sustainable mining essay

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• Published: 24 May 2021

Mining our green future

• Richard Herrington   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-1576-8242 1  

Nature Reviews Materials volume  6 ,  pages 456–458 ( 2021 ) Cite this article

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The green energy revolution is heavily reliant on raw materials, such as cobalt and lithium, which are currently mainly sourced by mining. We must carefully evaluate acceptable supplies for these metals to ensure that green technologies are beneficial for both people and planet.

In 2020, amidst the COVID-19 crisis, the World Economic Forum’s Great Reset initiative highlighted the crossroads society faces for its post-pandemic rebuild in the context of climate and planetary emergencies and ambitions for a new inclusive social contract. The idea is that the energy industry is transformed and rebuilt in a resilient, equitable and sustainable way, while harnessing the innovations of the fourth industrial revolution. The United Nation’s ‘race to zero’ pledge to cut carbon emissions to zero by 2050, enthusiastically adopted by government and industry alike, further demands a transformation to energy sourced from sustainable technologies rather than the burning of fossil fuels, which fuelled the first three industrial revolutions. However, these green technologies carry intensive mineral demands.

Green technology requires non-renewable raw materials sourced from primary geological resources (mines) or secondary supply (reuse or recycling). The ambition is a fully circular economy, in which demand can be satisfied by reuse and recycling; however, we are not yet at that point. Stocks of secondary supplies and recycling rates are inadequate to meet demand. Even for metals, such as aluminium and cobalt, for which end-of-life recycling is up to 70%, secondary supply still only accounts for 30% of their growing demand; in the case of lithium, recycling currently only accounts for 1% of present demand, as highlighted in the recycling rates of metals status report of the International Resource Panel . Substitution for some of these metals might be possible in alternative technology solutions to reduce reliance on specific commodities, but this is challenging to achieve in such a short timeline. Such alternatives, for example, Li-free multivalent metal-ion batteries to replace Li-ion batteries, are less mature in their development and will take time to industrialize 1 . As a result of these sourcing challenges, mining remains necessary to deliver validated technical solutions needed for the rapid decarbonization demanded in the pledge.

The need for metals and minerals

Internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs) are the greatest contributors to carbon emissions in the UK. For transport to hit ‘net zero’, the internal combustion engine needs to be eliminated from cars, as recognized by the Committee on Climate Change . To switch the UK’s fleet of 31.5 million ICEVs to battery-electric vehicles (BEVs), it would take an estimated 207,900 tonnes cobalt, 264,600 tonnes lithium carbonate, 7,200 tonnes neodymium and dysprosium and 2,362,500 tonnes copper, as discussed in a letter by myself and my colleagues, in which we set out the resource challenge of meeting net zero emissions in the UK by 2050 . This amount is twice the current annual world production of cobalt, an entire year’s world production of neodymium and three quarters of the world production of lithium. Replacing the estimated 1.4 billion ICEVs worldwide would need forty times these amounts. In addition, the energy revolution towards renewables, that is, wind, solar, wave, tidal, hydro, geothermal and nuclear, together with the newly built infrastructure for delivery, are highly reliant on mineral-based technologies 2 .

Short- to medium-term demands

The World Bank Report in 2020 highlighted 17 mineral commodities that appear essential for the clean energy transition to renewables. This report analyes that the increase of specific metal or mineral demands depends on the technology; however, the modelling scenarios that limit climate change to a 2 °C temperature increase all show a future reliance on solar and wind energy and the projected increased demand for the 12 most implicated commodities as a result are shown in Table  1 .

Photovoltaic cells require aluminium, copper, silver and steel (and silica sand 2 ) as well as other elements, such as indium, selenium and tellurium, depending on the type of technology. Wind energy demands steel, copper, aluminium, zinc and lead as well as neodymium for turbine magnets. Hydro power demands concrete and steel for basic infrastructure in addition to copper and aluminium for power transmission 1 .

Energy storage will be needed for wind and solar electricity generation as well as BEVs. A mixture of graphite, lithium, cobalt, nickel, and manganese is needed for state-of-the-art BEV batteries (90% of the anticipated demand for energy storage), whereas vanadium is the metal of choice for static power storage for industrial needs, such as solar and wind farms (World Bank Report in 2020). A range of battery technologies and hydrogen-powered options are being explored, which allow substitution of one or more of these metals and minerals; however, these technologies are unlikely to make major inroads to displace current Li-ion battery technologies until 2030 at the earliest 3 .

