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Article contents

Religion in schools in the united states.

• Suzanne Rosenblith Suzanne Rosenblith Clemson University
• https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190264093.013.46
• Published online: 28 June 2017

The relationship between religion and public education has been fraught with misunderstanding, confusion, tension, and hostility. Perhaps more so than other forms of identity, for many, religion evokes a strong sense of exclusivity. Unlike other forms of identity, for many, particularly the religiously orthodox, religious identity is based on a belief in absolute truth. And for some of the orthodox, adherence to this truth is central to their salvation. Further, unlike cultural identity, religion is oftentimes exclusive in its fundamental claims and assertions. In short, matters of religious faith are indeed high stakes. Yet its treatment in public schools is, for the most part, relatively scant. Some of this is because of uncertainty among educators as to what the law permits, and for others it is uncertainty of its rightful place in democratic pluralistic schools.

• public education
• first amendment

Introduction

This article seeks to provide an overview of the historical, legal, and curricular relationship between religion and public schooling in the United States. This relationship, often fraught with tension, attempts to reconcile often incommensurable public goals. The article begins with a review of the history of religion in the public domain. Since public schools are often thought of as microcosms of society, it is important to understand the relationship of religion within society. Following this overview, the article delves more deeply into seminal court cases that have more or less cemented the legal constraints of religion in public education. With legal parameters in mind, the next section explores the relationship of religion in public schools from curricular perspectives. Moving beyond a discussion of creationism in science class, this section aims to examine the benefits of broader inclusion of religious perspectives as a way to approximate pluralistic and democratic schools. The final section explores broader concerns for a liberal democracy—pluralism, autonomy, and respect—as it wrestles with the appropriateness of religion and religious identity in public schools.

History of Religion in the Public Sphere

To understand the contemporary relationship between religion and public schooling requires a review of the history of religion in the public sphere. Many schoolchildren in the United States have been taught that the first European settlers to the colonies fled Europe and the Church of England to seek freedom to exercise their religious beliefs. And while this is true, far from the feel-good narrative that some like to extend (Baritz, 1964 ), the first settlers, the Puritans, were an extremely rigid and dogmatic group of religious believers who settled in the colonies not for freedom of religion but to practice and entrench their religious beliefs (Kaveny, 2013 ). They did not believe in a secular state but rather believed their version of Christianity to be predominant, and as far as they could see, the only justifiable established religion (Fiske, 1889 ). The Puritans believed Satan lurked around every corner and that religion was the essential tool to ward off Satan’s trickery. This in fact was the basis for the 1647 Old Deluder Satan Act (Constitution Society, 1647 ).

Common School Movement

As time progressed after the American Revolution, leaders like Horace Mann and Benjamin Rush made calls for a more organized public school system (Rudolph, 1965 ). Horace Mann famously called for the creation of the Common School (Hinsdale, 1898 ). Though Mann grew up, like so many, in a deeply religious home, he did not think these new public schools needed to be centrally religious. That is, their focus was not to be on inculcating biblical views, but rather for Mann, the focus of the Common School was to cultivate a tolerant, what we might call today, pluralistic, citizenry (Mann & Massachusetts Board of Education, 1957 ). Morality, more so than literal scriptural reading, was what Mann called for. For Mann, the chief concern in creating this Common School was attending to the increasing social strife that came as a result of the development of industry (Mann, 1965 ). Further, Mann was concerned about racial/ethnic hostility as the newest waves of immigrants to the United States were from Southern and Eastern Europe. Not only did they look different than the Northern and Western European immigrants, but they came with different languages, customs, and cultures. Assimilating them into a decidedly American culture was a goal for Mann and his allies (Hayes, 2006 ). All in all, the most orthodox religious believers were supportive of Mann’s efforts because these common schools exuded what was considered a nondenominational Protestantism (Moore, 2000 ). On the one hand was the belief that if you wanted the kind of hard-working, morally upright, conscientious citizens, then religion necessarily needed to be a part of the Common School. On the other hand, the religion that was foundational to the school did not need to be sectarian so as to privilege one group to the exclusion of others.

And so the Common School and then the Public School very much functioned with a role for religion—in many/most states, the school day began with a biblical recitation. In many schools, particularly in the late 19th and early 20th centuries , McGuffey Readers were the main textbook (Westerhoff, 1978 ). The Readers , unlike their predecessor the New England Primer , mirrored this nondenominational Protestantism by inculcating morality through a veiled Christianity as opposed to a direct and overt use of the King James Bible in efforts to educate young citizens to become literate. For example, the New England Primer had a solemn prayer to be recited everyday, which states, “Oh Lord God, I beseech thee, of thy fatherly goodness and mercy to pardon all my offenses which in though, word, or deed, I have this day committed against thee and thy holy law” ( The New England Primer , 1805 ). The McGuffey Reader , in comparison, invoked a more nondenominational, less orthodox, religious tone. In one of its lessons it states, “I hope you have said your prayers and thanked your Father in Heaven for all his goodness … for your good health, and a blessing of home” (McGuffey, 1836 ).

Modernization and Industrialization

A significant, some might argue fatal, shift for those advocating the centrality of religion to public schools came in the early mid- 20th century . As has always been the case, public schools, serving as microcosms of society, reflect not just the dominant values and ethos of society, but also serve an important economic and intellectual purpose. That is, to the degree that the needs of society change, so must the public schools. Public schools were the central place to prepare the young for future citizenship. While an important part of that citizenship was moral and social, increasingly with industrialization, that role was also intellectual and economic (Fraser, 2001 ). The frame through which public schools cultivated curriculum changed substantially. For example, the type of citizen and future worker needed expanded from someone who was morally upright to someone who could contribute to the burgeoning Scientific and Industrial Revolutions. Shifting from the absolutism and fixidity of religion to the flexibility and tentativeness of science required a rethinking of pedagogy and curriculum (Greene, 2012 ). Further, with the country’s religious diversity increasing and the country itself maturing, religion seemed to be less central to the public schools. In contrast, understanding that ethical decision-making required an understanding of the context in which a person might find herself as opposed to the absolutes favored by religious belief, required a more open-ended, what today we might call, critical reasoning approach, to teaching and learning (Sears & Carper, 1998 ). The idea that the world was not absolute and fixed but ever changing, caused a real need for a different sort of education. As nondenominational Protestantism lost its stronghold over public schools in favor of a more science-focused secularism, Christian Orthodox—the Evangelical—become its harshest critics. They argue that the removal of God (religion) from the public sphere is a threat to their faith and a violation of their rights (Larson, 1997 ). Court cases related to religion and public education seem to lend some credence to their claims. The tension between the religiously orthodox, specifically evangelical Christians, and the secular public schools began in the mid- 20th century and has persisted to the present day (Deckman, 2004 ).

To survey popular media, particularly cable news, one might depict the current state of tension between those advocating for more religion in public schools and those advocating for its removal in the following way. On the one hand you have religious zealots making calls for prayer, creationism, released time, religious clubs, posting the Ten Commandments (Rogers, 2010 ; Shreve, 2010 ) and to the other extreme you have atheist zealots who refuse to consider any idea that has some association with religion as appropriate for public schools (Hedges, 2008 ). While these caricatures might fit some in each of these groups, contrary to the popular media depiction is, instead, a conflict built upon a reliance on different aspects of the first part of the First Amendment. That is, those advocating for more religion in public schools cite the “Free Exercise Clause” as the basis for their demands (Hodgson, 2004 ), while those arguing for a relatively “religious free public school” argue that anything less than this would be an instantiation of government support or “Establishment” of religion (Long, 2012 ). Given this, it is important to understand the legal context in which these tensions arise.

Religion and the Law

Perspectives on establishment.

The first part of the first amendment to the U.S. Constitution reads, “Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion or prohibiting the free exercise thereof” (U.S. Const. amend. I). The establishment clause , as it is commonly called, is meant to protect individuals from the establishment of an official state religion. In contrast, the function of the free exercise clause is to protect individual religious freedom. In terms of legal impact, the establishment clause has historically garnered more attention because of the wide-sweeping impact a legal decision will have. In contrast, free exercise cases address issues that pertain largely to religious minorities, so the impact is smaller and more context dependent.

Typically, when justices decide Establishment Clause cases they are asked to determine whether an enactment effectively establishes, or supports, a state religion. There are generally three different judicial perspectives on establishment, strict separation, accommodation, and neutral separation. Strict separationists invoke the idea of a wall separating Church and State. For strict separationists there is no instance in which an enactment would be tolerated (Neuhaus, 2007 ). Accommodationists point to the Framers’ “original intent” and argue that the only thing the Framers were concerned about in terms of the role of religion in government was the establishment of an official State Church. Barring this, certain accommodations are permissible as long as government does not prefer one religion to another (Massaro, 2005 ). Finally, the neutral separation position examines enactments with a slightly different lens arguing that what is most important is official State neutrality between religion and non-religion and thus argue that to adhere to the establishment clause may mean at times accommodating religion if it is to maintain neutrality between religion and non-religion (Fox, 2011 ; Temperman, 2010 ). Generally speaking, when focusing on the major court cases that have impacted public education, the neutral separation position has carried the day when it comes to issues such as school prayer, religious instruction, and released time.

Immediately following the Civil War, Congress passed the 14th amendment that states, “No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States … ” What this means is one’s national citizenship is one’s highest source of rights. The degree to which state laws contradict federal/constitutional laws, state laws must give way. For our discussion this is important because it is the application of the 14th amendment to the 1st amendment that holds public schools and public school employees to the restrictions of the 1st amendment ( Everson v. Board of Education ). The 14th amendment application to the 1st amendment is also essential since it is the states, rather than the federal government, that hold substantive influence over public school curriculum and policy.

Several watershed cases have firmly established the preference for the neutral separation position. In McCollum v. Board of Education ( 1948 ), the court struck down an Illinois program that provided time during the school day on school premises for “released time” for religious instruction. Arguing that school personnel were involved with the administration and execution of this program was tantamount to supporting religion it was found unconstitutional. In contrast, the courts sided with the school district in Zorach v. Clauson ( 1952 ) where students were released from the school premises (with parental permission) during the school day for religious instruction arguing that it was the school’s job to maintain neutrality between religion and non-religion, and since it was the parents and students who voluntarily signed up for the released time program, the school did not violate the establishment clause by permitting such a program to continue.

Key Court Cases

In the middle of the 20th century it was commonplace for the school day to begin with a religious prayer or invocation. Beginning in 1962 , cases made their way through the courts, and in every instance the court found such prayers violated the establishment clause. Engel v. Vitale ( 1962 ) concerned a New York State Board of Regents Prayer that was to be read over the intercom system in every New York public school at the start of each school day, “Almighty God, we acknowledge our dependence upon Thee, and we beg Thy blessings upon us, our parents, our teachers, and our country. Amen.” The court ruled that the prayer violated the establishment clause because although, nondenominational (in a sense), it still favored religion over non-religion. Further, because the prayer was broadcast at the start of the school day, students had no choice (captive audience) but to listen. The following year, the court in an 8-1 decision in Abington School District v. Schempp ( 1963 ) determined that a commonwealth of Pennsylvania law that read, “Ten verses from the Holy Bible shall be read without comment at the opening of each public school on each school day” was unconstitutional. Of greater importance in this case was the distinction made between the unconstitutionality of practicing religion in public school with the constitutionally permissible act of studying religion in public school. That is, if there is an educational purpose to studying religion, then presumably this would be permissible. The fact that the law included the clause “without comment” made it appear to the majority of justices that it served a devotional, rather than an educational, purpose. The second significance of this case is that it offered the first two of what later became a three-prong test used to adjudicate Establishment clause cases. The first prong asks what is the primary purpose of the enactment? Is it religious or secular? The second prong asks what is the primary effect of the enactment—religious or secular? In cases where the primary purpose and effect are secular the enactment is said to be permissible. This formula is particularly useful when determining whether curriculum, such as evolution or creationism, for example, is permitted. Epperson v. Arkansas ( 1968 ) addressed the matter of an Arkansas law prohibiting the teaching of evolution. The law was ruled unconstitutional on the grounds that the primary purpose of the law was to advance and protect a religious view. Following the Epperson decision was the famous case Lemon v. Kurtzman ( 1971 ). It was famous mainly because of the establishment of the third prong used to adjudicate establishment clause cases. At issue in this case was the question of whether public schools could reimburse private schools for the salaries of their teachers who taught secular subjects. Since the majority of the private schools were parochial, the matter fell under establishment. In deciding that it was unconstitutional for the public schools to pay the salaries of the parochial school teachers, the court determined that while primary purpose and primary effect were central to deciding constitutionality, a third prong, which says that the enactment must not foster an excessive entanglement between religion and government was needed. Paying the salaries of private school teachers who teach secular subjects may not serve a primarily religious purpose or have a primarily religious effect, but it certainly would foster an excessive entanglement between government and religion in that government would be very involved with accounting for their investments in a parochial school.

Contemporary Tensions

Other important Establishment Clause cases related to education include Wallace v. Jaffree ( 1985 ). This case dealt with the constitutionality of moments of silence. In this case, the state of Alabama allowed for a moment of silence for the purpose of meditation or private prayer. While moments of silence with no explicit purpose have been found constitutional, this law was found unconstitutional on the grounds that it had a clear religious purpose. Edwards v. Aguillard ( 1987 ) concerned a Louisiana “balanced treatment act,” a law that required creationism be taught alongside evolution to maintain neutrality. The court, in a 7-2 decision found the law unconstitutional according to all three prongs of the Lemon test. The courts have ruled similarly in more recent court cases such as Selman v. Cobb County School District ( 2006 ), which ruled that “warning labels” on evolution texts violated the Establishment Clause as well as Freiler v. Tangipahoa Parish Board of Education ( 1997 ) where the majority ruled that a “disclaimer” teachers were required to read before teaching evolution was unconstitutional.

In summary, since the 1940s when the 14th amendment was applied to the 1st amendment, public schools have been limited in what counts as permissible in relation to religion and public schooling. Summing up the legal parameters nicely is a document issued by the federal government entitled, “Federal Guidelines for Religious Expression in Schools ( 1997 ).” These guidelines, developed by a wide ranging panel first commissioned during the Clinton administration and then reauthorized under George W. Bush, emphasize that restrictions on religious expression are limited to school personnel while in their official capacity. Students, in contrast, have free range to express their religious beliefs in public schools, “short of harassment.” So although the religious orthodox have claimed that God has been removed from the public schools, the legal record tells us that free exercise has only been limited in the case of school officials and not students. For example, under the Equal Access Act ( 1984 ), student-initiated religious groups are permitted at schools. However, teachers cannot create or lead these groups, though they are allowed to monitor them.

Free Exercise

It is worth mentioning briefly the role of the free exercise clause in public schools. The chief function of the free exercise clause is to provide protection to religious minorities where laws created by the majority might serve unintentionally to restrict their free exercise. The most famous free exercise case related to public schools is, Wisconsin v. Yoder ( 1972 ). In this case, members of the Amish community requested an exemption from state compulsory attendance laws. Wisconsin law required all students to attend school until the age of 16. The Amish requested an exemption from the last two years of schooling (what essentially would have amounted to the first two years of high school). Their rationale was that the exposure Amish children would have could undermine their very way of life; indeed they claimed it threatened their survival. Ultimately, the court sided with the Amish for two very different reasons. First, acknowledging the importance of an education for participation in public life, the court reasoned that because the Amish live a self-sufficient life and by all outward expressions are a successful social unit, the exemption was warranted. Second, they reasoned that laws should not serve to threaten the very way of life of a religious minority group and the state ought to be respectful, not hostile, to minority religious views.

The law, then, sets clear parameters for what constitutes an establishment of religion and when individual free exercise should take precedent over generally applicable laws. One can conclude from this discussion that, contrary to the claim made by the religiously orthodox, public schools are not hostile to religion but rather are welcoming of religion in the public school in so far as it serves an educational purpose. This next section treats curriculum. Where, if at all should religion reside in the curriculum? What are the strengths and limitations of its inclusion? And finally, how does its inclusion contribute to cultivating a democratic ideal?

Curriculum serves as a battleground in education. Perhaps more than other dimensions of schooling, it tells us what is worth knowing and understanding. Curriculum, however, does not exist in a vacuum. Curriculum can be a deeply political issue, especially when dealing with the topics of science, history, and religion (Erekson, 2012 ). There is also significant discussion on who should set the curriculum priorities (the local school district, the states, or the federal government) as well as how much freedom teachers should have to move away from the set curriculum (Webb, 2002 ). How the curriculum treats religion has often created controversy. This is an even more complex issue in a society that is becoming both more non-religious as well as more religiously diverse (Pew Religious Center, 2015 ). Herbert Kliebard, the preeminent American curriculum historian, identifies four primary groups who have vied for supremacy in schools. These groups sought to define the U.S. educational curriculum in the late 19th and early 20th centuries . They were humanists, social meliorists, those focused on child development, and social efficiency educators (Kliebard, 2004 ; Labadee, 1987 ). Depending on which view enjoyed currency at a particular time in history, could determine whether religion, in some form, found its way into the formal narrative of schooling. Whereas the humanists were primarily concerned with fostering in students intellectual skills through the traditional disciplines, social meliorists thought curriculum should have a focus on activism—social improvement. Developmentalists thought that it was important to design curriculum around the development of the individual learner and social efficiency advocates thought curriculum should be limited to preparation for the workforce. As one examines different movements to include religion within the curriculum it is valuable to note which theoretical model is invoked. For these curricular approaches provide a lens into the view of religion with respect to larger society.

