has used a variant of the practice testing technique in an attempt to enhance attention and memory during video recorded lectures. 5 Students frequently experience lapses of attention both during classroom 6 and video 7 lectures. For example, when probed during either a classroom or online lecture regarding whether they are attending to the lecture or mind wandering to other topics, students indicated on approximately 40% of probes that they were mind wandering; not surprisingly, the extent of mind wandering was negatively correlated with retention of lecture content. 6 - 8

Our study 5 focused on video recorded lectures because they are a key element in online education, which has exploded during recent years, partly as a result of the development of massive open online courses (MOOCs). Consequently, understanding how to enhance learning from video lectures could have important implications for online education. Participants watched a 21-minute video recorded statistics lecture divided into four equal segments. After each lecture segment, all participants did math problems for a minute, after which the tested group received brief quizzes on each lecture segment that took about 2 minutes each; the nontested group continued to work on math problems for an additional 2 minutes and only received a test for the final segment; and the restudy group was shown, but not tested on, the same material as the tested group for each of the segments preceding the final segment. After the final lecture segment, all three groups received a quiz for that segment, and a few minutes later they also received a final test for the entire lecture. At random times during the lecture, participants in all groups were probed about whether they were paying attention to the lecture or mind wandering off to other topics.

Participants in the nontested and re-study groups indicated that they were mind wandering in response to about 40% of the probes, but the incidence of mind wandering was cut in half, to about 20%, in the tested group. Moreover, participants in the tested group retained significantly more information from the final segment of the lecture than did participants in the other two groups, and they also retained significantly more information on the final test of the entire lecture than did the other groups. While it is encouraging that interpolated quizzing can dramatically reduce the incidence of mind wandering and increase retention, the results reported must be treated with some caution, both because they were obtained only with a single lecture on a single topic, and also because it is unclear whether the benefits of interpolated quizzing persist across multiple lectures or in actual online (or live) classes. There is reason for optimism, however, because other kinds of practice testing have produced increased learning in classroom settings. 9

Increasing the specificity of memory

Consider next some recent research concerning a phenomenon that has been associated with a variety of troublesome symptoms in depressed individuals: reduced specificity of autobiographical memories. Several studies have shown that when asked to recall memories of everyday life experiences, depressed individuals tend to provide less specific detail about what happened during those experiences than do nondepressed controls. 10 This reduced specificity has been linked with problems such as excessive rumination and difficulties handling everyday interpersonal situations. 10 - 12 In light of these findings, a natural question concerns whether it is possible to increase memory specificity in depressed individuals, and whether such increases are associated with improvements in any of the problematic symptoms that had been linked with reduced memory specificity in previous research.

Recent studies 13 , 14 have addressed this question by demonstrating that several sessions of training that attempts to boost the specificity of memory retrieval in depressed patients (ie, practice with feedback in generating detailed, specific memories) increases the posttraining specificity of patients' autobiographical memories, even when controlling for associated improvements in depression. Neshat-Doost et al 13 reported that the gains from specificity training were maintained at a 2-month follow-up, and no improvements were evident in a control group. Raes et al 14 showed that increases in memory specificity after training were associated with improvements in everyday social problem solving and rumination. Although further research needs to be carried out to pinpoint exactly what features of memory specificity training are responsible for the observed improvements, the results to date are encouraging, and highlight how basic knowledge of the memory characteristics of a clinical population can be used to formulate an effective intervention.

Targeting autobiographical memory specificity seems especially useful because a growing number of studies have emphasized that autobiographical or episodic memory is used not just as a basis for remembering past experiences, but also for imagining possible future experiences 15 and related functions such as personal and social problem solving. 16 - 19 Consistent with these findings, recent research in our lab provides evidence that an induction aimed at increasing memory specificity in young and old adults had beneficial effects on both groups' performance of subsequent tasks that required either remembering past experiences or imagining possible future experiences. 20 Importantly, the effects of the induction were selective in two ways. First, the specificity induction (compared with a control induction) produced increases in the number of episodic details (eg, who, what, where, when) that participants remembered or imagined, but had no effect on the number of remembered or imagined semantic details (eg, general facts, commentary, impressions). Second, the influence of the specificity induction was restricted to memory and imagination tasks; it had no effect on a task that required participants to describe a picture of an everyday scene. These findings suggest that the induction targeted episodic memory in particular, and more generally, that specificity inductions can be used as experimental tools to distinguish among cognitive processes and representations that contribute to memory and related functions.

Concluding comments

The research reviewed in the preceding sections highlights ways in which memory research can be applied to educational and clinical settings. An important next step for this kind of research will be to investigate the neural mechanisms that mediate the observed effects on cognitive processes. How can we characterize the neural changes associated with improved attention and memory as a result of interpolated quizzing during lectures? What kinds of changes in brain activity are associated with the improvements produced by memory specificity training and how can they help to pinpoint the specific processes that are affected? Recent work in the domain of cognitive control has revealed that extensive training on a video game that requires multitasking skills led not only to improved cognitive performance in individuals ranging in age from their 20s to their 70s, but also to associated changes in brain activity that were predictive of cognitive improvements 6 months later. 21 Moreover, the study also yielded evidence that training served to remediate age-related deficits in neural markers of cognitive control. Applying such a cognitive neuroscience approach to the phenomena considered here should enhance our understanding of both theoretical and applied aspects of memory function.

Types of Memory

Reviewed by Psychology Today Staff

A person’s memory is a sea of images and other sensory impressions, facts and meanings, echoes of past feelings, and ingrained codes for how to behave—a diverse well of information. Naturally, there are many ways (some experts suggest there are hundreds) to describe the varieties of what people remember and how. While the different brands of memory are not always described in exactly the same way by memory researchers, some key concepts have emerged.

These forms of memory, which can overlap in daily life, have also been arranged into broad categories. Memory that lingers for a moment (or even less than a second) could be described as short-term memory , while any kind of information that is preserved for remembering at a later point can be called long-term memory . Memory experts have also distinguished explicit memory , in which information is consciously recalled, from implicit memory , the use of saved information without conscious awareness that it’s being recalled.

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• Episodic Memory
• Semantic Memory
• Procedural Memory
• Short-Term Memory and Working Memory
• Sensory Memory
• Prospective Memory

When a person recalls a particular event (or “episode”) experienced in the past, that is episodic memory . This kind of long-term memory brings to attention details about anything from what one ate for breakfast to the emotions that were stirred up during a serious conversation with a romantic partner. The experiences conjured by episodic memory can be very recent or decades-old.

A related concept is autobiographical memory , which is the memory of information that forms part of a person’s life story. However, while autobiographical memory includes memories of events in one’s life (such as one’s sixteenth birthday party), it can also encompass facts (such as one’s birth date) and other non-episodic forms of information.

• The details of a phone call you had 20 minutes ago

• How you felt during your last argument

• What it was like receiving your high-school diploma

Semantic memory is someone’s long-term store of knowledge: It’s composed of pieces of information such as facts learned in school, what concepts mean and how they are related, or the definition of a particular word. The details that make up semantic memory can correspond to other forms of memory. One may remember factual details about a party, for instance—what time it started, at whose house it took place, how many people were there, all part of semantic memory—in addition to recalling the sounds heard and excitement felt. But semantic memory can also include facts and meanings related to people, places, or things one has no direct relation to.

• What year it currently is

• The capital of a foreign country

• The meaning of a slang term

Sitting on a bike after not riding one for years and recalling just what to do is a quintessential example of procedural memory . The term describes long-term memory for how to do things, both physical and mental, and is involved in the process of learning skills—from the basic ones people take for granted to those that require considerable practice. A related term is kinesthetic memory , which refers specifically to memory for physical behaviors.

• How to tie your shoes

• How to send an email

• How to shoot a basketball

The terms short-term memory and working memory are sometimes used interchangeably, and both refer to storage of information for a brief amount of time. Working memory can be distinguished from general short-term memory, however, in that working memory specifically involves the temporary storage of information that is being mentally manipulated.

