the book review or article critique

How to Write Critical Reviews

When you are asked to write a critical review of a book or article, you will need to identify, summarize, and evaluate the ideas and information the author has presented. In other words, you will be examining another person’s thoughts on a topic from your point of view.

Your stand must go beyond your “gut reaction” to the work and be based on your knowledge (readings, lecture, experience) of the topic as well as on factors such as criteria stated in your assignment or discussed by you and your instructor.

Make your stand clear at the beginning of your review, in your evaluations of specific parts, and in your concluding commentary.

Remember that your goal should be to make a few key points about the book or article, not to discuss everything the author writes.

Understanding the Assignment

To write a good critical review, you will have to engage in the mental processes of analyzing (taking apart) the work–deciding what its major components are and determining how these parts (i.e., paragraphs, sections, or chapters) contribute to the work as a whole.

Analyzing the work will help you focus on how and why the author makes certain points and prevent you from merely summarizing what the author says. Assuming the role of an analytical reader will also help you to determine whether or not the author fulfills the stated purpose of the book or article and enhances your understanding or knowledge of a particular topic.

Be sure to read your assignment thoroughly before you read the article or book. Your instructor may have included specific guidelines for you to follow. Keeping these guidelines in mind as you read the article or book can really help you write your paper!

Also, note where the work connects with what you’ve studied in the course. You can make the most efficient use of your reading and notetaking time if you are an active reader; that is, keep relevant questions in mind and jot down page numbers as well as your responses to ideas that appear to be significant as you read.

Please note: The length of your introduction and overview, the number of points you choose to review, and the length of your conclusion should be proportionate to the page limit stated in your assignment and should reflect the complexity of the material being reviewed as well as the expectations of your reader.

Write the introduction

Below are a few guidelines to help you write the introduction to your critical review.

Introduce your review appropriately

Begin your review with an introduction appropriate to your assignment.

If your assignment asks you to review only one book and not to use outside sources, your introduction will focus on identifying the author, the title, the main topic or issue presented in the book, and the author’s purpose in writing the book.

If your assignment asks you to review the book as it relates to issues or themes discussed in the course, or to review two or more books on the same topic, your introduction must also encompass those expectations.

Explain relationships

For example, before you can review two books on a topic, you must explain to your reader in your introduction how they are related to one another.

Within this shared context (or under this “umbrella”) you can then review comparable aspects of both books, pointing out where the authors agree and differ.

In other words, the more complicated your assignment is, the more your introduction must accomplish.

Finally, the introduction to a book review is always the place for you to establish your position as the reviewer (your thesis about the author’s thesis).

As you write, consider the following questions:

• Is the book a memoir, a treatise, a collection of facts, an extended argument, etc.? Is the article a documentary, a write-up of primary research, a position paper, etc.?
• Who is the author? What does the preface or foreword tell you about the author’s purpose, background, and credentials? What is the author’s approach to the topic (as a journalist? a historian? a researcher?)?
• What is the main topic or problem addressed? How does the work relate to a discipline, to a profession, to a particular audience, or to other works on the topic?
• What is your critical evaluation of the work (your thesis)? Why have you taken that position? What criteria are you basing your position on?

Provide an overview

In your introduction, you will also want to provide an overview. An overview supplies your reader with certain general information not appropriate for including in the introduction but necessary to understanding the body of the review.

Generally, an overview describes your book’s division into chapters, sections, or points of discussion. An overview may also include background information about the topic, about your stand, or about the criteria you will use for evaluation.

The overview and the introduction work together to provide a comprehensive beginning for (a “springboard” into) your review.

• What are the author’s basic premises? What issues are raised, or what themes emerge? What situation (i.e., racism on college campuses) provides a basis for the author’s assertions?
• How informed is my reader? What background information is relevant to the entire book and should be placed here rather than in a body paragraph?

Write the body

The body is the center of your paper, where you draw out your main arguments. Below are some guidelines to help you write it.

Organize using a logical plan

Organize the body of your review according to a logical plan. Here are two options:

• First, summarize, in a series of paragraphs, those major points from the book that you plan to discuss; incorporating each major point into a topic sentence for a paragraph is an effective organizational strategy. Second, discuss and evaluate these points in a following group of paragraphs. (There are two dangers lurking in this pattern–you may allot too many paragraphs to summary and too few to evaluation, or you may re-summarize too many points from the book in your evaluation section.)
• Alternatively, you can summarize and evaluate the major points you have chosen from the book in a point-by-point schema. That means you will discuss and evaluate point one within the same paragraph (or in several if the point is significant and warrants extended discussion) before you summarize and evaluate point two, point three, etc., moving in a logical sequence from point to point to point. Here again, it is effective to use the topic sentence of each paragraph to identify the point from the book that you plan to summarize or evaluate.

Questions to keep in mind as you write

With either organizational pattern, consider the following questions:

• What are the author’s most important points? How do these relate to one another? (Make relationships clear by using transitions: “In contrast,” an equally strong argument,” “moreover,” “a final conclusion,” etc.).
• What types of evidence or information does the author present to support his or her points? Is this evidence convincing, controversial, factual, one-sided, etc.? (Consider the use of primary historical material, case studies, narratives, recent scientific findings, statistics.)
• Where does the author do a good job of conveying factual material as well as personal perspective? Where does the author fail to do so? If solutions to a problem are offered, are they believable, misguided, or promising?
• Which parts of the work (particular arguments, descriptions, chapters, etc.) are most effective and which parts are least effective? Why?
• Where (if at all) does the author convey personal prejudice, support illogical relationships, or present evidence out of its appropriate context?

Keep your opinions distinct and cite your sources

Remember, as you discuss the author’s major points, be sure to distinguish consistently between the author’s opinions and your own.

Keep the summary portions of your discussion concise, remembering that your task as a reviewer is to re-see the author’s work, not to re-tell it.

And, importantly, if you refer to ideas from other books and articles or from lecture and course materials, always document your sources, or else you might wander into the realm of plagiarism.

Include only that material which has relevance for your review and use direct quotations sparingly. The Writing Center has other handouts to help you paraphrase text and introduce quotations.

Write the conclusion

You will want to use the conclusion to state your overall critical evaluation.

You have already discussed the major points the author makes, examined how the author supports arguments, and evaluated the quality or effectiveness of specific aspects of the book or article.

Now you must make an evaluation of the work as a whole, determining such things as whether or not the author achieves the stated or implied purpose and if the work makes a significant contribution to an existing body of knowledge.

Consider the following questions:

• Is the work appropriately subjective or objective according to the author’s purpose?
• How well does the work maintain its stated or implied focus? Does the author present extraneous material? Does the author exclude or ignore relevant information?
• How well has the author achieved the overall purpose of the book or article? What contribution does the work make to an existing body of knowledge or to a specific group of readers? Can you justify the use of this work in a particular course?
• What is the most important final comment you wish to make about the book or article? Do you have any suggestions for the direction of future research in the area? What has reading this work done for you or demonstrated to you?

Academic and Professional Writing

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Play Reviews

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Reviews and Reaction Papers

Article and book reviews.

Some assignments may ask you to write a review of a book or journal article. Sometimes, students think a book report and a book review are the same. However, there are significant differences.

A  book report  summarizes the contents of the book, but a  book review  is a critical analysis of the book that describes, summarizes, and critiques the ideas in the book. A review is a means of going beyond the literal content of a source and is a tool for connecting ideas from a variety of academic sources. A review provides an objective analysis of ideas, support for opinions, and a way to evaluate your own opinions.

Why are book reviews beneficial to write?

Some instructors like to assign book reviews to help students broaden their view of the subject matter and to give students practice in critically evaluating ideas in the subject area. Instructors often require that students follow existing review formats modeled in the journals in their disciplines. 

If you are asked to use such formats, remember that citations for books and journal articles differ from discipline to discipline. Find out which style guide is appropriate for the discipline in which you are writing. (Refer to the discussion of style manuals in chapter 5 of this guide for more information.)

Reviews let you relate to authors and agree or disagree with their ideas. A review allows you to examine your understanding of a subject area in light of the ideas presented in the reviewed book and interact with the author and his or her ideas. Also, a book review helps your instructor evaluate your understanding of the subject matter and your ability to think competently in your discipline.

Here are some questions to keep in mind when you are writing a book review:

What exactly is the subject of the book? What are the author’s credentials to write about this subject? Is the title suggestive? Does the preface contain information about the author’s purpose?

What is the author’s thesis? Is it clearly stated, or do you have to dig it out of the facts and opinions? Does the author present the ideas in a balanced way? What are the author’s biases?

What organizational approach does the author use? Does the chosen organization support the author’s thesis effectively?

What conclusion or conclusions does the author draw? Does the conclusion agree with the thesis or stated purposes? How does the conclusion differ from or agree with your course textbook or other books you have read?

How has this book helped you understand the subject you are studying in the course? Would you recommend the book to your reader?

As you write your review, ask yourself these questions:

Have I represented the author and the ideas presented in the book in a fair and balanced way?

Does the ethical tone of my review prompt the reader to trust my judgment? (You may want to review the discussion on writing arguments in this chapter.)

Does my review reflect the interests of my readers and fulfill my reasons for writing the review?

Have I demonstrated my understanding of the content of the article or book I’m reviewing? Have I clearly addressed the major issues in the subject area?

Have I clearly stated my own biases as a reviewer?

Have I clearly expressed my position about how much or how little the author has contributed to my understanding of the subject in question? Have I recommended or not recommended the book to other prospective readers?

Have I checked my review for organizational, grammatical, and mechanical errors?

Key Takeaway

A book review or article review is a critical analysis of the material that describes, summarizes, and critiques the ideas presented. The purpose of a book or article review assignment is to broaden your knowledge base and understanding of a topic.

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Table of Contents: Online Guide to Writing

Chapter 1: College Writing

How Does College Writing Differ from Workplace Writing?

What Is College Writing?

Why So Much Emphasis on Writing?

Chapter 2: The Writing Process

Doing Exploratory Research

Getting from Notes to Your Draft

Introduction

Prewriting - Techniques to Get Started - Mining Your Intuition

Prewriting: Targeting Your Audience

Prewriting: Techniques to Get Started

Prewriting: Understanding Your Assignment

Rewriting: Being Your Own Critic

Rewriting: Creating a Revision Strategy

Rewriting: Getting Feedback

Rewriting: The Final Draft

Techniques to Get Started - Outlining

Techniques to Get Started - Using Systematic Techniques

Thesis Statement and Controlling Idea

Writing: Getting from Notes to Your Draft - Freewriting

Writing: Getting from Notes to Your Draft - Summarizing Your Ideas

Writing: Outlining What You Will Write

Chapter 3: Thinking Strategies

A Word About Style, Voice, and Tone

A Word About Style, Voice, and Tone: Style Through Vocabulary and Diction

Critical Strategies and Writing

Critical Strategies and Writing: Analysis

Critical Strategies and Writing: Evaluation

Critical Strategies and Writing: Persuasion

Critical Strategies and Writing: Synthesis

Developing a Paper Using Strategies

Kinds of Assignments You Will Write

Patterns for Presenting Information

Patterns for Presenting Information: Critiques

Patterns for Presenting Information: Discussing Raw Data

Patterns for Presenting Information: General-to-Specific Pattern

Patterns for Presenting Information: Problem-Cause-Solution Pattern

Patterns for Presenting Information: Specific-to-General Pattern

Patterns for Presenting Information: Summaries and Abstracts

Supporting with Research and Examples

Writing Essay Examinations

Writing Essay Examinations: Make Your Answer Relevant and Complete

Writing Essay Examinations: Organize Thinking Before Writing

Writing Essay Examinations: Read and Understand the Question

Chapter 4: The Research Process

Planning and Writing a Research Paper

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Ask a Research Question

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Cite Sources

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Collect Evidence

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Decide Your Point of View, or Role, for Your Research

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Draw Conclusions

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Find a Topic and Get an Overview

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Manage Your Resources

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Outline

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Survey the Literature

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Work Your Sources into Your Research Writing

Research Resources: Where Are Research Resources Found? - Human Resources

Research Resources: What Are Research Resources?

Research Resources: Where Are Research Resources Found?

Research Resources: Where Are Research Resources Found? - Electronic Resources

Research Resources: Where Are Research Resources Found? - Print Resources

Structuring the Research Paper: Formal Research Structure

Structuring the Research Paper: Informal Research Structure

The Nature of Research

The Research Assignment: How Should Research Sources Be Evaluated?

The Research Assignment: When Is Research Needed?

The Research Assignment: Why Perform Research?

Chapter 5: Academic Integrity

Academic Integrity

Giving Credit to Sources

Giving Credit to Sources: Copyright Laws

Giving Credit to Sources: Documentation

Giving Credit to Sources: Style Guides

Integrating Sources

Practicing Academic Integrity

Practicing Academic Integrity: Keeping Accurate Records

Practicing Academic Integrity: Managing Source Material

Practicing Academic Integrity: Managing Source Material - Paraphrasing Your Source

Practicing Academic Integrity: Managing Source Material - Quoting Your Source

Practicing Academic Integrity: Managing Source Material - Summarizing Your Sources

Types of Documentation

Types of Documentation: Bibliographies and Source Lists

Types of Documentation: Citing World Wide Web Sources

Types of Documentation: In-Text or Parenthetical Citations

Types of Documentation: In-Text or Parenthetical Citations - APA Style

Types of Documentation: In-Text or Parenthetical Citations - CSE/CBE Style

Types of Documentation: In-Text or Parenthetical Citations - Chicago Style

Types of Documentation: In-Text or Parenthetical Citations - MLA Style

Types of Documentation: Note Citations

Chapter 6: Using Library Resources

Finding Library Resources

Chapter 7: Assessing Your Writing

How Is Writing Graded?

How Is Writing Graded?: A General Assessment Tool

The Draft Stage

The Draft Stage: The First Draft

The Draft Stage: The Revision Process and the Final Draft

The Draft Stage: Using Feedback

The Research Stage

Using Assessment to Improve Your Writing

Chapter 8: Other Frequently Assigned Papers

Reviews and Reaction Papers: Article and Book Reviews

Reviews and Reaction Papers: Reaction Papers

Writing Arguments

Writing Arguments: Adapting the Argument Structure

Writing Arguments: Purposes of Argument

Writing Arguments: References to Consult for Writing Arguments

Writing Arguments: Steps to Writing an Argument - Anticipate Active Opposition

Writing Arguments: Steps to Writing an Argument - Determine Your Organization

Writing Arguments: Steps to Writing an Argument - Develop Your Argument

Writing Arguments: Steps to Writing an Argument - Introduce Your Argument

Writing Arguments: Steps to Writing an Argument - State Your Thesis or Proposition

Writing Arguments: Steps to Writing an Argument - Write Your Conclusion

Writing Arguments: Types of Argument

Appendix A: Books to Help Improve Your Writing

Dictionaries

General Style Manuals

Researching on the Internet

Special Style Manuals

Writing Handbooks

Appendix B: Collaborative Writing and Peer Reviewing

Collaborative Writing: Assignments to Accompany the Group Project

Collaborative Writing: Informal Progress Report

Collaborative Writing: Issues to Resolve

Collaborative Writing: Methodology

Collaborative Writing: Peer Evaluation

Collaborative Writing: Tasks of Collaborative Writing Group Members

Collaborative Writing: Writing Plan

General Introduction

Peer Reviewing

Appendix C: Developing an Improvement Plan

Working with Your Instructor’s Comments and Grades

Appendix D: Writing Plan and Project Schedule

Devising a Writing Project Plan and Schedule

Reviewing Your Plan with Others

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Book Reviews

What this handout is about.

This handout will help you write a book review, a report or essay that offers a critical perspective on a text. It offers a process and suggests some strategies for writing book reviews.

What is a review?

A review is a critical evaluation of a text, event, object, or phenomenon. Reviews can consider books, articles, entire genres or fields of literature, architecture, art, fashion, restaurants, policies, exhibitions, performances, and many other forms. This handout will focus on book reviews. For a similar assignment, see our handout on literature reviews .

Above all, a review makes an argument. The most important element of a review is that it is a commentary, not merely a summary. It allows you to enter into dialogue and discussion with the work’s creator and with other audiences. You can offer agreement or disagreement and identify where you find the work exemplary or deficient in its knowledge, judgments, or organization. You should clearly state your opinion of the work in question, and that statement will probably resemble other types of academic writing, with a thesis statement, supporting body paragraphs, and a conclusion.

Typically, reviews are brief. In newspapers and academic journals, they rarely exceed 1000 words, although you may encounter lengthier assignments and extended commentaries. In either case, reviews need to be succinct. While they vary in tone, subject, and style, they share some common features:

• First, a review gives the reader a concise summary of the content. This includes a relevant description of the topic as well as its overall perspective, argument, or purpose.
• Second, and more importantly, a review offers a critical assessment of the content. This involves your reactions to the work under review: what strikes you as noteworthy, whether or not it was effective or persuasive, and how it enhanced your understanding of the issues at hand.
• Finally, in addition to analyzing the work, a review often suggests whether or not the audience would appreciate it.