Religious Ways of Knowing

Discussions about the place of religion in the public schools are generally limited to robust discussions of the relevance and place of creationism in science classes (Berkman & Plutzer, 2010 ). Limiting discussions to creationism and science misses far more consequential arguments for an important and relevant role for religion in the public schools. Warren Nord has made perhaps the most convincing and comprehensive arguments for the centrality of religious ways of knowing to all disciplines (Nord, 2010 ). Nord argues that we fail to adequately teach common disciplines such as history and economics if we do not also provide religious ways of examining these disciplines (Nord & Haynes, 1998 ). For Nord it is not so much that religious perspectives have a stronger purchase on the truth of things, but rather the religious lens or a religious lens asks different sorts of questions than non-religious lenses and thus enlarges the conversations about various historical perspectives, economic theories, etc. For example, religion can serve as a type of critique of our current market-driven society or it can enlarge conversations related to scientific development, environmental sustainability, etc. (Nord, 1995 ). Nord, however, is not alone in his calls for including religion (religious perspectives) in the public school curriculum. Stephen Prothero and others have made a strong call for religious literacy (Prothero, 2007 ). Particularly since the terrorist attacks of 2001 in the United States, there has been a collective realization that, generally speaking, Americans are largely ignorant when it comes to understanding much about religion (Moore, 2007 ). Politicians and media outlets have often exploited this ignorance to create fear about Muslims, refugees, and the religious other. The contention goes, the more illiterate we are, the more religious intolerance predominates. This illiteracy is not limited to Islam, but can be said to be a general religious illiteracy (Wood, 2011 ). Nel Noddings has also made a forceful case for providing students with opportunities to explore existential questions in the public school classroom (Noddings, 2008 ). She argues that students already come to school bogged down with these types of questions, so schools have an obligation to help students make sense of them (Noddings, 1993 ). The Bible Literacy Project, an ambitious project endorsed by a wide range of academics and theologians provides a well-sourced textbook that can be used in schools (Bible Literacy Project, 2015 ). Though, their intentions may be less educational and more religious, many states have passed legislation permitting the teaching of the Bible in public schools (Goodman, 2006 ). The Bible used for literary or historical reasons seems justifiable (and fully constitutional). Furthermore, a “policy of inclusion” toward religion is vital for the “demands of a liberal, pluralist state” (Rosenblith, 2010 ).

Multiculturalism

A recent text by philosopher Liz Jackson makes the case that Muslims, in particular, are done a disservice when schools do not attend substantively to the study of Islam in schools. Her argument is based on three essential claims. First, in the absence of a substantive treatment in schools, citizens are left with popular culture depictions of Muslims (Jackson, 2010 ). These characterizations typically misrepresent Muslims. Second, the ways in which Muslims are depicted in social studies textbooks also take a narrow view. That is Muslims and Islam are largely depicted beginning in 2001 through the lens of terrorism (Jackson, 2011 ). Finally, Jackson argues that preservice teacher preparation programs do not do sufficient work in preparing future social studies teachers to be knowledgeable about Muslims and Islam, and therefore they are ill-equipped to disrupt the narratives perpetuated in textbooks or through popular culture (Jackson, 2011 ). It was not until the 2007 edition of the Banks and Banks Handbook on Multicultural Education that religion was even included as a form of identity (Banks & McGee Banks, 2007 ). Perhaps, U.S. schools should set up a system to certify teachers in the area of religious studies as they will “need to have the knowledge, skills, and dispositions” that would be expected in other disciplines (Rosenblith & Bailey, 2008 ). Other nations with liberal and pluralistic traditions such as Great Britain have been able to integrate religion into the curriculum while still embracing diversity and civic values (Rosenblith & Bailey, 2008 ).

Curricular Opportunities

There are many ways in which religion can be addressed in public school curricula that are both constitutionally permissible and educationally justifiable. Schools could provide world religion survey courses so that students have at least a superficial understanding of the range of religions in the world. Schools could offer controversial issues classes where religion could serve as both a topic and a perspective. Schools can study religious perspectives on a variety of current issues. Discussing religion does not need to lead to conflict or violence but can rather create an environment for “healthy, robust dialogue” (Rosenblith, 2008a ). In an increasingly diverse society, the ability to understand the perspectives of those from other faiths is vital for social cohesion and peace. Ignoring differences does not make intolerance dissipate but often allows stereotypes and antagonism to flourish. A pluralism that merely engages in “eschewing matters of truth, is wholly inadequate. It is inadequate because it fosters ignorance” (Rosenblith, 2008a ).

Central to carving out a curriculum that is both constitutionally permissible and educationally justifiable is framing it within a theory that honors the pluralistic and democratic commitments of public schools. Religious curriculum should contribute “to the public good” by helping students “develop knowledge and dispositions to resist religious intolerance and bigotry” and to understand and respect the “religious other” (Rosenblith, 2008b ).

Democracy, Autonomy, Pluralism

A central question when considering the role of religion in public education is grounded in questions about the role of the school, the rights of individuals, and the rights of groups. Perhaps more than many other forms of identity, religion casts the inherent tensions in bold terms. To paraphrase John Rawls’s central question in Political Liberalism , how does a society deeply divided on doctrinal grounds learn to get along (Rawls, 2005 )? To complicate matters further, even if we were to determine a mutually agreeable way forward for groups who are deeply divided by religious and political beliefs, what role would even more diverse individuals within those groups have in articulating their vision for a good life? These questions figure centrally in an understanding of religion and public schools.

Political theorists take a variety of perspectives on these matters. For some, the purpose of the public school is to privilege the pluralism of the nation and thus must be accommodating to such a degree that all particular groups feel included and valued (Kymlicka, 2001 , 2015 ). For others, the chief purpose of public schools is fundamentally civic and to that end, while schools should try to accommodate differences, they must not do so to such a degree that it jeopardizes a sense of civic identity and the values of a liberal democracy (Macedo, 1995 , 2000 ). While there are still others who fall somewhere in the middle, arguing that schools ought to promote a shared civic identity, but not at the expense of citizens finding the public school inhospitable to their particular religious views. In these instances, schools ought to accommodate religious believers by using levers such as opt-outs for curricular materials they find religiously objectionable if these levers prevent the groups from exiting the public schools (Gutmann, 1995 ). Others stress the importance of individual autonomy for students as the most important goal when looking at the often conflicting values of multiculturalism and civic liberalism (Reich, 2002 ).

Others are concerned about minority voices within particular religious groups (Okin, 1998 ). As Susan Okin points out, out of a desire to accommodate the free exercise of religious minority groups, there can be a denial of the individual rights that are the cornerstone of a liberal society. She asks what societies should do with religious groups that promote forced marriages, remove students from formal education, or prevent any outside socialization (Okin, 2002 ). Even though defenders of religious minorities may say that individuals have exit rights, Okin is concerned if this is truly an option for most people, especially young women who are the most oppressed in these systems. As she states, “even if it were feasible or even possible in a practical sense, exit may not be an option at all desirable, or even thinkable, to those most in need of it” (Okin, 2002 ). She does not believe the state should make special exemptions for religious groups if it endangers individual liberty. To fail to enforce these individual rights is “to let toleration for diversity run amok” (Okin, 2002 ). The prototypical example of this tension can be found in the famous case, Wisconsin v Yoder ( 1972 ). The majority decision sided with the Amish who only wanted their children to study in public schools until the age of 14 out of religious concerns ( Wisconsin v. Yoder , 1972 ). While the case is a moot issue today in an age where the option to homeschool is relatively simple (Gaither, 2008 ), it still generates significant discussion in relation to discussions of individual rights. Certainly the parents have rights that are distinguishable from the state, but many will argue that children have rights distinct from their parents (Worthington & Fineman, 2009 ). While it might be the parents’ interest in securing protection from exposing their kids to ways of life contrary to their own, the question becomes whether children have rights as individual agents and do the parents’ decisions overly determine their children’s futures. This leads to some of the deeper philosophical questions in public education. What role does the state and family play in making sure children have an environment that is both secure and open to individual autonomy?

Exit Rights, Civic Education, and Religious Orthodoxy

This concern spills over into discussion of exit rights. Do children have a right to an education that might lead them to exit their religious group (Lester, 2004 )? Might a robust civic education provide new and different lenses through which children see the world that might make their home belief system less compelling? Should public schools in a pluralist state provide individuals with the kind of education that might lead to their exit from their home faith? Should public schools refrain from a robust civic education in order to protect and allow religious ideologies to flourish? To whom does the public school primarily answer? When is a religious ideology so extreme that to accommodate it seriously undermines the ideals of the American society? These are not easy questions to address and while they are difficult questions to wrestle with in terms of identity broadly understood, they are that much more vexing when it comes to religion. The reason being that religion, unlike culture, rests on epistemological foundations that for those who identify as religiously orthodox, are exclusive, inalienable, and unchanging. Educators are mistaken in simply “conflating” religion as another aspect of culture as it “strips religion” of its “essential qualities” (Rosenblith, 2008a ). This makes the project of civic education, for some, in many ways incommensurable with fostering religious identity. If the idea of a public school is, in part, to bring together people with very different visions of the good life and figure out ways forward, those who believe their very salvation hangs in the balance of one particular vision are understandably not going to be flexible in terms of tolerance and respect for a wide range of beliefs or for the very idea that public schools espouse—good citizenship hangs on an individual’s ability to respect and tolerate those with whom we disagree. In short, the problem becomes a non-starter for the most orthodox, making the civic project that much more difficult. This is of special difficulty for teachers as they seek to “navigate” the tensions between “the religiously orthodox and pluralist public schooling” (Bindewald & Rosenblith, 2015 ).

Religion, Schooling, and Indoctrination

One of the conflicts with integrating religion in schools is whether it is perceived as exposure or indoctrination. A suspicion of indoctrination can create angst in both the non-religious and the deeply orthodox. An extreme example of this fear occurred this past year when a father threatened a teacher because she was teaching about Islam in the class. It led to the closure of a whole school district (Robertson, 2015 ). If we are to have classrooms, which are filled with vibrant students who are open to critical thought, we have to move beyond the anxiety that any discussion on religion is the same as indoctrination. This is why the “trump card” of parental rights in preventing students from being exposed to materials that may conflict with private teachings is problematic (Rosenblith & Bindewald, 2014 ).

If educators approach religion appropriately in the classroom, it should not lead to a concern of indoctrination. Rather, it can be a tool that helps students become more religiously literate and “resist religious intolerance and bigotry and instead learn about the religious other” (Rosenblith, 2008b ). Are we limiting the possibilities for educational vibrancy and civic and multicultural understanding due to an exaggerated fear of religion in the classroom? What if the reasons for teaching religion in the classroom were not an attempt of “relativizing truth” or wanting to “coax students away from the religion of their parents” but rather helping to garner “fair depictions of the other” (Rosenblith & Bindewald, 2014 ). Perhaps, this is the approach to religion in the classroom that the majority of society could agree to.

Within the literature, far less attention has been given to treating the problem than has been given to identifying the problem. Diana Hess and Rob Kunzman have addressed ways forward. Suzanne Rosenblith and Benjamin Bindewald have as well. Hess argues for encouraging a discussion of controversial issues in the classroom as controversy is not an “unfortunate byproduct” of democracy but rather one of its “core and vital elements” (Hess, 2004 ). Hess argues that these controversial conversations should be the “students’ forum” where the teachers’ views do not directly impact the discussion but are integral for the discussions chosen (Hess, 2002 ).

Kunzman argues for “loosening liberal boundaries” in allowing for alternative and more orthodox perspectives in classroom discussion. After all, there is no consensus on what is “reasonable” when it comes to the discussion of religion and controversial issues. A truly civic education can work against the “disenfranchisement” of religious perspectives in the public sphere (Kunzman, 2005 ). He also argues that there will inherently be conflict in a religiously diverse society. Instead of ignoring this, educators should teach students how to navigate these conflicts and help create a greater understanding of religious diversity (Kunzman, 2006 ). He suggests using activities such as role play and field experience to create a more “empathetic understanding” of the other and move students “beyond knowledge to appreciation” (Kunzman, 2006 ). He also suggests letting students be the “source of insider perspective” when it comes to their own religious traditions (Kunzman, 2006 ).

Rosenblith and Bindewald look at this issue from a slightly different angle. They explore how teachers should handle exclusive comments made by the religiously orthodox that may be offensive to other students. They use the example of a student using the Bible to justify statements against homosexuality. They suggest for teachers to not simply ignore or downplay these types of comments, but rather make the distinction regarding arguments based on reason versus those based purely on religious belief. While giving the students the freedom to discuss the issues, teachers can and often should deal with these issues “directly” and with a level of “certitude” (Bindewald & Rosenblith, 2015 ). In another text, they argue for “mutuality,” which is a type of middle ground between “mere tolerance” and “robust respect” (Rosenblith & Bindewald, 2014 ). They see this mutuality as a willingness to engage in a relationship with the religious other (Rosenblith & Bindewald, 2014 ). It means that differences are not necessary “resolved” or “trivialized” but rather students engage in “a process of mutual reciprocity and understanding” (Rosenblith & Bindewald, 2014 ). The ultimate hope is that this will lead to “to a greater realization of justice and tolerance in the larger public sphere” (Rosenblith & Bindewald, 2014 ).

In our increasingly diverse, global, and interdependent society, confronting, understanding, and respecting the religious other is of paramount importance. In the United States, this places a particular obligation on the public schools to rethink its role in helping young citizens understand the history, complexity, and contributions of religion historically as well as in contemporary contexts. The relationship between religion and public education is one that has been inexorably tied to politics—religious and secular politics. This has led to a relatively ineffective exploration of religion in public schools. Recognizing the direct connection between religious illiteracy and religious intolerance, one can hope that a reconceptualization of the role of religion and public schools, one that takes religion, education, democracy, and pluralism seriously is near. In treating religion, education, democracy and pluralism seriously, the public schools can come closer to fulfilling their obligations to attend at once to individual and collective goals.

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Articles on Religion and education

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Finding objective ways to talk about religion in the classroom is tough − but the cost of not doing so is clear

Charles J. Russo , University of Dayton

French schools’ ban on abayas and headscarves is supposedly about secularism − but it sends a powerful message about who ‘belongs’ in French culture

Carol Ferrara , Emerson College

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Laura Yares , Michigan State University

Religious freedom and LGBTQ rights are clashing in schools and on campuses – and courts are deciding

GCSEs: how gender norms influence what young people choose to study at school

Francis Farrell , Edge Hill University

State funds for students at religious schools? Supreme Court says ‘yes’ in Maine case – but consequences could go beyond

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Who are the Jesuits?

Dorian Llywelyn , USC Dornsife College of Letters, Arts and Sciences

Trojan Horse Affair: podcast reignites questions about the place of religion in English and Welsh schools

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Ilana Horwitz , Tulane University

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Samira Mehta , University of Colorado Boulder

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Hagia Sophia controversy goes beyond Muslim-Christian tensions to treatment of ‘paganism’

Ehaab D. Abdou , Wilfrid Laurier University and Theodore G. Zervas , North Park University

GCSE results: further decline in arts and technical subjects

Paul Smalley , Edge Hill University and David Lundie , Liverpool Hope University

Want a safer world for your children? Teach them about diverse religions and worldviews

Anna Halafoff , Deakin University ; Andrew Singleton , Deakin University ; Gary D Bouma , Monash University , and Mary Lou Rasmussen , Australian National University

How RE teachers see religion – and why it can be bad for pupils

David R. Smith , University of Aberdeen ; Graeme Nixon , University of Aberdeen , and Jo Pearce , UCL

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The impact of institutional context on research in religious education: results from an international comparative study

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• Published: 30 August 2023
• Volume 71 , pages 155–166, ( 2023 )

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On the one hand, research on religious education is done according to a transnational scientific paradigm, on the other hand, it is performed within particular institutional contexts which vary from nation to nation.This raises the question of how institutional context affect research on religious education. The paper addresses this question on the basis of an international study. N = 49 colleagues across Europe as well as Israel, South Africa, South Korea, and Turkey filled in an online-questionnaire regarding their own research. Despite the international character of the sample, research on religious education seems to be practiced quite coherently in regard of the objects of inquiry, the applied methods, and the disciplines the colleagues refer to. The few significant differences indicate that theology and educational studies are slightly more important in contexts of denominational religious education as well as analysing both pupils and processes of teaching and learning. In the context of non-denominational RE, instead, religious studies is slightly more important. These results will be discussed.