Although the projected percentage increase in demand of the major metals is relatively small, it is significant in absolute terms; for example, a 9% increase in aluminium by 2030 would mean an extra 103 million tonnes of aluminium to be mined (more than the world’s total annual production of 2019; World Bank Report in 2020).

Wholly sourcing from recycling

In the short-to-medium term, recycling cannot meet this demand. However, by 2035, there may be 245 million BEVs on the road, which, given average car scrappage rates of 6.9%, could provide scrap from 17 million vehicles per year. If the ambition of the Global Battery Alliance on battery specifications are met, these vehicles could provide recoverable metals for a considerable percentage of the world’s new BEVs with appropriate recycling strategies ( EU H2020 CROCODILE project ). With optimal recycling rates, 30–40% of the USA’s needs for both lithium and cobalt could be met by recycling after 2035 (according to the Union of Concerned Scientists ), yet this clearly leaves a shortfall.

Mining and sourcing of metals and minerals

Although we are not running out in absolute terms 4 , there are certainly supply challenges for commodities, such as graphite, cobalt and lithium, for which increases in demand of close to 500% are projected. 62% of the total world annual production of graphite comes from mines in China (according to the US Geological Survey on Mineral Commodity Summaries for graphite ). It is suggested that the market needs around 68 million tonnes to be delivered by 2050 ( World Bank Report in 2020 ) and the good news is that China can deliver around half of that from its published reserves alone 5 . Additional graphite could be sourced in Brazil, Mozambique and Madagascar.

More than 60% of the world’s cobalt supply comes as a by-product from the mining of copper in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. This mined cobalt is then mainly refined in China before it is available to industry (according to the US Geological Survey on Mineral Commodity Summaries for cobalt ). Supply from the Democratic Republic of the Congo has experienced periodic disruption as a result of political instability; in addition, ongoing child labour issues ( BBC report on child miners in the Democratic Republic of Congo ) have major implications for ethical supply and new social contract ambitions. Alternatively, cobalt may be recovered from the waste material of existing terrestrial mines. Estimates in 2012 concluded that unrecovered cobalt from existing nickel mines in Europe could supply 50% of the metal needed for European Li-ion battery plants coming on stream (highlighted in the 2018 EU report on cobalt ). The geology of Europe is favourable for a range of new potential sources for the metal 6 . Perhaps most controversially, deep ocean nodules could offer industry all the cobalt and manganese as well as most of the copper and nickel we may need for the world’s BEVs ( the Royal Society: future ocean resources ).

Around half of the world’s lithium comes from hardrock deposits in Australia ( US Geological Survey on Mineral Commodity Summaries for lithium ). The remainder is sourced from salar brines in Chile and Argentina, although extraction in the fragile Atacama Desert faces its own specific governance issues ( Earthworks report ). Lithium is not a rare metal 7 and UK-funded research explores diverse new sources ( Natural History Museum: LiFT (Lithium for Future Technology) ). Areas in the UK, Portugal and Germany show great potential for lithium sourcing from brines and hardrock sources, although it remains to be seen if Europe has the appetite for more mining in its backyards to secure our green future.

Delivering the ‘Great Reset’

Clean technologies and infrastructure of a low carbon future carry intense mineral demands. A circular economy would be achievable before 2050, if governments and the private sector get innovation right across the supply chain and ensure that products, such as batteries, can be easily disassembled and recycled. However, growth trends suggest that mining may still play a role, because demand for metals will increase as the developing world reaches the same per capita usage of materials as the developed world.

The ambition remains to recycle and reuse as much as we can; however, new-mined resources will be required in the short term to enable green technologies and infrastructure. There are sufficient geological resources to deliver the required metals, but we must carefully balance the need to mine with the requirement to tackle environmental and social governance issues and to deliver sustainable development goals, ensuring outcomes are beneficial for both people and planet 8 . In the past, the true values of biodiversity loss have not been included in mining project evaluations 9 and a new approach is needed embracing principles outlined in the recent Dasgupta report . Thus, we must carefully, creatively and systematically secure a diverse range of acceptable sources for the metals we demand. New frontiers for supply should include neglected mined waste and seeking more regulated mining areas in our own backyard rather than relying on sources with less controllable, fragile and problematic supply chains 10 . The debate about mining our deep ocean, as alternative to terrestrial sources, needs to be resolved. Based on such a broad analysis, we can then make balanced societal choices about metal and mineral supply to deliver the ‘Great Reset’ with a good deal for people and planet.