Short-term memory is used when, for instance, the name of a new acquaintance, a statistic, or some other detail is consciously processed and retained for at least a short period of time. It may then be saved in long-term memory, or it may be forgotten within minutes. With working memory , information—the preceding words in a sentence one is reading, for example—is held in mind so that it can be used in the moment.

• The appearance of someone you met a minute ago

• The current temperature, immediately after looking it up

• What happened moments ago in a movie

• A number you have calculated as part of a mental math problem

• The person named at the beginning of a sentence

• Holding a concept in mind (such as ball ) and combining it with another ( orange )

Sensory memories are what psychologists call the short-term memories of just-experienced sensory stimuli such as sights and sounds. The brief memory of something just seen has been called iconic memory, while the sound-based equivalent is called echoic memory. Additional forms of short-term sensory memory are thought to exist for the other senses as well.

Sense-related memories, of course, can also be preserved long-term. Visual-spatial memory refers to memory of how objects are organized in space—tapped when a person remembers which way to walk to get to the grocery store. Auditory memory , olfactory memory , and haptic memory are terms for stored sensory impressions of sounds, smells, and skin sensations, respectively.

• The sound of a piano note that was just played

• The appearance of a car that drove by

• The smell of a restaurant you passed

Prospective memory is forward-thinking memory: It means recalling an intention from the past in order to do something in the future. It is essential for daily functioning, in that memories of previous intentions, including very recent ones, ensure that people execute their plans and meet their obligations when the intended behaviors can’t be carried out right away, or have to be carried out routinely.

• To call someone back

• To stop at the drugstore on the way home

• To pay the rent every month

Without thinking, we often punish fear in small ways—by scolding, humiliating, or trivializing. Instead, teach fear management gradually and methodically in people and animals.

Research shows that even our closest primate relatives struggle to learn sequences. Could sequential memory differentiate us from the rest of the animal world?

Having a good memory is definitely an asset in life, particularly as people get older. New research on emotions and forgetting shows how a good mood can build that asset.

Would you like to improve recall, emotional control, and productivity? Learn how to think about working memory differently and apply four key strategies for improving it.

Eyewitness testimony is known to be unreliable. New research suggests that it's even worse when a witness is also the victim.

For those burdened by their past, relief can be found not in the science of memory but in the recognition of our ability to shape the very nature of our personal histories.

Working memory, the gateway to all learning, is vulnerable and under assault like never before—but we can protect it.

The saying goes, “Familiarity breeds contempt.” At a minimum, it breeds malaise. Fight the tendency to become unresponsive to the familiar so you can fully experience emotion.

As our understanding of animal intelligence deepens, society faces ethical dilemmas regarding the treatment and rights of even the simplest non-human animals.

Stroke patients with visual area damage claim blindness to images projected there, yet they can detect some features. Others may have a similar ability to see what they don’t see.

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The Neuropsychology of Memory

• Conference paper
• Cite this conference paper

• L. R. Squire 2 , 3  

Part of the book series: Dahlem Workshop Reports ((DAHLEM LIFE,volume 29))

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Neuropsychology aims to describe how the brain accomplishes learning and memory, in a way that speaks both to cognitive psychology and neuroscience. This paper presents a summary of presently available information about the neuropsychology of human memory, emphasizing three ideas: a) The neural substrate of memory continues to change for a long time after initial learning. This change (memory consolidation) is distinct from the changes underlying forgetting and involves the medial temporal region of the brain. b) The nervous system honors the distinction between two kinds of learning and memory (procedural vs. declarative). The former is spared in amnesia and does not depend on the integrity of the particular brain regions that when damaged cause amnesia. c) Animal models of human amnesia in the monkey are now available. These models should permit those brain regions damaged in amnesia to be identified and should lead to more detailed neurobiological study of these regions.

• Memory Consolidation
• Procedural Knowledge
• Hippocampal Lesion
• Retrograde Amnesia
• Declarative Knowledge

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Squire, L.R. (1984). The Neuropsychology of Memory. In: Marler, P., Terrace, H.S. (eds) The Biology of Learning. Dahlem Workshop Reports, vol 29. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-70094-1_32

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Psychology Memory Revision Notes

Saul Mcleod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

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Saul Mcleod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

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On This Page:

What do the examiners look for?

• Accurate and detailed knowledge
• Clear, coherent, and focused answers
• Effective use of terminology (use the “technical terms”)

In application questions, examiners look for “effective application to the scenario,” which means that you need to describe the theory and explain the scenario using the theory making the links between the two very clear. If there is more than one individual in the scenario you must mention all of the characters to get to the top band.

Difference between AS and A level answers

The descriptions follow the same criteria; however, you have to use the issues and debates effectively in your answers. “Effectively” means that it needs to be clearly linked and explained in the context of the answer.

Read the model answers to get a clearer idea of what is needed.

The Multi-Store Model

The multistore model of memory was proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin and is a structural model. They proposed that memory consisted of three stores: sensory register, short-term memory (STM), and long-term memory (LTM). Information passes from store to store in a linear way. Both STM and LTM are unitary stores.

Sensory memory is the information you get from your sense, your eyes, and ears. When attention is paid to something in the environment, it is then converted to short-term memory.

Information from short-term memory is transferred to long-term memory only if that information is rehearsed (i.e., repeated).

Maintenance rehearsal is repetition that keeps information in STM, but eventually, such repetition will create an LTM.

If maintenance rehearsal (repetition) does not occur, then information is forgotten and lost from short-term memory through the processes of displacement or decay.

Each store has its own characteristics in terms of encoding, capacity, and duration .

• Encoding is the way information is changed so that it can be stored in memory. There are three main ways in which information can be encoded (changed): 1. visual (picture), 2. acoustic (sound), and 3. semantic (meaning).
• Capacity concerns how much information can be stored.
• Duration refers to the period of time information can last in-memory stores.

Sensory register

• Duration: ¼ to ½ second
• Capacity: all sensory experience (v. larger capacity)
• Encoding: sense specific (e.g., different stores for each sense)

Short Term Memory

• Duration: 0-18 seconds
• Capacity: 7 +/- 2 items
• Encoding: mainly acoustic

Long Term Memory

• Duration: Unlimited
• Capacity: Unlimited
• Encoding: Mainly semantic (but can be visual and acoustic)

AO2 Scenario Question

The multi-store model of memory has been criticized in many ways. The following example illustrates a possible criticism.

Some students read through their revision notes lots of times before an examination but still, find it difficult to remember the information. However, the same students can remember the information in a celebrity magazine, even though they read it only once.

Explain why this can be used as a criticism of the multi-store model of memory.

“The MSM states that depth of memory trace in LTM is simply a result of the amount of rehearsal that takes place.

The MSM can be criticized for failing to account for how different types of material can result in different depth memory traces even though they’ve both been rehearsed for a similar amount of time.

For example, people may recall information they are interested in (e.g., information in celebrity magazines) more than the material they are not interested in (e.g., revision notes) despite the fact that they have both been rehearsed for a similar amount of time.

Therefore, the MSM’s view of long-term memory can be criticized for failing to take into account that material we may pay more attention to or is more meaningful/interesting to us may cause a deeper memory trace which is recalled more easily.”

One strength of the multistore model is that it gives us a good understanding of the structure and process of the STM. This is good because this allows researchers to expand on this model. This means researchers can do experiments to improve on this model and make it more valid, and they can prove what the stores actually do.

The model is supported by studies of amnesiacs: For example the patient H.M. case study. HM is still alive but has marked problems in long-term memory after brain surgery.

He has remembered little of personal (death of mother and father) or public events (Watergate, Vietnam War) that have occurred over the last 45 years. However, his short-term memory remains intact.

It has now become apparent that both short-term and long-term memory is more complicated than previously thought. For example, the Working Model of Memory proposed by Baddeley and Hitch (1974) showed that short-term memory is more than just one simple unitary store and comprises different components (e.g., central executive, Visuospatial, etc.).