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1 Introduction

The goal and character of religious education are currently the subject of controversial debate. In Europe, for example, some are calling for religious education to be replaced by worldview education (Halafoff et al., 2016 ; van der Kooij et al., 2017 ), while others argue for a more spiritual layout of this subject (Roebben, 2021 ). In Latin America and Africa, in turn, the trending topic seems to be the decolonialization of religious education with the goal of overcoming a dominant Christian bias (Blank de Oliveira & Riske-Koch, 2021 ; Drange, 2015 ; Matemba, 2021 ; Mokotso, 2020 ). And there are still the pending questions of what teachers of religious education have to know to competently teach that subject (Whitworth, 2020 ), which type of knowledge this could be (Moore, 2007 ), and which competencies are required to offer an effective religious education (Helbling & Riegel, 2021 ).

These academic debates take place within diverse institutional contexts regarding the practice of religious education at schools. It reveals a multifaceted picture ranging from various denominational forms to non-denominational ones (Jackson, 2007 ; Kuyk et al., 2007 ; Rosenblith, 2017 ; Rothgangel, et al., 2014a , 2014b , 2020a , 2020b , 2020c ). Of course, this basic distinction between denominational and non-denominational religious education does not capture the manifold forms in which religion is taught at schools in the various national contexts. Going into detail, denominational religious education varies between confessional layouts like in Italy (Giorda, 2015 ), Chile (Guzman et al., 2021 ), or South Korea (Kim, 2018 ) to ones realizing a “learning from religion” approach like in Germany (Kropač, 2021 ). Non-denominational religious education, instead, follows a pure religious studies approach to some extent (Alberts, 2007 ; Kenngott, 2017 ), partly happening within a formative frame of reference which allows for identification with religions and worldviews (Bietenhard et al., 2015 ; Bleisch, 2017 ). Furthermore, there are cross-sectional types of religious education like in Finland, which is in legal perspective denominational and in pedagogical perspective multi-religious (Lipiäinen et al., 2020 ). Finally, in some cases, the character of religious education varies even within one national context. In Germany, for example, denominational education is the default type of religious education, but in the federal states of Bremen and Brandenburg, religion is taught in a non-denominational manner (Kropač, 2021 ).

Despite these pluriform institutional contexts of teaching religion at schools, within the national academic discourses on religious education there seem to exist quite coherent frames of reference. In Italy, for example, the discussion on how to do justice to religious diversity in the classroom takes place within the framework of denominational education. Non-denominational forms are mentioned, but always as alternatives to the default denominational model (Giorda, 2015 ). The same is true for Chile (Guzman et al., 2021 ), South Korea (Kim, 2018 ), and Germany (Kropač, 2021 ). In contrast, in England and Wales, the discussion of whether replacing religious education by worldview education is happening within a non-denominational frame of reference (CoRE. Commission on Religious Education, 2018 ). It seems to be common sense in that particular discourse that religion must be taught at schools beyond specific denominational accounts. The same also applies to the situation in Finland (Ubani et al., 2019 ), Belgium, and the Netherlands (Miedema, 2014 ), as well as the recent discourse in Switzerland (Bleisch, 2017 ).

These academic discourses on religious education are embedded in a transnational understanding of science. Scientific discourse works according to both rational standards and research agendas that do not vary much across national contexts (e.g., Godfrey-Smith, 2003 ; Gutting, 2005 ). Scientific disciplines are characterized by a particular epistemological paradigm, a distinct set of objects to be analyzed, well-defined methods, and a specific set of theories that these analyses refer to. National and regional particularities may be relevant on the level of single projects and discussions, but hardly play a role on the general level. In the postcolonial discourse in religious education, for example, the country’s particular national history is part of the discussion on the national level. Nonetheless, all these national discussions share the same goal of overcoming colonial structures and apply the same epistemology, refer to the same categories, and use similar methods to realize this goal. And if the field of didactic Footnote 1 research is regarded, a recent Delphi study in Germany found that the various didactic disciplines share a common understanding of the objects they analyze, the methods they use in this analysis, and the academic disciplines they refer to (Riegel & Rothgangel, 2023 ).

If one relates these different observations to each other, a complex picture emerges. On the one hand, on an international level, there is a controversial debate on both the goal and character of religious education in schools, and there are different institutional contexts in which this subject is taught at school. On the other hand, the academic discussion about religious education takes place within the framework of coherent frames of reference and the self-identification of this academic discourse as a science follows transnational standards. Given this complex picture, the question of how the institutional context on a national level characterizes research in religious education across various countries is raised. From the perspective of systems theory (Runkel & Burkart, 2005 ), one could argue that religious education on the one hand and the academic discourse on religious education on the other hand are two separate systems, each following a particular ratio. According to Luhmann, the basic goal of the educational system is to transmit knowledge and competencies to qualify its users for their future tasks (Luhmann, 2002 ). The scientific system is instead oriented towards corroborating the truth of its hypotheses (Luhmann, 1992 ). Since both goals are basically incompatible, one could assume that the dominant institutional context of religious education on a national level does not coin the academic discourse on religious education.

From an ecosystemic perspective, however, institutional contexts frame the actions of the persons within that context. Bronfenbrenner, for example, distinguishes between mesosystems and microsystems (Lüscher & Bronfenbrenner, 1981 ). While the microsystem represents the individuals’ zones of interactions, the mesosystems reflect the institutional or organizational context of the individuals’ actions. The idea of Bronfenbrenner’s approach is that every microsystem depends on the options and restrictions of the mesosystems in which it is embedded. In our case, religious education researchers are members of faculties and departments at universities and teacher colleges. These faculties and departments more or less mirror the basic structure of the dominant model of religious education in the relevant national context: In countries with a dominant denominational model of religious education, the faculties and departments are, in most cases, of theological character, while in nations with a non-denominational model of religious education, the nature of relevant faculties and departments is usually that of religious studies. From an ecosystemic perspective, such particular institutional characteristics should frame the researchers’ activity and therefore the relevant academic discourse on a national level.

On theoretical grounds, one cannot estimate how much of the character of the academic discourse on religious education on an international level can be explained by systems theory or ecosystemic theory respectively. Therefore, this paper addresses the following research questions:

What are the basic features of research in religious education on an international level?

Does the institutional context of religious education on a national level cause characteristic differences in these features?

2 Sample, method, measures and analysis

To answer these questions, this paper uses data from an international survey. The sample of the international study was collected via academic networks like ISREV and NCRE as well as via contacts within the project "Religious Education in Schools in Europe". Through these channels, the participants were informed about the scope of the study and invited to fill out a questionnaire with both open-ended and closed-ended questions. Finally, 49 religious education teachers across Europe as well as Israel, South Africa, South Korea, and Turkey responded to this invitation. On a national level, the answers are distributed as follows: Norway: 5 answers; Turkey and Greece: 4 answers each; Germany, England and Wales, Hungary, Slovakia, and the Netherlands: 3 answers each; Poland: 2 answers; Czechia, Finland, Ireland, Israel, Italy, South Africa, and South Korea: 1 answer each. 12 participants did not disclose their national background. In terms of religious belonging, 15 participants are protestant, 12 are roman-catholic, 6 Muslim, 1 Jewish, and 6 express another religious tradition. Nine participants did not respond to this question. All respondents work at an institution offering training for future religion teachers and hold a PhD.

2.2 Measures

As indicator of academic discourse, the respondents’ research practice was chosen. From this perspective, the academic discourse is what scholars fundamentally do. This practice was conceptualized according to the three dimensions of (i) objects of inquiry, (ii) methods applied in research, and (iii) the disciplines the respondents refer to in their research. The objects of inquiry reveal the topics that are addressed in research, the methods in use indicate how these topics are addressed, and the reference disciplines offer information on which basic theoretical ground this research takes place. Since these dimensions represent basic patterns of research within the philosophy of science (e.g. Godfrey-Smith, 2003 ; Gutting, 2005 ), this conceptualization of research seems to be appropriate.

In the questionnaire, each dimension was operationalized by a closed-ended question offering a possible operationalization of each dimension, and the participants were asked to estimate how relevant they consider each category of this operationalization in their own research. Respondents were able to answer on a six-point Likert scale (1 = “not important at all”; 6 = “very important”). In order to be able to trace residual options, the option "I cannot assess" was additionally offered.

To assess the relevance of institutional context, the variable of nationality was recoded. The criteria were the dominant frame of reference according to which religious education is discussed in the relevant country. The countries with a denominational frame of reference form one category (Czechia, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Poland, Slovakia, South Korea, Turkey) and those with a non-denominational frame form another (England and Wales, Finland, Norway, South Africa, the Netherlands). With this recoded variable, it is possible to test the previously mentioned assumption of the effect of institutional context on academic discourse.

2.3 Analysis

Data analysis follows a two-step procedure. First, to reconstruct the basic features within the field of research in religious education, descriptive statistics of the single categories on the three basic dimensions of methodologies, objects of inquiry, and reference dimensions will be calculated. Because of the ordinal nature of the quantitative data, data analysis refers to median ( Mdn ) and interquartile range ( IQR ) and presents its results as a boxplot graph.

Second, the effect of the institutional context is tested by a Whitney–Mann U -Test. The effect size is calculated by Pearson’s r according to Cohen’s benchmarks (Cohen, 1988). All statistical calculations are done with the software package SPSS 27.

The results will be described according to the two research questions. First, the basic features of research in religious education will be reconstructed, after which the impact of institutional context on this research will be tested.

3.1 The basic features of research in religious education

Regarding methodologies, six categories were offered to the participants: historical, systematic-hermeneutical, comparative, empirical, and practice-oriented research. There are two methodical approaches to the field of religious education that show a median of Mdn  = 6, namely the empirical and the practice-oriented ones (Fig.  1 ). This indicates that both methodologies are very important in the respondents’ research. The other three methodical approaches have a median of Mdn  = 5, indicating that these methodologies are important, but less so. The range of the answers is rather small, with only the comparative approach having an IQR  = 2. Further on, there are only three extreme values. All in all, this indicates a rather coherent evaluation of the five methodical approaches within the international sample, with all five offered categories regarded as no less than important as features of methodology in research in religious education.

Boxplots of methods in own research

Regarding the objects of inquiry, the respondents were asked, “how important [they] consider the following characteristic topics in [their] own research activities in religious didactics”. The offered categories were contents of learning, the teaching and learning process, teachers, pupils, religious education as a school subject and its contexts, and theories about religious education. All but one topic were regarded as very important with Mdn  = 6; only theories about religious education were considered to be important ( Mdn  = 5) (Fig.  2 ). Again, the respondents from various countries were quite coherent in their evaluation, with IQR  = 1 on all topics and no extreme values.

Boxplots of objects of inquiry in own research

The relevance of the various reference disciplines in religious education research was assessed by the following question: “How important do you consider the following reference disciplines for your own research activities in religious didactics?” The options were theology, religious studies, educational studies, psychology, sociology, cultural studies, and philosophy. Educational studies were the only ones that were very important to most of the respondents ( Mdn  = 6), while all other means of reference disciplines were evaluated as important ( Mdn  = 5) (Fig.  3 ). This time, there was some variance in the answers, particularly regarding religious studies, psychology, and philosophy. All these disciplines show an IQR  = 2, with the whiskers covering the entire spectrum of possible answers in the case of religious studies and the entire spectrum but one answer category in the cases of psychology and philosophy respectively. This is a remarkable finding given the quite coherent responses so far.

Boxplots of reference disciplines in own research

3.2 The impact of institutional context

Assessing the effect of the institutional context on the importance of methodologies, the Mann–Whitney-U-Test brings about one significant difference. The participants within the context of denominational religious education ( Mdn  = 6) regard systematic-hermeneutical methodologies as more important than the scholars researching within a context of non-denominational religious education ( Mdn  = 5), U (N den  = 22; N non-den  = 13) = 83.500; z  =  − 2.318; p  = .02). The effect of this difference is medium-sized according to Cohen (1992) ( r  = .39). The importance of the other methodologies is not affected significantly by the respondents’ institutional context.

If objects of inquiry are taken into account, two significant differences occur. In both cases, the participants within a denominational context regard the relevant object of inquiry as very important in one’s own research ( Mdn  = 6), while the researchers within a non-denominational context regard them as important ( Mdn  = 5). These topics are the process of teaching and learning ( U (N den  = 24; N non-den  = 13) = 73.000; z  =  − 3.083; p  = .002) and the pupils ( U (N den  = 24; N non-den  = 13) = 82.500; z  =  − 2.603; p  = .009) respectively. The effect of institutional context on the evaluation of processes of teaching and learning is strong ( r  = .51), which in the evaluation of the importance of researching pupils is medium-sized ( r  = .43).

Finally, institutional context explains the variance in three cases of reference theories to some extent. Theology is a more important reference discipline to respondents from a denominational context ( Mdn  = 6) than to those from a non-denominational context ( Mdn  = 4) ( U (N den  = 24; N non-den  = 12) = 75.500; z  =  − 2.471; p  = .013), having a medium-sized effect ( r  = .41). Religious studies, in turn, is more important to scholars within a non-denominational context ( Mdn  = 6) than to those from a denominational context ( Mdn  = 5) ( U (N den  = 24; N non-den  = 12) = 92.500; z  =  − 2.121; p  = .034). Again, the effect size is medium ( r  = .35). Finally, the respondents within a denominational context regard educational studies ( Mdn  = 6) as more import than those within a non-denominational context ( Mdn  = 5) ( U (N den  = 24; N non-den  = 13) = 96.500; z  =  − 2.007; p  = .045). The effect of institutional context is medium ( r  = .33).

4 Discussion

This article aims to map the field of research in religious education on an international level and to assess the effect of the institutional context on the features of this field. The mapping happened according to the three dimensions of methodologies, objects of inquiry, and reference disciplines. All in all, there are two noteworthy results.

Firstly, across the various countries of this sample, the respondents from religious education predominantly apply empirical and practice-oriented methods, refer theoretically most often to educational studies and theology or religious studies, respectively, and turn out to be generalists in terms of the topics they analyze. Beyond this common ground of research on religious education on international level, there are some categories of lesser importance. If methods are regarded, historical and comparative ones seem to be least important. In view of the recent call for an international knowledge transfer (Schweitzer & Schreiner, 2020 ), the relative importance of comparative methods in particular raises the question of how to promote this transfer. Then, within the reference disciplines, it is religious studies, psychology and philosophy that show a remarkable variance in their importance for the respondents’ research. Some of the participants regard these disciplines as very important, others as unimportant (psychology and philosophy) or even very unimportant (religious studies) for their academic projects. In sum, there is much coherence in the academic discourse on religious education on an international level with some remarkable differences.

Secondly, this paper analyzes the assumption that such differences are caused by the institutional context on a national level. It hypothesizes that the dominant idea of how to teach religion in schools frames the academic discourse on this education. According to the findings, this assumption is true to some extent, but not in the way it was expected. First, four of the five categories with a bigger variance in the answers were not affected by institutional context. Neither the importance of historical and comparative methods nor the importance of psychology and philosophy as disciplines referred to in one’s projects is explained by the fact that religious education in one’s country is taught predominantly according to a denominational or a non-denominational model respectively. Only the importance of religious studies as a reference discipline is explained by this context to some extent. This result points to a rather remote effect of institutional context on the academic discourse in religious education.

Nonetheless, there are six categories with significant differences caused by institutional context. Besides religious studies, which is more important to scholars within a non-denominational context, theology and educational studies are more important reference theories to researchers from a denominational context. The same is true for the use of systematic-hermeneutical methods and the analysis of processes of teaching and learning and pupils respectively. Since the effect of these differences is at least medium-sized, one cannot speak of differences of minor importance. Furthermore, the effect turns out to be significant, although the variance in the answers of five categories (systematic-hermeneutical methods, teaching and learning processes, pupils, theology, educational studies) is rather small. This indicates that institutional context on a national level indeed coins research on religious education. In more detail, it is not the national context itself, but the dominant model of religious education at schools in the country.

From an ecosystemic perspective, these findings are quite plausible (Lüscher & Bronfenbrenner, 1981 ). For example, the denominational context refers to theology as a basic academic discipline which is very skilled in systematic-hermeneutical methods itself (Ford, 2013 ; Jung, 2004 ). At the same time, the higher importance of religious studies in a non-denominational context can be explained by the constitutive role of this academic subject for the relevant type of religious education. The findings further support the often criticized distinction between denominational and non-denominational religious education. Of course, this distinction is rather bold and is not able to map the subtle differences within these basic accounts of how religion is taught at schools (Jackson, 2007 ). Nevertheless, it is able to reconstruct fundamental differences in the study of religious education. Particularly in fields that are not analyzed intensely yet, like the basic features of the academic discourse on international level, it is useful for tracing fundamental patterns and therefore offers a solid basis for more detailed analysis.