Becoming an expert reviewer: three short examples

Reviewing can be a daunting task. Someone has asked for your opinion about something that you may feel unqualified to evaluate. Who are you to criticize Toni Morrison’s new book if you’ve never written a novel yourself, much less won a Nobel Prize? The point is that someone—a professor, a journal editor, peers in a study group—wants to know what you think about a particular work. You may not be (or feel like) an expert, but you need to pretend to be one for your particular audience. Nobody expects you to be the intellectual equal of the work’s creator, but your careful observations can provide you with the raw material to make reasoned judgments. Tactfully voicing agreement and disagreement, praise and criticism, is a valuable, challenging skill, and like many forms of writing, reviews require you to provide concrete evidence for your assertions.

Consider the following brief book review written for a history course on medieval Europe by a student who is fascinated with beer:

Judith Bennett’s Ale, Beer, and Brewsters in England: Women’s Work in a Changing World, 1300-1600, investigates how women used to brew and sell the majority of ale drunk in England. Historically, ale and beer (not milk, wine, or water) were important elements of the English diet. Ale brewing was low-skill and low status labor that was complimentary to women’s domestic responsibilities. In the early fifteenth century, brewers began to make ale with hops, and they called this new drink “beer.” This technique allowed brewers to produce their beverages at a lower cost and to sell it more easily, although women generally stopped brewing once the business became more profitable.

The student describes the subject of the book and provides an accurate summary of its contents. But the reader does not learn some key information expected from a review: the author’s argument, the student’s appraisal of the book and its argument, and whether or not the student would recommend the book. As a critical assessment, a book review should focus on opinions, not facts and details. Summary should be kept to a minimum, and specific details should serve to illustrate arguments.

Now consider a review of the same book written by a slightly more opinionated student:

Judith Bennett’s Ale, Beer, and Brewsters in England: Women’s Work in a Changing World, 1300-1600 was a colossal disappointment. I wanted to know about the rituals surrounding drinking in medieval England: the songs, the games, the parties. Bennett provided none of that information. I liked how the book showed ale and beer brewing as an economic activity, but the reader gets lost in the details of prices and wages. I was more interested in the private lives of the women brewsters. The book was divided into eight long chapters, and I can’t imagine why anyone would ever want to read it.

There’s no shortage of judgments in this review! But the student does not display a working knowledge of the book’s argument. The reader has a sense of what the student expected of the book, but no sense of what the author herself set out to prove. Although the student gives several reasons for the negative review, those examples do not clearly relate to each other as part of an overall evaluation—in other words, in support of a specific thesis. This review is indeed an assessment, but not a critical one.

Here is one final review of the same book:

One of feminism’s paradoxes—one that challenges many of its optimistic histories—is how patriarchy remains persistent over time. While Judith Bennett’s Ale, Beer, and Brewsters in England: Women’s Work in a Changing World, 1300-1600 recognizes medieval women as historical actors through their ale brewing, it also shows that female agency had its limits with the advent of beer. I had assumed that those limits were religious and political, but Bennett shows how a “patriarchal equilibrium” shut women out of economic life as well. Her analysis of women’s wages in ale and beer production proves that a change in women’s work does not equate to a change in working women’s status. Contemporary feminists and historians alike should read Bennett’s book and think twice when they crack open their next brewsky.

This student’s review avoids the problems of the previous two examples. It combines balanced opinion and concrete example, a critical assessment based on an explicitly stated rationale, and a recommendation to a potential audience. The reader gets a sense of what the book’s author intended to demonstrate. Moreover, the student refers to an argument about feminist history in general that places the book in a specific genre and that reaches out to a general audience. The example of analyzing wages illustrates an argument, the analysis engages significant intellectual debates, and the reasons for the overall positive review are plainly visible. The review offers criteria, opinions, and support with which the reader can agree or disagree.

Developing an assessment: before you write

There is no definitive method to writing a review, although some critical thinking about the work at hand is necessary before you actually begin writing. Thus, writing a review is a two-step process: developing an argument about the work under consideration, and making that argument as you write an organized and well-supported draft. See our handout on argument .

What follows is a series of questions to focus your thinking as you dig into the work at hand. While the questions specifically consider book reviews, you can easily transpose them to an analysis of performances, exhibitions, and other review subjects. Don’t feel obligated to address each of the questions; some will be more relevant than others to the book in question.

• What is the thesis—or main argument—of the book? If the author wanted you to get one idea from the book, what would it be? How does it compare or contrast to the world you know? What has the book accomplished?
• What exactly is the subject or topic of the book? Does the author cover the subject adequately? Does the author cover all aspects of the subject in a balanced fashion? What is the approach to the subject (topical, analytical, chronological, descriptive)?
• How does the author support their argument? What evidence do they use to prove their point? Do you find that evidence convincing? Why or why not? Does any of the author’s information (or conclusions) conflict with other books you’ve read, courses you’ve taken or just previous assumptions you had of the subject?
• How does the author structure their argument? What are the parts that make up the whole? Does the argument make sense? Does it persuade you? Why or why not?
• How has this book helped you understand the subject? Would you recommend the book to your reader?

Beyond the internal workings of the book, you may also consider some information about the author and the circumstances of the text’s production:

• Who is the author? Nationality, political persuasion, training, intellectual interests, personal history, and historical context may provide crucial details about how a work takes shape. Does it matter, for example, that the biographer was the subject’s best friend? What difference would it make if the author participated in the events they write about?
• What is the book’s genre? Out of what field does it emerge? Does it conform to or depart from the conventions of its genre? These questions can provide a historical or literary standard on which to base your evaluations. If you are reviewing the first book ever written on the subject, it will be important for your readers to know. Keep in mind, though, that naming “firsts”—alongside naming “bests” and “onlys”—can be a risky business unless you’re absolutely certain.

Writing the review

Once you have made your observations and assessments of the work under review, carefully survey your notes and attempt to unify your impressions into a statement that will describe the purpose or thesis of your review. Check out our handout on thesis statements . Then, outline the arguments that support your thesis.

Your arguments should develop the thesis in a logical manner. That logic, unlike more standard academic writing, may initially emphasize the author’s argument while you develop your own in the course of the review. The relative emphasis depends on the nature of the review: if readers may be more interested in the work itself, you may want to make the work and the author more prominent; if you want the review to be about your perspective and opinions, then you may structure the review to privilege your observations over (but never separate from) those of the work under review. What follows is just one of many ways to organize a review.

Introduction

Since most reviews are brief, many writers begin with a catchy quip or anecdote that succinctly delivers their argument. But you can introduce your review differently depending on the argument and audience. The Writing Center’s handout on introductions can help you find an approach that works. In general, you should include:

• The name of the author and the book title and the main theme.
• Relevant details about who the author is and where they stand in the genre or field of inquiry. You could also link the title to the subject to show how the title explains the subject matter.
• The context of the book and/or your review. Placing your review in a framework that makes sense to your audience alerts readers to your “take” on the book. Perhaps you want to situate a book about the Cuban revolution in the context of Cold War rivalries between the United States and the Soviet Union. Another reviewer might want to consider the book in the framework of Latin American social movements. Your choice of context informs your argument.
• The thesis of the book. If you are reviewing fiction, this may be difficult since novels, plays, and short stories rarely have explicit arguments. But identifying the book’s particular novelty, angle, or originality allows you to show what specific contribution the piece is trying to make.
• Your thesis about the book.

Summary of content

This should be brief, as analysis takes priority. In the course of making your assessment, you’ll hopefully be backing up your assertions with concrete evidence from the book, so some summary will be dispersed throughout other parts of the review.

The necessary amount of summary also depends on your audience. Graduate students, beware! If you are writing book reviews for colleagues—to prepare for comprehensive exams, for example—you may want to devote more attention to summarizing the book’s contents. If, on the other hand, your audience has already read the book—such as a class assignment on the same work—you may have more liberty to explore more subtle points and to emphasize your own argument. See our handout on summary for more tips.

Analysis and evaluation of the book

Your analysis and evaluation should be organized into paragraphs that deal with single aspects of your argument. This arrangement can be challenging when your purpose is to consider the book as a whole, but it can help you differentiate elements of your criticism and pair assertions with evidence more clearly. You do not necessarily need to work chronologically through the book as you discuss it. Given the argument you want to make, you can organize your paragraphs more usefully by themes, methods, or other elements of the book. If you find it useful to include comparisons to other books, keep them brief so that the book under review remains in the spotlight. Avoid excessive quotation and give a specific page reference in parentheses when you do quote. Remember that you can state many of the author’s points in your own words.

Sum up or restate your thesis or make the final judgment regarding the book. You should not introduce new evidence for your argument in the conclusion. You can, however, introduce new ideas that go beyond the book if they extend the logic of your own thesis. This paragraph needs to balance the book’s strengths and weaknesses in order to unify your evaluation. Did the body of your review have three negative paragraphs and one favorable one? What do they all add up to? The Writing Center’s handout on conclusions can help you make a final assessment.

Finally, a few general considerations:

• Review the book in front of you, not the book you wish the author had written. You can and should point out shortcomings or failures, but don’t criticize the book for not being something it was never intended to be.
• With any luck, the author of the book worked hard to find the right words to express her ideas. You should attempt to do the same. Precise language allows you to control the tone of your review.
• Never hesitate to challenge an assumption, approach, or argument. Be sure, however, to cite specific examples to back up your assertions carefully.
• Try to present a balanced argument about the value of the book for its audience. You’re entitled—and sometimes obligated—to voice strong agreement or disagreement. But keep in mind that a bad book takes as long to write as a good one, and every author deserves fair treatment. Harsh judgments are difficult to prove and can give readers the sense that you were unfair in your assessment.
• A great place to learn about book reviews is to look at examples. The New York Times Sunday Book Review and The New York Review of Books can show you how professional writers review books.

Works consulted

We consulted these works while writing this handout. This is not a comprehensive list of resources on the handout’s topic, and we encourage you to do your own research to find additional publications. Please do not use this list as a model for the format of your own reference list, as it may not match the citation style you are using. For guidance on formatting citations, please see the UNC Libraries citation tutorial . We revise these tips periodically and welcome feedback.

Drewry, John. 1974. Writing Book Reviews. Boston: Greenwood Press.

Hoge, James. 1987. Literary Reviewing. Charlottesville: University Virginia of Press.

Sova, Dawn, and Harry Teitelbaum. 2002. How to Write Book Reports , 4th ed. Lawrenceville, NY: Thomson/Arco.

Walford, A.J. 1986. Reviews and Reviewing: A Guide. Phoenix: Oryx Press.

You may reproduce it for non-commercial use if you use the entire handout and attribute the source: The Writing Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

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Organizing Research for Arts and Humanities Papers and Theses

• General Guide Information
• Developing a Topic
• What are Primary and Secondary Sources
• What are Scholarly and Non-Scholarly Sources
• Writing an Abstract
• Writing Academic Book Reviews
• Writing A Literature Review
• Using Images and other Media

Purpose of a Book Review

Note: This information is geared toward researchers in the arts and humanities. For a detailed guide on writing book reviews in the social sciences, please check the USC Libraries guide to  Writing and Organizing Research in the Social Sciences , authored by Dr. Robert Labaree.

When writing an academic book review, start with a bibliographic citation of the book you are reviewing [e.g., author, title, publication information, length]. Adhere to a particular citation style, such as Chicago, MLA, or APA.  Put your name at the very end of the book review text.

The basic purpose of a book review is to convey and evaluate the following:

a.     what the book is about;

b.     the expertise of the author(s);

c.     how well the book covers its topic(s) and whether it breaks new ground;

d.     the author’s viewpoint, methodology, or perspective;

e.     the appropriateness of the evidence to the topical scope of the book;

f.      the intended audience;

g.     the arrangement of the book (chapters, illustrations) and the quality of the scholarly apparatus, such as notes and bibliographies.

Point "c. how well the book covers its topics and whether it breaks new ground" requires your engagement with the book, and can be approached in a variety of ways. The question of whether the book breaks new ground does not necessarily refer to some radical or overarching notion of originality in the author’s argument. A lot of contemporary scholarship in the arts or humanities is not about completely reorienting the discipline, nor is it usually about arguing a thesis that has never been argued before. If an author does that, that's wonderful, and you, as a book reviewer, must look at the validity of the methods that contextualize the author's new argument.

It is more likely that the author of a scholarly book will look at the existing evidence with a finer eye for detail, and use that detail to amplify and add to existing scholarship. The author may present new evidence or a new "reading" of the existing evidence, in order to refine scholarship and to contribute to current debate. Or the author may approach existing scholarship, events, and prevailing ideas from a more nuanced perspective, thus re-framing the debate within the discipline.

The task of the book reviewer is to “tease out” the book’s themes, explain them in the review, and apply a well-argued judgment on the appropriateness of the book’s argument(s) to the existing scholarship in the field.

For example, you are reviewing a book on the history of the development of public libraries in nineteenth century America. The book includes a chapter on the role of patronage by affluent women in endowing public libraries in the mid-to-late-1800s. In this chapter, the author argues that the role of women was overlooked in previous scholarship because most of them were widows who made their financial bequests to libraries in the names of their husbands. The author argues that the history of public library patronage, and moreover, of cultural patronage, should be re-read and possibly re-framed given the evidence presented in this chapter. As a book reviewer you will be expected to evaluate this argument and the underlying scholarship.

There are two common types of academic book reviews: short summary reviews, which are descriptive, and essay-length critical reviews. Both types are described further down.

[Parenthetically, writing an academic/scholarly book review may present an opportunity to get published.]

Short summary book reviews

For a short, descriptive review, include at least the following elements:

a.     the bibliographic citation for the book;

b.     the purpose of the book;

c.     a summary of main theme(s) or key points;

d.     if there is space, a brief description of the book’s relationship to other books on the same topic or to pertinent scholarship in the field.

e.     note the author's affiliation and authority, as well as the physical content of the book, such as visual materials (photographs, illustrations, graphs) and the presence of scholarly apparatus (table of contents, index, bibliography, footnotes, endnotes, credit for visual materials);

f.     your name and affiliation.

Critical or essay-length book reviews

For a critical, essay-length book review consider including the following elements, depending on their relevance to your assignment:

b.     an opening statement that ought to peak the reader’s interest in the book under review

c.     a section that points to the author’s main intentions;

d.     a section that discusses the author’s ideas and the book’s thesis within a scholarly perspective. This should be a critical assessment of the book within the larger scholarly discourse;

e.     if you found errors in the book, point the major ones and explain their significance. Explain whether they detract from the thesis and the arguments made in the book;

f.     state the book's place within a strand of scholarship and summarize its importance to the discipline;

g.    include information about the author's affiliation and authority, as well as the physical content of the book, such as visual materials (photographs, illustrations, graphs) and the presence of scholarly apparatus (table of contents, index, bibliography, footnotes, endnotes, credit for visual materials);

h.     indicate the intended readership of the book and whether the author succeeds in engaging the audience on the appropriate level;

i.     your name and affiliation.

Good examples of essay-length reviews may be found in the scholarly journals included in the JSTOR collection, in the New York Review of Books , and similar types of publications, and in cultural publications like the New Yorker magazine.

Remember to keep track of your sources, regardless of the stage of your research. The USC Libraries have an excellent guide to  citation styles  and to  citation management software . 

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17 book review examples to help you write the perfect review.

It’s an exciting time to be a book reviewer. Once confined to print newspapers and journals, reviews now dot many corridors of the Internet — forever helping others discover their next great read. That said, every book reviewer will face a familiar panic: how can you do justice to a great book in just a thousand words?

As you know, the best way to learn how to do something is by immersing yourself in it. Luckily, the Internet (i.e. Goodreads and other review sites , in particular) has made book reviews more accessible than ever — which means that there are a lot of book reviews examples out there for you to view!

In this post, we compiled 17 prototypical book review examples in multiple genres to help you figure out how to write the perfect review . If you want to jump straight to the examples, you can skip the next section. Otherwise, let’s first check out what makes up a good review.

Are you interested in becoming a book reviewer? We recommend you check out Reedsy Discovery , where you can earn money for writing reviews — and are guaranteed people will read your reviews! To register as a book reviewer, sign up here.

Pro-tip : But wait! How are you sure if you should become a book reviewer in the first place? If you're on the fence, or curious about your match with a book reviewing career, take our quick quiz:

Should you become a book reviewer?

Find out the answer. Takes 30 seconds!

What must a book review contain?

Like all works of art, no two book reviews will be identical. But fear not: there are a few guidelines for any aspiring book reviewer to follow. Most book reviews, for instance, are less than 1,500 words long, with the sweet spot hitting somewhere around the 1,000-word mark. (However, this may vary depending on the platform on which you’re writing, as we’ll see later.)

In addition, all reviews share some universal elements, as shown in our book review templates . These include:

• A review will offer a concise plot summary of the book. 
• A book review will offer an evaluation of the work. 
• A book review will offer a recommendation for the audience. 

If these are the basic ingredients that make up a book review, it’s the tone and style with which the book reviewer writes that brings the extra panache. This will differ from platform to platform, of course. A book review on Goodreads, for instance, will be much more informal and personal than a book review on Kirkus Reviews, as it is catering to a different audience. However, at the end of the day, the goal of all book reviews is to give the audience the tools to determine whether or not they’d like to read the book themselves.

Keeping that in mind, let’s proceed to some book review examples to put all of this in action.

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Book review examples for fiction books

Since story is king in the world of fiction, it probably won’t come as any surprise to learn that a book review for a novel will concentrate on how well the story was told .