The model suggests rehearsal helps to transfer information into LTM, but this is not essential. Why are we able to recall information which we did not rehearse (e.g., swimming) yet unable to recall information which we have rehearsed (e.g., reading your notes while revising)?

Therefore, the role of rehearsal as a means of transferring from STM to LTM is much less important than Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) claimed in their model.

Research Study for both STM & LTM

Research studies can either be knowledge or evaluation:

• If you refer to the procedures and findings of a study, this shows knowledge and understanding (AO1).
• If you comment on what the studies show and what it supports and challenges the theory in question, this shows evaluation (AO3).

Glanzer and Cunitz showed that when participants are presented with a list of words, they tend to remember the first few and last few words and are more likely to forget those in the middle of the list, i.e., the serial position effect.

This supports the existence of separate LTM and STM stores because they observed a primacy and recency effect.

Words early on in the list were put into long-term memory (primacy effect) because the person has time to rehearse the word, and words from the end went into short-term memory (recency effect).

Other compelling evidence to support this distinction between STM and LTM is the case of KF (Shallice & Warrington, 1970), who had been in a motorcycle crash where he had sustained brain damage. His LTM seemed to be unaffected, but he was only able to recall the last bit of information he had heard in his STM.

Types of Long-Term Memory

One of the earliest and most influential distinctions of long-term memory was proposed by Tulving (1972).  He proposed a distinction between episodic, semantic, and procedural memory.

Procedural Memory

Procedural memory is a part of the implicit long-term memory responsible for knowing how to do things, i.e., a memory of motor skills. A part of long-term memory is responsible for knowing how to do things, i.e., the memory of motor skills.  It does not involve conscious (i.e., it’s unconscious-automatic) thought and is not declarative.

For example, procedural memory would involve knowledge of how to ride a bicycle.

Semantic Memory

Episodic memory.

Episodic memory is a part of the long-term memory responsible for storing information about events (i.e., episodes) that we have experienced in our lives.

It involves conscious thought and is declarative.  An example would be a memory of our 1st day at school.

Cohen and Squire (1980) drew a distinction between declarative knowledge and procedural knowledge .  Procedural knowledge involves “knowing how” to do things. It included skills such as “knowing how” to play the piano, ride a bike, tie your shoes, and other motor skills.

It does not involve conscious thought (i.e., it’s unconscious-automatic).  For example, we brush our teeth with little or no awareness of the skills involved.

Whereas declarative knowledge involves “knowing that”; for example, London is the capital of England, zebras are animals, your mum’s birthday, etc.  Recalling information from declarative memory involves some degree of conscious effort – information is consciously brought to mind and “declared.”

The knowledge that we hold in semantic and episodic memories focuses on “knowing that” something is the case (i.e., declarative).  For example, we might have a semantic memory for knowing that Paris is the capital of France, and we might have an episodic memory for knowing that we caught the bus to college today.

Evidence for the distinction between declarative and procedural memory has come from research on patients with amnesia . Typically, amnesic patients have great difficulty in retaining episodic and semantic information following the onset of amnesia.

Their memory for events and knowledge acquired before the onset of the condition tends to remain intact, but they can’t store new episodic or semantic memories. In other words, it appears that their ability to retain declarative information is impaired.

However, their procedural memory appears to be largely unaffected. They can recall skills they have already learned (e.g., riding a bike) and acquire new skills (e.g., learning to drive).

Working Memory Model

The working memory model (Baddeley and Hitch, 1974) replaced the idea of a unitary STM. It suggests a system involving active processing and short-term storage of information.

Key features include the central executive, the phonological loop, and the visuospatial sketchpad.

The central executive has a supervisory function and acts as a filter, determining which information is attended to.

It can process information in all sensory forms, direct information to other slave systems, and collects responses. It has limited capacity and deals with only one piece of information at a time.

One of the slave systems is the phonological loop which is a temporary storage system for holding auditory information in a speech-based form.

It has two parts: (1) the phonological store (inner ear), which stores words you hear; and (2) the articulatory process (inner voice), which allows maintenance rehearsal (repeating sounds or words to keep them in working memory while they are needed). The phonological loop plays a key role in the development of reading.

The second slave system is the Visuospatial sketchpad (VSS). The VSS is a temporary memory system for holding visual and spatial information. It has two parts: (1) the visual cache (which stores visual data about form and color) and (2) the inner scribe (which records the arrangement of objects in the visual field and rehearses and transfers information in the visual cache to the central executive).

The third slave system is the episodic buffer which acts as a “backup” (temporary) store for information that communicates with both long-term memory and the slave system components of working memory. One of its important functions is to recall material from LTM and integrate it into STM when working memory requires it.

Bryan has been driving for five years. Whilst driving, Bryan can hold conversations or listen to music with little difficulty.

Bob has had four driving lessons. Driving requires so much of Bob’s concentration that, during lessons, he often misses what his driving instructor is telling him. With reference to features of the working memory model, explain the different experiences of Bryan and Bob. (4 marks)

A tricky question – the answer lies in Bryan being able to divide the different components of his STM because he is experienced at driving and doesn’t need to devote all his attention to the task of driving (controlled by the visuospatial sketchpad).

“Because Bryan has been driving for five years it is an ‘automated’ task for him; it makes fewer attentional demands on his central executive, so he is free to perform other tasks (such as talking or listening to music) and thus is able to divide resources between his visuospatial sketch pad (driving) and phonological loop (talking and listening to music).

As Bob is inexperienced at driving, this is not the case for him – his central executive requires all of his attentional capacity for driving and thus cannot divide resources effectively between components of working memory.”

Working memory is supported by dual-task studies. It is easier to do two tasks at the same time if they use different processing systems (verbal and visual) than if they use the same slave system.

For example, participants would find it hard to do two visual tasks at the same time because they would be competing for the same limited resources of the visuospatial sketchpad. However, a visual task and a verbal task would use different components and so could be performed with minimum errors.

The KF Case Study supports the Working Memory Model. KF suffered brain damage from a motorcycle accident that damaged his short-term memory. KF’s impairment was mainly for verbal information – his memory for visual information was largely unaffected.

This shows that there are separate STM components for visual information (VSS) and verbal information (phonological loop). However, evidence from brain-damaged patients may not be reliable because it concerns unique cases with patients who have had traumatic experiences.

One limitation is the fact that little is known about how the central executive works. It is an important part of the model, but its exact role is unclear.

Another limitation is that the model does not explain the link between working memory and LTM.

Research Study for WM

• If you refer to the procedures and findings of a study, this shows knowledge and understanding.
• If you comment on what the studies show and what it supports and challenges the theory in question, this shows evaluation.

Baddeley and Hitch conducted an experiment in which participants were asked to perform two tasks at the same time (dual task technique). A digit span task required them to repeat a list of numbers, and a verbal reasoning task which required them to answer true or false to various questions (e.g., B is followed by A?).

Results : As the number of digits increased in the digit span tasks, participants took longer to answer the reasoning questions, but not much longer – only fractions of a second. And they didn’t make any more errors in the verbal reasoning tasks as the number of digits increased.

Conclusion : The verbal reasoning task made use of the central executive, and the digit span task made use of the phonological loop.

Explanations for Forgetting

Interference.

Interference is an explanation for forgetting from long-term memory – two sets of information become confused.

• Proactive interference (pro=forward) is where old learning prevents the recall of more recent information. When what we already know interferes with what we are currently learning – where old memories disrupt new memories.
• Retroactive interference (retro=backward) is where new learning prevents the recall of previously learned information. In other words, later learning interferes with earlier learning – where new memories disrupt old memories.

Proactive and retroactive Interference is thought to be more likely to occur where the memories are similar, for example: confusing old and new telephone numbers. Chandler (1989) stated that students who study similar subjects at the same time often experience interference. French and Spanish are similar types of material which makes interference more likely.

Semantic memory is more resistant to interference than other types of memory.

Postman (1960) provides evidence to support the interference theory of forgetting. A lab experiment was used, and participants were split into two groups. Both groups had to remember a list of paired words – e.g., cat – tree, jelly – moss, book – tractor.