Beyond these basic differences, from a systems theoretical perspective, the coherence within most of the respondents’ answers is plausible, too (Runkel & Burkart, 2005 ). As researchers, the participants are part of a system with its own authentic norms and practices. Since scientific rationality, at least in its modern condition, is predominantly designed to not be context-sensitive (Weinberg, 2016 ), institutional context should not affect the participants’ research practice very much. Therefore, the international field of research on religious education appears to be quite coherent. The few significant differences in regard to institutional context, however, reveal that the modern perception of science is an ideal type in the Weberian sense. Beyond the great coherence within the academic discourse on religious education on an international level, there are important differences, many of which are affected by the dominant model of religious education in one’s country. Therefore, it would be beneficial to further analyze the context sensitivity of religious education research in a more detailed manner. Perhaps such studies will shed light onto more significant path dependencies of such research—for instance also in regard to intersectional categories like gender (Sprague, 2016 ) or continent (Boisselle, 2016 ). Such research would contribute to the international knowledge transfer within religious education (Schweitzer & Schreiner, 2020 ).

There are, of course, also some limitations to this study. Firstly, it is a convenience sample and therefore not suited to offer representative findings. For example, the sample was recruited via established academic networks, which systematically sorts out all potential participants that are not present in these networks. This might lead to some imbalance in the answers. However, since this article aims to reconstruct basic structures and not representative findings, this limitation does not fundamentally limit the significance of the findings. Secondly, despite all efforts to collect an international sample, the sample has a strong European bias. Perhaps the great coherence in the evaluation of objects of inquiry would crack if there had been more participants from Latin America, Asia, or Africa. Differences according to one’s perspective on post-colonial claims, for example, might not be seen in a predominantly European sample. Again, although this limitation restricts the scope of the findings somewhat, it does not conflict with their validity. These limitations indicate that more religious education research on an international level is needed.

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Riegel, U., Rothgangel, M. The impact of institutional context on research in religious education: results from an international comparative study. j. relig. educ. 71 , 155–166 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40839-023-00202-3

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• School curriculum

Research review series: religious education

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Introduction

In religious education ( RE ), pupils enter into a rich discourse about the religious and non-religious traditions that have shaped Great Britain and the world. RE in primary and secondary schools enables pupils to take their place within a diverse multi-religious and multi-secular society. At its best, it is intellectually challenging and personally enriching. It affords pupils both the opportunity to see the religion and non-religion in the world, and the opportunity to make sense of their own place in that world.

This review explores literature relating to the field of RE . Its purpose is to identify factors that contribute to high-quality school RE curriculums, the teaching of the curriculum, assessment and systems.

We will use this understanding of subject quality to examine how RE is taught in England’s schools where RE falls under Ofsted’s inspection remit. The purpose of this research review is outlined more fully in the ‘Principles behind Ofsted’s research reviews and subject reports’. [footnote 1]

Since there are a variety of ways that schools can construct and teach a high-quality RE curriculum, it is important to recognise that there is no single way of achieving high-quality RE .

In this review, we have:

outlined the national context in relation to RE

summarised our review of research into factors that can affect the quality of education in RE

considered curriculum progression in RE , pedagogy, assessment and the impact of school leaders’ decisions on provision

The review draws on a range of sources, including our ‘Education inspection framework: overview of research’ and our 3 phases of curriculum research. [footnote 2]

It is also supported by research into RE , including research into practice and the theoretical work of academics and professionals.

We hope that, through this work, we will contribute to raising the quality of RE for all young people.

The education inspection framework and RE

Our education inspection framework ( EIF ) reflects the expectations of how RE is provided. All schools that are state-funded, including free schools and academies, are legally required to provide RE as part of their curriculum. All schools are required to teach RE to all pupils at all key stages (including sixth form), except for those withdrawn. [footnote 3]

In schools without a religious character, we look at RE as part of EIF inspections under section 5. [footnote 4] We also look at RE in voluntary controlled ( VC ) schools, whether or not they are designated as having a religious character.

In other schools with a religious character, RE is inspected by a body appointed by the maintained school’s governing body under section 48 of the Education Act 2005 or as provided in the academy’s funding agreement.

This report will be of particular interest to schools whose RE we look at under the EIF . However, it should also be of interest to the entire RE sector. For a summary of the legal context of RE and Ofsted’s inspection arrangements, see Appendix A .

Developments in RE

In RE , there are different issues that can affect quality of education. Ofsted’s previous report on RE in 2013, ‘Religious education: realising the potential’, stated that the structures that underpin the local determination of the RE curriculum have failed to keep pace with changes in the wider educational world. [footnote 5] The local determination of RE also means that a concept of quality is not straightforward to identify.

The quality of education established in this research review is based on the current legal framework, the most current non-statutory guidance available from the Department for Education ( DfE ) and national developments in RE which are concerned with quality of education. [footnote 6]

Since 2013, various subject and research reports have been published. A detailed commentary on them is outlined in Appendix B . These reports may supply further insights into the concept of high-quality RE . They include:

‘A new settlement: religion and belief in schools’ [footnote 7]

‘ RE for REal’ [footnote 8]

‘Living with difference’ [footnote 9]

‘The state of the nation’ report on secondary RE [footnote 10]

‘A new settlement revised: religion and belief in schools’ [footnote 11]

‘Religion and worldviews: the way forward – a national plan for RE ’ [footnote 12]

Much of this literature recommends some form of prescribed and detailed curriculum content (sometimes called a ‘national entitlement’) to support improvement in RE . Though common, not all within the RE community deem a movement from local to national determination necessary. [footnote 13]

Much of this literature also suggests that RE curriculum development in England has not kept pace with the academic and intellectual developments that might help pupils to make sense of our complex multi-religious and multi-secular society.

The evolution of society’s religious and non-religious landscape highlights that it is all the more important for pupils to build up accurate knowledge of the complexity and diversity of global religion and non-religion. The 2013 Ofsted report stated that many pupils leave school with scant subject knowledge in RE . [footnote 14] The literature also references chronic and intractable problems with school-level provision for RE . These are factors that can affect quality of education in RE and will be discussed at various points of this curriculum research review.

RE at different stages of education

Reception and primary years.

As at secondary level, arrangements for RE in Reception and primary years are localised. [footnote 15] Most locally agreed syllabuses recommend spending the equivalent of approximately 60 minutes a week on RE at key stage 1 and about 75 minutes a week at key stage 2. Most RE provision in Reception would be integrated within the Reception curriculum, as opposed to a stand-alone subject (see, for example, the RE Council of England and Wales’s 2013 non-statutory framework). [footnote 16]

However, the National Association of Teachers of Religious Education ( NATRE ) argues that a significant number of schools give insufficient curriculum time to RE , based on responses to its regular primary school surveys. For NATRE , insufficient time is considered to be fewer than 45 minutes of teaching time a week. The surveys have suggested that:

in 2016, this was just under 30% of schools

in 2018, this was about 25% of schools

in 2020, the figure remained at 25%

The latest survey did, though, note that, in almost 96% of schools, the curriculum time given to RE had either remained the same or increased. [footnote 17] Almost half of academies without a religious character and almost a third of schools required to teach a locally agreed syllabus had increased the amount of curriculum time spent on RE . These positive changes were, in part, attributed to Ofsted’s focus on the curriculum. [footnote 18]

Secondary years

As at primary level, the arrangements for RE at secondary level are localised. Most locally agreed syllabuses are constructed on the assumption that the amount of curriculum time given to RE is at or above 5%. [footnote 19]

However, using unweighted school workforce census data, the 2017 ‘State of the nation’ report (see Appendix B ) estimated that this threshold of curriculum time was only met in:

62% of schools where the locally agreed syllabus applies (including VC schools)

90% of other schools with a religious character

44% of academies

The report also found that 34% of all academies reported no timetabled RE . Overall, it estimated that, at key stage 3, 64% of state-funded schools gave 5% or more of their curriculum time to RE .

At key stage 4, the report estimated that 5% or more curriculum time was given to RE in 50% of state-funded schools. Specifically, the 5% threshold was met in 45% of schools where the locally agreed syllabus applies (including VC schools); in 91% of other schools with a religious character; and in 27% of academies.

Further, the report found that 44% of all academies reported no timetabled RE . If schools do not teach pupils any RE , this is illegal.

As part of RE teaching in key stage 4, schools may enter pupils for a religious studies qualification. Pupils in England can take either the full course GCSE in religious studies or the short course, which is equivalent to half a GCSE.

Table 1: Religious studies GCSE qualifications in England, 2018 and 2019

The number of pupils taking the full course GCSE has been decreasing steadily since a high point in 2016 when 268,761 pupils took it. [footnote 23] This followed a dramatic increase in numbers between 2009 and 2016.

However, the numbers of pupils entered for either a short or full GCSE fell significantly in the decade between 2009 and 2019. Over this period, the numbers dropped by about 40%. [footnote 24] Many RE teachers attribute this pattern, as well as the provision of RE at key stage 4 generally, to the fact that the religious studies qualification is not part of the English Baccalaureate. Also, the short course was not counted in performance tables from 2013/14 onwards and so its popularity diminished. [footnote 25] This may explain, in part, the decline in overall numbers of pupils entered for a religious studies qualification.

Schools may also offer a religious studies qualification in key stage 5. Schools refer to this qualification by a range of names, including ‘philosophy of religion and ethics’ or ‘religion, philosophy and ethics’. This is because the qualification can include aspects of philosophy and ethics that are to do with religion (see Appendix A for the subject content of the A-level specification). [footnote 26]

Table 2: Religious studies A-level qualifications in England, 2018 and 2019

Ambition for all

A high-quality curriculum is ambitious and designed to give all learners the knowledge they need to succeed in life. This is particularly important for the most disadvantaged and those with special educational needs and/or disabilities ( SEND ). All pupils are entitled to be taught RE . Leaders and teachers may, of course, need to adapt the curriculum depending on the specific needs of individual pupils.

There are different ways that leaders and teachers might reduce the barriers that pupils with specific needs may face in accessing the RE curriculum. For example, this could include leaders doing highly specific curriculum planning that considers in greater detail the building blocks of knowledge that specific pupils need to access the RE curriculum. It could also include teachers carefully considering the most appropriate ways for specific pupils to learn aspects of the curriculum. Leaders and teachers should also consider appropriate accessibility for educational trips and visits related to RE . RE makes a major contribution to the knowledge that pupils need to succeed in life. That knowledge entitlement is appropriate for all pupils.

Some research findings contribute to the overall picture of RE for disadvantaged pupils and those with SEND . One study suggests that pupils attending schools with higher proportions of disadvantaged pupils are less likely to have the opportunity to take GCSE religious studies. [footnote 29]

Research from the DfE found that religious studies was one of the most popular subjects (alongside statistics and English literature) for early entry, such as in the summer of Year 10. [footnote 30] However, the analysis revealed that those pupils taking religious studies early performed worse than their non-early-entrant peers. In 2019, 17,309 pupils were entered early for religious studies (the second-highest subject after English literature). This accounted for over 7.5% of the 2019 entries for GCSE religious studies. Those pupils with lower prior attainment who were early entrants, which may include many disadvantaged pupils and pupils with SEND , performed considerably worse than their peers with low prior attainment who were not early entrants. Early entry to GCSE religious studies therefore appears to be bad for pupils’ attainment, especially for those who can least afford it (pupils with low prior attainment).

RE and the quality of education judgement within the EIF

Within the EIF , there are 4 key judgements that sit underneath an overall judgement of effectiveness: quality of education; personal development; behaviour and attitudes; and leadership and management.

There are a range of different ways RE operates in schools. For example, in some, RE is also used as a vehicle through which to deliver whole-school moral and social initiatives. [footnote 31] As such, RE may take various forms in school, and aspects of RE may sit in relation to 2 different judgements within the EIF : the quality of education and personal development.

The quality of education judgement is about the academic substance of what is taught. It looks at what pupils learn and know in each subject area. The personal development judgement explores how the curriculum may extend beyond the academic, technical or vocational. This may be, for instance, through the spiritual, moral, social and cultural development of pupils. It considers pupils’ recognition of different people’s values, feelings, faith and ways of living. What is learned and remembered by pupils in RE may, of course, contribute to personal development. However, this curriculum research review series is concerned with the factors that can affect quality of education in different subjects. As such, the scope of this review is primarily concerned with the school RE curriculum considered through the lens of the quality of education judgement.

The EIF considers the extent to which leaders of the curriculum adopt or construct a curriculum that is ambitious and designed to give learners the knowledge they need to succeed in life. As outlined previously, the extent to which school subject leaders are freely able to choose the content of their RE curriculums depends on the type of school and, where appropriate, its funding agreement.

Many academies have greater degrees of freedom about what to include within their RE curriculums. Schools that follow a locally agreed syllabus will use this as a basis for what pupils are taught. [footnote 32] Typically, the content of this syllabus prescribes high-level outcomes that subject leaders go on to use as they design their school-specific RE curriculum. This contextualisation process is similar to the ways that schools may take high-level outcomes from the national curriculum in other subjects and use them to construct their school-specific subject curriculum. Non-statutory guidance might accompany an agreed syllabus to assist subject leaders in constructing their school RE curriculum.

However, to be clear: it is the enacted RE curriculum, in the context of the school, which is taught to and experienced by pupils, that is considered within the quality of education judgement. The contextualised school RE curriculum is also the focus of this research review.

Curriculum progression

The RE curriculum should set out what it means to ‘get better’ at the subject as pupils move through the journey of the curriculum at primary and secondary level. Pupils build 3 different forms of knowledge in RE, which we will explain in this section. In high-quality RE at primary and secondary level, leaders and teachers think about how these 3 forms of knowledge are interconnected and sequenced within the RE curriculum. It is this RE curriculum that pupils need to know and to remember.

Curriculum progression and debates about knowledge in RE

The EIF considers the knowledge that pupils learn in the curriculum. As pupils journey through a planned and well-sequenced curriculum in primary and secondary schools, they will build these different types of knowledge as they ‘know more and remember more’ of the planned curriculum. [footnote 33] Our previous research mentions that these types of knowledge are not isolated; they sit within interconnected webs in long-term memory. [footnote 34] They will also differ between subjects.

The types of knowledge that pupils build within RE have not been extensively discussed or theorised. In some cases, this is because the ongoing debates about the aims and purposes of RE have led educators to claim that knowledge alone is insufficient for specific educational purposes such as fostering tolerance or mitigating xenophobia. [footnote 35] Sometimes, the very idea of ‘knowledge in RE ’ itself has been avoided because claims made about both religion and non-religion are contested, even though many educators recognise that the contention itself is part of the knowledge content of RE . [footnote 36] Broadly speaking, teachers, practitioners and researchers in RE do not have well-established conventions to discuss the different types of knowledge that appear in RE curriculums.

Although educators make different claims about the purpose of RE , it is nonetheless vital for subject leaders, curriculum designers and teachers to be aware of different types of knowledge in RE . Without this awareness, misconceptions about the nature of religion can be taught. These misconceptions can be based on claims (for example, ‘only loving religion is true religion’) that are unwarranted by high standards of academic scholarship. [footnote 37] A lack of consideration of the nature of knowledge can also result in pupils’ misunderstandings about the credibility of religion (for example, ‘science is about facts; religion is about opinions’), as well as the difference between types of knowledge in RE and in other subjects. [footnote 38]

The importance of recognising different types of knowledge is also clear when thinking about the types of tasks pupils carry out in RE . For instance, when teachers plan for pupils to construct a response to a statement or question, there are at least 2 forms of subject-specific knowledge in operation: a knowledge of the topic that is being discussed and knowledge about the mode of enquiry that is being asked through the question. [footnote 39] This is particularly important given different expectations about what constitutes an ‘argument’ in RE . [footnote 40]

So, although the building of subject-specific knowledge may not be sufficient for every possible suggested aim for RE , it is necessary and beneficial for a range of purposes.

3 types of knowledge

This report refers to 3 different types of knowledge used in RE . These broad types of knowledge are ‘pillars of progression’ within RE . ‘Getting better’ at RE both at primary and secondary level comprises knowing more and remembering more of these pillars as they are set out within the RE curriculum:

first, ‘substantive’ knowledge: knowledge about various religious and non-religious traditions

second, ‘ways of knowing’: pupils learn ‘how to know’ about religion and non-religion

third, ‘personal knowledge’: pupils build an awareness of their own presuppositions and values about the religious and non-religious traditions they study

We have used our own terms to define the types of knowledge due to a lack of established conventions within RE subject literature. Clearly, different professionals and researchers use a range of terms. However, following RE engagement events, our terms have already been taken up and referred to by researchers and educators in RE . [footnote 41] We will expand on our definitions in the coming sections.

In high-quality RE curriculums, these 3 types of knowledge are not artificially separated from each other. For example, when subject leaders plan a sequence of specific content and concepts for pupils to study, they also need to consider the most appropriate methods that pupils need to know to study that content.

Based on the above, high-quality RE may have the following features

A consideration of the knowledge that pupils build through the RE curriculum, because accurate knowledge about religion and non-religion can be beneficial for achieving different purposes and aims for RE .

High expectations about scholarship in the curriculum to guard against pupils’ misconceptions. What is taught and learned in RE is grounded in what is known about religion/non-religion from academic study (scholarship).

Carefully selected and well-sequenced substantive content and concepts.

‘Ways of knowing’ are appropriately taught alongside the substantive content and are not isolated from the content and concepts that pupils learn.

A consideration of when pupils should relate the content to their own personal knowledge (for example, prior assumptions).