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Acknowledgements

The author acknowledges funding from the European Union’s EU Framework Programme for Research and Innovation Horizon 2020 under Grant Agreement No 776473 CROCODILE and from UKRI NERC project NE/V007068/1 LiFT. The author thanks E. Downey for insightful comments on an earlier draft of the manuscript.

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Related links.

2018 EU report on cobalt: https://ec.europa.eu/jrc/en/publication/eur-scientific-and-technical-research-reports/cobalt-demand-supply-balances-transition-electric-mobility

BBC report on child miners in the Democratic Republic of Congo: https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-50812616

Climate and planetary emergencies: https://www.clubofrome.org/impact-hubs/climate-emergency/

Committee on Climate Change: https://www.theccc.org.uk/2019/05/02/phase-out-greenhouse-gas-emissions-by-2050-to-end-uk-contribution-to-global-warming/

Commodity reviews for various metals and minerals: https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2020/

Dasgupta report: https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/962785/The_Economics_of_Biodiversity_The_Dasgupta_Review_Full_Report.pdf

Earthworks report: https://www.earthworks.org/stories/atacama-chile-lithium/

EU H2020 CROCODILE project: https://h2020-crocodile.eu/

Global Battery Alliance on battery specifications: http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_GBA_Overview_2019.pdf

Natural History Museum: LiFT (Lithium for Future Technology: https://www.nhm.ac.uk/our-science/our-work/sustainability/lithium-for-future-technology.html

Net Zero: The UK’s contribution to stopping global warming: https://www.theccc.org.uk/publication/net-zero-the-uks-contribution-to-stopping-global-warming/

Recycling rates of metals status report of the International Resource Panel: https://www.resourcepanel.org/reports/recycling-rates-metals

Resource challenge of meeting net zero emissions in the UK by 2050: https://www.nhm.ac.uk/press-office/press-releases/leading-scientists-set-out-resource-challenge-of-meeting-net-zer.html

The Royal Society: future ocean resources: https://royalsociety.org/topics-policy/projects/future-ocean-resources/

Union of Concerned Scientists: https://www.ucsusa.org/resources/ev-battery-recycling

United Nation’s ‘race to zero’ pledge: https://racetozero.unfccc.int/

US Geological Survey on Mineral Commodity Summaries for cobalt: https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2020/mcs2020-cobalt.pdf

US Geological Survey on Mineral Commodity Summaries for graphite: https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2020/mcs2020-graphite.pdf

US Geological Survey on Mineral Commodity Summaries for lithium: https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2020/mcs2020-lithium.pdf

World Bank Report in 2020: https://pubdocs.worldbank.org/en/961711588875536384/Minerals-for-Climate-Action-The-Mineral-Intensity-of-the-Clean-Energy-Transition.pdf

World Economic Forum’s Great Reset initiative: https://www.weforum.org/great-reset

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Herrington, R. Mining our green future. Nat Rev Mater 6 , 456–458 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41578-021-00325-9

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Published : 24 May 2021

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1038/s41578-021-00325-9

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Addressing the urgency of sustainable mining

Save to read list Published by Will Owen , Editor Global Mining Review , Monday, 09 August 2021 14:30

The next 10 years are crucial in the fight against climate change, resource scarcity, and environmental damage. The pressure is on mining, minerals, and metals organisations to adopt sustainable practices, while also supplying the critical resources needed to support a more sustainable and greener world.

The resources industry’s historic impact on the environment is clear, with 4 – 7% of global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions coming from mining alone. 1 But without a sustainable resources industry, global efforts to reduce CO 2 emissions will be difficult. Therefore, meeting sustainability commitments is vital not only for the success of energy-intensive essential businesses, but also for the sustainability of the entire planet itself.

Ultimately, essential industries can support global sustainability goals by:

• Identifying and eliminating energy and water loss.
• Optimising operations across the value chain.
• Improving operational efficiency and reducing resource waste.
• Minimising emissions by optimising renewable power and leveraging microgrids.
• Fostering a circular economy and green products with new carbon zero processes.

The Internet of Things: enabling sustainable practices

As digital technology becomes more capable and affordable, and operations move to electrification with sustainable alternative energy sources, highly-sustainable mining, minerals, and metals operations can become the norm.