That said, book reviews in all genres follow the same basic formula that we discussed earlier. In these examples, you’ll be able to see how book reviewers on different platforms expertly intertwine the plot summary and their personal opinions of the book to produce a clear, informative, and concise review.

Note: Some of the book review examples run very long. If a book review is truncated in this post, we’ve indicated by including a […] at the end, but you can always read the entire review if you click on the link provided.

Examples of literary fiction book reviews

Kirkus Reviews reviews Ralph Ellison’s The Invisible Man :

An extremely powerful story of a young Southern Negro, from his late high school days through three years of college to his life in Harlem.

His early training prepared him for a life of humility before white men, but through injustices- large and small, he came to realize that he was an "invisible man". People saw in him only a reflection of their preconceived ideas of what he was, denied his individuality, and ultimately did not see him at all. This theme, which has implications far beyond the obvious racial parallel, is skillfully handled. The incidents of the story are wholly absorbing. The boy's dismissal from college because of an innocent mistake, his shocked reaction to the anonymity of the North and to Harlem, his nightmare experiences on a one-day job in a paint factory and in the hospital, his lightning success as the Harlem leader of a communistic organization known as the Brotherhood, his involvement in black versus white and black versus black clashes and his disillusion and understanding of his invisibility- all climax naturally in scenes of violence and riot, followed by a retreat which is both literal and figurative. Parts of this experience may have been told before, but never with such freshness, intensity and power.

This is Ellison's first novel, but he has complete control of his story and his style. Watch it.

Lyndsey reviews George Orwell’s 1984 on Goodreads:

YOU. ARE. THE. DEAD. Oh my God. I got the chills so many times toward the end of this book. It completely blew my mind. It managed to surpass my high expectations AND be nothing at all like I expected. Or in Newspeak "Double Plus Good." Let me preface this with an apology. If I sound stunningly inarticulate at times in this review, I can't help it. My mind is completely fried.

This book is like the dystopian Lord of the Rings, with its richly developed culture and economics, not to mention a fully developed language called Newspeak, or rather more of the anti-language, whose purpose is to limit speech and understanding instead of to enhance and expand it. The world-building is so fully fleshed out and spine-tinglingly terrifying that it's almost as if George travelled to such a place, escaped from it, and then just wrote it all down.

I read Fahrenheit 451 over ten years ago in my early teens. At the time, I remember really wanting to read 1984, although I never managed to get my hands on it. I'm almost glad I didn't. Though I would not have admitted it at the time, it would have gone over my head. Or at the very least, I wouldn't have been able to appreciate it fully. […]

The New York Times reviews Lisa Halliday’s Asymmetry :

Three-quarters of the way through Lisa Halliday’s debut novel, “Asymmetry,” a British foreign correspondent named Alistair is spending Christmas on a compound outside of Baghdad. His fellow revelers include cameramen, defense contractors, United Nations employees and aid workers. Someone’s mother has FedExed a HoneyBaked ham from Maine; people are smoking by the swimming pool. It is 2003, just days after Saddam Hussein’s capture, and though the mood is optimistic, Alistair is worrying aloud about the ethics of his chosen profession, wondering if reporting on violence doesn’t indirectly abet violence and questioning why he’d rather be in a combat zone than reading a picture book to his son. But every time he returns to London, he begins to “spin out.” He can’t go home. “You observe what people do with their freedom — what they don’t do — and it’s impossible not to judge them for it,” he says.

The line, embedded unceremoniously in the middle of a page-long paragraph, doubles, like so many others in “Asymmetry,” as literary criticism. Halliday’s novel is so strange and startlingly smart that its mere existence seems like commentary on the state of fiction. One finishes “Asymmetry” for the first or second (or like this reader, third) time and is left wondering what other writers are not doing with their freedom — and, like Alistair, judging them for it.

Despite its title, “Asymmetry” comprises two seemingly unrelated sections of equal length, appended by a slim and quietly shocking coda. Halliday’s prose is clean and lean, almost reportorial in the style of W. G. Sebald, and like the murmurings of a shy person at a cocktail party, often comic only in single clauses. It’s a first novel that reads like the work of an author who has published many books over many years. […]

Emily W. Thompson reviews Michael Doane's The Crossing on Reedsy Discovery :

In Doane’s debut novel, a young man embarks on a journey of self-discovery with surprising results.

An unnamed protagonist (The Narrator) is dealing with heartbreak. His love, determined to see the world, sets out for Portland, Oregon. But he’s a small-town boy who hasn’t traveled much. So, the Narrator mourns her loss and hides from life, throwing himself into rehabbing an old motorcycle. Until one day, he takes a leap; he packs his bike and a few belongings and heads out to find the Girl.

Following in the footsteps of Jack Kerouac and William Least Heat-Moon, Doane offers a coming of age story about a man finding himself on the backroads of America. Doane’s a gifted writer with fluid prose and insightful observations, using The Narrator’s personal interactions to illuminate the diversity of the United States.

The Narrator initially sticks to the highways, trying to make it to the West Coast as quickly as possible. But a hitchhiker named Duke convinces him to get off the beaten path and enjoy the ride. “There’s not a place that’s like any other,” [39] Dukes contends, and The Narrator realizes he’s right. Suddenly, the trip is about the journey, not just the destination. The Narrator ditches his truck and traverses the deserts and mountains on his bike. He destroys his phone, cutting off ties with his past and living only in the moment.

As he crosses the country, The Narrator connects with several unique personalities whose experiences and views deeply impact his own. Duke, the complicated cowboy and drifter, who opens The Narrator’s eyes to a larger world. Zooey, the waitress in Colorado who opens his heart and reminds him that love can be found in this big world. And Rosie, The Narrator’s sweet landlady in Portland, who helps piece him back together both physically and emotionally.

This supporting cast of characters is excellent. Duke, in particular, is wonderfully nuanced and complicated. He’s a throwback to another time, a man without a cell phone who reads Sartre and sleeps under the stars. Yet he’s also a grifter with a “love ‘em and leave ‘em” attitude that harms those around him. It’s fascinating to watch The Narrator wrestle with Duke’s behavior, trying to determine which to model and which to discard.

Doane creates a relatable protagonist in The Narrator, whose personal growth doesn’t erase his faults. His willingness to hit the road with few resources is admirable, and he’s prescient enough to recognize the jealousy of those who cannot or will not take the leap. His encounters with new foods, places, and people broaden his horizons. Yet his immaturity and selfishness persist. He tells Rosie she’s been a good mother to him but chooses to ignore the continuing concern from his own parents as he effectively disappears from his old life.

Despite his flaws, it’s a pleasure to accompany The Narrator on his physical and emotional journey. The unexpected ending is a fitting denouement to an epic and memorable road trip.

The Book Smugglers review Anissa Gray’s The Care and Feeding of Ravenously Hungry Girls :

I am still dipping my toes into the literally fiction pool, finding what works for me and what doesn’t. Books like The Care and Feeding of Ravenously Hungry Girls by Anissa Gray are definitely my cup of tea.

Althea and Proctor Cochran had been pillars of their economically disadvantaged community for years – with their local restaurant/small market and their charity drives. Until they are found guilty of fraud for stealing and keeping most of the money they raised and sent to jail. Now disgraced, their entire family is suffering the consequences, specially their twin teenage daughters Baby Vi and Kim.  To complicate matters even more: Kim was actually the one to call the police on her parents after yet another fight with her mother. […]

Examples of children’s and YA fiction book reviews

The Book Hookup reviews Angie Thomas’ The Hate U Give :

♥ Quick Thoughts and Rating: 5 stars! I can’t imagine how challenging it would be to tackle the voice of a movement like Black Lives Matter, but I do know that Thomas did it with a finesse only a talented author like herself possibly could. With an unapologetically realistic delivery packed with emotion, The Hate U Give is a crucially important portrayal of the difficulties minorities face in our country every single day. I have no doubt that this book will be met with resistance by some (possibly many) and slapped with a “controversial” label, but if you’ve ever wondered what it was like to walk in a POC’s shoes, then I feel like this is an unflinchingly honest place to start.

In Angie Thomas’s debut novel, Starr Carter bursts on to the YA scene with both heart-wrecking and heartwarming sincerity. This author is definitely one to watch.

♥ Review: The hype around this book has been unquestionable and, admittedly, that made me both eager to get my hands on it and terrified to read it. I mean, what if I was to be the one person that didn’t love it as much as others? (That seems silly now because of how truly mesmerizing THUG was in the most heartbreakingly realistic way.) However, with the relevancy of its summary in regards to the unjust predicaments POC currently face in the US, I knew this one was a must-read, so I was ready to set my fears aside and dive in. That said, I had an altogether more personal, ulterior motive for wanting to read this book. […]

The New York Times reviews Melissa Albert’s The Hazel Wood :

Alice Crewe (a last name she’s chosen for herself) is a fairy tale legacy: the granddaughter of Althea Proserpine, author of a collection of dark-as-night fairy tales called “Tales From the Hinterland.” The book has a cult following, and though Alice has never met her grandmother, she’s learned a little about her through internet research. She hasn’t read the stories, because her mother, Ella Proserpine, forbids it.

Alice and Ella have moved from place to place in an attempt to avoid the “bad luck” that seems to follow them. Weird things have happened. As a child, Alice was kidnapped by a man who took her on a road trip to find her grandmother; he was stopped by the police before they did so. When at 17 she sees that man again, unchanged despite the years, Alice panics. Then Ella goes missing, and Alice turns to Ellery Finch, a schoolmate who’s an Althea Proserpine superfan, for help in tracking down her mother. Not only has Finch read every fairy tale in the collection, but handily, he remembers them, sharing them with Alice as they journey to the mysterious Hazel Wood, the estate of her now-dead grandmother, where they hope to find Ella.

“The Hazel Wood” starts out strange and gets stranger, in the best way possible. (The fairy stories Finch relays, which Albert includes as their own chapters, are as creepy and evocative as you’d hope.) Albert seamlessly combines contemporary realism with fantasy, blurring the edges in a way that highlights that place where stories and real life convene, where magic contains truth and the world as it appears is false, where just about anything can happen, particularly in the pages of a very good book. It’s a captivating debut. […]

James reviews Margaret Wise Brown’s Goodnight, Moon on Goodreads:

Goodnight Moon by Margaret Wise Brown is one of the books that followers of my blog voted as a must-read for our Children's Book August 2018 Readathon. Come check it out and join the next few weeks!

This picture book was such a delight. I hadn't remembered reading it when I was a child, but it might have been read to me... either way, it was like a whole new experience! It's always so difficult to convince a child to fall asleep at night. I don't have kids, but I do have a 5-month-old puppy who whines for 5 minutes every night when he goes in his cage/crate (hopefully he'll be fully housebroken soon so he can roam around when he wants). I can only imagine! I babysat a lot as a teenager and I have tons of younger cousins, nieces, and nephews, so I've been through it before, too. This was a believable experience, and it really helps show kids how to relax and just let go when it's time to sleep.

The bunny's are adorable. The rhymes are exquisite. I found it pretty fun, but possibly a little dated given many of those things aren't normal routines anymore. But the lessons to take from it are still powerful. Loved it! I want to sample some more books by this fine author and her illustrators.

Publishers Weekly reviews Elizabeth Lilly’s Geraldine :

This funny, thoroughly accomplished debut opens with two words: “I’m moving.” They’re spoken by the title character while she swoons across her family’s ottoman, and because Geraldine is a giraffe, her full-on melancholy mode is quite a spectacle. But while Geraldine may be a drama queen (even her mother says so), it won’t take readers long to warm up to her. The move takes Geraldine from Giraffe City, where everyone is like her, to a new school, where everyone else is human. Suddenly, the former extrovert becomes “That Giraffe Girl,” and all she wants to do is hide, which is pretty much impossible. “Even my voice tries to hide,” she says, in the book’s most poignant moment. “It’s gotten quiet and whispery.” Then she meets Cassie, who, though human, is also an outlier (“I’m that girl who wears glasses and likes MATH and always organizes her food”), and things begin to look up.

Lilly’s watercolor-and-ink drawings are as vividly comic and emotionally astute as her writing; just when readers think there are no more ways for Geraldine to contort her long neck, this highly promising talent comes up with something new.

Examples of genre fiction book reviews

Karlyn P reviews Nora Roberts’ Dark Witch , a paranormal romance novel , on Goodreads:

4 stars. Great world-building, weak romance, but still worth the read.

I hesitate to describe this book as a 'romance' novel simply because the book spent little time actually exploring the romance between Iona and Boyle. Sure, there IS a romance in this novel. Sprinkled throughout the book are a few scenes where Iona and Boyle meet, chat, wink at each, flirt some more, sleep together, have a misunderstanding, make up, and then profess their undying love. Very formulaic stuff, and all woven around the more important parts of this book.

The meat of this book is far more focused on the story of the Dark witch and her magically-gifted descendants living in Ireland. Despite being weak on the romance, I really enjoyed it. I think the book is probably better for it, because the romance itself was pretty lackluster stuff.

I absolutely plan to stick with this series as I enjoyed the world building, loved the Ireland setting, and was intrigued by all of the secondary characters. However, If you read Nora Roberts strictly for the romance scenes, this one might disappoint. But if you enjoy a solid background story with some dark magic and prophesies, you might enjoy it as much as I did.

I listened to this one on audio, and felt the narration was excellent.

Emily May reviews R.F. Kuang’s The Poppy Wars , an epic fantasy novel , on Goodreads:

“But I warn you, little warrior. The price of power is pain.”

Holy hell, what did I just read??

➽ A fantasy military school

➽ A rich world based on modern Chinese history

➽ Shamans and gods

➽ Detailed characterization leading to unforgettable characters

➽ Adorable, opium-smoking mentors

That's a basic list, but this book is all of that and SO MUCH MORE. I know 100% that The Poppy War will be one of my best reads of 2018.

Isn't it just so great when you find one of those books that completely drags you in, makes you fall in love with the characters, and demands that you sit on the edge of your seat for every horrific, nail-biting moment of it? This is one of those books for me. And I must issue a serious content warning: this book explores some very dark themes. Proceed with caution (or not at all) if you are particularly sensitive to scenes of war, drug use and addiction, genocide, racism, sexism, ableism, self-harm, torture, and rape (off-page but extremely horrific).

Because, despite the fairly innocuous first 200 pages, the title speaks the truth: this is a book about war. All of its horrors and atrocities. It is not sugar-coated, and it is often graphic. The "poppy" aspect refers to opium, which is a big part of this book. It is a fantasy, but the book draws inspiration from the Second Sino-Japanese War and the Rape of Nanking.

Crime Fiction Lover reviews Jessica Barry’s Freefall , a crime novel:

In some crime novels, the wrongdoing hits you between the eyes from page one. With others it’s a more subtle process, and that’s OK too. So where does Freefall fit into the sliding scale?

In truth, it’s not clear. This is a novel with a thrilling concept at its core. A woman survives plane crash, then runs for her life. However, it is the subtleties at play that will draw you in like a spider beckoning to an unwitting fly.

Like the heroine in Sharon Bolton’s Dead Woman Walking, Allison is lucky to be alive. She was the only passenger in a private plane, belonging to her fiancé, Ben, who was piloting the expensive aircraft, when it came down in woodlands in the Colorado Rockies. Ally is also the only survivor, but rather than sitting back and waiting for rescue, she is soon pulling together items that may help her survive a little longer – first aid kit, energy bars, warm clothes, trainers – before fleeing the scene. If you’re hearing the faint sound of alarm bells ringing, get used to it. There’s much, much more to learn about Ally before this tale is over.

Kirkus Reviews reviews Ernest Cline’s Ready Player One , a science-fiction novel :

Video-game players embrace the quest of a lifetime in a virtual world; screenwriter Cline’s first novel is old wine in new bottles.

The real world, in 2045, is the usual dystopian horror story. So who can blame Wade, our narrator, if he spends most of his time in a virtual world? The 18-year-old, orphaned at 11, has no friends in his vertical trailer park in Oklahoma City, while the OASIS has captivating bells and whistles, and it’s free. Its creator, the legendary billionaire James Halliday, left a curious will. He had devised an elaborate online game, a hunt for a hidden Easter egg. The finder would inherit his estate. Old-fashioned riddles lead to three keys and three gates. Wade, or rather his avatar Parzival, is the first gunter (egg-hunter) to win the Copper Key, first of three.

Halliday was obsessed with the pop culture of the 1980s, primarily the arcade games, so the novel is as much retro as futurist. Parzival’s great strength is that he has absorbed all Halliday’s obsessions; he knows by heart three essential movies, crossing the line from geek to freak. His most formidable competitors are the Sixers, contract gunters working for the evil conglomerate IOI, whose goal is to acquire the OASIS. Cline’s narrative is straightforward but loaded with exposition. It takes a while to reach a scene that crackles with excitement: the meeting between Parzival (now world famous as the lead contender) and Sorrento, the head of IOI. The latter tries to recruit Parzival; when he fails, he issues and executes a death threat. Wade’s trailer is demolished, his relatives killed; luckily Wade was not at home. Too bad this is the dramatic high point. Parzival threads his way between more ’80s games and movies to gain the other keys; it’s clever but not exciting. Even a romance with another avatar and the ultimate “epic throwdown” fail to stir the blood.