Substantive content and concepts in RE

The substantive knowledge of RE includes the ‘substance’ of religious and non-religious traditions that primary and secondary level pupils study in the curriculum. [footnote 42] Substantive content includes:

different ways that people express religion and non-religion in their lives, including diverse lived experiences and the complexity of the fluid boundaries between different traditions [footnote 43]

knowledge about artefacts and texts associated with different religious and non-religious traditions

concepts that relate to religious and non-religious traditions, such as ‘dharma’, ‘incarnation’, ‘ritual’, ‘authority’, ‘prayer’, ‘sacred’, ‘anatta’ and ‘moksha’

the very concepts of ‘religion’ and ‘non-religion’ and debates around these ideas [footnote 44]

There are well-established conventions within RE to refer to ways of categorising subject-specific concepts: [footnote 45]

concepts that are common to religious and non-religious experience (such as ‘interpretation’)

concepts that are common to multiple forms of religious experience (such as ‘sacrifice’)

concepts specific to a religious tradition (such as the Christian notion of ‘incarnation’)

Learning substantive knowledge in the RE curriculum

Pupils, of course, cannot learn all possible substantive content in RE . Subject leaders and curriculum designers select RE content for pupils to learn. This means that any curriculum content is a representation or reconstruction of religious and non-religious traditions, worldviews and concepts. [footnote 46] For example, when subject leaders plan for pupils to learn about traditional Roman Catholic Christian practices, or specific Hindu concepts, these are a representation of Roman Catholic and Hindu traditions, respectively.

Our previous research outlines the way in which the ‘substance’ of the curriculum relates to the architecture of memory and the brain. It explains how new knowledge that pupils learn becomes integrated within and across schema, which are complex structures in long-term memory that link knowledge and create meaning. [footnote 47] Pupils receive many of their values, opinions and ideas from their home environments and communities. However, they will base their knowledge and conceptual models about religion and non-religion to a considerable degree on the representations they learn in the curriculum. [footnote 48] There is a responsibility, therefore, on subject leaders to think carefully about the representations they select and to ensure that these are as accurate as possible. [footnote 49]

The schema that pupils build concerning RE are important in their lives beyond school. They form part of the basis on which young people go on to speak and to act in society in matters of religion and non-religion. What pupils learn needs to resemble the complex picture of religion and non-religion in society, and show them how and why that picture came to be. [footnote 50] The representations in high-quality RE curriculums will enable pupils to build up a ‘mental model’ that reflects the global and historical complexity of religion and non-religion (see ‘Ambitious curriculum end goals’ ).

Are the representations on the RE curriculum ‘collectively enough’?

The EIF considers the extent to which leaders adopt or construct a curriculum that contains cumulatively sufficient knowledge and skills. [footnote 51] In subject terms, this requires that the RE curriculum comprises ‘collectively enough’ of the knowledge and skills that would amount to a high standard of subject education at primary and secondary level. This has implications for the substantive content and concepts that pupils learn in RE , not least because it would be impossible to cover everything that could be covered within RE .

High-quality RE prepares pupils to engage in a complex multi-religious and multi-secular world. To reach this goal, leaders and teachers might think about the overall conception of religion and non-religion that pupils build through the RE curriculum. To consider the overall concept of religion and non-religion that pupils build through the curriculum is perhaps more useful than thinking about the quantity and weighting of traditions to include.

However, much of the debate about RE content has not focused on the idea of cumulative sufficiency. Instead, the focus has been on the quantity and weighting of traditions to include in the RE curriculum. This focus might be due to the wording of the most recent legal prescription for RE , [footnote 52] which states that locally agreed syllabuses should:

reflect the fact that the religious traditions in Great Britain are in the main Christian whilst taking account of the teaching and practices of the other principal religions represented in Great Britain.

Although this prescription is a starting point, it is not a full statement of the substantive knowledge that pupils should learn in high-quality RE . It only explicitly identifies substantive knowledge of Christianity. It alludes to but does not specify precisely what those other traditions are. There are different ways in which the content of high-quality RE might reflect this legislation.

Unfortunately, some leaders interpret the legislation in percentage terms, for example by devoting 51% of RE to the study of Christianity and 49% to ‘other religions’. Commentators have noted for some time that this approach does not guarantee a quality RE curriculum. [footnote 53] In fact, it can generate problems. For example, it can unintentionally cause tensions by devoting more time to some religious or non-religious traditions. It can also prevent pupils from exploring the connections between traditions or even imply that there are no connections. [footnote 54]

Equally, simply covering a greater number of religious and non-religious traditions (as inclusive as that sounds) is no guarantee of a high-quality RE curriculum. This overloads the curriculum and might lead to superficial caricatures of religious and non-religious traditions. [footnote 55] Generally speaking, the issue of what might be enough content to constitute a high-quality RE curriculum has been given little consideration in the RE community. [footnote 56]

When subject leaders and teachers consider whether the representations that pupils acquire through the RE curriculum are ‘collectively enough’, they might take into account the conceptual impression of ‘religion’ and ‘non-religion’ that pupils will develop. At the very least, subject leaders can ensure that the planned representations express the variety of religion and non-religion (for example, ways of living found in Abrahamic traditions, dharmic traditions and non-religious traditions). High-quality RE curriculums capture the diversity, fluidity and complexity of global religion/non-religion in their curriculum representations. [footnote 57] Importantly, the content is sequenced so that pupils can make sense of its complexity.

Subject leaders and teachers might select, for example, representations of religious and non-religious traditions that would, over the span of the curriculum, enable pupils to grasp ‘big ideas’ about religious and non-religious traditions. [footnote 58] These are theories about religion and non-religion. [footnote 59] An example of a ‘big idea’ is that religious and non-religious traditions are concerned with the pursuit of a good life. In terms of ‘big ideas’, the curriculum is ‘cumulatively sufficient’ when the planned representations allow pupils to learn, over time, these scholarly theories. These theories may be useful for some level of curriculum planning as organising structures or ‘conceptual pegs’. [footnote 60]

Subject leaders and teachers might also plan a sufficient range of representations to illustrate or indicate complexity. For example, subject leaders may select representations of Hindu and Buddhist traditions because of the way that they share similar concepts, such as ‘karma’ and ‘dharma’. They may plan representations of ‘cultural Christians’ or ‘secular Muslims’ as well as representations of Roman Catholic Christians or Sunni Muslims. In high-quality RE curriculums, a range of illustrative or indicative representations will enable pupils to build sophisticated conceptions that relate to the realities of the world’s religious landscape. [footnote 61]

It is perfectly possible for pupils to get better at RE without knowing all of the different ways that people express religion or non-religion in their lives. High-quality RE curriculums do not require excessive content but do need cumulatively sufficient content. This means that subject leaders should ensure that their curriculums contain collectively enough substantive knowledge to enable pupils to recognise the diverse and changing religious and non-religious traditions of the world.

Are the representations in the RE curriculum accurate?

It is important for subject leaders in primary and secondary schools to plan precise and accurate representations of religious and non-religious traditions in their curriculums. When those representations are inaccurate, pupils end up having misconceptions. [footnote 62] For example, if subject leaders plan for pupils to learn about humanism only in relation to atheism, pupils will not gain wider knowledge of humanism as a way of life.

In RE that does not focus on the nurture of and/or induction into faith traditions (non-confessional RE ), the accuracy of representations is particularly important. [footnote 63] The representations should allow teachers to be able to teach accurately without advocating a tradition or ignoring unpleasant manifestations of traditions. This means that subject leaders may have to plan representations that include morally displeasing aspects of that tradition, as well as more agreeable ones. [footnote 64] For instance, when subject leaders plan representations of Buddhist traditions, but ignore all anti-social aspects of the traditions, then the curriculum communicates inaccurate stereotypes to pupils. [footnote 65] Subject leaders and curriculum designers need to question whose version of the tradition is being represented in the curriculum. Constructing representations that are informed by scholarship can prevent unintentional partisanship (see ‘Systems, culture and policies’ for implications for teacher development). [footnote 66]

Subject leaders also need to be alert to the ways in which the ‘authenticity’ of traditions can be lost. [footnote 67] Sometimes, subject leaders plan for pupils to learn generalisations (for example, ‘Christians believe…’ or ‘Islam is…’). This becomes problematic when the planned representations give the impression that traditions are given, fixed and stable and do not attend to the fluidity, change and dynamism of ‘living traditions’ as traditions in transition. [footnote 68] Generalisations might capture a tradition as it once was, but no longer is now. This is especially problematic when generalisations bear no resemblance to the living traditions of pupils and their families. In turn, this raises the question of whether these representations sufficiently prepare pupils for religion and belief diversity. [footnote 69] It is crucial that subject leaders plan well-informed representations that do not present pupils with unsustainable stereotypes and poor generalisations. [footnote 70]

That said, there may be times, particularly in the primary phase, when generalisations are necessary in the RE curriculum. For example, teachers may need to use generalisations to explain simply common features of specific traditions, such as specialist vocabulary, widespread commonalities and shared subject-specific concepts. In doing so, teachers might emphasise aspects of traditions that bind some communities together, such as creeds. As part of using generalisations in this way, simple modifications to planning to make the representations as precise as possible (for example, ‘some’, ‘many’, ‘majority of European’ or ‘traditions from South Asia’) can add helpful degrees of clarity. Concerns that what pupils learn should be accurate should not be confused with making the curriculum unnecessarily complex.

It is appropriate that pupils might need to build a particular impression of a religious or non-religious tradition, as a starting point. When leaders and teachers think of the curriculum as a journey for pupils, they can then think at what later stage it is appropriate to add nuance. The initial learning of a concept is inevitably incomplete, and can be developed and corrected over time. [footnote 71] Pupils can therefore build more sophisticated knowledge about those traditions at a later stage. Also, pupils can learn why greater nuance in their knowledge is more useful.

As pupils move on from early generalisations, they need to learn the complexities of religious and non-religious traditions. To support this, leaders and teachers might plan for pupils to learn about ‘organised worldviews’, ‘institutional traditions’ or ‘-isms’ (such as Judaism) alongside learning how real people (such as individual Jews) live out traditions in their lives. [footnote 72] They may plan for pupils to learn, for example, testimonies from faith practitioners or leaders of organised religious groups that relate to generalisations. Pupils will then learn both the generalisation and an example of the ‘living’ traditions. This lets them ‘test’ the generalisation when learning it alongside instances of the ‘lived reality’ of religious traditions. [footnote 73] This also prevents pupils from making incorrect inferences about how common individual experiences are because it also provides them with knowledge of how widespread they might be.

Accuracy of representations is also important in relation to how the curriculum is constructed and around teachers’ questioning (including curriculum ‘enquiry’ questions). Imprecise questions sometimes encourage pupils to use weak generalisations or unsustainable stereotypes (for example, ‘what’s the difference between Islam and Christianity?’). Instead, rich and precise questions, which emphasise ‘social actors’ and their uses of traditions, promote the use of accurate representations (for example, ‘how have different Muslims understood Islam’s relationship with Christianity?’). [footnote 74]

Are representations on the RE curriculum deep, as well as broad?

It is of course important that leaders and teachers try to portray the diversity of religion and non-religion in the RE curriculum. However, attending only to the breadth of knowledge that pupils build is insufficient for high-quality RE . Curriculum leaders at primary and secondary level must also consider the depth of knowledge.

Depth of knowledge in particular areas of the RE curriculum is important because it provides pupils with detailed content on which to build ideas, concepts and theories about religion. Concepts, particularly ones about abstract RE topics like ‘forgiveness’ and ‘impermanence’, that are secure in the mind rest on knowledge of a range of examples. [footnote 75] If pupils are to make sense of the ‘bigger picture’ of a multi-religious, multi-secular world, then they need depth of knowledge about religious and non-religious traditions.

Depth of study prepares pupils with many crucial components of the curriculum. What teachers consider to be crucial components will depend on those aspects of the RE curriculum that are useful ‘hooks’ or conceptual ‘pegs’ that enable pupils to approach current and new content on a firm foundation. These components may include specific vocabulary and concepts, pertinent facts, examples, illustrations, and aspects of disciplinary procedures necessary for later study in the curriculum. Pupils need to acquire these components through typical forms of RE content, which are not separated out from their in-depth context. These forms may include:

narratives, stories and texts

aspects of living religion (such as rituals and cultural artefacts)

codified beliefs

thought experiments

case studies

The RE curriculum needs to build pupils’ schema with a range of detailed knowledge from specific forms of content like the above. Pupils can then consider more complex ideas about religion from a knowledgeable position. [footnote 76] Leaders and teachers therefore need to plan carefully the depth of study in the curriculum.

Often, what leaders plan for pupils to study in depth in the curriculum reflects the traditions that are found in their local area, which may be indicated by their locally agreed syllabus. [footnote 77] As well as this, leaders and teachers should be mindful of global contexts. [footnote 78] To achieve this, leaders can select depth of representations from contrasting religious and/or non-religious traditions. This may avoid pupils developing misconceptions. For example, if depth of study takes place only in Abrahamic traditions (Jewish, Christian and Islamic) and no dharmic traditions, then pupils’ schema of ‘religion’ would be skewed.

The curriculum can relate specific traditions to historical context, cultural settings, sacred literature and ways of thinking and living in the world. Pupils will build knowledge of the rich intellectual and spiritual histories of religious and non-religious traditions, the ideas that gain prominence within them, how they relate to culture and how they have shaped – and continue to impact – the globe. This in-depth knowledge enables pupils to dig beneath the surface of contemporary political and public faces of the traditions. On this in-depth basis, pupils can then explore the historical, geographical, metaphysical and cosmological aspects of traditions. [footnote 79]

In-depth contextual knowledge is especially important when aspects of exams focus on very narrow representations of religious traditions. For example, sacred texts are sometimes used as ‘proof-texts’ in religious studies exams in England. This can misrepresent centuries of practices about how sacred texts inform religious traditions. [footnote 80] In-depth contextual knowledge ensures that pupils are better informed and can see the limitations of such uses.

Some curriculums do not cover religious and non-religious traditions in detail. Instead, they focus on generic themes in RE , such as ‘festivals’ or ‘rites of passage’. This approach can be problematic. Many of the curriculum themes are superficial and, in some instances, lead to pupils’ misconceptions. For example, themes such as ‘founders of religion’ or ‘holy books’ end up perpetuating misconceptions that some religious traditions are not ‘real religions’ because they do not fit neatly into the theme. [footnote 81] Detailed study allows pupils to learn sufficient content to avoid superficial misconceptions.

Leaders should, however, take care that the knowledge that pupils build does not become overly ‘siloed’ by how the curriculum is planned. It can be problematic, for instance, when the entirety of the curriculum is composed of units of discrete religious or non-religious traditions (for example, ‘Christianity’/‘Judaism’/’Humanism’/‘Hinduism’/‘Sikhism’), without any opportunities for pupils to build towards seeing blurred boundaries and areas of overlap between them. This approach, intentionally or otherwise, ends up following a ‘world religions’ paradigm. [footnote 82]

Recent literature claims that the paradigm is ‘creaking’ because it does not sufficiently account for religious and cultural plurality (for example, ‘cultural Christians’ or ‘secular Muslims’). [footnote 83] Leaders and teachers might respond to this by planning in-depth study of traditions, but also by including opportunities for pupils to learn that the idea of a discrete tradition sometimes breaks down. In this way, pupils can see the ‘model’ of an institutional worldview, as well as the reality of how different people actually live out religion or non-religion in their lives.

In summary, depth of study provides the foundation for pupils to go on to explore other themes and complexity in RE . For pupils to deal with this material ably, they need detailed and in-depth knowledge of specific traditions. Without this, pupils are unlikely to see patterns, relationships or discrepancies in activities that are the hallmarks of more sophisticated and proficient thinking. [footnote 84] Depth of study also allows pupils to make sense of the fluid reality of a multi-religious, multi-secular world.

Sequencing substantive knowledge in RE

High-quality curriculums are coherently planned and well sequenced. [footnote 85] To achieve this, leaders need to consider what prior content pupils need ahead of future content. At both primary and secondary level, the curriculum needs to prepare pupils for forthcoming topics based on content that has preceded them. This is part of recognising that the curriculum maps out the journey of what it means to ‘get better’ at the subject. This aspect of curriculum in RE has been underdeveloped, although some recent projects have considered how curriculum content maps out developing expertise. [footnote 86]

Our previous research outlined that well-sequenced curriculums are also structured to help pupils integrate new knowledge into their existing knowledge and make enduring connections between content, ideas and concepts. [footnote 87] When pupils encounter new content in RE , their prior knowledge has an impact on what they learn. [footnote 88] Prior knowledge that pupils need in order to learn new content may include, for example, vocabulary, concepts, narratives and/or factual knowledge. [footnote 89]

Sequencing of the curriculum involves identifying links that exist even between very different areas of substantive content. For example, vocabulary and concepts such as ‘creation story’, ‘creation myth’ and ‘foundation myth’ can connect Christian origin narratives with shruti in Hindu traditions, concepts of the patriarchs in Jewish traditions and how all these concepts play out in different people’s lives. Subject leaders and teachers might use links like these as part of sequencing the curriculum effectively. For example, leaders can make links between stories about and experiences of different religious and cultural communities in the early years foundation stage with RE concepts in key stage 1.