The experimental group also had to learn another list of words where the second paired word is different – e.g., cat – glass, jelly- time, book – revolver. The control group was not given the second list.

All participants were asked to recall the words on the first list. The recall of the control group was more accurate than that of the experimental group. This suggests that learning items in the second list interfered with participants’ ability to recall the list. This is an example of retroactive interference.

Although proactive and retroactive interference is reliable and robust effects, there are a number of problems with interference theory as an explanation for forgetting.

First, interference theory tells us little about the cognitive processes involved in forgetting. Secondly, the majority of research into the role of interference in forgetting has been carried out in a laboratory using lists of words, a situation that is likely to occur fairly infrequently in everyday life (i.e., low ecological validity). As a result, it may not be possible to generalize from the findings.

Baddeley states that the tasks given to subjects are too close to each other and, in real life; these kinds of events are more spaced out. Nevertheless, recent research has attempted to address this by investigating “real-life” events and has provided support for interference theory. However, there is no doubt that interference plays a role in forgetting, but how much forgetting can be attributed to interference remains unclear.

Retrieval failure

Retrieval failure is where information is available in long-term memory but cannot be recalled because of the absence of appropriate cues.

When we store a new memory, we also store information about the situation and these are known as retrieval cues. When we come into the same situation again, these retrieval cues can trigger the memory of the situation.

Types of cues that have been studied by psychologists include context, state, and organization.

• Context – external cues in the environment, e.g., smell, place, etc. Evidence indicates that retrieval is more likely when the context at encoding matches the context at retrieval.
• State – bodily cues inside of us, e.g., physical, emotional, mood, drunk, etc. The basic idea behind state-dependent retrieval is that memory will be best when a person’s physical or psychological state is similar to encoding and retrieval.

For example, if someone tells you a joke on Saturday night after a few drinks, you”ll be more likely to remember it when you”re in a similar state – at a later date after a few more drinks. Stone cold sober on Monday morning, you”ll be more likely to forget the joke.

• Organization – Recall is improved if the organization gives a structure that provides triggers, e.g., categories.

According to retrieval-failure theory, forgetting occurs when information is available in LTM but is not accessible. Accessibility depends in large part on retrieval cues.

Forgetting is greatest when context and state are very different at encoding and retrieval. In this situation, retrieval cues are absent, and the likely result is cue-dependent forgetting.

Evaluation (AO3)

People tend to remember material better when there is a match between their mood at learning and at retrieval. The effects are stronger when the participants are in a positive mood than when they are in a negative mood. They are also greater when people try to remember events having personal relevance.

A number of experiments have indicated the importance of context-based (i.e., external) cues for retrieval. An interesting experiment conducted by Baddeley indicates the importance of context setting for retrieval.

Baddeley (1975) asked deep-sea divers to memorize a list of words. One group did this on the beach, and the other group underwater. When they were asked to remember the words, half of the beach learners remained on the beach, and the rest had to recall underwater.

Half of the underwater group remained there, and the others had to recall on the beach. The results show that those who had recalled in the same environment (i.e., context) and who had learned recalled 40% more words than those recalling in a different environment. This suggests that the retrieval of information is improved if it occurs in the context in which it was learned.

A study by Goodwin investigated the effect of alcohol on state-dependent (internal) retrieval. They found that when people encoded information when drunk, they were more likely to recall it in the same state.

For example, when they hid money and alcohol when drunk, they were unlikely to find them when sober. However, when they were drunk again, they often discovered the hiding place. Other studies found similar state-dependent effects when participants were given drugs such as marijuana.

The ecological validity of these experiments can be questioned, but their findings are supported by evidence from outside the laboratory. For example, many people say they can’t remember much about their childhood or their school days. But returning to the house in which they spent their childhood or attending a school reunion often provides retrieval cues that trigger a flood of memories.

Eyewitness Testimony

Misleading information.

Loftus and Palmer investigated how misleading information could distort eyewitness testimony accounts.

Procedure : Forty-five American students formed an opportunity sample. This was a laboratory experiment with five conditions, only one of which was experienced by each participant (an independent measures experimental design ).

Participants were shown slides of a car accident involving a number of cars and asked to describe what had happened as if they were eyewitnesses. They were then asked specific questions, including the question, “About how fast were the cars going when they (hit/smashed/collided/bumped/contacted ) each other?”

Findings : The estimated speed was affected by the verb used. The verb implied information about the speed, which systematically affected the participants’ memory of the accident.

Participants who were asked the “smashed” question thought the cars were going faster than those who were asked the “hit” question. The participants in the “smashed” condition reported the highest speeds, followed by “collided,” “bumped,” “hit,” and “contacted” in descending order.

The research lacks mundane realism, as the video clip does not have the same emotional impact as witnessing a real-life accident, and so the research lacks ecological validity.

A further problem with the study was the use of students as participants. Students are not representative of the general population in a number of ways. Importantly they may be less experienced drivers and, therefore, less confident in their ability to estimate speeds. This may have influenced them to be more swayed by the verb in the question.

A strength of the study is it’s easy to replicate (i.e., copy). This is because the method was a laboratory experiment that followed a standardized procedure.

The Yerkes-Dodson effect states that when anxiety is at low and high levels, EWT is less accurate than if anxiety is at a medium level. Recall improves as anxiety increases up to an optimal point and then declines.

When we are in a state of anxiety, we tend to focus on whatever is making us feel anxious or fearful, and we exclude other information about the situation. If a weapon is used to threaten a victim, their attention is likely to focus on it. Consequently, their recall of other information is likely to be poor.

Clifford and Scott (1978) found that people who saw a film of a violent attack remembered fewer of the 40 items of information about the event than a control group who saw a less stressful version. As witnessing a real crime is probably more stressful than taking part in an experiment, memory accuracy may well be even more affected in real life.

However, a study by Yuille and Cutshall (1986) contradicts the importance of stress in influencing eyewitness memory. Twenty-one witnesses observed a shooting incident in Canada outside a gun shop in which one person was killed and a 2nd seriously wounded. The incident took place on a major thoroughfare in the mid-afternoon.

All of the witnesses were interviewed by the investigating police, and 13 witnesses (aged 15-32 yrs) agreed to a research interview 4-5 months after the event. The witnesses were also asked to rate how stressed they had felt at the time of the incident using a 7-point scale. The eyewitness accounts provided in both the police and research interviews were analyzed and compared.

The results of the study showed the witnesses were highly accurate in their accounts, and there was little change in the amount or accuracy of recall after five months. The study also showed that stress levels did not have an effect on memory, contrary to lab findings.

All participants showed high levels of accuracy, indicating that stress had little effect on accuracy. However, very high anxiety was linked to better accuracy. Participants who reported the highest levels of stress were most accurate (about 88% accurate compared to 75% for the less-stressed group).

One strength of this study is that it had high ecological validity compared with lab studies which tend to control variables and use student populations as research participants.

One weakness of this study was that there was an extraneous variable. The witnesses who experienced the highest levels of stress were actually closer to the event (the shooting), and this may have helped with the accuracy of their memory recall.

Reduced accuracy of information may be due to surprise rather than anxiety – Pickel found that identification was least accurate in high surprise conditions rather than high threat conditions – The weapon focus effect may be related to surprise rather than anxiety; therefore, research may lack internal validity.

Real-world application: We can apply the Yerkes-Dodson effect to predict that stressful incidents will lead to witnesses having relatively inaccurate memories as their anxiety levels would be above the optimum – We can avoid an over-reliance on eyewitness testimony that may have been impacted by anxiety.

The Cognitive Interview

The cognitive interview is a police technique for interviewing witnesses to a crime which encourages them to recreate the original context in order to increase the accessibility of stored information.

The cognitive interview involves a number of techniques:

Context Reinstatement

Trying to mentally recreate an image of the situation, including details of the environment, such as the weather conditions, and the individual’s emotional state, including their feelings at the time of the incident. This makes memories accessible and provides emotional and contextual cues.