Thanks to the Internet of Things (IoT), it is now possible to connect and integrate digital control and electrification across the whole operational lifecycle. Today’s automation and energy management technologies are helping the sector realise substantial gains by delivering energy and cost efficiencies throughout the entire value chain.

IoT-enabled devices coupled with cloud and edge-based capabilities provide greater visibility and efficiency across all operations. This leads to better insights and decision-making, and even automated responses. By optimising process, automation, control and energy management systems, combined with analytics and artificial intelligence, it is possible to manage sustainability outcomes in the context of production targets.

For example, LafargeHolcim has developed a 4-year plan titled ‘Plants of Tomorrow’, with a goal to improve operational efficiency of the company’'s plants by 15 - 20%. Capturing operational data and leveraging advanced data analytics will greatly reduce carbon emissions and water waste in line with the company’s strategic sustainability objectives.

Implementing a step-by-step strategy

By adopting a step-by-step sustainability strategy, mining operations can more easily realise sustainability goals and maintain their social license to operate. Key success factors include:

• Leadership support.
• Clear and holistic reporting of key accountability metrics.
• Enhanced operational visibility with actionable insights across the full operation.
• An empowered workforce.
• Integrated automation and energy management technology to deliver sustainable levels of efficiency.

Having the right technologies and tools in place will help organisations make informed decisions, which will ultimately empower people across the mining, minerals, and metals value chains to make strategic choices with sustainability in mind. Bringing together changes relating to strategy, operational-level execution and meaningful key performance indicators, as well as efficient reporting and technology capabilities encompassing IoT, cloud, and edge computing will help deliver the real sustainability outcomes that make a difference.

The result will be a drastic reduction in GHG emissions, increased efficiency in energy, water and other recourse use, and enhanced environmental protection. This will not only benefit the planet in the long terms but will also generate responsible profitably for mining, minerals, and metals businesses.

• DELEVINGNE, L., GLAZENER, W., GRÉGOIR, L., and HENDERSON, K., ‘Climate risk and decarbonization: What every mining CEO needs to know’, (28 January 2020), https://www.mckinsey.com/business-functions/sustainability/our-insights/climate-risk-and-decarbonization-what-every-mining-ceo-needs-to-know

By Greg Johnson, Mining Global Solution Architect at Schneider Electric.

Read the article online at: https://www.globalminingreview.com/mining/09082021/addressing-the-urgency-of-sustainable-mining/

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The impact of mining on sustainable practices and the traditional culture of developing countries

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• Volume 10 , pages 394–410, ( 2020 )

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Mining has played a part in the economic development of developed countries such as the USA, Canada and Australia. However, the mining economic growth connection varies considerably from that claimed in the historical analogy reasoning. It is not evident that these countries’ historical experience applies to modern developing nations due to modifications in the nature of the world economy. Some studies indicated that mineral resources in a developing country present a unique opportunity for its citizens to attain levels of socio-economic development equivalent to the first world. Ideally, through good governance practices, this could be realised without having to compromise their traditional and cultural integrity. In reality, though, the very opposite is normally true. There are varying definitions of sustainable development available. In the context of this paper, it defines sustainable development as ‘ a means of development that does not compromise the traditional and cultural integrity of a people but works towards a better standard of living’. From a neutral perspective, this paper aims to critically evaluate issues relating to the impact mining has had on sustainable practices and the traditional culture of people in the developing world. This is achieved through an in-depth analysis of practical examples taken from Kenya, Zambia and Nigeria. This paper aims at providing a balanced, non-biased perspective of the common pros and cons of mining that can relate to developing countries in a generic sense. The issues elaborated in greater detail in this study relate to good/bad governance practices, corruption, child labour and spread of diseases.

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How can innovation can make mining more sustainable?

Sustainable mining is both a challenge with economic potential. Image:  Unsplash/Curioso Photography

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• Mining presents a key and underserved sustainability challenge with the demand for metals set to increase along with certain green technologies.
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“Whether it's semiconductors or cars or cellphones or the toothpaste that you use to brush your teeth in the morning, it all depends on the mining industry in one way or the other,” says Vivek Salgaocar, director of the Vimson Group and Prospect Innovation. “So if we can actually tackle these issues at the source, we're truly then greening our supply chain. I think that has very, very far reaching ramifications.”

Salgocar is talking about an industry that most of us probably pay little mind to, even though mining provides the raw materials for so many of the everyday things we use. And demand for many mined minerals is predicted to increase – doubling by 2040, according to the International Energy Agency.