Another part of effective curriculum sequencing is considering how to enable pupils to move towards ambitious end goals. This means going beyond making connections between substantive content alone. Effective curriculum sequencing might include moving towards global contexts (how religion is patterned around the world), considering models with exceptions (for example, individuals who identify as Roman Catholic but do not believe in God), and adding further complexity and detail. All of this requires rich content knowledge and strong knowledge of connections between content. [footnote 90] Pupils may also develop broad expertise in ‘ways of knowing’ the substantive content (see ‘Ways of knowing in RE ’ ). For a discussion of ambitious curriculum end goals, see ‘Interplay, end goals and competencies’ .

There is some disagreement within RE literature about the relationship between concepts and building complexity through the curriculum, and how to sequence based on this.

Some approaches introduce increasingly more complicated or intricate RE concepts as pupils get older. [footnote 91] This is based on the idea that some concepts require prior knowledge of connections, especially between other concepts, in order to grasp them. However, this approach can be problematic when applied as a rigid hierarchy that precludes younger pupils from beginning to build knowledge of some specialist concepts. Some very specific religious concepts do not need to be, in principle, reserved for later on in the curriculum. What matters is that earlier stages of the RE curriculum have prepared pupils with the necessary components, so they are ready for the next content.

Other approaches introduce highly specific concepts early on in the curriculum. [footnote 92] In doing this, leaders and teachers might plan for pupils to learn similar concepts a number of times in the curriculum at different stages in increasingly detailed, subject contexts. Examples of this at primary and secondary level could be:

pupils studying the concept of incarnation as part of the Christian nativity story at key stage 1, as part of Christian beliefs about the Trinity at key stage 2, and as part of Christian social action at key stage 3

pupils studying the concept of rebirth as part of Sikhi traditions about cycles of birth, death and rebirth at key stage 2; as part of Buddhist mandala traditions (the Bhavachakra) at key stage 3; and as connected to sanatan dharma, moksha and yoga at key stage 4

It is clear that sequencing towards ambitious subject-specific goals requires pupils to build knowledge of significant links and connections between concepts. It is important for pupils to have knowledge not simply of isolated concepts, but of the relationships between them. [footnote 93] Leaders and teachers might identify, for example, pertinent concepts that pupils could learn in a range of contexts and pattern them within the curriculum to enable pupils to make rich connections with them.

The importance of sequencing when introducing sensitive and controversial issues

RE is considered a place within the curriculum where particularly controversial and sensitive issues can be discussed. [footnote 94] How and when to introduce these issues illustrates just how vital curriculum sequencing can be.

At secondary level, some RE curriculums may include topics that relate to perceptions of religion and terror or the way in which the Holocaust (or Shoah) has shaped Jewish traditions. In weaker RE curriculums, these topics may be introduced without supplying sufficient background knowledge, sensitivity and expertise. [footnote 95] Controversial or sensitive issues often have political, environmental, social, emotional and intellectual dimensions. This means that there may be many components that pupils require before studying controversial topics.

Though the topics discussed in RE will differ between primary and secondary schools, the importance of sequencing applies equally at both levels. At primary level, leaders can consider the appropriate point within the sequence of the curriculum to introduce social and religious concepts, such as ‘death’. They may do this through considering what pupils will have learned previously in other subjects, such as science, about the way that death is a natural process and part of life. Also, leaders can consider how death has been explained in the early years foundation stage, such as through the death of a school pet.

High-quality RE curriculums will prepare pupils with the prior knowledge they need in order to think about and respond to controversial issues in an informed way. For example, for topics such as Christian responses to suffering, pupils may need prior knowledge of distinctive Christian concepts such as ‘resurrection’ and knowledge of the social and spiritual dimensions of concepts such as ‘evil’. Pupils need to possess prior knowledge of concepts such as ‘death’ and related vocabulary such as ‘choice’, ‘freedom’, ‘plan’ and ‘trust’. Some topics in the RE curriculum may also require knowledge from other subjects, such as English literature, history, geography and science. Subject leaders and teachers might order the curriculum so that pupils have developed knowledge of the content, concepts and related vocabulary needed to approach a controversial topic. Without this, pupils’ engagement will be superficial.

Also, the representations of religious and non-religious traditions that leaders and teachers choose are particularly critical when it comes to sensitive and/or controversial issues. If subject leaders and teachers only plan for pupils to learn about some traditions in relation to controversial topics, then pupils will build up substantive knowledge about that tradition only in relation to the controversial. They will miss out on the wider context of that tradition’s history and different forms of expression. For example, if pupils only learn about Jewish traditions within a topic of the Shoah or about Islamic traditions only within a sequence of lessons on ‘religion and terror’, then their knowledge of those traditions will be eclipsed by those topics. Subject leaders and teachers might plan broader representations of those religious traditions before teaching about controversial topics.

‘Collectively enough’ substantive content and concepts in the RE curriculum to enable pupils to grasp the complexity of a multi-religious, multi-secular world. This substantive knowledge is a representation and reconstruction of religious and non-religious traditions and concepts.

Representations of religious and non-religious traditions that are as accurate as possible. Leaders and teachers might use scholarship to construct representations so that pupils do not learn misconceptions.

Depth of study in certain areas of the RE curriculum to provide pupils with detailed content that is connected with the concepts and ideas that they learn. Without this, more complex discussions about religion and non-religion will be superficial. Leaders and teachers can make intelligent selections for depth of study to indicate a range of religious and non-religious ways of living.

Detailed knowledge of specific religious and non-religious traditions (such as their stories, narratives, texts and testimonies) in the RE curriculum to enable pupils to make useful connections between content.

A well-sequenced RE curriculum that prepares pupils with the prior knowledge (including content, concepts and vocabulary) they need for subsequent topics. The importance of this is very clear in the case of controversial and sensitive topics. Leaders and teachers might identify the necessary background knowledge that pupils need to learn for a topic and make sure that the curriculum is ordered to accommodate this.

‘Ways of knowing’ in RE

‘Ways of knowing’ is about being scholarly in the way that substantive content and concepts are approached. It refers to the different ways that pupils learn how it is possible to explore that substantive knowledge. With only substantive (‘what to know’) knowledge, the RE curriculum would be incomplete because pupils also need to learn ‘how to know’ in RE . [footnote 96] At primary and secondary level, leaders and teachers might teach ‘ways of knowing’ by ensuring that pupils learn not only selected content, but also tools to explore that content.

‘Ways of knowing’ is an area of development that is currently emerging within RE . There seem to be 2 main forms of ‘ways of knowing’ that pupils can learn in the curriculum:

knowledge of well-established methods and processes and other tools of scholarship that are used to study and make sense of global and historical religion/non-religion

knowledge of the types of conversation (or ‘modes of enquiry’ or ‘scholarly discourses’) that academic communities have about religion/non-religion

Knowledge of the first form develops pupils’ awareness that different methods and processes are useful in different ways, depending on the subject matter being studied. Knowledge of the second form develops pupils’ awareness that conversations about religion and non-religion generally carry within them certain assumptions, link to methods and processes and contain certain criteria about what is considered valuable. These 2 forms have sometimes been referred to as ‘disciplinary knowledge’ in RE , [footnote 97] which has been described as: [footnote 98]

knowledge that acts on substantive knowledge, as well as the products generated by that action [footnote 99]

the collective total of the tools, norms, conventions and methods of particular fields of human knowledge [footnote 100]

One part of ‘ways of knowing’ is pupils learning about scholarship. To meet the professional standards of teachers, teachers must promote the value of scholarship. [footnote 101] Leaders and teachers of RE can consider this when asking questions of the RE curriculums that they construct:

How is scholarship valued in the teaching of substantive content?

What do we plan for pupils to learn about how the knowledge in the RE curriculum was constructed?

What do we expect pupils to learn about how accurate, tentative or reliable representations of religious and non-religious traditions are?

What do we expect pupils to learn about how to construct new knowledge, and evaluate existing knowledge, in trustworthy ways?

The 2018 Commission on RE considered scholarly and academic practices, together with teachers who promote scholarly accuracy and critical enquiry, to be part of high-quality RE . [footnote 102] Beyond substantive content, leaders and teachers may plan for pupils to learn:

how knowledge came about (for example, who constructed the knowledge or how it might have been formed from academic disciplines)

the status of claims (for example, how accurate a generalisation about religion might be)

the difference between conceptions and misconceptions (for example, whether the term ‘believer’ is an appropriate term for all adherents and practitioners of different traditions)

the type of method that may have been used to derive that knowledge and the suitability of methods (for example, the strengths and limitations of interview methods for portions of curriculum content)

Considerations such as these lead to a conception of quality beyond learning substantive content. Substantive knowledge may include different claims about reality that cannot easily be dismissed or relativised. [footnote 103] High-quality RE curriculums build forms of knowledge that give pupils the capacity to think about the status of the content.

If the curriculum is not explicit about ‘ways of knowing’, implicit assumptions (as well as a general lack of clarity) are passed on to pupils about how they ought to approach future RE content. This links to the important question of ‘what kind of neutrality’ is required in non-confessional RE . [footnote 104] The idea of a position of absolute neutrality when studying religion/non-religion is considered untenable (for further discussion, see ‘Teacher education and professional development in RE ’ ). [footnote 105] Teachers should be concerned about the accuracy of their portrayals of religious and non-religious traditions as well as concerned about expecting pupils to adopt teachers’ own beliefs. [footnote 106] Yet, pupils need to be educated to respond to content in informed, intelligent and reflective ways. [footnote 107] In plural, non-confessional and multi-faith RE , a range of ‘ways of knowing’ about religion/non-religion would broaden, rather than limit, pupils’ educational experience. [footnote 108]

‘Ways of knowing’ as scholarly tools, methods and processes

In high-quality RE , it is important for pupils to learn about the tools of scholarship and other well-established methods. If pupils are to build up representations of religious traditions that reflect the complexity and diversity of religion, then they require sufficient knowledge of the tools so that, when appropriate, they themselves are able to work towards that complexity and diversity. [footnote 109]

In RE , pupils can learn a range of tools and methods. [footnote 110] For example, pupils could explore a curriculum question such as ‘how have different Hindus expressed dharma practice?’ through an analysis of Vedic texts. However, they would get a different answer through, for example, a survey of the perspectives of Hindu residents of a geographical area. Within a curriculum, this example would require that pupils develop both knowledge of different tools and methods and knowledge of what these tools and methods reveal (or conceal) about aspects of dharma practice.

Leaders and teachers might plan, throughout the journey of the curriculum, for pupils to develop their expertise by learning how these different methods might be applied to varied and different substantive content. Of course, a school RE curriculum could never fully capture every method, tool or process that could be used concerning religion. Possible tools and methods that pupils could learn about include:

tools for interpreting texts [footnote 111]

tools for exploring customs, habits and ways of living (ethnography)

archaeological procedures

methods in historical reconstruction

participant observation

in-depth interviews

analysis of relevant data

The sheer amount of choices could be overwhelming for subject leaders and teachers. Yet high-quality RE helps pupils learn to choose the right tool for the job: it specifies what is/are the appropriate method(s) and tool(s) for a specific aspect of tradition that is in focus in the curriculum. [footnote 112] To a large extent, the tools that pupils learn about depend on the selection and sequencing of the substantive content of the curriculum, as well as the type of question being asked of the content. [footnote 113]

A specific example of a set of tools in RE would be interpretative (hermeneutical) tools for texts. These would be useful in curriculums that refer to and use sacred texts such as the Bible. In learning the tools of interpretation that are specific to the substantive content (parts of the sacred text), pupils can see layers of meaning in texts that interpreters find significant. Also, they are less reliant on teachers giving them an established meaning to the text. [footnote 114]

When pupils learn about these tools through lots of different substantive content in a sequenced curriculum, they learn:

about the usefulness of the methods and tools and knowledge of meanings that previous interpreters have considered important (a receptive expertise)

how to use the tools and methods for themselves (a productive expertise)

When pupils learn a specific selection of tools, methods and practices, RE draws on well-established scholarly processes. Knowledge of the procedures for picking the ‘right tool for the job’ enables pupils to learn the procedures for acquiring new knowledge in reliable and warranted ways. [footnote 115] Leaders and teachers might select, in age-appropriate ways, specific scholarly methods for pupils to learn in conjunction with substantive content. [footnote 116]

‘Ways of knowing’ as types of academic conversations

‘Ways of knowing’ includes knowledge about how academics discuss religion. Pupils and teachers will also discuss religion and non-religion in the RE classroom. Teachers might therefore reflect on how they intend to frame their classroom discussions about religion. [footnote 117]

Without this form of knowledge in RE , teachers may spread (rather than counteract) illiteracy about the content learned in RE . For example, ideas about ‘proof’ and ‘truth’ play very different roles in scientific conversations compared with religious ones. High-quality RE can play a clear role in developing pupils’ literacy about types of knowledge in the world; poor-quality RE can cause confusion and misconceptions. [footnote 118] High-quality RE also helps pupils to distinguish knowledge in the RE curriculum from ‘everyday’ knowledge, opinions and ideas.

As with specific methods and tools, pupils can learn both:

about scholarly discourses (a receptive expertise)

through the way that leaders and teachers sequence the curriculum, how to participate in and lead the discourses themselves (a productive expertise)

Some curriculum approaches formalise ‘ways of knowing’ into simplified disciplines, such as ‘theology’, ‘philosophy’ and ‘human/social sciences’. [footnote 119] In these cases, the curriculum content is framed as if it were considered by, for example, theologians, philosophers or human/social scientists. These can be taught in simplified ways in primary schools.

This recognises that there are different ways of approaching similar topics and different types of questions that can be asked about similar topics. For example, the Islamic concept of the ‘oneness’ of God (Tawhid) could be approached in different ways at secondary level:

How have different Muslims understood sacred texts about Tawhid? (A ‘theology’ question)

Is the idea of God’s self-existence a coherent one? (A ‘philosophy’ question)

What is the significance of Tawhid for the way that different Muslims live today? (A ‘human/social sciences’ question)

At primary, the symbol of light in Hindu traditions could be approached in contrasting ways:

Why do different Hindu stories talk about light?

How does a festival of lights bring different Hindus together?

Pupils can learn different types of conversation (and the assumptions that are implicit within them) about religion and non-religion. [footnote 120] The contrasting types of conversation on the curriculum are key because some preclude the possibility of ‘ultimate reality’ (or ‘realities’), while others do not. [footnote 121] This is certainly important in pluralistic RE , which recognises that there is no absolutely neutral vantage point from which to explore religion. [footnote 122]

The importance of ‘ways of knowing’ in the RE curriculum

‘Ways of knowing’ within the RE curriculum is currently an area of development and theorisation for teachers. Focusing on this type of knowledge might improve some aspects of RE .

For example, RE practitioners commonly use language of interpretation, analysis, explanation and/or the construction of arguments as part-and-parcel of learning. [footnote 123] However, what exactly is meant by these procedures is unclear: the terms are very broad and can vary in their meaning. [footnote 124] Using terms like ‘analysis’ or ‘argumentation’ imprecisely can generate problems because, when they are applied generically, they are not adjusted to the subject content. It is unclear what similarity there is between:

‘analysis of a belief’

‘analysis of a religious text’

‘analysis of a philosophical argument’

The over-simplified generic application of terms such as these may suggest a lack of precision in expectations about what pupils learn beyond substantive content. [footnote 125] It may also suggest that teachers are unclear about how pupils should (or even could) respond to the substantive content.

It would be more useful and constructive for leaders and teachers to plan for pupils to learn ‘ways of knowing’ that are specific to the content. For example, they can learn how to know the extent to which particular beliefs are widespread, or suitable tools for interpreting religious texts, or the criteria for valid arguments in analytic philosophy.

High-quality curriculums in which pupils learn a range of ‘ways of knowing’ can help prevent over-simplifying or stereotyping religion. Recognising that there can be different ‘ways of knowing’ brings to light a variety of perspectives, positions and voices. This may also help overcome misconceptions that later ideas, practices and perspectives in some religious traditions are necessarily deviations from an original pure tradition. [footnote 126]

Given that what is presented to pupils in the curriculum is a representation of religion and non-religion, there are scholarly questions to ask about ‘who says’ the representation is accurate, appropriate or suitable. [footnote 127] Representatives and/or faith leaders of organised traditions (sometimes called institutional worldviews) offer unique perspectives. But the voices of other individual adherents and practitioners (sometimes called personal worldviews) also offer unique perspectives on that tradition. [footnote 128] Both types of voices can broaden the representation. Beyond the substantive content, learning about ‘ways of knowing’ enables pupils to think about, to question and to discern whose perspective is being heard through the representations of traditions, and why.

A curriculum design that includes ‘ways of knowing’ as a form of knowledge that pupils build through the RE curriculum. This helps pupils learn about the construction of substantive knowledge, its accuracy, its reliability and how provisional that knowledge is. Pupils are therefore prepared to think in critical and scholarly ways about the representations of religion and non-religion that they learn through the curriculum and encounter in the world beyond.