Too much puzzle-solving, not enough suspense.

Book review examples for non-fiction books

Nonfiction books are generally written to inform readers about a certain topic. As such, the focus of a nonfiction book review will be on the clarity and effectiveness of this communication . In carrying this out, a book review may analyze the author’s source materials and assess the thesis in order to determine whether or not the book meets expectations.

Again, we’ve included abbreviated versions of long reviews here, so feel free to click on the link to read the entire piece!

The Washington Post reviews David Grann’s Killers of the Flower Moon :

The arc of David Grann’s career reminds one of a software whiz-kid or a latest-thing talk-show host — certainly not an investigative reporter, even if he is one of the best in the business. The newly released movie of his first book, “The Lost City of Z,” is generating all kinds of Oscar talk, and now comes the release of his second book, “Killers of the Flower Moon: The Osage Murders and the Birth of the FBI,” the film rights to which have already been sold for $5 million in what one industry journal called the “biggest and wildest book rights auction in memory.”

Grann deserves the attention. He’s canny about the stories he chases, he’s willing to go anywhere to chase them, and he’s a maestro in his ability to parcel out information at just the right clip: a hint here, a shading of meaning there, a smartly paced buildup of multiple possibilities followed by an inevitable reversal of readerly expectations or, in some cases, by a thrilling and dislocating pull of the entire narrative rug.

All of these strengths are on display in “Killers of the Flower Moon.” Around the turn of the 20th century, oil was discovered underneath Osage lands in the Oklahoma Territory, lands that were soon to become part of the state of Oklahoma. Through foresight and legal maneuvering, the Osage found a way to permanently attach that oil to themselves and shield it from the prying hands of white interlopers; this mechanism was known as “headrights,” which forbade the outright sale of oil rights and granted each full member of the tribe — and, supposedly, no one else — a share in the proceeds from any lease arrangement. For a while, the fail-safes did their job, and the Osage got rich — diamond-ring and chauffeured-car and imported-French-fashion rich — following which quite a large group of white men started to work like devils to separate the Osage from their money. And soon enough, and predictably enough, this work involved murder. Here in Jazz Age America’s most isolated of locales, dozens or even hundreds of Osage in possession of great fortunes — and of the potential for even greater fortunes in the future — were dispatched by poison, by gunshot and by dynamite. […]

Stacked Books reviews Malcolm Gladwell’s Outliers :

I’ve heard a lot of great things about Malcolm Gladwell’s writing. Friends and co-workers tell me that his subjects are interesting and his writing style is easy to follow without talking down to the reader. I wasn’t disappointed with Outliers. In it, Gladwell tackles the subject of success – how people obtain it and what contributes to extraordinary success as opposed to everyday success.

The thesis – that our success depends much more on circumstances out of our control than any effort we put forth – isn’t exactly revolutionary. Most of us know it to be true. However, I don’t think I’m lying when I say that most of us also believe that we if we just try that much harder and develop our talent that much further, it will be enough to become wildly successful, despite bad or just mediocre beginnings. Not so, says Gladwell.

Most of the evidence Gladwell gives us is anecdotal, which is my favorite kind to read. I can’t really speak to how scientifically valid it is, but it sure makes for engrossing listening. For example, did you know that successful hockey players are almost all born in January, February, or March? Kids born during these months are older than the others kids when they start playing in the youth leagues, which means they’re already better at the game (because they’re bigger). Thus, they get more play time, which means their skill increases at a faster rate, and it compounds as time goes by. Within a few years, they’re much, much better than the kids born just a few months later in the year. Basically, these kids’ birthdates are a huge factor in their success as adults – and it’s nothing they can do anything about. If anyone could make hockey interesting to a Texan who only grudgingly admits the sport even exists, it’s Gladwell. […]

Quill and Quire reviews Rick Prashaw’s Soar, Adam, Soar :

Ten years ago, I read a book called Almost Perfect. The young-adult novel by Brian Katcher won some awards and was held up as a powerful, nuanced portrayal of a young trans person. But the reality did not live up to the book’s billing. Instead, it turned out to be a one-dimensional and highly fetishized portrait of a trans person’s life, one that was nevertheless repeatedly dubbed “realistic” and “affecting” by non-transgender readers possessing only a vague, mass-market understanding of trans experiences.

In the intervening decade, trans narratives have emerged further into the literary spotlight, but those authored by trans people ourselves – and by trans men in particular – have seemed to fall under the shadow of cisgender sensationalized imaginings. Two current Canadian releases – Soar, Adam, Soar and This One Looks Like a Boy – provide a pointed object lesson into why trans-authored work about transgender experiences remains critical.

To be fair, Soar, Adam, Soar isn’t just a story about a trans man. It’s also a story about epilepsy, the medical establishment, and coming of age as seen through a grieving father’s eyes. Adam, Prashaw’s trans son, died unexpectedly at age 22. Woven through the elder Prashaw’s narrative are excerpts from Adam’s social media posts, giving us glimpses into the young man’s interior life as he traverses his late teens and early 20s. […]

Book Geeks reviews Elizabeth Gilbert’s Eat, Pray, Love :

WRITING STYLE: 3.5/5

SUBJECT: 4/5

CANDIDNESS: 4.5/5

RELEVANCE: 3.5/5

ENTERTAINMENT QUOTIENT: 3.5/5

“Eat Pray Love” is so popular that it is almost impossible to not read it. Having felt ashamed many times on my not having read this book, I quietly ordered the book (before I saw the movie) from amazon.in and sat down to read it. I don’t remember what I expected it to be – maybe more like a chick lit thing but it turned out quite different. The book is a real story and is a short journal from the time when its writer went travelling to three different countries in pursuit of three different things – Italy (Pleasure), India (Spirituality), Bali (Balance) and this is what corresponds to the book’s name – EAT (in Italy), PRAY (in India) and LOVE (in Bali, Indonesia). These are also the three Is – ITALY, INDIA, INDONESIA.

Though she had everything a middle-aged American woman can aspire for – MONEY, CAREER, FRIENDS, HUSBAND; Elizabeth was not happy in her life, she wasn’t happy in her marriage. Having suffered a terrible divorce and terrible breakup soon after, Elizabeth was shattered. She didn’t know where to go and what to do – all she knew was that she wanted to run away. So she set out on a weird adventure – she will go to three countries in a year and see if she can find out what she was looking for in life. This book is about that life changing journey that she takes for one whole year. […]

Emily May reviews Michelle Obama’s Becoming on Goodreads:

Look, I'm not a happy crier. I might cry at songs about leaving and missing someone; I might cry at books where things don't work out; I might cry at movies where someone dies. I've just never really understood why people get all choked up over happy, inspirational things. But Michelle Obama's kindness and empathy changed that. This book had me in tears for all the right reasons.

This is not really a book about politics, though political experiences obviously do come into it. It's a shame that some will dismiss this book because of a difference in political opinion, when it is really about a woman's life. About growing up poor and black on the South Side of Chicago; about getting married and struggling to maintain that marriage; about motherhood; about being thrown into an amazing and terrifying position.

I hate words like "inspirational" because they've become so overdone and cheesy, but I just have to say it-- Michelle Obama is an inspiration. I had the privilege of seeing her speak at The Forum in Inglewood, and she is one of the warmest, funniest, smartest, down-to-earth people I have ever seen in this world.

And yes, I know we present what we want the world to see, but I truly do think it's genuine. I think she is someone who really cares about people - especially kids - and wants to give them better lives and opportunities.

She's obviously intelligent, but she also doesn't gussy up her words. She talks straight, with an openness and honesty rarely seen. She's been one of the most powerful women in the world, she's been a graduate of Princeton and Harvard Law School, she's had her own successful career, and yet she has remained throughout that same girl - Michelle Robinson - from a working class family in Chicago.

I don't think there's anyone who wouldn't benefit from reading this book.

Hopefully, this post has given you a better idea of how to write a book review. You might be wondering how to put all of this knowledge into action now! Many book reviewers start out by setting up a book blog. If you don’t have time to research the intricacies of HTML, check out Reedsy Discovery — where you can read indie books for free and review them without going through the hassle of creating a blog. To register as a book reviewer , go here .

And if you’d like to see even more book review examples, simply go to this directory of book review blogs and click on any one of them to see a wealth of good book reviews. Beyond that, it's up to you to pick up a book and pen — and start reviewing!

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How to Write a Book Review: A Comprehensive Tutorial With Examples

You don’t need to be a literary expert to craft captivating book reviews. With one in every three readers selecting books based on insightful reviews, your opinions can guide fellow bibliophiles toward their next literary adventure.

Learning how to write a book review will not only help you excel at your assigned tasks, but you’ll also contribute valuable insights to the book-loving community and turn your passion into a professional pursuit.

In this comprehensive guide,  PaperPerk  will walk you through a few simple steps to master the art of writing book reviews so you can confidently embark on this rewarding journey.

What is a Book Review?

A book review is a critical evaluation of a book, offering insights into its content, quality, and impact. It helps readers make informed decisions about whether to read the book.

Writing a book review as an assignment benefits students in multiple ways. Firstly, it teaches them how to write a book review by developing their analytical skills as they evaluate the content, themes, and writing style .

Secondly, it enhances their ability to express opinions and provide constructive criticism. Additionally, book review assignments expose students to various publications and genres, broadening their knowledge.

Furthermore, these tasks foster essential skills for academic success, like critical thinking and the ability to synthesize information. By now, we’re sure you want to learn how to write a book review, so let’s look at the book review template first.

Table of Contents

Book Review Template

How to write a book review- a step by step guide.

Check out these 5 straightforward steps for composing the best book review.

Step 1: Planning Your Book Review – The Art of Getting Started

You’ve decided to take the plunge and share your thoughts on a book that has captivated (or perhaps disappointed) you. Before you start book reviewing, let’s take a step back and plan your approach. Since knowing how to write a book review that’s both informative and engaging is an art in itself.

Choosing Your Literature

First things first, pick the book you want to review. This might seem like a no-brainer, but selecting a book that genuinely interests you will make the review process more enjoyable and your insights more authentic.

Crafting the Master Plan

Next, create an  outline  that covers all the essential points you want to discuss in your review. This will serve as the roadmap for your writing journey.

The Devil is in the Details

As you read, note any information that stands out, whether it overwhelms, underwhelms, or simply intrigues you. Pay attention to:

• The characters and their development
• The plot and its intricacies
• Any themes, symbols, or motifs you find noteworthy

Remember to reserve a body paragraph for each point you want to discuss.

The Key Questions to Ponder

When planning your book review, consider the following questions:

• What’s the plot (if any)? Understanding the driving force behind the book will help you craft a more effective review.
• Is the plot interesting? Did the book hold your attention and keep you turning the pages?
• Are the writing techniques effective? Does the author’s style captivate you, making you want to read (or reread) the text?
• Are the characters or the information believable? Do the characters/plot/information feel real, and can you relate to them?
• Would you recommend the book to anyone? Consider if the book is worthy of being recommended, whether to impress someone or to support a point in a literature class.
• What could improve? Always keep an eye out for areas that could be improved. Providing constructive criticism can enhance the quality of literature.

Step 2 – Crafting the Perfect Introduction to Write a Book Review

In this second step of “how to write a book review,” we’re focusing on the art of creating a powerful opening that will hook your audience and set the stage for your analysis.

Identify Your Book and Author

Begin by mentioning the book you’ve chosen, including its  title  and the author’s name. This informs your readers and establishes the subject of your review.

Ponder the Title

Next, discuss the mental images or emotions the book’s title evokes in your mind . This helps your readers understand your initial feelings and expectations before diving into the book.

Judge the Book by Its Cover (Just a Little)

Take a moment to talk about the book’s cover. Did it intrigue you? Did it hint at what to expect from the story or the author’s writing style? Sharing your thoughts on the cover can offer a unique perspective on how the book presents itself to potential readers.

Present Your Thesis

Now it’s time to introduce your thesis. This statement should be a concise and insightful summary of your opinion of the book. For example:

“Normal People” by Sally Rooney is a captivating portrayal of the complexities of human relationships, exploring themes of love, class, and self-discovery with exceptional depth and authenticity.

Ensure that your thesis is relevant to the points or quotes you plan to discuss throughout your review.

Incorporating these elements into your introduction will create a strong foundation for your book review. Your readers will be eager to learn more about your thoughts and insights on the book, setting the stage for a compelling and thought-provoking analysis.

How to Write a Book Review: Step 3 – Building Brilliant Body Paragraphs

You’ve planned your review and written an attention-grabbing introduction. Now it’s time for the main event: crafting the body paragraphs of your book review. In this step of “how to write a book review,” we’ll explore the art of constructing engaging and insightful body paragraphs that will keep your readers hooked.

Summarize Without Spoilers

Begin by summarizing a specific section of the book, not revealing any major plot twists or spoilers. Your goal is to give your readers a taste of the story without ruining surprises.

Support Your Viewpoint with Quotes

Next, choose three quotes from the book that support your viewpoint or opinion. These quotes should be relevant to the section you’re summarizing and help illustrate your thoughts on the book.

Analyze the Quotes

Write a summary of each quote in your own words, explaining how it made you feel or what it led you to think about the book or the author’s writing. This analysis should provide insight into your perspective and demonstrate your understanding of the text.

Structure Your Body Paragraphs

Dedicate one body paragraph to each quote, ensuring your writing is well-connected, coherent, and easy to understand.

For example:

• In  Jane Eyre , Charlotte Brontë writes, “I am no bird; and no net ensnares me.” This powerful statement highlights Jane’s fierce independence and refusal to be trapped by societal expectations.
• In  Normal People , Sally Rooney explores the complexities of love and friendship when she writes, “It was culture as class performance, literature fetishized for its ability to take educated people on false emotional journeys.” This quote reveals the author’s astute observations on the role of culture and class in shaping personal relationships.
• In  Wuthering Heights , Emily Brontë captures the tumultuous nature of love with the quote, “He’s more myself than I am. Whatever our souls are made of, his and mine are the same.” This poignant line emphasizes the deep, unbreakable bond between the story’s central characters.

By following these guidelines, you’ll create body paragraphs that are both captivating and insightful, enhancing your book review and providing your readers with a deeper understanding of the literary work. 

How to Write a Book Review: Step 4 – Crafting a Captivating Conclusion

You’ve navigated through planning, introductions, and body paragraphs with finesse. Now it’s time to wrap up your book review with a  conclusion that leaves a lasting impression . In this final step of “how to write a book review,” we’ll explore the art of writing a memorable and persuasive conclusion.

Summarize Your Analysis

Begin by summarizing the key points you’ve presented in the body paragraphs. This helps to remind your readers of the insights and arguments you’ve shared throughout your review.

Offer Your Final Conclusion

Next, provide a conclusion that reflects your overall feelings about the book. This is your chance to leave a lasting impression and persuade your readers to consider your perspective.

Address the Book’s Appeal

Now, answer the question: Is this book worth reading? Be clear about who would enjoy the book and who might not. Discuss the taste preferences and circumstances that make the book more appealing to some readers than others.

For example:  The Alchemist is a book that can enchant a young teen, but those who are already well-versed in classic literature might find it less engaging.

Be Subtle and Balanced

Avoid simply stating whether you “liked” or “disliked” the book. Instead, use nuanced language to convey your message. Highlight the pros and cons of reading the type of literature you’ve reviewed, offering a balanced perspective.

Bringing It All Together

By following these guidelines, you’ll craft a conclusion that leaves your readers with a clear understanding of your thoughts and opinions on the book. Your review will be a valuable resource for those considering whether to pick up the book, and your witty and insightful analysis will make your review a pleasure to read. So conquer the world of book reviews, one captivating conclusion at a time!

How to Write a Book Review: Step 5 – Rating the Book (Optional)

You’ve masterfully crafted your book review, from the introduction to the conclusion. But wait, there’s one more step you might consider before calling it a day: rating the book. In this optional step of “how to write a book review,” we’ll explore the benefits and methods of assigning a rating to the book you’ve reviewed.

Why Rate the Book?

Sometimes, when writing a professional book review, it may not be appropriate to state whether you liked or disliked the book. In such cases, assigning a rating can be an effective way to get your message across without explicitly sharing your personal opinion.

How to Rate the Book

There are various rating systems you can use to evaluate the book, such as:

• A star rating (e.g., 1 to 5 stars)
• A numerical score (e.g., 1 to 10)
• A letter grade (e.g., A+ to F)

Choose a rating system that best suits your style and the format of your review. Be consistent in your rating criteria, considering writing quality, character development, plot, and overall enjoyment.

Tips for Rating the Book

Here are some tips for rating the book effectively:

• Be honest: Your rating should reflect your true feelings about the book. Don’t inflate or deflate your rating based on external factors, such as the book’s popularity or the author’s reputation.
• Be fair:Consider the book’s merits and shortcomings when rating. Even if you didn’t enjoy the book, recognize its strengths and acknowledge them in your rating.
• Be clear: Explain the rationale behind your rating so your readers understand the factors that influenced your evaluation.

Wrapping Up

By including a rating in your book review, you provide your readers with an additional insight into your thoughts on the book. While this step is optional, it can be a valuable tool for conveying your message subtly yet effectively. So, rate those books confidently, adding a touch of wit and wisdom to your book reviews.