Recall from a Changed Perspective

Recall in reverse order, report everything.

The interviewer encourages the witness to report all details about the event, even though these details may seem unimportant. Memories are interconnected so that recollection of one item may then cue a whole lot of other memories.

The Enhanced Cognitive Interview

The main additional features are:-

• Encourage the witness to relax and speak slowly.
• Offer comments to help clarify witness statements.
• Adapt questions to suit the understanding of individual witnesses.

One limitation is the cognitive interview is that it’s time-consuming to conduct and takes much longer than a standard police interview. It is also time-consuming to train police officers to use this method. This means that it is unlikely that the “proper” version of the cognitive interview is used.

Another limitation is that some elements of the cognitive interview may be more valuable than others. For example, research has shown that using a combination of “report everything” and “context reinstatement” produced better recall than any of the conditions individually.

A final criticism is that police personnel have to be trained, and this can be expensive and time-consuming.

Geiselman (1985) set out to investigate the effectiveness of the cognitive interview. Participants viewed a film of a violent crime and, after 48 hours, were interviewed by a policeman using one of three methods: the cognitive interview, a standard interview used by the Los Angeles Police, or an interview using hypnosis.

The number of facts accurately recalled and the number of errors made was recorded. The average number of correctly recalled facts for the cognitive interview was 41.2. For hypnosis, it was 38.0, and for the standard interview, it was 29.4.

A-Level Psychology Revision Notes

A-Level Psychology Attachment

Social Influence Revision Notes

Psychopathology Revision Notes

Psychology Approaches Revision for A-level

Research Methods: Definition, Types, & Examples

Issues and Debates in Psychology (A-Level Revision)

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Teaching Autoethnography

5. Memory/Character Essays

One of the hardest things to master, and a hurdle to overcome for many students, is learning how to show and not tell. This may seem like a tired subject, but it is an important one. Most students—who at this point have written many documents in their academic lives to prove they have read something, done research or are worthy of attending a college, receiving a scholarship or getting a job—have a hard time mastering techniques that allow experiences to “speak for themselves.” It’s clear why this is so hard for them to understand: In college writing classes, we are not asking them to prove they are doing or reading something. We assume they have done their readings and preparation. We are asking them to take the next step and to create meaning, a new skill for many college student writers and one that takes time to master.

When much of your writing life has been devoted to summing things up and proving things, it can be hard to avoid the habit. I prohibit students from “summing up” their essays for class. How tiresome the world would be if everyone constantly had to sum up their purpose in life. So my students are never allowed to tell their readers what something means. They must create strong enough connections and reflections so that by the end of the writing, readers understand the significance of their narrative. A lot of developing this skill is learning to choose details, identify the “So what?” factor of the writing, and, most importantly, trust the reader.

Through using devices and cues and most importantly creating scenes, writers are able to convey ideas and messages to us without thrusting their purpose in our faces in the form of summaries and underlined theses. Students can do the same thing by coming to understand that once they know and explore the purpose of their writing, others will be able to follow their meaning. As I mentioned in the “Who cares?” section, if students don’t know why they are writing something, most often their audience will not know either. Intention in writing is key. Students must work on understanding why they are choosing a topic, other than that they need to complete an assignment to earn a grade. That way, they can work as they write to tease out important ideas and themes through the details they choose to include and the voice they use to convey it to their intended audience.

Students must also understand that memory is fallible. As a rule, people remember only a very small amount of what they experience. If this were not true, we would not be able to function on a daily basis. I often ask students in class if they have a memory of something that others dispute—maybe something that happened in childhood or an experience with a friend on which they disagree about what actually occurred. Most students will raise their hands and acknowledge that this has happened to them, and I invite a few students to share these stories with the class.

It is important to establish that just because memories differ does not mean they are invalid. There is a fine line between remembering something to the best of our ability and willfully misremembering something. In class, we work on remembering to the best of our ability and intending to be truthful. Talking to others who were involved in memories, if possible, can be helpful in fleshing out details. Readings in which authors use examples of childhood memories can be helpful in understanding the finer points of these distinctions, especially with memoir.

Joan Didion’s essay “On Keeping a Notebook” is very effective for helping students analyze the concept of truth and what that means for the reader. Our class is not studying philosophy, but I try to devote a fairly large amount of time right off the bat to discussing how and what truth means to us as writers. Didion both lies to her readers and convinces us of her truthfulness. How does she achieve this?

In this essay, Didion cleverly analyzes her reasons for keeping a journal, holding on to notes and images from her life. She shares some of the stories she has created from these moments and how they differ from the recollections of her family and friends. This reading usually makes students reflect on what the term truth mean for them in their everyday life and what power it contains. Didion reflects, “Not only have I always had trouble distinguishing between what happened and what merely might have happened, but I remain unconvinced that the distinction, for my purposes, matters” (333). In discussing her process of journaling and creating stories, she aims for a specific kind of truth, “How it felt to me: that is getting closer to the truth about a notebook” (333). Didion explains that the truth in her writing is how a situation felt to her at the time; in this way she is being accurate to her experience. This highlights an important aspect of all nonfiction writing—an obligation for the writer to maintain an ethical regard for the reader and represent the experience in a way that is true, not always to facts and chronology, but to experience. It is a thought Carolyn Ellis uses to define autoethnography in a piece I will analyze in Chapter 7 .

I also use this discussion as a time to ask people if they have ever journaled, blogged, or maintained Twitter or Facebook feed. We discuss the importance of capturing important moments in our lives for personal reasons while also tailoring them to elicit a response from an audience.

As a warm-up exercise to practice showing and not telling, I ask students to draw on a specific memory and try to re-create it vividly for the reader. I keep this first assignment short and vague, to allow them to approach it informally and organically. They are encouraged to use their five senses as well as to incorporate any remembered dialogue in the writing. This work should be conducted in weeks five to seven.

The Memory Assignment

Briefly describe a memory that is important to you. Try to avoid explaining why the memory is important and focus on showing the importance of the memory. Use your five senses, and include dialogue, if possible.

Sometimes these initial memory pieces will be very difficult for the students to share. Reading them aloud can be the first time a student cries in the classroom, since when asked to remember something, many students will reflexively turn to difficult or painful experiences, such as the death of a family member or a humiliating incident. On the other extreme, this writing can be very generic and predictable and involve topics such as being accepted to college or any event of achievement that might appear in a college application essay.

This is an important exercise because it often demonstrates that while a memory seems significant to an individual writer, it will not necessarily seem important to the audience. Students may have accomplished something very impressive, but there must be a point of entry for an audience to understand the value of this achievement as a topic for reading. Also, when writing about difficult situations that are intensely personal, we have to find ways to allow an audience to relate to the narrative.

I use the results of the shorter assignment as a way to introduce more details for students to consider as they write longer memory pieces. In extending their writings, students will need to take the time to explore the subtext of the memory, the details, persons involved, dialogue and settings to demonstrate the meaning for the reader. The longer memory essay will be a chance to practice these skills. Using the examples students generate in the shorter assignments is an effective way to point out strengths and weaknesses before moving forward in the writing. I invite students to use the ideas from this short assignment in the longer essay or to feel free to choose a completely new topic for the extended essay. I emphasize focus on the creation of characters for their first extended essay. The focus will be on incorporating the skills they have worked on in their deep observation, perspective and self-as-character assignments.

Examples of these essays can be found in Chapter 12 .

The Importance of Creating Scenes and Using Dialogue

One way to strengthen the showing-and-not-telling aspect of writing is to create scenes. In creating a scene, it is important not just to describe what is seen with the five senses, as students practiced in their observation exercises, but also to let the people in the scene speak for themselves. This is not always possible, but using dialogue is an important skill to master, and the extended memory assignment will be a great place to try it out. This will be the first time students consider how they can create a perspective that readers will trust by incorporating other voices.