A sequenced RE curriculum that includes scholarly methods and tools that pupils learn.

Subject leaders and teachers who make good decisions about which ‘ways of knowing’ pupils need to learn and who match the ‘ways of knowing’ to the substantive content.

Curriculum impact that includes pupils recognising the type of specialist discourse they are engaging in when asking questions, using methods and making claims about different content in the RE curriculum. This might have been achieved, for example, because pupils have learned how disciplinary discourses construct knowledge about religion/non-religion or how groups or families of methods explore religious and non-religious traditions.

‘Personal knowledge’ in RE

‘Personal knowledge’ has been described by various educators as ‘knower-knowledge’, ‘personal worldview’, ‘reflexivity’ and ‘positionality’. [footnote 129] When pupils study RE content, they do so ‘from a position’. This position is their ‘viewpoint’ or perspective on the world, which is influenced by, for example, their values, prior experiences and own sense of identity. Through the curriculum at primary and secondary level, pupils build ‘personal knowledge’, which includes an awareness of the assumptions that they bring to discussions concerning religious and non-religious traditions. The focus on both knowledge of religious traditions and also what that knowledge contributes to the pupils’ self-understanding is well established in RE . [footnote 130] This form of knowledge is similar to academic reflections in higher education. [footnote 131]

This section on ‘personal knowledge’ reflects curriculum developments in plural (non-confessional) RE , as outlined in section 375(3) of the Education Act 1996. It assumes that pupils bring to the RE classroom a ‘position’, as mentioned above. It also assumes that pupils are free to express their own religious or non-religious identities, and these may or may not change because of their RE subject education (and indeed there is no obligation for them to change). This section does not discuss approaches to RE that may induct pupils into specific religious faith traditions through the curriculum.

RE is sometimes seen as a key place in the curriculum where there are opportunities for pupils to consider their own personal backgrounds and influences. [footnote 132] Similarly, in some approaches to RE , the development of this kind of ‘personal knowledge’ occurs through tensions between their own perspectives and the perspectives of others. [footnote 133] The way in which RE considers this background knowledge valuable, and the way that RE uses it as a basis for personal reflection, is sometimes considered a strength of the subject. [footnote 134]

Subject leaders and teachers need to consider carefully what content within the RE curriculum is most useful for pupils to develop ‘personal knowledge’. In high-quality RE curriculums, subject leaders are precise in how they select content because some content contains richer potential for this. Ideally, pupils will build ‘personal knowledge’ through rich substantive content that links the ‘life world’ of religious and non-religious traditions to the developing ‘life world’ of pupils. [footnote 135] This is important for subject leaders and curriculum designers to identify because some pupils may not see the immediate value of that content. As ‘personal knowledge’ requires content for pupils to reflect on, the sequencing of ‘personal knowledge’ depends on the sequencing of substantive knowledge in the curriculum.

At primary and secondary level, the most suitable substantive content for pupils to develop personal knowledge will have the capacity to illuminate and to inform pupils’ own self-knowledge. For example, content relating to meaning and purpose, human nature, justice in society, values, community and self-fulfilment would have potential. [footnote 136] Therefore, subject leaders need to be highly selective in identifying substantive content for reflection that relates to pupils’ developing identities. What they select from the sequence of substantive knowledge should contain plenty of detail about the function of the content and concepts within specific religious traditions.

Learning about concepts such as ‘forgiveness’ in Christian traditions or ‘sewa’ (‘selfless service’) in Sikh traditions, together with rich detail about how they form parts of Christian and Sikh ways of life, provides opportunities for pupils to see how these concepts may relate to their own position. [footnote 137] There is plenty of content that will help build pupils’ ‘personal knowledge’ through looking at particular religious traditions. [footnote 138]

However, not all content is as useful or appropriate to serve as the basis for developing pupils’ ‘personal knowledge’. Some literature suggests that content like ‘static features’ of religious traditions, such as the features of religious buildings, provides more limited opportunities for developing ‘personal knowledge’. [footnote 139] Perhaps more significant problems occur when leaders and teachers are imprecise in their selections of content. For example, selecting ‘the parable of the lost sheep’ instead of, for example, Christian concepts of ‘searching’, ‘salvation’ or ‘rejoicing’ (taken from the parable) would not be helpful. In cases such as these, what can be developed is more like personal, social, health and economic ( PSHE ) knowledge (for example, ‘knowing the importance of caring for others’) rather than ‘personal knowledge’ developed through substantive RE content. [footnote 140]

An RE curriculum that does not induct pupils into any religious tradition (in settings where the EIF applies to RE ).

A curriculum that builds pupils’ awareness of their own assumptions and values about the content that they study (‘personal knowledge’).

Precise, detailed and fruitful content (substantive content and concepts) that subject leaders and curriculum designers have selected to build pupils’ ‘personal knowledge’. Not all substantive content is equally appropriate to select as the basis for developing pupils’ ‘personal knowledge’.

Subject leaders and teachers who adeptly identify specific content for the development of ‘personal knowledge’ because they recognise that some pupils may not otherwise see the immediate value of that content.

Interplay, end goals and competencies

This section considers:

how the different types of knowledge that pupils build in the RE curriculum interact with each other (interplay)

what the knowledge in the RE curriculum is building towards (end goals)

how pupils’ developing knowledge relates to educational aims that extend beyond the subject matter of RE (competencies)

Interplay of knowledge in the RE curriculum

As the types of knowledge within RE have not been well established, the connection or relationship between them have only recently begun to be explored.

In non-statutory models for school RE curriculums, the anticipated strands of progression are often presented as discrete and the connections between them unclear. [footnote 141] Ofsted’s definition of progression is that pupils ‘know more and remember more’ of the planned curriculum. [footnote 142] For RE , this involves thinking through, in subject-specific terms, not only the nature of the knowledge that pupils study, but also the connections between the different forms of knowledge. [footnote 143]

The substantive content and concepts of the RE curriculum provide the ‘substance’ that enables pupils to learn ‘ways of knowing’ such as theories, methods, modes of enquiry and the status of theories and generalisations. For example, statements such as ‘religious leaders are often important people in communities’ depend on specific content, such as the status of individual priests, ministers, rabbis and other leaders of religion in different faith communities. Similarly, asking a question like ‘how have religious groups contributed to culture in the local area?’ requires content about the contributions (or lack of them) that religious traditions have made to a specific place. Substantive knowledge is what pupils use to build links and connections.

High-quality curriculums might also develop pupils’ personal knowledge through the content that they study. For example, pupils might consider how the insights of religious people relate to the way that pupils themselves see the world. [footnote 144] Again, this is dependent on substantive content. To reflect on others’ personal religious insights requires first that pupils know how a religious person might perceive the world. For example, pupils must first know how a concept like ‘goodness’ functions within specific religious and non-religious traditions before they can see how it may differ from their own assumptions and values of goodness.

At both primary and secondary level, problems within the curriculum can emerge when teachers attempt to build ‘personal knowledge’ separately from content knowledge. Curriculum-related activities that seek to develop pupils’ ‘personal knowledge’ but that are disconnected from content knowledge (for example, classroom discussions that prompt opinions about general topics without proper reflection) can distort and detract from high-quality RE . [footnote 145]

Leaders and teachers need to think carefully about how the interplay of the forms of knowledge builds through the curriculum. A well-sequenced curriculum builds on pupils’ prior knowledge: leaders anticipate that certain content will be accessible based on pupils’ knowledge of previous content. Research in RE has highlighted the importance of this. [footnote 146] However, within the literature, there are 2 dimensions of ‘pupils’ prior knowledge’ that RE teachers need to be aware of as distinct, for different reasons:

Sometimes, ‘what pupils already know’ refers more broadly to pupils’ own background concepts and ideas about religion. This might include pupils’ own personal experiences. [footnote 147] The composition of pupils in RE classrooms may differ vastly according to, for example, the local demographic of schools. RE teachers will need to respond to the particularities of the classroom. [footnote 148]

In terms of the curriculum, ‘what pupils already know’ refers to the prior knowledge that pupils acquire and build through the journey of the RE curriculum. In high-quality RE , just as teachers will be aware of pupils’ experiences and assumptions, they will also be aware of the knowledge that pupils have or have not built up through the curriculum. This is particularly important to inform teachers’ planning of learning activities (see ‘Teaching the curriculum’ ).

Ambitious curriculum end goals

Previously, we introduced the idea of a cumulatively sufficient subject education in RE . One feature of a cumulatively sufficient RE curriculum is the end goal. When constructing RE curriculums, subject leaders need some concept of an endpoint, of what they are building ‘towards’. [footnote 149] In high-quality RE curriculums at primary and secondary level, these are subject-specific end goals that are ambitious in scope.

There are curriculum end goals that are useful for a range of aims of RE . For example, one curriculum end goal is that pupils build accurate knowledge about the complexity and diversity of global religious and non-religious traditions. [footnote 150] Another might be that pupils’ knowledge builds towards theories about religion/non-religion developed by communities of experts. [footnote 151] Well-considered curriculum end goals also help subject leaders and curriculum designers to select RE curriculum content. For example, they can choose illustrative content that leads to an end goal, which reduces the pressure of having to cover vast amounts of religious and non-religious traditions in their curriculums. Content that is selected to be in the curriculum needs to be precise and purposeful – and ambitious curriculum end goals provide a basis for what is purposeful.

Pupils’ education in RE would generally be considered incomplete or impoverished if it did not build towards the global and the complex (that traditions are internally plural and interact with individuals in different ways around the world). [footnote 152] Often, pupils bring simplified views about religion, religious traditions and global issues into the RE classroom. [footnote 153] A cumulatively sufficient education in RE must include the global and the complex features of religion and non-religion because these reflect the lived nature of traditions, identity, belief and practice, as evidenced in contemporary research. [footnote 154] Curriculum end goals that enable pupils to become knowledgeable about global religion and non-religion prepare them to engage in a multi-religious and multi-secular world.

The RE curriculum and competencies

To develop competency in a subject, pupils require a deep foundation of knowledge, structured and organised within a conceptual framework. [footnote 155] This is very important for RE subject leaders and curriculum designers who see RE as directly contributing to wider educational aims beyond the subject. These aims often relate to broader aspects of pupils’ personal development, for example how to work alongside people from different cultural backgrounds (‘intercultural competencies’). [footnote 156] However, if teachers focus on these at the expense of building pupils’ subject knowledge, then pupils will be attempting to develop competencies on insecure grounds.

High-quality RE curriculums equip pupils with subject components (for example, language, vocabulary and concepts). Subject composites are built over time (for example, awareness of their own assumptions and values, recognition of difference or acknowledgement of different modes of enquiry). Having command of components and composites such as these allows pupils to see patterns and relationships in new areas of learning, [footnote 157] including beyond RE itself.

High-quality RE curriculums will already provide many of the components that enable pupils to develop interpersonal competencies. This is important for 2 reasons.

First, some educators have grave concerns that RE has been eroded because it is used as the sole place to focus on whole-school moral and social priorities. [footnote 158] Senior leaders should recognise that if they invest in a high-quality RE curriculum, well taught by subject specialists, then they will not have to make reactive changes to it in order to incorporate (what should otherwise be) the latest whole-school initiatives.

Second, subject leaders should prioritise the quality of knowledge that pupils learn in RE . They need to be aware that teachers may unintentionally distort the knowledge that they teach when intending to promote social acceptance in the classroom. This can happen to such an extent that pupils consider RE to be a form of citizenship or PSHE education. [footnote 159] Teachers can sometimes present overly positive portrayals of religion, which may be linked to the desire for pupils to interact positively with members of religious traditions. [footnote 160] Though these claims about religion may be taught for well-meaning reasons, they are unwarranted and unscholarly. [footnote 161] Subject leaders should ensure that pupils are not hindered from acting and engaging meaningfully in the world as a global citizen because of misconceptions they learned through a poor-quality RE curriculum.

A curriculum that focuses pupils’ learning on ambitious subject-specific end goals, rather than covers excessive amounts of content superficially.

Curriculum impact that is achieved by pupils building up accurate knowledge about the complexity and diversity of global religion and non-religion. This provides pupils with many of the ingredients for cultural and civic competencies that are important to many RE teachers.

Clear curriculum content that subject leaders and curriculum designers have planned to illustrate ‘ways of knowing’ and to develop pupils’ ‘personal knowledge’.

A clear connection between the ‘ways of knowing’ that pupils learn, the ‘personal knowledge’ that pupils develop through the curriculum and the substantive content and concepts on which both depend.

Subject leaders of RE who are aware of the ways that the RE curriculum can be susceptible to distortion and have ensured that it does not become distorted.

Teaching the curriculum

High-quality teaching in RE at primary and secondary level enables pupils to remember the intended curriculum in the long term. Pedagogies chosen in the RE classroom (curriculum implementation) need to enable pupils to build the forms of knowledge distinctive to RE. Teachers need to make subject-sensitive, ‘fit-for-purpose’ decisions about what is suitable depending on the subject matter. In particular, teaching focuses on crucial content that helps pupils to learn the specific topic they are studying and also builds a firm foundation that subsequent teaching builds on. High-quality curriculum implementation in RE comprises classroom methods that are well suited to the full scope of the RE curriculum.

Pedagogical models in RE

This section on teaching the curriculum focuses on procedures, methods and strategies as aspects of teaching. Within the literature on RE , however, ‘pedagogy’ can have a range of meanings, some of which are all-encompassing:

some RE literature considers pedagogy to be a ‘model’ of teaching and learning, which includes subject aims, curriculum content and teaching methodology that draws on generic educational principles [footnote 162]

others consider pedagogy to mean the specific classroom procedures, methods and strategies that link to how pupils learn the content taught

Pedagogy in the former (‘models’) sense, while educationally important, is much broader than the use of ‘pedagogy’ to mean implementing the curriculum, which is how it is used in the EIF . [footnote 163] RE literature that explores pedagogy as ‘aims, curriculum and methodology’ is outlined in Appendix C .

Suitable procedures, methods and strategies in RE

At primary and secondary level, leaders and teachers decide how to teach specific content and topics in RE . These decisions about procedures, methods and strategies are part of curriculum implementation. Implementing the curriculum effectively involves considering the teaching methods that will enable pupils to know and remember the curriculum in the long term. If teachers do not consider this, the impact of the curriculum will be weak.

Pertinent research into the cognitive science of learning and memory provides insights into the kinds of procedures, methods and strategies that would support pupils to remember the RE curriculum. [footnote 164] Although this is a useful starting point, teachers must still judge how to apply them to RE in order to ensure that the classroom approaches are suitable.

Teaching activities that are clear about the RE curriculum object

When primary and secondary teachers select appropriate teaching methods and activities in RE , they need to be clear about the object of what they want pupils to learn (the curriculum object). When they are clear on this and use it as a basis for decisions about how to teach, they can support pupils to build up rich and diverse stores of knowledge.

As mentioned earlier , schema in long-term memory are interconnected ‘webs of knowledge’. Their extensiveness can vary depending on the range of knowledge that is encoded in pupils’ memory. Memory of concepts and ideas is often developed through experiencing repeated similar episodes. [footnote 165] This repetition builds up the meanings of complex ideas and abstractions. In RE , for instance, pupils may build up a subject-specific concept of ‘afterlife’ through encountering it in different contexts, for example by learning about related rituals and beliefs in religious and non-religious traditions. This means that teaching should be clear on what pupils need to learn and should focus on providing pupils with periodic and recurrent opportunities to encounter these concepts.

Once teachers are clear about the object of what they want pupils to learn in RE , they can choose appropriate classroom methods and activities. Methods and activities are appropriate when they reinforce pupils’ learning of the object. If teachers choose classroom methods based on other criteria (for example, on whether the activity is perceived to be engaging), then they are less likely to support pupils’ learning of the curriculum in the long term. So, the suitability of a classroom activity depends on whether it will introduce and then reinforce pupils’ memory of the curriculum object effectively.

For example, leaders and teachers of RE often provide opportunities for pupils to encounter faith practitioners, to meet them and to listen to their experiences. These can be valuable experiences for pupils because they are genuine and organic and enable the pupils to learn about differences in the ways that religious and non-religious people live. [footnote 166] However, sometimes teachers can be unclear about the curriculum object when pupils meet faith practitioners. The curriculum object may be any number of things, such as:

to learn about the experiences of faith practitioners (that is, testimonies that could be used as case studies)

to learn how knowledge about religion might be gained through interviews (that is, aspects of disciplinary ‘ways of knowing’) [footnote 167]

for pupils to recognise their own assumptions as they listen to an individual from a faith community (that is, ‘personal knowledge’)

to apply previously learned generalisations about religion that can be ‘tested’ through an encounter with ‘lived’ faith practitioners (that is, using the internal dynamics and internal plurality of religious traditions to illustrate that religious traditions are not simply one thing) [footnote 168]

Given this range of possibilities, it is important for leaders and teachers to be clear about what precisely they expect pupils to learn from the encounter and, importantly, how that links to curriculum goals. Otherwise, meeting faith practitioners may be enjoyable for pupils but is unlikely to lead to curriculum impact.