That’s why it’s so important for us to meet that demand as efficiently and sustainably as we can and why the World Economic Forum’s open innovation platform, UpLink, is inviting innovators bringing creative solutions to this problem through its Sustainable Mining Challenge .

Megan O'Connor, CEO and co-founder of Nth Cycle – a sustainable metal refining company – joins Salgocar in making the call to action.

Here are some highlights of this Radio Davos episode.

Have you read?

How can mining become more sustainable, can mining and metals be sustainable, the technology game changer.

Vivek Salgaocar: The issue is that because we've been mining for so long, the quality of the deposits of ore, or the ore bodies, as we call it, has gone down because the easy to mine stuff has been already extracted. So the question is, how do you do that in the most sustainable way?

And I believe very strongly that it's technology that can play one of the biggest roles in actually being able to solve that, because if we're able to actually extract in a much more efficient way, that suddenly changes the game in terms of how much of an impact we have on the environment, as well as how much of a social impact we have, which is equally important.

Megan O'Connor: Innovation and technology is the way that we're going to solve a lot of these issues...

Just thinking about the solution that we're building, one of the biggest things I don't want to happen is that we build this new energy economy on a source of materials that adds carbon to the world, into the atmosphere.

Metals from waste

Vivek Salgaocar: If technology is able to extract from ... waste materials in a sustainable way, suddenly a waste product becomes your raw material.

What that means, then, is that you limit the amount of fresh extraction that you need. You limit the amount of geopolitical risk that you have because you're not then dependent on certain countries…

Megan O'Connor: The people that we partner with are people who are recycling ... They collect batteries, they collect different industrial scrap materials like alloys, or anything from the steel industry. And we work with mining companies as well.

... By applying an electrical current to the porous surface that we have inside of our electrochemical cells, we're able to pull out one metal at a time. So it's very selective.

Because we're using electricity to produce the chemicals, it allows us to have a much more modular, scalable system. So instead of having to build out one large centralized facility where you use traditional chemicals, we can shrink that footprint and that size to actually go to where our partners are.

Taking up the challenge

Vivek Salgaocar: What we're trying to do here is pick the [companies or innovators] with the best technology and open doors for them and potentially invest in them and raise the profile for them.

Megan O’Connor: I think all startups who are in this space should absolutely apply [to the UpLink challenge]. I think the resources and connections that this will bring to all the different startups who end up winning this challenge, it's going to be game changing.

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Mining and Its Impact on the Environment Essay

Introduction, effects of mining on the environment, copper mining, reference list.

Mining is an economic activity capable of supporting the developmental goals of countries and societies. It also ensures that different metals, petroleum, and coal are available to different consumers or companies. Unfortunately, this practice entails excavation or substantial interference of the natural environment. The negative impacts of mining can be recorded at the global, regional, and local levels. A proper understanding of such implications can make it possible for policymakers and corporations to implement appropriate measures. The purpose of this paper is to describe and discuss the effects of mining on the environment.

Ways Mining Impact on the Environment

Miners use different methods to extract various compounds depending on where they are found. The first common procedure is open cast, whereby people scrap away rocks and other materials on the earth’s surface to expose the targeted products. The second method is underground mining, and it allows workers to get deeper materials and deposits. Both procedures are subdivided further depending on the nature of the targeted minerals and the available resources (Minerals Council of Australia 2019). Despite their striking differences in procedures, the common denominator is that they both tend to have negative impacts on the natural environment.

Firstly, surface mining usually requires that machines and individuals clear forests and vegetation cover. This means that the integrity of the natural land will be obliterated within a short period. Permanent scars will always be left due to this kind of mining. Secondly, the affected land will be exposed to the problem of soil erosion because the topmost soil is loosened. This problem results in flooding, contamination of the following water in rivers, and sedimentation of dams. Thirdly, any form of mining is capable of causing both noise and air pollution (Minerals Council of Australia 2019). The use of heavy machines and blasts explains why this is the case.

Fourthly, other forms of mining result in increased volumes of rocks and soil that are brought to the earth’s surface. Some of them tend to be toxic and capable of polluting water and air. Fifthly, underground mines tend to result in subsidence after collapsing. This means that forests and other materials covering the earth’s surface will be affected. Sixthly, different firms of mining are known to reduce the natural water table. For example, around 500,000,000 cubic meters of water tend to be pumped out of underground mines in Germany annually (Mensah et al., 2015). This is also the same case in other countries across the globe. Seventhly, different mining activities have been observed to produce dangerous greenhouse gases that continue to trigger new problems, including climate change and global warming.