Additional Tips on How to Write a Book Review: A Guide

In this segment, we’ll explore additional tips on how to write a book review. Get ready to captivate your readers and make your review a memorable one!

Hook ’em with an Intriguing Introduction

Keep your introduction precise and to the point. Readers have the attention span of a goldfish these days, so don’t let them swim away in boredom. Start with a bang and keep them hooked!

Embrace the World of Fiction

When learning how to write a book review, remember that reviewing fiction is often more engaging and effective. If your professor hasn’t assigned you a specific book, dive into the realm of fiction and select a novel that piques your interest.

Opinionated with Gusto

Don’t shy away from adding your own opinion to your review. A good book review always features the writer’s viewpoint and constructive criticism. After all, your readers want to know what  you  think!

Express Your Love (or Lack Thereof)

If you adored the book, let your readers know! Use phrases like “I’ll definitely return to this book again” to convey your enthusiasm. Conversely, be honest but respectful even if the book wasn’t your cup of tea.

Templates and Examples and Expert Help: Your Trusty Sidekicks

Feeling lost? You can always get help from formats, book review examples or online  college paper writing service  platforms. These trusty sidekicks will help you navigate the world of book reviews with ease. 

Be a Champion for New Writers and Literature

Remember to uplift new writers and pieces of literature. If you want to suggest improvements, do so kindly and constructively. There’s no need to be mean about anyone’s books – we’re all in this literary adventure together!

Criticize with Clarity, Not Cruelty

When adding criticism to your review, be clear but not mean. Remember, there’s a fine line between constructive criticism and cruelty. Tread lightly and keep your reader’s feelings in mind.

Avoid the Comparison Trap

Resist the urge to compare one writer’s book with another. Every book holds its worth, and comparing them will only confuse your reader. Stick to discussing the book at hand, and let it shine in its own light.

Top 7 Mistakes and How to Avoid Them

Writing a book review can be a delightful and rewarding experience, especially when you balance analysis, wit, and personal insights. However, some common mistakes can kill the brilliance of your review. 

In this section of “how to write a book review,” we’ll explore the top 7 blunders writers commit and how to steer clear of them, with a dash of  modernist literature  examples and tips for students writing book reviews as assignments.

Succumbing to the Lure of Plot Summaries

Mistake: Diving headfirst into a plot summary instead of dissecting the book’s themes, characters, and writing style.

Example: “The Bell Jar chronicles the life of a young woman who experiences a mental breakdown.”

How to Avoid: Delve into the book’s deeper aspects, such as its portrayal of mental health, societal expectations, and the author’s distinctive narrative voice. Offer thoughtful insights and reflections, making your review a treasure trove of analysis.

Unleashing the Spoiler Kraken

Mistake: Spilling major plot twists or the ending without providing a spoiler warning, effectively ruining the reading experience for potential readers.

Example: “In Metamorphosis, the protagonist’s transformation into a monstrous insect leads to…”

How to Avoid: Tread carefully when discussing significant plot developments, and consider using spoiler warnings. Focus on the impact of these plot points on the overall narrative, character growth, or thematic resonance.

Riding the Personal Bias Express

Mistake: Allowing personal bias to hijack the review without providing sufficient evidence or reasoning to support opinions.

Example: “I detest books about existential crises, so The Sun Also Rises was a snoozefest.”

How to Avoid: While personal opinions are valid, it’s crucial to back them up with specific examples from the book. Discuss aspects like writing style, character development, or pacing to support your evaluation and provide a more balanced perspective.

Wielding the Vague Language Saber

Mistake: Resorting to generic, vague language that fails to capture the nuances of the book and can come across as clichéd.

Example: “This book was mind-blowing. It’s a must-read for everyone.”

How to Avoid: Use precise and descriptive language to express your thoughts. Employ specific examples and quotations to highlight memorable scenes, the author’s unique writing style, or the impact of the book’s themes on readers.

Ignoring the Contextualization Compass

Mistake: Neglecting to provide context about the author, genre, or cultural relevance of the book, leaving readers without a proper frame of reference.

Example: “This book is dull and unoriginal.”

How to Avoid: Offer readers a broader understanding by discussing the author’s background, the genre conventions the book adheres to or subverts, and any societal or historical contexts that inform the narrative. This helps readers appreciate the book’s uniqueness and relevance.

Overindulging in Personal Preferences

Mistake: Letting personal preferences overshadow an objective assessment of the book’s merits.

Example: “I don’t like stream-of-consciousness writing, so this book is automatically bad.”

How to Avoid: Acknowledge personal preferences but strive to evaluate the book objectively. Focus on the book’s strengths and weaknesses, considering how well it achieves its goals within its genre or intended audience.

Forgetting the Target Audience Telescope

Mistake: Failing to mention the book’s target audience or who might enjoy it, leading to confusion for potential readers.

Example: “This book is great for everyone.”

How to Avoid: Contemplate the book’s intended audience, genre, and themes. Mention who might particularly enjoy the book based on these factors, whether it’s fans of a specific genre, readers interested in character-driven stories, or those seeking thought-provoking narratives.

By dodging these common pitfalls, writers can craft insightful, balanced, and engaging book reviews that help readers make informed decisions about their reading choices.

These tips are particularly beneficial for students writing book reviews as assignments, as they ensure a well-rounded and thoughtful analysis.!

Many students requested us to cover how to write a book review. This thorough guide is sure to help you. At Paperperk, professionals are dedicated to helping students find their balance. We understand the importance of good grades, so we offer the finest writing service , ensuring students stay ahead of the curve. So seek expert help because only Paperperk is your perfect solution!

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Literature reviews

Critically reviewing books and articles.

The following guide has been created for you by the  Student Learning Advisory Service . For more detailed guidance and to speak to one of our advisers, please book an  appointment  or join one of our  workshops . Alternatively, have a look at our  SkillBuilder  skills videos.   

The purpose of a review

Descriptive : to inform the reader about the contents of the text, including the scope and nature of the topics covered, its main conclusions, and the evidence, examples, theories and methodologies it used to support of them.

Critical : to pass judgement on the quality, meaning and significance of the book or article, including how well it has achieved its aims, and what it adds to our understanding of the topic.

A quality review will recognise both the strengths and weaknesses of a piece of writing, presenting your objective opinion of it in a confident, informative and balanced way. Finally, it will be written using phraseology and style appropriate to this particular form of writing (examples from published academic book reviews are presented throughout this guide for reference).    

Choosing material to review

Normally, it is easier to write a critical review of a book or article that puts forward an argument, thereby offering a good opportunity to critically evaluate the reasoning and evidence used to support it. Edited volumes ((consisting of chapters or articles written by different authors) can present many different, even contradictory, evaluations of the same topic – presenting a more complicated challenge for the reviewer. Therefore, choose material that lends itself to your task.

The following checklist will help you ask the right questions as you read the text. It also provides an example of the kind of academic language you might use to introduce each aspect of your review.

Questions a critical book or article review should address

What is the main topic.

This should be obvious from the title and the introduction.

Who is the author?

What qualifications and experience does the author possess that allows them to write meaningfully about the topic?

‘Due to her role in… the author is in a unique position to describe…’

How is the text structured in relation to the topics, themes, issues and examples discussed?

For a book refer to the table of contents, chapter titles and chapter introductions. If analysing a chapter from an edited text, check the editor’s introduction. Think about how the separate sections build into the text as a whole.

‘The book consists of nine chapters each of which addresses…

‘This article deals with two key themes relating to…’

What is the stated purpose of the book or article?

Usually, this is stated on the back cover of a book (but beware of publisher hyperbole), or in the abstract/summary at the beginning of a journal article.

‘ The author’s aim is to examine…’

‘This is an original and accessible guide to…'

What is the main argument? 

Sometimes this is clearly stated, and sometimes more difficult to identify; remember that not all texts are argumentative.

‘The author’s main argument is that…’

‘The author calls into question many of the basic assumptions about…’

What evidence is used to support the author’s claims and analysis?

Do they use statistical data, examples and case studies, expert opinion and official documentation, all academically sourced and cited? How valid and reliable is this evidence in supporting the author’s analysis?

‘Throughout the article, case studies are used to…’

‘Drawing on North American and British archives, this book…’

What theoretical approach has the author used?

This is not always obvious from the text itself. Often, it will be necessary to conduct some additional research into the author to identify their background, or particular methodological, political or philosophical approach to the topic.

‘The author examines the nature of… from the perspective of…’

What are the strengths of the book or article?

Having taken the time to understand the text, where do you think its strengths lie? For example, what key questions does it answer? Does it offer insights into complex problems, if so what? Does it open up new ways of understanding the topic, if so how? Does it present new evidence, or clarify concepts that were previously obscure? Is the written style particularly engaging?

‘Throughout the text, the author translates technical information into…’

‘The book is clearly written in a compelling, engaging style that…’

What are its limitations?

You should critique a piece of writing within its own terms of reference – that is, against what it claims to do. But, if you are sufficiently familiar with the topic, you can also assess its limitations against existing knowledge.

‘The narrow focus unfortunately leads the author to overlook…’

‘The author is very quick to dismiss opposing opinions, and assumes that…’

What do you judge the overall value of the text to be? 

Having undertaken a balanced assessment of its strengths and weaknesses, what is your overall judgement of its usefulness to those interested in the topic, and in comparison to other scholarly publications in the same area of study?

‘The authors have made a significant contribution to our understanding of how…’

‘Overall, the article is an interesting… It offers an excellent… and is relevant to…’

‘The book is generally disappointing… it offers very little new …’

Structure of a critical review

A simple structure for a short review of a book or journal article (c. 500-1000 words) would be as follows: 

• An introduction
• A short summary of the text
• The strengths of the text
• The weaknesses of the text
• A conclusion summarising your overall assessment of the text

In longer critical reviews – comprising over 1000 words – each section, or aspect of the topic discussed in the text, would be described sequentially, incorporating a discussion of its strengths and weakness.

In longer critical reviews – comprising over 1000 words – each section, or aspect of the topic discussed in the text, would be described sequentially, incorporating a discussion of its strengths and weakness. 

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6 New Books We Recommend This Week

Suggested reading from critics and editors at The New York Times.

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It’s a happy coincidence that we recommend Becca Rothfeld’s essay collection “All Things Are Too Small” — a critic’s manifesto “in praise of excess,” as her subtitle has it — in the same week that we also recommend Justin Taylor’s maximalist new novel “Reboot,” an exuberant satire of modern society that stuffs everything from fandom to TV retreads to the rise of conspiracy culture into its craw. I don’t know if Rothfeld has read Taylor’s novel, but I get the feeling she would approve. Maybe you will too: In the spirit of “more, bigger, louder,” why not pick those up together?

Our other recommendations this week include a queer baseball romance novel, an up-to-the-minute story about a widower running for the presidency of his local labor union, a graphic novelist’s collection of spare visual stories and, in nonfiction, a foreign policy journalist’s sobering look at global politics in the 21st century. Happy reading. — Gregory Cowles

REBOOT Justin Taylor

This satire of modern media and pop culture follows a former child actor who is trying to revive the TV show that made him famous. Taylor delves into the worlds of online fandom while exploring the inner life of a man seeking redemption — and something meaningful to do.

“His book is, in part, a performance of culture, a mirror America complete with its own highly imagined myths, yet one still rooted in the Second Great Awakening and the country’s earliest literature. It’s a performance full of wit and rigor.”

From Joshua Ferris’s review

Pantheon | $28

YOU SHOULD BE SO LUCKY Cat Sebastian

When a grieving reporter falls for the struggling baseball player he’s been assigned to write about, their romance is like watching a Labrador puppy fall in love with a pampered Persian cat: all eager impulse on one side and arch contrariness on the other.

“People think the ending is what defines a romance, and it does, but that’s not what a romance is for. The end is where you stop, but the journey is why you go. … If you read one romance this spring, make it this one.”

From Olivia Waite’s romance column

Avon | Paperback, $18.99

ALL THINGS ARE TOO SMALL: Essays in Praise of Excess Becca Rothfeld

A striking debut by a young critic who has been heralded as a throwback to an era of livelier discourse. Rothfeld has published widely and works currently as a nonfiction book critic for The Washington Post; her interests range far, but these essays are united by a plea for more excess in all things, especially thought.

“Splendidly immodest in its neo-Romantic agenda — to tear down minimalism and puritanism in its many current varieties. … A carnival of high-low allusion and analysis.”

From David Gates’s review

Metropolitan Books | $27.99

THE RETURN OF GREAT POWERS: Russia, China, and the Next World War Jim Sciutto

Sciutto’s absorbing account of 21st-century brinkmanship takes readers from Ukraine in the days and hours ahead of Russia’s invasion to the waters of the Taiwan Strait where Chinese jets flying overhead raise tensions across the region. It’s a book that should be read by every legislator or presidential nominee sufficiently deluded to think that returning America to its isolationist past or making chummy with Putin is a viable option in today’s world.

“Enough to send those with a front-row view into the old basement bomb shelter. … The stuff of unholy nightmares.”

From Scott Anderson’s review

Dutton | $30

THE SPOILED HEART Sunjeev Sahota

Sahota’s novel is a bracing study of a middle-aged man’s downfall. A grieving widower seems to finally be turning things around for himself as he runs for the top job at his labor union and pursues a love interest. But his election campaign gets entangled in identity politics, and his troubles quickly multiply.

“Sahota has a surgeon’s dexterous hands, and the reader senses his confidence. … A plot-packed, propulsive story.”

From Caoilinn Hughes’s review

Viking | $29

SPIRAL AND OTHER STORIES Aidan Koch

The lush, sparsely worded work of this award-winning graphic novelist less resembles anything recognizably “comic book” than it does a sort of dreamlike oasis of art. Her latest piece of masterful minimalism, constructed from sensuous washes of watercolor, pencil, crayon and collage, pulses with bright pigment and tender melancholy.

“Many of these pages are purely abstract, but when Koch draws details, it’s in startlingly specific and consistent contours that give these stories a breadth of character as well as depiction.”

From Sam Thielman’s graphic novels column

New York Review Comics | $24.95

Explore More in Books

Want to know about the best books to read and the latest news start here..

The complicated, generous life  of Paul Auster, who died on April 30 , yielded a body of work of staggering scope and variety .

“Real Americans,” a new novel by Rachel Khong , follows three generations of Chinese Americans as they all fight for self-determination in their own way .

“The Chocolate War,” published 50 years ago, became one of the most challenged books in the United States. Its author, Robert Cormier, spent years fighting attempts to ban it .

Joan Didion’s distinctive prose and sharp eye were tuned to an outsider’s frequency, telling us about ourselves in essays that are almost reflexively skeptical. Here are her essential works .

Each week, top authors and critics join the Book Review’s podcast to talk about the latest news in the literary world. Listen here .

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Article Contents

I. introduction, ii. justifications for financial transparency, iii. informed financial consent, iv. conversations about money, v. conclusion, acknowledgments, money matters: a critique of ‘informed financial consent’.

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Sara A Attinger, Ian Kerridge, Cameron Stewart, Isabel Karpin, Siun Gallagher, Robert J Norman, Wendy Lipworth, Money matters: a critique of ‘informed financial consent’, Medical Law Review , 2024;, fwae015, https://doi.org/10.1093/medlaw/fwae015

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In recent years, concerns about the financial burdens of health care and growing recognition of the relevance of cost to decision making and patient experience have increasingly focused attention on financial ‘transparency’ and disclosure of costs to patients. In some jurisdictions, there have been calls not only for timely disclosure of costs information, but also for ‘informed financial consent’. However, simply putting the ‘financial’ into ‘informed consent’ and invoking an informed consent standard for cost information encounters several ethical, legal, and practical difficulties. This article will examine the viability and desirability of ‘informed financial consent’, and whether it is possible to derive ideas from traditional informed consent that may improve decision making and the patient experience. We argue that, while there are important legal, ethical, and practical challenges to consider, some of the principles of informed consent to treatment can usefully guide financial communication. We also argue that, while medical practitioners (and their delegates) have an important role to play in bridging the gap between disclosure and enabling informed (financial) decision making, this must be part of a multi-faceted approach to financial communication that acknowledges the influence of non-clinical providers and other structural forces on discharging such obligations.

Patients need information in order to make informed decisions about their health care. While it has long been recognised that this needs to include information about physical and psychological risks and benefits, policymakers, physicians, health economists, and bioethicists have become increasingly concerned about the financial burden of healthcare on patients. 1 Even in contexts with substantial publicly funded healthcare systems, such as Australia, patients may receive government subsidy for some, but not all consultations, treatments, and tests (which may be partially subsidised or not subsidised at all, and may or may not be covered by private insurance). This means that patients may have to face financial uncertainty, surprises, and difficult financial choices. Concern about financial burden has translated into a perceived need to include information about pricing and costs of healthcare in processes of communication and shared decision making. 2

There is variation in how different jurisdictions have responded to this need. In the USA, for example, this has primarily taken the form of calls for greater financial ‘transparency’, 3 with an emphasis on pre-commencement disclosure of prices or costs. There have also been references to costs and financial information in the contexts relating to informed consent to medical treatment, with some scholars and policymakers looking to the doctor–patient relationship as the historical ‘locus of disclosure’. 4 In Australia, the Medical Board of Australia’s Good Medical Practice Code of Conduct stipulates that patients should be informed about fees and charges ‘in a timely manner to enable them to make an informed decision about whether they want to proceed’ 5 and that doctors should advise patients where there may be additional costs when referring for investigation, treatment, or a procedure. 6 In the UK, General Medical Council guidance provides that doctors should give information about any out-of-pocket costs as part of informed consent to treatment. 7 In New Zealand, the Code of Health and Disability Services Consumers’ Rights creates a right for costs associated with healthcare to be ‘fully explained’. 8 Of course, approaches to costs communication are likely to be influenced by differing systems of healthcare funding and magnitudes of out-of-pocket costs to patients in each jurisdiction. In some settings, there have been calls not just for disclosure of information, but for so-called ‘informed financial consent’. This has received academic attention, 9 and has been advocated by professional bodies 10 and policymakers 11 in some jurisdictions.