Using dialogue in nonfiction writing for the first time can be tricky and unnerving. Re-creating conversations, allowing people’s speech to come through, using direct quotes or overheard language can help students see that it is important not only to present their take on the event but to let readers experience the direct voice of the players. This will allow a piece to seem more balanced in perspective. Readers are often turned off if writers are not able to present a measured view or confident voice. Students need to convince the reader that they are truthful, believable, worthy of trust. By allowing more voices to speak, they are insinuating the veracity of the situation through no insistence of their own. A very small amount of well-chosen dialogue can go a long way.

As with anything involving memory, it is important to urge students to be as accurate as possible when using speech. Including speech in projects researched in real time is easier than writing about dialogue in the past. Encourage students to do their best to re-create moments of speech accurately and to keep voices consistent.

Researching Your Own Experience

The memory essay is also a good place to introduce the idea that many memoir writers research their own pasts. Since memory is fallible, interviewing others who were present at important events or speaking to multiple people directly involved in the memories can be an important part of the writing. It will come as a surprise to many students that writing about their own lives can require research.

That research won’t necessarily be essential for this essay, but it is important to inform the students that for extended and complicated pieces they intend to publish, drawing on multiple sources for accuracy can be informative and essential to ensure the veracity of details including timelines, locations, and players.

The Memory/Character Essay Assignment

A memory is not necessarily something that happened a long time ago. Rather, a memory is something that is past, something that is reflected upon. It can be something that happened last week or a moment from your childhood, but for our purposes, it is something that has happened before this assignment was given.

For this assignment, choose a memory that has multiple levels of meaning for you. It is important not just to create a narrative about one particular thing but to think about the complexities of the memory and why you find it worthy of exploring in an essay. Subtext and intention are crucial.

You should re-create details as accurately as possible, even talking to friends or family members who might help you remember aspects of a memory. All good writers of memoir research their own histories. This is because memory is fallible and other people might be able to shed important light on our experiences.

Focus especially on re-creating characters, yourself included, who were involved in the memory. Use dialogue to let these characters speak, and choose details to convey the nature of relationships.

As with the shorter memory assignment, students will often use the memory/character essay to explore something that has become a part of their rehearsed life narrative. It may be one of the hardest pieces for them to revise, since it may be based on a story they have repeated many times. Getting students to reconsider a somewhat fixed narrative to demonstrate its potential for expansion can be challenging. As with the shorter piece, the range of experiences is likely to go from the very sad and tragic to the mundane. It will be important for the students to share these pieces with one another through the drafting process so they have models to consider for expansion of their ideas. This also will allow them to see that memory does not have to be something very large to be important and can be very small if treated properly.

With the assignments in this chapter, you might have some setbacks in the quality of the students’ writing in initial drafts. When asked to put together all of the elements for the first time in larger, extended pieces, students may feel overwhelmed. The extended memory essay is the first time they are attempting to employ everything they have learned simultaneously. It is natural, therefore, that this will be difficult for them. By working from invention to draft to final version and possibly revision in peer groups and one on one, students will gain confidence and start to master the voice they will need for the next series of assignments.

Teaching Autoethnography: Personal Writing in the Classroom Copyright © by Melissa Tombro is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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How Technology Can Help Us Remember Better

I n the digital age, we have the technology to document our lives in extraordinary detail via photographs, voice recordings, and social media posts. In theory, this ability to effortlessly capture the important moments of our lives should enrich our ability to remember those moments. But in practice, people often tell me they experience the opposite.

I study the neuroscience of memory and one question I hear again and again is whether technology is making us “dumber” —or, more precisely, whether it’s hurting our ability to remember. For some, the question is motivated by worry about the amount of time their children spend on screens or mobile devices. For others, it reflects concerns about their own memory problems.

A common fear is that there might be a “use it or lose it” principle at play—that an increasing dependence on our devices for reminders will lead us to lose our own capabilities to remember. This might be true for certain skills. If, for instance, you always rely on navigation apps in new or unfamiliar neighborhoods, you might not attend to features in the environment to create a mental map that would allow you to learn to navigate on your own. However, there is no reason to think that relying on technology to store important information will somehow lead your brain to wither in ways that are bad for memory. In fact, I’m all for outsourcing mundane memory tasks, like memorizing phone numbers, passwords, email addresses, and appointments. I don’t have a photographic memory—but my phone does.

So, if technology can help us “free up space” for the things we want to remember when we need to remember them, why do so many of us feel like its presence in our lives is leading us to form blurry, fragmented, and impoverished memories?

The short answer: technology isn’t the problem—it’s how we interact with it.

To form lasting memories, we need to focus on what is distinct about the present moment, those immersive sensory details we can call back up to reconstruct an experience when we remember. As we go about our daily lives, we usually do a pretty good job of focusing on what’s relevant, and for that, we can thank a part of the brain called the prefrontal cortex. The prefrontal cortex helps us focus attention on and meaningfully process what we need to learn, to search for memories that are “in there somewhere,” and to keep our recollections accurate when we manage to remember the right thing.

But, in a world where our conversations, activities, and meetings are routinely interrupted by text messages, emails, and phone calls, these abilities get swamped—and we often compound the problem by splitting our attention between multiple goals. Multitasking can make us feel that we’re being more efficient. Many of us even pride ourselves on our ability to switch from one task to another, but it comes at a cost.

Read More: Why Multitasking Is Bad for You

Each time we are routinely distracted or intentionally toggle between different media streams (such as reading a text message while maintaining a conversation), prefrontal resources are sucked up to regain our focus. The result is that we remain one step behind, and after all is done, we are only left with blurry, fragmented memories.

Outside of the workplace, we often use technology to document our lives. The proliferation of “Instagram walls” and the throngs of people at concerts recording the action with their smartphones illustrate how technology has changed our lives. The ubiquity of smartphone cameras enables us to easily document our experiences, yet for most of us this hasn’t translated into a more expansive memory for the personal past. Again, the problem isn’t necessarily with the technology, but rather that we are filtering our experiences through the lens of a camera.

Taking photos does not necessarily have a good or bad effect on memory. The critical factors involve how you direct your attention and whether you meaningfully engage with the subject matter. Our brains are designed to do more with less, by engaging meaningfully with a little bit of high-quality information rather than amassing a massive catalog of information. When we focus on “documenting” over “experiencing,” we don’t pay attention to what is distinctive in the moment, the sights, sounds, smells, and feelings that make an experience unique—and memorable. Without those immersive details, something that was so vivid when we experienced it (a family vacation or child’s violin recital) can wind up feeling as distant to us as a story we read in a book. By trying to record every moment, we don’t focus on any one facet of the experience in enough detail to form distinctive memories that we will retain.

The negative potential of technology is exacerbated by a culture of sharing experiences on social media platforms. Social media engagement can have a negative effect on memory, partly because it involves multitasking (e.g., switching between recording the moment and engagement with social media platforms) and increases the potential for distraction.

Social media itself isn’t bad for memory, per se. Like most forms of technology, it’s a tool that when used properly can even enhance our memory of an event, but the images we post are often accompanied by captions with brief descriptions, rather than a thorough reflection on the event. Some platforms like Snapchat and Instagram stories, feature photo posts that disappear within 24 hours—an apt metaphor for the way in which mindless documentation can leave us bereft of lasting memories for our experiences.

Read More: How to Make Your Mind Happy, According to Neuroscience

Technology can enhance memory if it is used consistently with principles that help us remember. Thoughtfully taking pictures or videos at opportune moments can orient us to what is interesting and distinctive around us. My daughter, for instance, likes to selectively photograph plants and flowers that catch her eye on our nature walks, which allows her to pause and fully take in those aspects of the scenery as we are experiencing them in the moment.

After you take those pictures and videos, organize them in a way that will allow you to find them later (as we used to in the old days with photo albums) and make sure to revisit them later on. In the following weeks, revisit those photos and use them as cues to mentally re-experience those events, bringing back as many details as possible. By using the photos almost like a “test” of your memory, and spacing out those tests, you can enhance your ability to retain memories of the entire event, not only what is in the photo. Journaling can be another way to enhance memory because it allows us to test our memory for an event and also integrate it in a meaningful way, so that we can shape our narrative of the experience.