Remediating Mine Sites

The problem of mining by the fact that many people or companies will tend to abandon their sites after the existing minerals are depleted. This malpractice is usually common since it is costly to clean up such areas and minimize their negative impacts on the natural environment. The first strategy for remediating mine sites is that of reclamation. This method entails the removal of both environmental and physical hazards in the region (Motoori, McLellan & Tezuka 2018). This will then be followed by planting diverse plant species. The second approach is the installation of soil cover. When pursuing this method, participants and companies should mimic the original natural setting and consider the drainage patterns. They can also consider the possible or expected land reuse choices.

The third remediation strategy for mine sites entails the use of treatment systems. This method is essential when the identified area is contaminated with metals and acidic materials that pose significant health risks to human beings and aquatic life (Mensah et al., 2015). Those involved can consider the need to construct dams and contain such water. Finally, mining companies can implement powerful cleanup processes and reuse or restore the affected sites. The ultimate objective is to ensure that every ugly site is improved and designed in such a way that it reduces its potential implications on the natural environment. From this analysis, it is evident that the nature of the mining method, the topography of the site, and the anticipated future uses of the region can inform the most appropriate remediation approach. Additionally, the selected method should address the negative impacts on the environment and promote sustainability.

Lessening Impact

Mining is a common practice that continues to meet the demands of the current global economy. With its negative implications, companies and other key stakeholders can identify various initiatives that will minimize every anticipated negative impact. Motoori, McLellan, and Tezuka (2018) encourage mining corporations to diversify their models and consider the importance of recycling existing materials or metals. This approach is sustainable and capable of reducing the dangers of mining. Governments can also formulate and implement powerful policies that compel different companies to engage in desirable practices, minimize pollution, and reduce noise pollution. Such guidelines will make sure that every company remains responsible for remediating their sites. Mensah et al. 2015) also support the introduction of laws that compel organizations to conduct environmental impact assessment analyses before starting their activities. This model will encourage them to identify regions or sites that will have minimal effects on the surrounding population or aquatic life. The concept of green mining has emerged as a powerful technology that is capable of lessening the negative implications of mining. This means that all activities will be sustainable and eventually meet the diverse needs of all stakeholders, including community members. Finally, new laws are essential to compelling companies to shut down and reclaim sites that are no longer in use.

Extraction from the Ore Body

Copper mining is a complex process since it is found in more stable forms, such as oxide and sulfide ores. These elements are obtained after the overburden has been removed. Corporations complete a 3-step process or procedure before obtaining pure copper. This is usually called ore concentration, and it follows these stages: froth flotation, roasting, and leaching (Sikamo, Mwanza & Mweemba 201). During froth flotation, sulfide ores are crushed to form small particles and then mixed with large quantities of water. Ionic collectors are introduced to ensure that CuS becomes hydrophobic in nature. The introduction of frothing agent results in the agitation and aeration of the slurry (Sikamo, Mwanza & Mweemba 2016). This means that the ore containing copper will float to the surface. All tailings will sink to the bottom of the solution. The refined material can then be skimmed and removed.

The next stage is that of roasting, whereby the collected copper is baked. The purpose of this activity is to minimize the quantities of sulfur. Such a procedure results in sulfur dioxide, As, and Sb (Yaras & Arslanoglu 2017). This leaves a fine mixture of copper and other impurities. The next phase of the ore concentration method is that of leaching. Different Compounds are used to solubilize the compound, such as H2SO4 and HCI. The leachate will then be deposited at the bottom and purified.

Smelting is the second stage that experts use to remove copper from its original ore. This approach produces iron and copper sulfides. Exothermic processes are completed to remove SiO2 and FeSiO3 slag (Yaras & Arslanoglu 2017). According to this equation, oxygen is introduced to produce pure copper and sulfur dioxide:

CuO + CuS = Cu(s) + SO2

The final phase is called refinement. The collected Cu is used as anodes and cathodes, whereby they are immersed in H2SO4 and CuSO4. During this process, copper will be deposited on the cathode while the anode will dissolve in the compound. All impurities will settle at the bottom (Sikamo, Mwanza & Mweemba 2016). From this analysis, it is notable that a simple process is considered to collect pure copper from its ore body.