In Australia, as part of government initiatives in the early 2000s, 12 ‘informed financial consent’ emerged as a political response to rising out-of-pocket costs for individuals who have private health insurance but still need to pay sometimes substantial ‘gap’ costs above their coverage. In hospital settings, statutory requirements mandate disclosure of out-of-pocket costs before undergoing treatment, and describe this as ‘informed financial consent’. 13 Use of ‘informed financial consent’ has also been advocated and affirmed by the Australian Medical Association (AMA) in concert with the Australian Government Department of Health in the form of voluntary guidance for medical professionals released in 2019. 14 While the AMA statement does not support a legal obligation to obtain informed financial consent, 15 medical professional disciplinary proceedings have invoked ‘informed financial consent,’ for example, to indicate the necessity for disclosure of lower cost alternatives in the public system for private patients. 16 There has also been a limited development of the concept in contract law regarding provision of care involving public subsidy. 17 In interpreting a contested contract for services between an anaesthetist and a patient, one Australian court decision addressed the absence of provider disclosure of private fees as absence of agreement to a price term. 18 The court implied a reasonable fee at the standard rate of public subsidy for the service (rather than the higher private fee). 19 This decision has also been referred to as establishing a legal basis (albeit limited) for ‘informed financial consent’ in contract law. 20

The idea of ‘informed financial consent’ has also received some academic attention. 21 These discussions posit to varying degrees that financial information-giving should be part of informed consent to treatment. In the USA, scholars have proposed ‘informed financial consent’ primarily in the form of advance costs disclosure in an environment of minimal transparency, 22 viewing the introduction of the No Surprises Act by US Congress in 2020 as a limited but ‘meaningful nudge’ towards informed financial consent. 23

Invocations of ‘informed financial consent’ have, however, come without clear or stable definitions of the concept or express recognition of its limitations—even within jurisdictions such as Australia where the concept has been explicitly (albeit unevenly) adopted into health policy and regulation. For example, some policymaking has equated ‘informed financial consent’ with mere receipt of information, 24 while others have alluded to obligations to provide something more than costs disclosure. 25 Guidance from the AMA about informed financial consent primarily focuses on pre-commencement episode-based disclosure, although it does recommend discussing a patient’s ability to pay for surgical or other medical interventions (including ongoing consultations), 26 shifting focus somewhat towards a patient’s likely, holistic pathway. This can be contrasted to informed consent to treatment, where there is an emphasis on patient understanding and dialogue between doctor and patient, including about alternative options and contingencies, and ongoing discussions as investigations and treatments progress and evolve. 27 Calls for doctors to provide information about costs also do not substantially consider the practical barriers that patients and practitioners face accessing and communicating about financial information. 28

In this article, we argue that there are important ethical, legal, and practical considerations that limit the viability and desirability of ‘informed financial consent’ as a complete approach to financial communication in the medical context. There are, however, some elements of informed consent that can usefully be applied to financial communication in order to bridge the gap between mere disclosure and promoting informed decision making. This has particular resonance when care is not an emergency (so conversations can be had) and where care is open-ended and complex.

In Section II, we describe the key justifications for financial transparency in health care. In Section III, we discuss the arguments for, practicalities of, and challenges of applying ‘informed financial consent’ to communication about the financial aspects of care. We suggest that while the concept has important limitations, it is possible to derive ideas from informed consent that could improve decision making and the patient experience. In Sections IV and V, we conclude that practitioners (and their delegates) have an important role to play in bridging the gap between disclosure and enabling informed (financial) decision making, but that this must be part of a multi-faceted approach that acknowledges the influence of non-clinical providers and other structural forces on discharging such obligations. We consider some key elements of a multi-faceted, consent-oriented approach to financial communication in health care.

While healthcare systems will have different demands upon and barriers to good costs communication, we focus here on the Australian context that has developed notions of ‘informed financial consent’ in ethics, law and policy. 29 The Australian approach is also internationally influential and has been referred to approvingly by scholars in the USA. 30

Demands for financial transparency in health care have been driven primarily by the increasing recognition of the financial burden of health care on patients and the knowledge that patients do sometimes, in fact, base their treatment decisions on cost. 31 Some of the effects of these costs include patient non-adherence to treatment 32 and ‘financial toxicity’ (harms to patients resulting from financial stressors). 33 Importantly, these problems arise even in countries with substantial public healthcare and insurance systems, such the UK and Australia, where care is free at the point of delivery for certain treatments. Even in these jurisdictions, there may be out-of-pocket costs, because some services are not fully covered, and some are excluded from public subsidy, and patients receiving entirely ‘free’ care to begin with may require additional interventions or referral in future with associated costs. In an attempt to mitigate some of the effects of unexpected costs, scholars, policymakers, practitioners, and consumer advocates have highlighted the need to ensure that (outside of emergency situations) patients receive timely information about costs to prevent ‘bill shock’ and enable informed decision making about care. 34

The need for financial transparency is also justified on a number of moral grounds. Most fundamentally, it is seen as a way of respecting patients’ autonomy, avoiding exploitation, fulfilling the obligation of veracity, and actualising the goals of shared decision making. 35 Financial transparency is also seen by some to respect patients’ choices as ‘consumers’ of healthcare goods and services. 36 The notion that patients are consumers (rather than passive recipients of care) places more responsibility and accountability on patients to seek information, and correspondingly, places a strong obligation on healthcare organisations and physicians to be transparent. 37 In placing responsibility on patients, a side effect of transparency is reducing professional and provider liability.

Financial transparency is seen as a means of a managing providers’ financial conflicts of interest (by making financial interests visible to patients), managing unequal access to information between producers and consumers (ie, ‘information asymmetry’) and ensuring the effective functioning of healthcare markets. 38 The latter requires patients as ‘consumers’ to be able to access relevant information upon which to make their decisions. Indeed, requiring pre-treatment disclosure of costs brings the purchase of medical services into line with most other economic transactions.

Financial transparency has also been advanced as means of ensuring provider accountability 39 and resource stewardship 40 and countering price inflation in medical marketplaces by creating competitive market price pressure. 41 In this regard, it is significant that both patients and health professionals have rapidly increasing access to online tools 42 that seek to facilitate both the provision and comparison of financial information.

Finally, it is argued that financial transparency can address, to varying degrees, several legal obligations and norms that govern health and medical care, relating to contracting, consumer protection and fair trading, consent and risk disclosure, health practitioner professional responsibility, and fiduciary obligations. For example, transparency may contribute to the conditions for forming a valid contract and provider disclosure is incentivised where a court’s approach to contract construction would imply a lower price. 43 Transparency also fulfils some of the requirements of consumer protection regulation, which seeks to incentivise or mandate disclosures that producers and providers might be reluctant to divulge. 44

There are several ways in which financial transparency can be achieved and, as noted above, several ways it has been interpreted and instantiated around the world. The most basic and least demanding form of financial transparency is price disclosure , which provides information about the standard price of a health good or service. This may take the form of list prices or a ‘menu’ of services. While price disclosure is relatively straightforward, it has been argued that this is not sufficient in healthcare and that information needs to be specific to the individual patient. 45   Cost disclosure is therefore preferable because it provides information about the amount that a patient will likely pay out-of-pocket for a service. This may take the form of a medical bill that includes out-of-pocket cost to an individual patient after taking into account applicable insurance coverage. Another approach towards financial transparency goes further than cost disclosure, and applies the notion of ‘informed consent’ to financial communication about the financial aspects of care. As noted earlier, however, calls for ‘informed financial consent’ are often lacking in clear justifications for invoking the concept of informed consent, explanations for how to enact it, and recognition of its limitations. Here, we address these lacunae by: (i) summarising the general functions that consent has in ethics and law, which could also be applied to financial communication; (ii) considering what genuine ‘informed financial consent’ would entail; and (iii) considering whether it is achievable given the legal, ethical, and practical challenges such an approach raises.

A. Functions of informed consent

The potential justifications for informed financial consent are similar to the justifications for consent more generally in ethics, law and professionalism, where the concept serves three main functions.

The first is a permissive function, where consent processes formalise the way that permission is granted to touch and/or treat a patient’s body or mind. This normally requires the patient to understand basic information about the nature of the health intervention. 46

The second function is a risk function whereby consent processes are used to provide information about material risks to patients to help them make decisions about treatment. 47 The level of information that needs to be provided about risk may vary depending on the patient’s desire for information and their personal assessments about what risks are material to them.

Both the permissive function and the risk function are concerned with ethical values of autonomy and respect for persons and those ethical values are also featured in legal accounts of consent, such as via the tort of battery, the crime of assault and claims for negligent advice in medical treatment ( informed consent in negligence ). 48 The practical effects of compliance with these legal standards is a reduction in liability and a measure of control by the patient over the risk they wish to undertake.

A third function of consent is a relational function, where the consent process provides a framework for the therapeutic relationship, in which relationships of trust and understanding may develop within the power dynamics of patients, families and health professionals. 49 The relational function of consent is featured in ethical discussion of relational autonomy and in ethical discussions about hope, trust and power. 50 Legally, the relational function is featured in discussions around fiduciary duty, unconscionable transactions, undue influence and the question of adequate disclosure of conflicts of interest.

All of these functions, alongside the justifications for financial transparency discussed earlier, could potentially be used to justify the provision of financial information as part of consent (either viewing this as part of consent to treatment or as an additional consent requirement).

B. Requirements for valid informed financial consent

As discussed above, the risk function of consent represents an individual’s autonomous authorisation of a medical intervention, based on dialogue between doctor and patient about a proposed treatment, alternative options, including non-treatment, and the risks and benefits of each. 51 A true informed financial consent standard would, therefore, require doctors to consider both what up-front costs and initial treatment costs are likely to be, and what additional financial information would be required. For example, if the patient is likely to have a complex clinical and therefore financial trajectory, or if their clinical outcomes are likely to be impacted by the financial decisions that they make, such as by delaying their treatment. It would also require that information is given not only about the financial implications of a recommended treatment but also about the costs of alternatives (including the costs of not proceeding with treatment at all). Discussions of cost would also need to be integrated with discussions about clinical risks and benefits 52 so that patients can determine not only what they can afford, but also what represents value for money to them. In order for informed financial consent to be valid, at least from an ethical perspective, information would have to address patients’ unique circumstances, conversation would elicit patients’ values and preferences (including regarding finances), and some attempt would need to be made to ensure that patients sufficiently understand the information provided and have had the opportunity to ask questions. 53

C . Challenges of applying informed consent to financial communication

Despite efforts to invoke and operationalise the concept of ‘informed financial consent’, 54 there are several challenges to doing so, which may explain why it has not been uniformly supported or translated into policy and practice. Some of these—such as the difficulties with knowing or predicting costs—apply to any kind of financial transparency, while others are specific to an informed consent standard.

1. Challenges that apply to any kind of financial transparency

One of the main challenges for any approach of financial communication—whether transparency through pre-commencement disclosure or as part of an informed consent framework—is the difficulty of knowing the full costs of an individual’s treatment journey at the time of the key decision points. While providing information about standard prices (price disclosure) is relatively straightforward, it has been argued that this is not sufficient and that information needs to be specific to the individual patient. 55 Providing patients with information about personal costs can, however, be difficult to achieve in practice. 56 This is because healthcare costs are often complex, unbundled (based on a procedure rather than an episode of care) or generically bundled (where a single price covers a group of separate procedures commonly performed together), and unpredictable at the start of a course of treatment. 57 Thus, it can be difficult for pre-commencement costs disclosure to be accurate and comprehensive. Meaningful cost disclosure is particularly difficult for treatment that is open-ended and occurs in cycles over extended periods of time (such as cancer treatment, assisted reproductive therapy, or management of chronic disease).

Even for so-called ‘shoppable’ services (non-urgent care that is time-limited and can be scheduled in advance), price or pre-commencement costs disclosure will not always be sufficient to deliver meaningful personal costs transparency. 58 For example, a person considering in vitro fertilisation (IVF) may be able to compare a generic per-cycle price of IVF among providers, but price listings do not tell them how many cycles of treatment a patient like them will likely undertake, how much of certain drugs they may require, and what aspects of treatment might be ‘must have’ versus ‘nice to have’. Further, the basic per-cycle price of IVF may not be standard in what it includes and excludes, making meaningful comparison difficult. 59

Additional barriers to both price and cost transparency include the difficulty of generating lists of standard prices when a wide variety of services are offered—particularly where these services involve third-party payers or providers, individual insurance coverage, and a variety of specialists working together, each with different billing structures. Some pricing structures may also mean that personalised cost information might only be available after treatment consultation, when the patient has already ‘invested’ in a provider (ie, it can cost money to get information about treatment costs). Doctors may also have financial interests in the products and services that they provide, 60 which may influence their ability and willingness to discuss issues of cost.

These challenges are not unique to the healthcare setting, and there are numerous common scenarios, such as house renovation or building, where it may be difficult to predict precise costs. Standard approaches to imprecise costs disclosure in contracts (for eg, trade services) do not, however, necessarily provide a good model for communication in medical care. Further, in hybrid or mixed public and private payer health systems, patients may not be accustomed to paying for complex treatment (and thus complex billing) or, indeed, for any treatment at all, or may not anticipate the financial considerations of commercial providers that can influence treatment offering, such as the profitability of some treatment options compared to others, or to non-treatment. Additionally, in Australia, there is commonly a publicly funded component to private care, which distinguishes contracts for medical services from purely private transactions.

2. Challenges of communicating about finances through ‘informed financial consent’

In addition to there being challenges that apply to any kind of financial transparency, there are also additional challenges to applying informed consent as an approach to financial communication. For, as much as financial communication through ‘informed financial consent’ seeks to adopt the strengths of an informed consent framework, it also assumes some of the difficulties of informed consent based on information about (non-financial) risks and benefits, exacerbates these difficulties and creates new ones.

Some of the ongoing challenges of any kind of informed consent to treatment include knowing how to define materiality and minimum standards of information provision, and ensuring that decision making is genuinely ‘shared’ when communication is not always easy and time is often limited. 61 There is ongoing legal uncertainty about informed consent to treatment. For example, materiality is often determined subjectively to some degree, and that will tend to turn on the circumstances of a particular case. In this regard, it is important to bear in mind that even if costs can be predicted and clinicians are willing to discuss them, individuals’ financial situations may change over time, so the financial implications of ongoing treatment, and the relevance of finance as a decision-making factor, cannot be presumed from disclosure of likely costs before commencement. It can also be difficult to determine what a ‘reasonable patient’ would consider to be material, though there are arguably some common components of materiality. These ethical and legal challenges in informed consent to treatment would likely be replicated, or even exacerbated if demands were placed on clinicians to obtain genuine informed financial consent. For example, can a doctor know what is significant to someone in terms of their finances? Determining this is difficult enough when it comes to physical and psychological risks and benefits, but these are at least concerns that fit within the general area of expertise of healthcare professionals. The same is not true of financial risks, harms and benefits, which could require an understanding not only of a patient’s values but also of their insurance coverage, their other (competing) financial commitments and their various financing options (eg, accessing retirement funds, asking family or friends, crowdsourcing, etc).

The requirement for informed financial consent is also complicated legally by questions about whether medical practitioners are under a fiduciary duty to their patients (ie, whether they have to act in the best interests of their patients). In the USA and Canada where doctors are presumed fiduciaries, this implies an obligation not just to disclose costs but also to inform them about potentially competing or conflicting financial interests. 62 In other jurisdictions such as England, Wales, Australia, and New Zealand, medical practitioners are not presumed fiduciaries and patients need to be able to prove that their doctors owed them a duty to disclose financial information and conflicts of interest. Irrespective of whether doctors are fiduciaries or not, what doctors discuss, and how they discuss it, may vary according to their own financial interests.