As with memory itself, a key principle for technology is that “less is more.” All the life-logging in the world will not enable us to remember all our experiences, nor is that a desirable goal in the first place. Our memories for events are selective, but they also can have a great deal of detail, meaning, and emotion. By mindfully using technology in ways that allow us to access those aspects of our past experiences, we can hold on to what matters.

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The Value of Memory in Human Life

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Childhood Memories Essay for Students and Children

500+ words essay on childhood memories.

Memories are a vital component of our bodies. They shape our personality as all our knowledge and past experiences are stored there. All of us have memories, both good and bad. You have memories from long ago and also from recent times. Furthermore, some memories help us get by tough days and make us cheerful on good days.

Memories are the little things which help in running our lives smoothly. In other words, memories are irreplaceable and they are very dear to us. They help us learn from our mistakes and make us better. In my opinion, one’s childhood memories are the dearest to anyone. They help in keeping the child in you alive. Moreover, it also is a reason for our smiles in between adult life.

Importance of Childhood Memories

Childhood memories are very important in our lives. It makes us remember the best times of our lives. They shape our thinking and future. When one has good childhood memories, they grow up to be happy individuals. However, if one has traumatic childhood memories, it affects their adult life gravely.

Thus, we see how childhood memories shape our future. They do not necessarily define us but they surely play a great role. It is not important that someone with traumatic childhood memories may turn out to be not well. People get past their traumatic experiences and grow as human beings. But, these memories play a great role in this process as well.

Most importantly, childhood memories keep the inner child alive. No matter how old we get, there is always a child within each one of us. He/She comes out at different times.

For instance, some may act like a child on seeing swings; the other may get excited like a child when they see ice cream. All this happens so because we have our childhood memories reminding us of the times associated with the things we get excited about. Therefore, childhood memories play a great role in our lives.

Get the huge list of more than 500 Essay Topics and Ideas

My Childhood Memories

Growing up, I had a very loving family. I had three siblings with whom I used to play a lot. I remember very fondly the games we use to play. Especially, in the evenings, we used to go out in the park with our sports equipment. Each day we played different games, for example, football on one day and cricket on the other. These memories of playing in the park are very dear to me.

Furthermore, I remember clearly the aroma of my grandmother’s pickles. I used to help her whenever she made pickles. We used to watch her do the magic of combining the oils and spices to make delicious pickles. Even today, I can sometimes smell her pickles whenever I look back at this memory.

Most importantly, I remember this instance very clearly when we went out for a picnic with my family. We paid a visit to the zoo and had an incredible day. My mother packed delectable dishes which we ate in the zoo. My father clicked so many pictures that day. When I look at these pictures, the memory is so clear, it seems like it happened just yesterday. Thus, my childhood memories are very dear to me and make me smile when I feel low.

Q.1 Why is Childhood Memories important?

A.1 Childhood memories shape our personality and future. They remind us of the good times and help us get by on tough days. Moreover, they remind us of past experiences and mistakes which help us improve ourselves.

Q.2 What can be a common childhood memory for all?

A.2 In my opinion, a childhood memory most of us have in common is the first day of school. Most of us remember what we felt like on the first day. In addition, our birthdays are also very common childhood memory that reminds us of gifts and celebrations on that day.

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Welcome to the United Nations

Lessons post the 1994 genocide against the Tutsi in Rwanda: we must speak out against discrimination and prejudice

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On 7 April, it will be 30 years since the start of the 1994 genocide against the Tutsi in Rwanda. To commemorate this anniversary,  Amb.  Ernest Rwamucyo , the Permanent Representative of Rwanda to the United Nations in New York, shares insights with  Africa Renewal’s Kingsley Ighobor  on lessons learned, Rwanda's remarkable economic growth and advancements in women's empowerment, among other topics. The following are excerpts from the interview:

The United Nations designated 7th April as the International Day of Reflection on the 1994 genocide against the Tutsi in Rwanda. Can you share with us the significance of this date?

The date is significant because it marked the beginning of a tragedy of unimaginable proportions. When the 1994 genocide against the Tutsi started, within 100 days over 1 million Tutsis were massacred. 

It is now 30 years, but the memory is deep; the horrors that the victims and the survivors faced are still fresh. By remembering, we dignify those massacred and the survivors. 

It is also important for the survivors to reflect on the tragedy that befell them and their families. 

As Rwandans, it is a time when we call on our collective conscience to reflect on this tragedy and how we can rebuild our country. 

Over the last decade, in remembering we have focused on the theme,  Remember, Unite and Renew . 

We focus on how we rebuild afresh so that genocide never happens again. In renewing, we look into the future with hope. 

How do commemorative events here at the UN headquarters, back home in Rwanda and around the world, promote reconciliation? 

First, over a million Tutsis were massacred. By remembering them, we give them the dignity and the humanity that their killers denied them. 

We do that as a Rwandan society and as part of the international community. We share the lessons of that tragedy with the rest of the world in the hope that we can work to prevent future genocide. 

We do it with members of the international community to reawaken the world to the real dangers of genocide. 

Are the lessons from Rwanda on detecting the early stages of conflict reaching other countries?

We hope they do because the dangers are real. Any form of discrimination, prejudice, hatred, or bigotry can happen in any society, which is the beginning of genocide. 

We cannot be bystanders when there is discrimination or antisemitism, or when there is prejudice or hatred. 

How do you raise awareness internationally and among young people in particular? 

It is through commemorative and remembrance events. 

We also proactively engage our youth. For example, in collaboration with the UN, we host an event called  Youth Connekt , where we bring young people from different parts of the world to Rwanda to witness the country’s rebuilding efforts and how we are empowering the youth to contribute to the process. The aim is to promote peace and tolerance and to demonstrate that after tragedy, rebuilding a nation is possible through hard work. 

We emphasize that tolerance and peaceful co-existence is very important. We have also worked to empower our women to participate in rebuilding efforts. 

How does Youth Connekt impact young people in Rwanda and other parts of Africa? 

President Paul Kagame spearheads the initiative, and we partner with the UN. It started as a Rwandan initiative, but because of its potential to make young people creative and entrepreneurial, we have extended it to the rest of Africa and by extension the rest of the world. 

Young people come together to share innovative ideas; they come up with projects they can implement, and we give them access to opportunities and resources. 

They create technology-driven startups that uplift the welfare of societies. Some of these startups create significant jobs. 

What challenges have you faced in the rebuilding process and how have you addressed them? 

First, our society was traumatized by the genocide. So, we had to rebuild hope for our people. 

Second, genocide denial is a significant danger as it not only seeks to evade accountability but is also a process of continuation of the genocide. 

We have many genocide fugitives in different parts of the world, including in Europe and different parts of Africa, who have yet to face justice. We hope to work with the rest of the international community to hold them accountable so that the victims and survivors of the genocide can see justice served within their lifetime. 

Third, we face the challenge of hate speech. Sometimes, people fail to recognize the dangers posed by hate speech and discrimination. 

We are a developing country. We have worked to rebuild our country, including its infrastructure, but we still have a long way to go. A new Rwanda built out of the ashes of the 1994 genocide is a beacon of prosperity and hope for our people. 

When you say genocide deniers, are there people who believe genocide did not happen? 

There are people, especially perpetrators of genocide, who trivialize what happened or want to rewrite history. That is dangerous. 

Are you getting the support of the international community as you try to bring perpetrators to justice?

For sure, we get the support of the international community. Internally, we established a tribunal to try genocide perpetrators. 

We also had our restorative justice system, which is called Gacaca, aimed at using homegrown solutions to try perpetrators in a way that enables society to heal, while building a foundation of unity and reconciliation. 

Many individuals are being tried in other jurisdictions. Still, more needs to be done because thousands more are evading accountability. 

How is Rwanda achieving impressive economic growth despite the genocide? 