How Copper Mining Impacts the Environment

Copper mining is a complex procedure that requires the completion of several steps if a pure metallic compound is to be obtained. This means that it is capable of presenting complicated impacts on the natural environment. Copper mining can take different forms depending on the location of the identified ores and the policies put in place in the selected country (Yaras & Arslanoglu 2017). Nonetheless, the entire process will have detrimental effects on the surrounding environment. Due to the intensity of operations and involvement of heavy machinery, this process results in land degradation. The affected regions will have huge mine sites that disorient the original integrity of the environment.

Since copper is one of the most valuable metals in the world today due to its key uses, many companies continue to mine it in different countries. This practice has triggered the predicament of deforestation (Sikamo, Mwanza & Mweemba 2016). Additionally, rainwater collects in abandoned mine sites or existing ones, thereby leaking into nearby rivers, boreholes, or aquifers. This means that more people are at risk of being poisoned by this compound.

Air pollution is another common problem that individuals living near copper mines report frequently. This challenge is attributable to the use of heavy blasting materials and machinery. The dust usually contains hazardous chemicals that have negative health impacts on communities and animals. Some of the common ailments observed in most of the affected regions include asthma, silicosis, and tuberculosis (Mensah et al., 2015). This challenge arises from the toxic nature of high levels of copper. These problems explain why companies and stakeholders in the mining industry should implement superior appropriate measures and strategies to overcome them. Such a practice will ensure that they meet the needs of the affected individuals and make it easier for them to pursue their aims.

Copper processing can have significant negative implications on the integrity of the environment. For instance, the procedure is capable of producing tailings and overburden that have the potential to contaminate different surroundings. According to Mensah et al. (2015), some residual copper is left in the environment since around 85 percent of the compound is obtained through the refining process. This means that it will pose health problems to people and aquatic life. Other metals are present in the produced tailings, such as iron and molybdenum. During the separation process, hazardous chemicals and gases will be released, such as sulfur dioxide. This is a hazardous compound that is capable of resulting in acidic rain, thereby increasing the chances of environmental degradation.

There are several examples that explain why copper is capable of causing negative impacts on the natural environment. For example, Queenstown in Tasmania has been recording large volumes of acidic rain (Mensah et al., 2015). This is also the same case for El Teniente Mine in Chile. Recycling and reusing copper can be an evidence-based approach for minimizing these consequences and maintaining the integrity of the environment.

Farmlands that are polluted with this metal compound will have far-reaching impacts on both animals and human beings. This is the case since the absorption of copper in the body can have detrimental health outcomes. This form of poisoning can disorient the normal functions of body organs and put the individual at risk of various conditions. People living in areas that are known to produce copper continue to face these negative impacts (Yaras & Arslanoglu 2017). Such challenges explain why a superior model is needed to overcome this problem and ensure that more people lead high-quality lives and eventually achieve their potential.

The above discussion has identified mining as a major economic activity that supports the performance and integrity of many factories, countries, and companies. However, this practice continues to affect the natural environment and making it incapable of supporting future populations. Mining activities result in deforestation, land obliteration, air pollution, acidic rain, and health hazards. The separation of copper from its parent ore is a procedure that has been observed to result in numerous negative impacts on the environment and human beings. These insights should, therefore, become powerful ideas for encouraging governments and policymakers to implement superior guidelines that will ensure that miners minimize these negativities by remediating sites.

Mensah, AK, Mahiri, IO, Owusu, O, Mireku, OD, Wireko, I & Kissi, EA 2015, ‘Environmental impacts of mining: a study of mining communities in Ghana’, Applied Ecology and Environmental Sciences, vol. 3, no. 3, pp. 81-94.

Minerals Council of Australia 2019, Australian minerals , Web.

Motoori, R, McLellan, BC & Tezuka, T 2018, ‘Environmental implications of resource security strategies for critical minerals: a case study of copper in Japan’, Minerals, vol. 8, no. 12, pp. 558-586.

Sikamo, J, Mwanza, A & Mweemba, C 2016, ‘Copper mining in Zambia – history and future’, The Journal of the South African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, vol. 116, no. 1, pp. 491-496.

Yaras, A & Arslanoglu, H 2017, ‘Leaching behaviour of low-grade copper ore in the presence of organic acid’, Canadian Metallurgical Quarterly, vol. 57, no. 3, pp. 319-327.

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