There is also a risk that if doctors attempt to engage more closely in the financial aspects of an individual’s care, this may engender incorrect assumptions about what people can afford which, in turn, may limit what treatment options are discussed with them. In this regard, it is noteworthy that the financial status of patients (assumed or otherwise) has been shown to influence health professionals’ decision making even in contexts where patients are not paying directly for their care (ie publicly or privately insured). 63 Similarly, in user-pays contexts, concerns have been raised about the balance between not providing a service, which may be discriminatory or prejudicial, versus the potential harm of offering treatment to a patient beyond their financial means, 64 particularly where treatment has low chances of success. On the other hand, for patients to share in decision making and be fully informed about the risks and benefits of their options, informed consent to treatment may need to encompass discussion with a patient about their financial constraints, especially where options offer similar clinical results. While a patient’s expressed concerns about finances may go to materiality of information under informed consent, some objective indicators such as insurance status will also be relevant because of the predictable impact on patient out-of-pocket costs. 65

Another challenge with informed financial consent is that it requires that information be given not only about the financial implications of recommended treatment but also about the costs of alternatives (including the costs of not proceeding with treatment at all). In mixed health systems, consent in the private setting would need to include advising on the availability of the treatment in the public system. 66 But while it is reasonable to expect healthcare professionals to know about the physical and psychological risks and benefits of alternative treatments (or of no treatment), it is arguably not always reasonable to expect healthcare professionals to have a complete knowledge of the costs associated with alternative clinical decisions or with care offered by other practitioners. For example, a private billing orthopaedic surgeon may not be expected to know the detailed costs charged by other privately billing surgeons for the same knee replacement procedure. Competition law might also prohibit discussing prices with competitors to prevent price-fixing. Arguably, however, it would be reasonable for a practitioner to be able to discuss, at least in ball park figures, the relative expense of alternative pathways that are clinically appropriate, particularly where there is high potential financial impact in undergoing treatment. 67

Additionally, it is difficult, if not impossible, to know where to draw the line about what counts as a cost. For some interventions, ‘direct’ costs may be definable and able to be costed. For example, the Medical Board of Australia provides guidelines for the range of costs required for informed (financial) consent in cosmetic surgery, including costs of other practitioners involved in care and possible costs of further, consequential treatment. 68 Importantly, these guidelines stipulate that if costs of third party treatment providers are not known, a practitioner should provide indicative costs and at the least, direct the patient on how to obtain that information. 69 Yet, decisions about care may entail a broader calculus. For example, a clinician might not be reasonably expected to calculate indirect costs such as the costs of travelling for attending medical care or the costs of taking time away from work or needing to pay for childcare. Thus, while some advocate for costs disclosure to be inclusive of a broader range of costs, 70 it is not clear what can be reasonably expected of clinicians in providing this information because of the degree to which indirect costs are opaque, unknown, complex, and variable according to patients’ circumstances. That said, there may be some clinicians who can be expected to know and provide information about indirect costs. For example, a clinician who routinely works with patients in rural or remote areas may be expected to have and convey information about the comparative expense between local provision and travelling to a metropolitan area.

In terms of the elements that make informed consent valid, for informed financial consent to meet the standards of informed consent more generally, clinicians would need to ensure that patients have the capacity to make decisions about their own health care, and understand information disclosed to them about their healthcare costs. This may, however, be an unrealistic expectation for financial information. While it seems reasonable for healthcare professionals to have skills in assessing patients’ capacity and understanding of information about physical and psychological benefits, it may be unreasonable to expect them to assess patients’ financial literacy.

More generally, informed financial consent poses the risk of blurring the boundary between informing patients about costs and providing financial advice. In addition to providing information about costs, clinicians may go further, discussing the availability of financing options, such as personal loans, buy-now-pay-later schemes, early access to retirement funds 71 or financial aid programs. Not only is providing advice about certain financial products subject to restrictive regulation (such as licensing requirements in Australia 72 ), but it is also likely to create ethical conflicts for practitioners. In cosmetic surgery in Australia, where patients typically bear high out-of-pocket costs, ethical guidelines preclude practitioners from recommending or offering commercial financing schemes, but they may inform patients about such schemes as accepted payment methods. 73 While the question ‘which clinical option is most cost-effective for my desired outcome?’ will not ordinarily constitute financial advice, it may involve assisting with a broader calculus which may be difficult or inappropriate for clinicians. These difficulties may point to the need for independent financial expertise to help patients navigate personal finance.

From a more pragmatic perspective, informed financial consent requires that both patients and clinicians are willing to engage in this discussion, which might be difficult for cultural or contextual reasons, or because one or both parties feel uncomfortable doing so. 74 Patients may, for example, view finance as a private matter and/or a personal responsibility, or prefer to spend consultation time discussing the clinical aspects of treatment. Patients may fear being denied treatment or not being offered all available options should they express concerns about the costs of care or might be concerned about receiving lower quality care as a result. 75 Doctors, in turn, may be uncomfortable or unwilling to discuss costs with their patients because of general societal norms that dictate that this is a personal issue and/or not part of a clinical interaction between a patient and a doctor. Doctors may also be uncertain about how they should respond to financial information that is shared with them or the boundary with giving financial advice, as discussed above. Doctors may not have familiarised themselves with financial information or may not be trained in managing costs communication. Particularly in complex treatment contexts, costs discussions may also be time consuming. When consultation time is limited, doctors may prefer to focus on or prioritise providing their clinical expertise. While some communication support tools have been developed in an effort to overcome some of these challenges, they are not a panacea. We discuss these tools, alongside other strategies in Section IV.

There are additional legal explanations for why informed financial consent has not been uniformly supported or translated into policy and practice. In many jurisdictions, legal duties are grounded in the law of negligence and governed by concepts of materiality, meaning that valid informed consent requires communication of information which is likely to influence a patient’s treatment decision. But legal duties focused on disclosure of material risks tend not to explicitly include information other than that pertaining to the physical and psychological risks of interventions. 76 For example, in Australia medical practitioners have a duty in negligence to warn patients of material risks associated with a proposed treatment, but financial risk is not one of the classes of risks that have so far been recognised at common law. 77

It is, however, conceivable that financial risks will come to be considered a type of material risk as there has been shift over time from profession-based determinations of materiality (professional practice/the ‘reasonable professional’) to more patient-centric approaches, which focus on what a ‘reasonable patient’ or what a ‘reasonable person’ in position of the particular patient would like to know, including risks, side effects, and alternatives. 78 The materiality of costs information might also come to be captured in the objective aspect of materiality, rather than needing to be raised as a significant factor by a patient in order to trigger a subjective standard of materiality. This idea that costs are an objective, or presumed, aspect of materiality is consistent with the trend towards patients being viewed as ‘consumers’. It has also been argued that ‘financial toxicity’ should be framed as clinical risk or ‘side effect’ of treatment, 79 and so could be just as material as any other effect of treatment. Together, these shifts in thinking about materiality and decision making could shift the balance legally, such that financial information could come to be considered (objectively or subjectively) material. In Australia, a jurisdiction with a legal basis for informed consent under negligence, the materiality of financial information has not been legally tested.

Given all these challenges, it may be a mistake to attempt to address the need for financial transparency and the limitations of mere disclosure by simply demanding ‘informed financial consent.’ At the same time, it seems mistaken to think that clinicians have no obligations beyond mere disclosure regarding costs information and to ignore what can be translated from informed consent to treatment. What is needed is an approach to communication that draws more consistently and substantially on consent to treatment—regardless of whether it is called ‘consent’ or not, or is considered part of consent to treatment or a separate obligation. The question of informed financial consent suggests an important patient need and a potential gap in clinician’s fulfilment of their moral obligations to patients. In this section, we point to some potential ways of addressing some of the limitations of informed financial consent to support more effective financial communication.

A. Making information more meaningful and accessible

Improving financial communication requires considering structural forces impacting information and costs communication. In order for patients to inform themselves, they need access to good information that is understandable and relevant to the individual’s circumstances. Similarly, health professionals need access to good information to facilitate financial communication.

The business practices and models of provider organisations (and insurers) can influence financial communication by controlling what information is available to clinicians and to patients and how it is structured. Business practices may also influence financial communication through the allocation of resources, such as the availability of professionals to provide counselling and answer patients’ questions. Providers and billers may have a responsibility to provide information on the bundle of services that patients commonly require over a course of treatment, rather than per procedure billing, even if it is less convenient for an organisation to do so. It may be that we expect more transparent and organised financial information in large, corporate, vertically integrated medical conglomerates, where services are more likely to be internally bundled.

In jurisdictions with public funding and private co-payment, billing practices may be influenced by the structure of public subsidies. However, there is likely more that providers (both doctors and provider organisations) can do to improve patient cost experiences and communication. For example, negotiating with suppliers and other specialists to minimise uncertainty about costs for other elements of treatment, such as anaesthetist services. Another example is offering access to trained administrators or counsellors as standard, and ensuring those conversations can bridge financial information (and perhaps other relevant non-medical information) and the clinical options and pathways available to the patient. This may require coordination or briefing by the physician with the administrator or counsellor.

Aside from placing ethical and regulatory demands on the profession, consumer protection frameworks may also operate to address the financial information needs of patients. Because price is generally an essential term of contract, providers will generally be required to disclose to consumers a price to be paid for services. In jurisdictions such as the UK and Australia, consumer law governs contracts where a consumer pays for goods or services, even where the consumer is also a patient and the service is medical. The timing, manner, and quality of costs information and disclosure are likely to fall within consumer protections against unfair contracting and misleading or deceptive conduct. Not only is price a key term of a contract, but consumer protection may require providing information beyond merely a written contract or advertising, for example, as ‘pre-contract information’. 80 Treatment providers (including clinicians and non-clinicians, such as clinics) must also ensure they structure costs information in a manner that is not misleading or deceptive. For example, by including information about the main characteristics of treatment, the total costs of treatment and how the price of the treatment is calculated.

B. Educating and guiding patients/consumers

In recognition of the challenges of financial communication, some organisations have developed tools to help facilitate informed discussion about the financial elements of care with regard to patient needs and values (eg, Heathdirect Australia’s ‘Questions to ask your doctor’ or American Hospital Association’s ‘Understanding Healthcare Prices: A Consumer Guide’). 81 There is also growing interest in online tools for calculating the costs of care, such as the Australian Government’s ‘Medical Costs Finder’. 82 One of the advantages of these tools is that they do not place all the burden of disclosure on time, resource and information-constrained health professionals and can provide resources for patient to inform themselves to some extent. Another advantage is that they can educate patients and health professionals about how costs can be part of conversations about treatment. For example, a conversation guide covering how to raise financial concerns may assist patients who fear being denied or given lesser quality treatment if they ask about costs and financial information. 83 However, information tools may not work for all individuals and evidence of low uptake by patients 84 suggests transparency tools on their own are not a panacea for enabling informed decision making.

C. Using principles from informed consent

Even without formally applying a notion of ‘informed financial consent’ (with all of its ethical and legal ramifications as discussed above), there are strong reasons for applying some of its core tenets, such as understanding and ongoing dialogue between doctor and patient, including about alternative clinical options, eliciting values, and creating space to ask questions. It is also possible to derive ideas from emerging models of informed consent that could improve decision making and the patient experience. For example, drawing on the idea from research ethics of ‘meta-consent’, 85 a health professional could ask all patients whether or not they would like to discuss the financial implications of recommended and alternative treatments. If the answer is ‘yes’, then health professionals could ask patients a range of other open-ended questions—for example, if they have specific concerns about costs they would like to discuss; if they would like information about alternatives that differ only financially from what is being suggested; and if they would like information about potential sources of funding. If patients have questions that are highly specific, it would be quite reasonable for the health professional to refer to or suggest discussion with others, such as trained administrators, financial planners, or counsellors. Importantly, these delegates and agents must be available and accessible to patients.

There are ongoing debates about meta-consent, including its impact on ethical considerations such as autonomy 86 and whether it can be used as a way to circumscribe a professional or ethical obligation in the clinical context. It also remains an open question what the legal implications of such an approach might be. One possibility is that doctors could be seen to fail in their legal obligations if they fail to at least ask patients whether they would like to discuss financial issues, fail to raise issues that would be considered objectively material (eg, the existence of a heavily subsidised or free alternative to a procedure that would be considered expensive by most people) or provide any false or misleading information about costs (although the latter would already be subject to consumer protection laws).

In this regard, tools developed to help facilitate informed discussion about the financial elements of care, such as the patient and consumer guides or online price estimate tools mentioned above, may support an approach to costs conversations that utilises meta-consent, buttressed by healthcare providers and professionals informing patients about and directing patients to relevant tools, and being prepared to facilitate personalisation of costs information to an individual patient’s clinical circumstances as required.

D. Bolstering financial communication in consumer protection law

The application of consumer protection to the medical context is attracting increasing attention. For example, recent guidance from the UK’s Competition and Markets Authority (CMA) for fertility clinics provides some useful insight into how consumer protection may apply in instances of medical treatment. Importantly, going beyond arms–length interactions such as accuracy in advertising, the guidance highlights that consumer law governs interactions between providers and patients before and during treatment, including individually costed treatment options. 87 While the development of guidance sheds light on how consumer protection can bolster aspects of disclosure and assist in informed consent, consumer law is more limited than an informed consent standard. For example, even where consumer law may require tailoring of costs information about an individual’s treatment options (such as following diagnostics), there is not likely to be responsibility to discuss alternatives to treatment. Further, the application of consumer protection should not obscure the importance of the doctor–patient relationship and the need to address the special vulnerabilities of patients that make them a unique category of consumers.

Good and timely costs information is generally necessary, but not always sufficient to enable patients to make informed decisions about their care. Complexity, uncertainty, and individual variance in healthcare costs tend to make disclosure and financial transparency challenging. Disclosure of patient-specific costs may be adequate in some, simple circumstances, but it may not fully satisfy doctors’ moral obligations to their patients in others. In particular, mere disclosure does not satisfy the criteria for genuine ‘informed consent’ or ‘shared decision-making’, in which discussions of cost need to be integrated with discussions about clinical risks and benefits, enabling patients to determine not only what they can afford, but also what represents the most value for money to them. Thus, even if financial information can be effectively disclosed, this may fail to achieve the ethical, economic and legal goals that underpin and justify disclosure requirements.

Simply putting the ‘financial’ into ‘informed consent’ and invoking an informed consent standard for cost information as a complete approach to financial communication in the medical context has several ethical, legal, and practical difficulties, including determining patient values regarding financial risks, harms, and benefits in order to tailor the consenting process; identifying what might count as a ‘cost’; determining the materiality of costs information; in obtaining costs information about alternative treatments or providers; managing assumptions about affordability; managing unwillingness of patients or clinicians to engage in discussions about costs; managing lack of expertise to assess financial capacity; and navigating the boundary between discussing the financial aspects and implications of treatment, with providing financial advice. Furthermore, informed financial consent also faces the ongoing challenges of obtaining informed consent based on information about non-financial risks and benefits.

But even without formally applying a notion of ‘informed financial consent’ (with all of its ethical and legal ramifications), it is possible to derive ideas from informed consent that could improve decision making and the patient experience. It is clear that practitioners (and their delegates) have a unique role to play in bridging the gap between disclosure and enabling informed (financial) decision making, including in contextualising costs among clinical options for individual patients and being a touchpoint to link patients with resources. The next step is to consider whether a consent-oriented approach should be considered part of, or additional to, consent to medical treatment itself. The extent to which consent to costs might be considered part of consent to treatment will likely depend on the legal bases, structures, and goals of professional regulation in a particular jurisdiction.

Whether or not our suggested approach to financial communication is integrated into consent to treatment, financial communication between doctors and patients must be part of a multi-faceted approach. Any ethical and regulatory demands on professionals regarding informed and shared decision making must be cognisant of the influence of non-clinical providers and other structural forces on discharging such obligations. There is need to incentivise providers to make good, timely and meaningful information available to individuals and practitioners, and recent developments in the UK suggest that the consumer law may be an effective tool to align provider behaviour with good informing processes. More broadly, as out-of-pocket costs associated with health care will likely continue to grow, there is need to make financial expertise and counselling accessible to patients in healthcare contexts with high potential for financial harm.

There is no way of escaping the need to discuss the financial aspects of care with patients. This cannot, however, be achieved simply by invoking legal and ethical ideas of ‘informed financial consent’ without considering the challenges that surround consent in general and the specific challenges related to applying notions of consent to financial communication.

This research was funded by the National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC Ideas Grant APP1181401).

See R Harvey, ‘Out-of-Pocket Payments for Health Care—Finding a Way Forward’ in Australian Department of Parliamentary Services, Parliamentary Library Briefing Book - 44th Parliament of Australia (December 2013); V Arora, C Moriates and N Shah, ‘The Challenge of Understanding Health Care Costs and Charges’ (2015) 17 AMA Journal of Ethics 1046; R Gupta, C Tsay and RL Fogerty, ‘Promoting Cost Transparency to Reduce Financial Harm to Patients’ (2015) 17 AMA Journal of Ethics 1073; L Russell and J Doggett, A Road Map for Tackling Out-of-Pocket Health Care Costs (White Paper, February 2019); GL Smith and others, ‘Financial Burdens of Cancer Treatment: A Systematic Review of Risk Factors and Outcomes’ (2019) 17 Journal of the National Comprehensive Cancer Network 1184; R Crowley and others, ‘Envisioning a Better U.S. Health Care System for All: Coverage and Cost of Care’ (2020) 172 Annals of Internal Medicine S7; EJ Callander, ‘Out‐of‐pocket Fees for Health Care in Australia: Implications for Equity’ (2023) Medical Journal of Australia < https://www.mja.com.au/journal/2023/218/7/out-pocket-fees-health-care-australia-implications-equity > accessed 5 July 2023.