After the tragedy, Rwanda took ownership of its development strategy. We realized that Rwandans killed Rwandans. Of course, there is a long history before that: colonialism, bad leadership and bad governance. We could not allow our society to remain in the abyss of despair after the tragedy. 

Rwandans spearheaded the rebuilding of our nation based on unity, reconciliation, forgiveness, and the resilience that enabled us to pick up the pieces. 

We rebuilt our infrastructure and provided social protections to uplift the welfare of citizens. Today, Rwanda’s growing economy is creating wealth and prosperity for its people. 

We are building a new democratic society with functioning institutions.

How does Rwanda address the challenge of high youth unemployment, often leading to impatience with the government, especially in post-conflict situations?

We are creating opportunities for young people. The Rwandan economy has been growing above 8 per cent over the last decade or so. We ensure that economic growth leads to poverty reduction and creates jobs and opportunities for young people. 

We have invested heavily in education, to ensure that our youth are skilled. We've also created a market economy that allows entrepreneurs to be innovative and creative. 

Rwanda has the world’s highest percentage of female parliamentarians, along with significant women representation in the cabinet. How do these factors impact economic development? 

Women's empowerment is at the forefront of Rwanda's post-genocide reconciliation and development. That our girls, mothers, and sisters feel included is something we are proud of. 

As President Kagame often says, no nation can develop if 50 per cent of its population is not included in the development process. It's for that reason that Rwandan women have been empowered and given opportunities to play a role in rebuilding the country. 

Women are well represented across our institutions—parliament, cabinet, local government, entrepreneurship, and other areas of decision-making in our society. 

The quality of women’s contributions and their level of engagement have been excellent. 

Rwanda is also a champion for the African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA). If fully implemented, how do you think the AfCFTA can catalyze the African economy to benefit particularly young people and women? 

Africa has not optimized its full potential due to fragmented markets. We have some 54 countries with significant barriers to cross-border. 

The AfCFTA creates a market of over 1.3 billion people, with reduced barriers and free movement of people, goods and services. 

This will foster the growth of the continent, making it competitive in global trade. So, AfCFTA’s implementation is vital. We are already beginning to see some of the benefits. 

As we commemorate the 30th anniversary of the genocide against Tutsis, what final message do you have for Africans and the rest of the world? 

One, don't be a bystander when you see any form of discrimination, bigotry, or prejudice. Because that could build into a genocide. You must speak out. 

Second, you have to address the root causes of conflict that might grow into a tragedy. For example, hate speech. 

Third, we have to build institutions that provide a voice for the people, accountability and justice. 

Lastly, we must build free and fair societies. 

The lessons of Rwanda should be taken very seriously. The tragedy that befell Rwanda could befall any country.

Also in this issue

We must do more to prevent genocide

Football saved me from genocide; now I promote peace with it

Kwibuka30: Learning from the past, safeguarding the future against genocide

REMEMBER.UNITE.RENEW.

Claver Irakoze: Bridging Generations Through the Memory of the 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi in Rwanda

We must confront the legacy of slavery, tackle systemic racism

Reflecting on the brutal Transatlantic Slave Trade

More from africa renewal.

JEE Main Session 2 Question Paper 2024 Memory Based: Check Question Paper with Solutions April 8

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JEE Main 2024 Session 2 April 8 Shift 1 and Shift 2: The National Testing Agency (NTA) is the national test-conducting body that takes care of all the protocols and schedules related to the exam. NEET and JEE Main are two of many exams conducted by the NTA. The JEE Main 2024 Session 2 exams are ongoing and will wrap up on April 12, 2024. The answer key will be released a week after the completion of the Session 2 exams. Until then, students can refer to the memory-based questions to evaluate their answers and calculate the score. 

Here, the JEE Main April 8, 2024, memory-based questions are provided along with the solutions. There are chances that you might find certain questions incomplete or different from your question paper. It is because the base of these questions is the students’ memory of who attempted the exam; thus, variation in one of the more questions will be a general thing. The idea behind presenting these memory-based questions is to help the next batch of students understand the difficulty level and pattern of the questions.

JEE Main 2024 Highlights of Session 2

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Types of Questions Asked in JEE Main Paper 1

As per the paper pattern of the NTA, the JEE Main Question Paper asks only two types of questions: MCQs and numerical-based questions. Both have the same marking scheme but a different way of answering. To learn more, follow the information given below:

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JEE Main Memory-Based Questions: Key Information

There are a few things that students and other people referring to memory-based questions should know. The two major pointers are mentioned below:

• These questions are based on what students remember, so we can't be sure they're exactly right.
• The way the questions are written or the specific details might not match exactly what was on the actual exam. This is because we got these questions from students who took the test.
• JEE Main Analysis 2024 (April 8) Shift 1 and  2
• JEE Main Answer Key 2024 (April 8) Shift 1 and 2

JEE Main 2024 Session 2 Memory-Based Questions April 8 (Shift 1)

Jee main 2024 session 2 memory-based questions april 8 (shift 2).

The JEE Main applicants and future aspirants who are confused about how the NTA calculate the percentile and rank. Refer to the NTA’s Normalization process for JEE Main for complete understanding. 

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Negotiations of Taste, Memory and Heritage: Colonial Foodscapes and Beyond

        Negotiations of Taste, Memory and Heritage: Colonial Foodscapes and Beyond

The thriving foodscapes around eateries are integral to the diverse urban ethos of places like Calcutta, Bombay, Madras, Karachi or Lahore —the erstwhile colonial cities—negotiating their identities between the remnants of colonial modernity and more recent waves of globalization. The exposure of the cities to variegated cultural influences engendered a progressive, tolerant, and experimental outlook which extended to their eating habits, from the growing fascination for tea drinking to setting up of tea rooms and cafes in different places to the coming up of clubs and coffee houses in the colonial period with their distinctive dishes. 

With the changing tastes of the eating populace and the globalization of the food culture, many of the eateries and the associative cultural practices embedded in community life are now either at risk of extinction or have transformed substantially to expand and embrace the changes as a way of responding to the exigencies of the time. This panel is particularly interested in exploring how food cultures travelled from Europe to the subcontinent and vice versa in the colonial and postcolonial times creating synergies between cultures and cities with a colonial history, imbricated in a network of reciprocal, albeit unequal, relationships. To do so the panellists may look into a wide range of foodscapes, material spaces, commensality and food practices, ranging from, but not limited to the eateries in urban centres of colonial India and the establishment of Irani-cafe style food chains in the UK, to the evolution of tea consumption in India and Britain with the newly emerging chai parlours, or the opening of Toddy (a local liquor in South India) Shops in England tapping the cultural nostalgia for the homeland. This panel as a whole, thus, seeks to understand how foodscapes and foodways could not only reimagine heritage and local narratives of the neighbourhoods around the “gastronomic modernity” of the colonial cities, but rewrite the spatial histories of colonialism as a whole by delving into the memories of affective exchange, solidarities, convergences, and equally of friction and exploitation through food and their diverse modes of consumption.

Keywords: foodways, foodscapes, colonial history, city, memories, heritage

About BASAS:  https://www.basas.org.uk/news-events/basas-conference-2024/

Interested applicants, please send an abstract of 100 words and provide up to five keywords that capture the main themes of your paper. by 12th April 2024

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JEE Main Session 2 Question Paper 2024 Memory Based: Check Question Paper with Solutions

Jee main session 2: the jee main 2024 session 2 day 1 is over students can check and download the latest question paper with the answer key here. the expert-verified memory-based questions of jee main 2024 session 2 are available here. .

JEE Main 2024 Session 2 Key Highlights

Key pointers of jee main 2024 session 2 memory-based questions.

Disclaimer: Remember, these are memory-based questions, and the actual structure or details might differ slightly.

General Observations: This information is based on reports and feedback from students who took the exam in both shifts (Shift 1 & 2). Official answer keys haven't been released yet.

JEE Main 2024 Session 2 Memory-Based Questions (Shift 1)

Jee main 2024 session 2 memory-based questions (shift 2).

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