See Executive Order 13877 [2019] Improving price and quality transparency in American healthcare to put patients first, 84 FR 30849; Australian Government Department of Health and Aged Care, ‘Informed Financial Consent Guide Launched’ ( Australian Government Department of Health and Aged Care , 23 July 2019) < https://www.health.gov.au/ministers/the-hon-greg-hunt-mp/media/informed-financial-consent-guide-launched > accessed 13 June 2023; MC Politi and others, ‘Discussing Cost and Value in Patient Decision Aids and Shared Decision Making: A Call to Action’ (2023) 8 MDM Policy & Practice 1.

For example, an Executive Order by the President of the United States in 2019 called for improving price transparency and costs information before making medical decisions. See n 2.

NN Sawicki, ‘Modernizing Informed Consent: Expanding the Boundaries of Materiality’ (2016) 2016 University of Illinois Law Review 821.

Medical Board of Australia, Good Medical Practice: A Code of Conduct for Doctors in Australia (October 2020), s 4.5.3.

General Medical Council, Guidance on Professional Standards and Ethics for Doctors Decision Making and Consent (2020).

Medical Council of New Zealand, ‘Your Rights as a Patient’ (2019) < https://www.mcnz.org.nz/support/support-for-patients/your-rights-as-a-patient/ > accessed 10 July 2023.

See eg, D Currow and S Aranda, ‘Financial Toxicity in Clinical Care Today: A “Menu without Prices”’ (2016) 204 Medical Journal of Australia 397; KA Schulman and BD Richman, ‘Informed Consent as a Means of Acknowledging and Avoiding Financial Toxicity as Iatrogenic Harm’ (2022) 24 AMA Journal of Ethics 1063.

For eg, the Australian Medical Association recommend that financial consent be a part of clinical care of patients: Australian Medical Association, Informed Financial Consent (Position Statement, June 2015) < https://www.ama.com.au/articles/informed-financial-consent-2015 > accessed 1 December 2022.

See eg, Australian Government Department of Health and Aged Care (n 2).

Australian Government Senate Community Affairs Legislation Committee, Report—Health Legislation Amendment (Gap Cover Schemes) Bill 2000 (Commonwealth of Australia 2000) < https://www.aph.gov.au/parliamentary_business/committees/senate/community_affairs/completed_inquiries/1999-02/gapcover/report/index > 8 August 2023.

Australian Commission on Safety and Quality in Health Care, AS18/10: Informed financial consent (November 2021).

Australian Government Department of Health and Aged Care (n 2).

Health Care Complaints Commission, Professional Standards Committee Inquiry (NSW), Complaint against Dr Francis Cheuk Kin Chu , (Ref: H18/10352 DD20/09534, 2020). Note that it was relevant for the Committee that the doctor knew that the patient had limited financial capacity (elderly and uninsured).

Adelaide Anaesthetic Services (Reg) v John Smith No 93/17705  [1994] SASC 5019; [1994] SAMC 1, as referred to in J Germov, ‘Medi-Fraud, Managerialism and the Decline of Medical Autonomy: Deprofessionalisation and Proletarianisation Reconsidered’ (1995) 31 The Australian and New Zealand Journal of Sociology 51.

Adelaide Anaesthetic Services (Reg) v John Smith No 93/17705  [1994] SASC 5019; [1994] SAMC 1. Notably, this case does not mention ‘informed financial consent’ or ‘informed consent’, nor does it especially deal with the doctor-patient relationship between the parties. Rather, the common law implies the otherwise unagreed-upon price term in the contract for supply of anaesthetic services in conjunction with surgery.

Adelaide Anaesthetic Services (Reg) v John Smith No 93/17705  [1994] SASC 5019; [1994] SAMC 1.

J Germov, ‘Medi-Fraud, Managerialism and the Decline of Medical Autonomy: Deprofessionalisation and Proletarianisation Reconsidered’ (1995) 31 The Australian and New Zealand Journal of Sociology 51.

See eg, BD Richman, MA Hall and KA Schulman, ‘Overbilling and Informed Financial Consent–A Contractual Solution’ (2012) 367 New England Journal of Medicine 396; D Currow and S Aranda, ‘Financial Toxicity in Clinical Care Today: A “Menu without Prices”’(2016) 204 Medical Journal of Australia 397; C Thamm and others, ‘Exploring the Role of General Practitioners in Addressing Financial Toxicity in Cancer Patients’ (2022) 30 Supportive Care in Cancer 457; Schulman and Richman (n 9).

See Richman, Hall and Schulman ibid.

BD Richman, MA Hall and KA Schulman, ‘The No Surprises Act and Informed Financial Consent’ (2021) 385 The New England Journal of Medicine 1348.

See eg, Australian Government Productivity Commission, Performance of Public and Private Hospitals (Commonwealth of Australia 2009) < https://www.pc.gov.au/inquiries/completed/hospitals/report/hospitals-report.pdf > accessed 8 August 2023.

New South Wales Government, Policy Directive—Charging Arrangements for Hospitals and Other Health Services. Financial Accounting, Policy, Insurance and Revenue (July 2022) < https://www1.health.nsw.gov.au/pds/ActivePDSDocuments/PD2022_024.pdf > accessed 8 August 2022.

Australian Medical Association, Informed Financial Consent—a collaboration between doctors and patients (AMA 2020) 11.

DE Hall, AV Prochazka and AS Fink, ‘Informed Consent for Clinical Treatment’ (2012) 184 CMAJ: Canadian Medical Association Journal 533.

See RD Nipp, EM Sonet and GP Guy, ‘Communicating the Financial Burden of Treatment with Patients’ (2018) American Society of Clinical Oncology Educational Book 524; A Agarwal and others, ‘Discussion of Costs and Financial Burden in Clinical Practice: A Survey of Medical Oncologists in Australia’ (2022) 17 PLoS One e0273620.

For the purposes of this article, we remain agnostic as to whether current ethical and legal understandings of ‘consent to treatment’ should be explicitly expanded to include information about costs or whether consent to medical treatment and consent to cost are separate obligations.

See MA Hall and others, Solving Surprise Medical Bills , The Schaeffer Initiative for Innovation in Health Policy, A Brookings Institution–USC Schaeffer Center Partnership (White Paper, October 2016); Richman, Hall and Schulman (n 23); Richman, Hall and Schulman (n 21).

See YN Wong and others, ‘Understanding How Out-of-Pocket Expenses, Treatment Value, and Patient Characteristics Influence Treatment Choices’ (2010) 15 The Oncologist 566; C Exley and others, ‘Beyond Price: Individuals’ Accounts of Deciding to Pay for Private Healthcare Treatment in the UK’ (2012) 12 BMC Health Services Research 53; SY Zafar and others, ‘The Utility of Cost Discussions between Patients with Cancer and Oncologists’ (2015) 21 The American Journal of Managed Care 607; Australian Government Department of Health and Aged Care (n 2); Executive Order 13877 [2019] Improving price and quality transparency in American healthcare to put patients first, 84 FR 30849; HS Smith, ‘How Should Economic Value Be Considered in Treatment Decisions for Individual Patients?’ (2021) 23 AMA Journal of Ethics 607.

AL Meluch and WH Oglesby, ‘Physician–Patient Communication Regarding Patients’ Healthcare Costs in the USA: A Systematic Review of the Literature’ (2015) 8 Journal of Communication in Healthcare 151.

‘Financial toxicity’ describes the impact of out-of-pocket costs associated with treatment that can diminish quality of life and inhibit delivery of quality care. The term has been used to include both objective financial burden and subjective experiences of financial distress in cancer care and more broadly: SY Zafar and AP Abernethy, ‘Financial Toxicity, Part I: A New Name for a Growing Problem’ (2013) 27 Oncology (Williston Park, NY) 80.

See Cancer Council, Cancer Charities Call for Better Disclosure on Cost of Treatment (Cancer Council, 15 November 2018) < https://www.cancer.org.au/media-releases/2018/cancer-charities-call-for-better-disclosure-on-cost-of-treatment > accessed 29 June 2023; K Chalmers, AG Elshaug and S Larkin, ‘First Steps towards Price Transparency: Comparability of Online Out-of-Pocket Tools from Australian Private Health Funds’ (2020) 44 Australian Health Review 347; Schulman and Richman (n 9); Richman, Hall and Schulman (n 23).

S Scheetz and MH Chin, ‘Ethical Dimensions of Pricing Transparency’ (2022) 24 AMA Journal of Ethics 1031.

See eg, C Whaley and A Frakt, ‘If Patients Don’t Use Available Health Service Pricing Information, Is Transparency Still Important?’ (2022) 24 AMA Journal of Ethics 1056; Australian Commission on Safety and Quality in Health Care, Understanding My Healthcare Rights: A Guide for Consumers (ACSQHC 2020).

K Campbell and K Parsi, ‘A New Age of Patient Transparency: An Organizational Framework for Informed Consent’ (2017) 45 Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics 60.

OAJ Mascarenhas, R Kesavan and MD Bernacchi, ‘On Reducing Information Asymmetry in U.S. Health Care’ (2013) 30 Health Marketing Quarterly 379.

JC Newton and others, ‘“…If I Don’t Have That Sort of Money Again, What Happens?”: Adapting a Qualitative Model to Conceptualise the Consequences of out-of-Pocket Expenses for Cancer Patients in Mixed Health Systems’ (2020) 44 Australian Health Review 355.

Campbell and Parsi (n 37); N Shah, ‘Physicians’ Role in Protecting Patients’ Financial Well-Being’ (2013) 15 AMA Journal of Ethics 162.

Richman, Hall and Schulman (n 21).

Focus on price transparency has been described as a ‘national movement’ in the USA, fueled by the increasing availability of online tools for patients: Arora, Moriates and Shah (n 1) 1048.

In Adelaide Anaesthetic Services (Reg) v John Smith No. 93/17705  [1994] SASC 5019 ; [1994] SAMC 1, an anaesthetist failed to inform the patient of out-of-pocket expenses. The Magistrate implied the reasonable fee as the amount offered for the service by the Australian government subsidy (Medicare Benefits Schedule). Thus, the court’s implied price term in the contract between the provider and patient meant that the patient did not owe the anaesthetist the additional private fee.

GK Hadfield, R Howse and MJ Trebilcock, ‘Information-Based Principles for Rethinking Consumer Protection Policy’ (1998) 21 Journal of Consumer Policy 131.

Whaley and Frakt (n 36).

C Stewart and I Kerridge, ‘The Three Functions of Consent in Neurosurgery’ in S Honeybul (ed), Ethics in Neurosurgical Practice (CUP 2020), 29-38.

For healthcare professionals, consent may be said to perform an instrumental function in the avoidance of legal liability.

Stewart and Kerridge (n 46).

See also Hall, Prochazka and Fink (n 27); SN Whitney, AL McGuire and LB McCullough, ‘A Typology of Shared Decision Making, Informed Consent, and Simple Consent’ (2004) 140 Annals of Internal Medicine 54.

See TC Hoffmann and others, ‘Shared Decision Making: What Do Clinicians Need to Know and Why Should They Bother?’ (2014) 201 Medical Journal of Australia 35. < https://www.mja.com.au/journal/2014/201/1/shared-decision-making-what-do-clinicians-need-know-and-why-should-they-bother > accessed 17 May 2023.

See E Jackson, ‘Challenging the Comparison in Montgomery Between Patients and “Consumers Exercising Choices”’(2021) 29 Medical Law Review 595.

See eg, Australian Medical Association (n 10). The Australian Medical Association supports doctor-patient costs conversations in principle but does not support a legally enshrined obligation with sanctions for non-compliance.

Schulman and Richman (n 9).

Though in some healthcare contexts, such as the US system of networked care, ‘shoppability’ also occurs at the point of obtaining insurance.

United Kingdom Competition and Markets Authority, Guidance for Fertility Clinics on Consumer Law: Helping Fertility Clinics Comply with Their Consumer Law Obligations (CMA127, June 2021) para 1.6.

C Mayes, J Williams and W Lipworth, ‘Conflicted Hope: Social Egg Freezing and Clinical Conflicts of Interest’ (2018) 27 Health Sociology Review 45.

Hall, Prochazka and Fink (n 27).

B Davies and J Parker, ‘Doctors as Appointed Fiduciaries: A Supplemental Model for Medical Decision-Making’ (2022) 31 Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics 23.

CR Vernazza and others, ‘Introducing High-Cost Health Care to Patients: Dentists’ Accounts of Offering Dental Implant Treatment’ (2015) 43 Community Dentistry and Oral Epidemiology 75.

ibid. See also PM Rosoff, ‘Who Should Ration?’ (2017) 19 AMA Journal of Ethics 164.

See S Weiner, ‘“I Can’t Afford That!”’ (2001) 16 Journal of General Internal Medicine 412.

Including comparative waiting times: Currow and Aranda (n 9). Further, a complaint prosecuted in an Australian Medical Professional Standards Committee in 2020 found a doctor guilty of unsatisfactory professional conduct for failing to provide adequate information to a cancer patient about the possibility of surgery being performed at the public hospital: Health Care Complaints Commission, Professional Standards Committee Inquiry (NSW), Complaint against Dr Francis Cheuk Kin Chu , (Ref: H18/10352 DD20/09534, 2020).

Whether physicians have a duty to disclose more cost-effective ways to access medicines has been considered elsewhere: N Ghinea, ‘Physicians’ Legal Duty to Disclose More Cost-Effective Treatment Options: An Examination of Australian Civil Law Applied to Personal Importation’ (2023) 47 Australian Health Review 314.

Medical Board of Australia, Guidelines for Registered Medical Practitioners Who Perform Cosmetic Medical and Surgical Procedures (Medical Board of Australia 2019).

See Currow and Aranda (n 9); Cancer Council of Australia, Standard for Informed Financial Consent (April 2020) < https://www.cancer.org.au/assets/pdf/standard_for_informed_financial_consent > accessed 15 June 2023.

N Bhatia and L Porceddu, ‘Emptying the Nest Egg to Fill the Nursery: Early Release of Superannuation to Fund Assisted Reproductive Technology’ 2021 University of New South Wales Law Journal 513.

An Australian Financial Services Licence issued by the Australian Securities and Investments Commission (ASIC) may be required under ch 7 (s 911A) of the Corporations Act   2001 (Cth).

Medical Board of Australia (n 68).

M Pisu and others, ‘Perspectives on Conversations About Costs of Cancer Care of Breast Cancer Survivors and Cancer Center Staff’ (2019) 170 Annals of Internal Medicine S54; SY Zafar and others, ‘Cost-Related Health Literacy: A Key Component of High-Quality Cancer Care’ (2015) 11 Journal of Oncology Practice 171.

Zafar and others (n 31).

See Sawicki (n 4); J O’Neill, ‘Materiality of Conflict of Interest in Informed Consent to Medical Treatment in the United Kingdom’ (2022) 32 Ethics & Behavior 375, which argues that disclosure of financial interest should be included in the duty to warn (UK).

Rogers v Whitaker (1992) 175 CLR 479. In Australia, a doctor’s duty to provide information to patients before undertaking a medical procedure derives principally from the law of negligence, but the law of trespass and contract are also relevant and the common law principles have been stated in legislation in some jurisdictions.

See eg, Montgomery v Lanarkshire Health Board [2015] UKSC 11; Rogers v Whitaker (1992) 175 CLR 479.

PA Ubel, AP Abernethy and SY Zafar, ‘Full Disclosure—Out-of-Pocket Costs as Side Effects’ (2013) 369 The New England Journal of Medicine 1484.

For eg, as in the United Kingdom Competition and Markets Authority (n 39). Though as E Jackson points out, pre-contractual information disclosures to consumers are different to the process of gaining information consent for treatment, including in terms of quality of information and the dynamics between the parties: Jackson (n 53).

Health Direct Australia, ‘Questions to ask your doctor’ (February 2023) < https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/questions-to-ask-your-doctor > accessed 9 August 2023; Healthcare Financial Management Association, ‘Understanding Healthcare Prices: A Consumer Guide’ (2018) < https://www.aha.org/system/files/2018-04/14transparency-consumerguide.pdf > accessed 10 July 2023.

Australian Government Department of Health, ‘Medical Costs Finder’ (11 November 2022) < https://www.health.gov.au/resources/apps-and-tools/medical-costs-finder > accessed 8 August 2023.

See Zafar and others (n 31).

A Zhang and others, ‘The Impact of Price Transparency on Consumers and Providers: A Scoping Review’ (2020) 124 Health Policy 819; Whaley and Frakt (n 36).

T Ploug and S Holm, ‘Meta Consent: A Flexible and Autonomous Way of Obtaining Informed Consent for Secondary Research’ (2015) 350 British Medical Journal (Clinical research ed.) h2146.

See NC Manson, ‘The Biobank Consent Debate: Why “Meta-consent” is Not the Solution?’ (2019) 45 Journal of Medical Ethics 291; T Ploug and S Holm. ‘The Biobank Consent Debate: Why ‘Meta-Consent’ is Still the Solution!’ (2019) 45 Journal of Medical Ethics 295.

United Kingdom Competition and Markets Authority (n 39); United Kingdom Competition and Markets Authority, Fertility Treatment: A Guide to Your Consumer Right s (CMA142, June 2021).

The authors wish to thank Ruby Lew for their research assistance. Isabel Karpin is on the editorial board of the journal.

• informed consent
• decision making
• principles of law and justice
• transparency
• jurisdiction

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