When RE teachers are clear on the curriculum object, they are able to focus their subject expertise on the classroom processes of, for example:

presenting content

responding to pupils’ questions

structuring discussions

using examples and analogies for elaboration and emphasis

Teachers can provide lots of ‘in the moment’ reinforcement of subject content. They can judge when a repeated encounter with concepts would be beneficial for pupils as classroom discussion develops. They may also provide variations through juxtaposing contrasting interpretations of similar subject matter. [footnote 169] These variations may reveal disputes and tensions. [footnote 170] Here, the teacher makes a pedagogical decision to highlight the form of knowledge being discussed. For example, teachers might highlight the nature of disputes and their extent, exploring why they have happened and relating this to other contested aspects of religion, such as symbols, narratives, questions and praxis. [footnote 171] This supports pupils to make strong connections between recursive subject content.

Teaching activities that are well matched to pupils’ prior knowledge

Pupils’ rich and diverse schemata lay the groundwork for their future learning. Pupils will draw on these webs of knowledge when they learn subsequent knowledge or carry out complex operations. [footnote 172]

In terms of classroom practice in primary and secondary schools, this suggests that pupils’ readiness for certain tasks will depend on whether they have the requisite knowledge to be able to succeed at the task. [footnote 173] When teachers use textual sources and longer reading extracts (such as sacred literature, religious narratives or scholarship), they need to consider whether these are accessible to pupils. Pupils will require sufficient vocabulary knowledge to make sense of the text. Teachers may act on this, for instance, by teaching pupils subject-specific vocabulary before they encounter it in content. [footnote 174]

When teachers plan activities for pupils to make links between content, they need to consider whether all pupils in the class have enough prior knowledge to make the links they intend. An activity around making links may be, for example, a key stage 2 classroom investigation about why a particular individual lives the way that they do. Without sufficient prior knowledge about the topic, it is unlikely that all pupils would be able to make the links between content that more proficient or expert thinkers might. [footnote 175]

Leaders and teachers may take into account pupils’ prior knowledge when planning trips and educational visits. Educating pupils about sacred spaces is one way for them to learn about historical and cultural aspects of religion, as well as ‘real life’ religion through meeting members of traditions. The value of visits to sacred places is enhanced when pupils have the necessary prior knowledge to make sense of the experience.

Teaching activities that support the recall of knowledge of the RE curriculum

Research from cognitive science highlights that the practice of retrieving knowledge at intervals over time helps pupils to remember knowledge in the curriculum in the long term. [footnote 176] Within a coherent and well-sequenced curriculum, there is an emphasis on crucial knowledge, such as particular concepts, vocabulary and other components of knowledge, and on teaching activities that focus on retrieving that knowledge. This enables pupils to retain crucial knowledge over time.

There are many ways in which RE teaching at primary and secondary level may draw on these insights. Again, it requires subject sensitivity to consider what type of knowledge needs to be recalled within classroom activities, as well as the form that the recall takes. Teachers can make fit-for-purpose decisions about what needs to be retrieved from earlier RE content when they think about the journey of the curriculum. The way in which it needs to be retrieved will depend on subject-specific considerations. For example, low-stakes multiple-choice quizzing may be appropriate for getting pupils to recall certain types of content such as vocabulary or concepts. However, this would be a rather blunt tool for recalling stories, where it is important to hold various elements of the story together. In these instances, forms of narration would be much more appropriate ways to recall.

In other instances, activities themselves enable recall. Some examples of these could be:

pupils drawing on earlier substantive content to design questions for an interview with faith practitioners

pupils having to recall earlier content in order to draw comparisons and to see the status of one piece of knowledge in relation to another

intentionally using relevant examples and case studies from earlier in the curriculum when constructing philosophical arguments

when teaching tools of sacred text scholarship, teachers drawing on earlier categories of ‘author’, ‘original context’ and ‘initial audience’ to help pupils analyse subsequent texts

In ways such as these, teachers construct classroom activities that draw on, and reinforce, earlier parts of the RE curriculum. Classroom activities are optimal when they are specific to the subject knowledge that pupils are learning.

Research from cognitive science also highlights the importance of ensuring that some knowledge is learned to the point of ‘automaticity’. Automaticity concerns how easily, quickly and automatically pupils can recall knowledge. This is especially crucial when pupils are learning new content and/or carrying out more complex tasks. [footnote 177] These insights draw on theories of cognitive load, which consider the limitations of mental efforts in operations and tasks. [footnote 178] Theories of cognitive load were outlined in our previous research. In particular, retention of knowledge and development of schemata will be poor if working memory is overloaded. [footnote 179]

Considering which aspects of the RE curriculum are particularly useful for pupils to learn to automaticity is a key part of removing unnecessary barriers for pupils to learn in RE (see section on ‘Curriculum progression’ ). But this is also important to consider when teaching the curriculum. Just as leaders and teachers might consider whether elaborate or complex tasks can actually distract pupils from learning the curriculum object, so too might they consider whether classroom activities actually generate barriers for some pupils. For instance, some pupils with particular, cognitive-related SEND may struggle if left to determine on their own which knowledge is pertinent and which is not. With some well-intentioned but elaborate classroom activities, these pupils may be left unsure which knowledge to focus on. In high-quality RE , the classroom activities remove unnecessary barriers for pupils.

Leaders and teachers who consider, when they select classroom activities, how the activities will enable pupils to remember the RE curriculum in the long term.

Teachers whose judgement about classroom activities is informed by insights from cognitive science about learning, as well as subject-specific insights about the nature of the RE content to be learned. These 2 insights are more important than generic concerns about whether activities are superficially ‘engaging’.

Leaders and teachers of RE who ensure that, in choosing an appropriate classroom activity, they are clear about what pupils are supposed to learn from it (the curriculum object).

Teachers who recognise that the success of classroom strategies, methods and procedures depends, to an extent, on whether pupils have sufficient prior RE knowledge (from the curriculum) to succeed at the activity.

Teaching activities that will continue to draw on, and to remind pupils of, parts of the RE curriculum that pupils have already covered. This enables pupils to learn the RE curriculum in the long term.

High-quality assessment in RE uses assessment sufficiently, but not excessively. At primary and secondary level, leaders and teachers make fit-for-purpose decisions about applying different types of assessment, which makes it manageable. This requires them to be crystal clear about what is being assessed and why in RE. When assessment is used to determine the pupils’ progress in RE, it is important for the assessment to consider whether pupils have learned the curriculum, since the curriculum sets out the journey of what it means ‘to get better’ at RE.

Types of assessment in RE

There is no clear picture from literature about the nature and function of assessment in RE , let alone a straightforward conception of what constitutes high-quality assessment. This is partly due to uncertainty about what exactly is being assessed in RE . [footnote 180] It has been claimed that this sort of confusion about the subject’s identity has been ‘at the start of a long chain’, culminating in, among many things, ‘unreliable assessment’. [footnote 181]

As a starting point, it is useful to draw on literature that categorises RE assessment into 2 kinds: the ‘knowing kind’ and the ‘personal qualities, beliefs and values kind’. [footnote 182] In this report, we focus on the first kind of assessment because this is appropriate for checking the forms of knowledge that pupils build through the RE curriculum (see ‘ RE and the quality of education judgement within the EIF ’ ). This may be useful for RE leaders and teachers because, previously, very little thought was given to assessment when planning the RE curriculum. [footnote 183]

Assessment can be used for different purposes in the curriculum. It can be used formatively (assessment for learning) as part of adaptive teaching which, for example, responds to pupils’ misconceptions in RE . [footnote 184] Formative assessment is granular. For the pupil, it provides feedback, ‘in the moment’, to improve. For example, teachers’ questioning can reveal pupils’ misconceptions about particular aspects of dharma practice. Formative assessment provides a very clear feedback loop for teachers, such that they can adapt their teaching responsively as they implement the curriculum. [footnote 185] However, problems occur when formative assessment (for example, a low-stakes quiz) is used for other kinds of purposes (for example, accountability). The misuse of this kind of formative assessment to generate data for accountability purposes does not provide valid or reliable information about progress. Worse, it also adds unnecessarily to teachers’ workload. [footnote 186]

Assessment can also be used for summative purposes (assessment of learning), such as when teachers use an end-of-topic assessment to sample pupils’ knowledge from a domain of RE content. Often in RE , summative assessment uses composite tasks to assess learning. [footnote 187] These require pupils to draw on a range of subject knowledge (including different types of knowledge) to construct a more complex output, like extended writing in RE . Summative assessment in RE often ties into whole-school monitoring of pupils’ progress and accountability procedures.

When the curriculum is treated as the progression model, summative assessments attempt to determine how much of the curriculum pupils know and remember. This can be done by sampling from the knowledge that teachers expect pupils to retain through the curriculum journey. As part of this, it is important that instances of summative assessment take place at sufficiently long intervals, to allow time for the RE curriculum to be taught and learned. [footnote 188] Given the limited curriculum time allocated to RE , standardised intervals for summative assessments may mean that the curriculum domain being assessed may be far smaller in RE than in other subjects. Leaders can consider whether there is enough time allocated to RE to teach and assess the curriculum.

Assessing types of knowledge in RE

For assessments to be fit for purpose, leaders and teachers in primary and secondary schools need to be clear about what they are testing and why. They can then make decisions about the most appropriate format of assessment (type of task) and when best to do it.

Composite assessment tasks are sometimes used in RE to establish whether pupils have learned the curriculum. These tasks do not separate out different types of RE knowledge and may assess more than one type of RE knowledge within the same task. For example, RE teachers might assess ‘ways of knowing’ through the ways that pupils use substantive content and concepts to respond to a question. Responses may be in different forms, such as written tasks, presentations, spoken accounts and visual accounts. [footnote 189] These sorts of composite assessment tasks can be used to check:

pupils’ substantive knowledge

whether pupils have learned modes of discourse (‘ways of knowing’)

accounts of pupils’ own positionality (‘personal knowledge’)

More simple assessment tasks in RE can be used to isolate portions of pupils’ knowledge, such as vocabulary and basic concepts. For example, multiple-choice questions are one way that leaders and teachers might do this. These questions could be useful as part of formative assessment practice, or as part of summative assessment to determine how much of the domain of the RE curriculum pupils have learned. However, they become a blunter instrument when used to attempt to assess ‘ways of knowing’ or ‘personal knowledge’.

Of the 3 forms of knowledge that pupils build through the RE curriculum, personal knowledge is the least straightforward to assess in isolation. There are cognitive aspects of this knowledge that can be assessed. For example, pupils may express the assumptions that they brought to the study of a particular topic or how their own vantage point changed as a result of new content that they learned. But other aspects of personal knowledge, such as the development of personal qualities, beliefs and values, are far less straightforward to assess. There are, of course, pioneering research methods and instruments that attempt to assess pupils’ attitudes. [footnote 190] However, these are not of the same order as models of assessment for pupils’ progress in schools. As with other aspects of pupils’ development, schools are not the sole factor in how well they develop their personal qualities and values. [footnote 191] It may well be that personal knowledge, due to its highly individualised personal, intimate or abstruse nature, might be an aspect of RE that ought to be ‘unencumbered’ by assessment. [footnote 192]

Relating assessment expectations to the RE curriculum

At primary and secondary level, the RE curriculum maps out the journey of what it means to ‘get better at RE ’. This is what is meant by the phrase ‘the curriculum is the progression model’. [footnote 193]

When leaders and teachers want to know whether pupils have made progress in RE , they are asking a summative question: have pupils learned and remembered the RE curriculum? But it is often the case, both in assessment design and in school practice, that curriculum and assessment are considered as separate entities. [footnote 194] Often, this happens when there is a lack of clarity about the object of assessment in RE .

Effective assessment treats the curriculum as the progression model, so leaders and teachers need to ensure that assessment expectations are related to the RE curriculum. When expectations are not related to the curriculum, assessment can be hollow and can meaninglessly add to teachers’ workload.

Problems with using generic progression models in RE

Some assessment models in RE continue to use ‘scales’, ‘ladders’ or ‘levels’ of generic skills to determine progress. Many of these are variations of obsolete assessment models, such as the 8-level scale of attainment that arose from the Qualifications and Curriculum Authority in the early 2000s. [footnote 195] In these sorts of assessment models, the object of assessment is considered separately from the RE curriculum that pupils journey through and learn. They are not valid assessment models to assess specific RE curriculums. Some educators in RE have highlighted key flaws in them. [footnote 196]

First, the assumption of a vertical model of skills progression in RE is not valid. For example, a group of children in Reception who have learned some aspects of the nativity story would be able to ‘analyse’ a pile of Christmas cards into 2 piles: one pile with representations of the nativity and another pile that relates to non-religious customs. This is not necessarily of the same order as a key stage 4 pupils ‘analysing’ a philosophical argument. Even if there were a more obvious equivalence between ‘analysing’ (or ‘evaluating’ or ‘explaining’ and so on) at different stages of the curriculum, it is also ‘obviously nonsense’ to assume that pupils would need to pass through each step of the assessment ladder only once. [footnote 197]

Second, a hierarchy of command words linked to steps of progress (such as ‘describe’, ‘explain’ and ‘evaluate’) creates a second unnecessary and unreliable progression model, removed from the journey of the RE curriculum. These additional progression models are unhelpful because they do not consider progression through the forms of knowledge that pupils build within the RE curriculum. Similarly, applying age-related expectations may appear to be a clear way to compare pupils, but often these expectations do not closely reflect the RE curriculum that pupils are learning.

Problems when the curriculum as the progression model is used inconsistently

Sometimes, summative assessment practices in RE consider the curriculum as the progression model in ‘structural’ terms but fail to do so in ‘substantial’ terms. These are some examples to illustrate this:

if leaders and teachers recognise that pupils in Year 4 need to learn and remember RE from the start of key stage 2, then they consider the curriculum as the progression model in structural terms. However, if they do not check in Year 4 whether pupils have learned and remembered that knowledge, and subsequently report to parents solely based on their perceived impression of pupils’ learning, then this assessment practice fails to treat the curriculum as the progression model in ‘substantial terms’

if a summative assessment in Year 6, such as an extended piece of writing, is expected to draw on previous learning, then the assessment practice considers the curriculum as the progression model in ‘structural’ terms. However, if the assessment task is poorly designed and does not enable pupils to demonstrate what they have learned from earlier in the curriculum, then it fails to consider the curriculum as the progression model in ‘substantial terms’

Situations like these represent common examples where little consideration is given to how pupils’ progress in RE would be assessed. [footnote 198]

Relating composite assessment tasks to the RE curriculum

Composite assessment tasks are fit for their purpose when they are based on curriculum-related expectations. A common composite assessment task in RE (especially at key stages 3, 4 and 5) is the construction of an argument. Research into a sample of 35 locally agreed syllabuses showed a reference to argumentation approximately once in every 4 pages. [footnote 199] An analysis of this sample indicated that there were aspects of RE argumentation that were well established:

‘social practice etiquette’ of RE argumentation (general expectations around pupils’ expression and attentiveness)

generic aspects of argumentation (expectations that an argument should contain claims, rebuttal and qualifiers)

However, the analysis also indicated a lack of clarity over the substance of what is appropriate evidence, warrant and backing within an argument.

Without clearly framing a summative assessment task by explaining what precisely constitutes evidence, warrant or backing for a particular type of question, the argument that pupils go on to construct will not reveal effectively what they have learned. It may reveal something of the substantive content pupils have learned but would fail to assess what pupils have learned about ‘ways of knowing’ (how ‘epistemically informed’ pupils are).

Leaders and teachers can construct suitable composite tasks as effective summative assessments when they are clear about:

the domain of RE knowledge that pupils are drawing on

the type of subject-specific question that is being asked

what is appropriate evidence and warrant for the question posed

Limitations and problems when using exam-style questions

Leaders and teachers of RE also need to be aware of the limitations of, and problems with, applying exam-style questions (such as GCSE religious studies exam questions) in non-qualification assessment settings. This also applies to misusing GCSE assessments to identify curriculum progression at key stage 3.

There are of course general problems when the assessment of pupils in non-qualification RE contexts (for example key stages 2 and 3 or non-examined key stage 4) draws on GCSE exam-style questions. This is inappropriate, not only because pupils will not have had the opportunity to learn the domain of the GCSE programme of study, but also because it (incorrectly) implies that generic exam skills are sufficient to assess the impact of the RE curriculum.

Fundamentally, the types of questions asked in GCSE exams may not be useful in assessing the full range of knowledge taught in non-exam RE contexts. Some research highlights the implicit knowledge structures that are preferred by questions in English religious studies exams. [footnote 200] Here, longer questions often assume the portrayal of religion as a viewpoint from which other positions are to be opposed.

Also, GCSE-style questions can promote the use of textual sources as ‘proof texts’ to justify particular expressions of living or beliefs. [footnote 201] This would be an insufficient assessment tool within a curriculum that intends for pupils to learn how sacred texts, religious literature and other sources of wisdom can be interpreted within diverse traditions.

The way GCSE assessment tasks are used in non-exam contexts raises questions about teacher education and also about pupils’ learning:

Do teachers recognise problems with binary thinking about religion? (See ‘Teacher education and professional development in RE ’ )

Do pupils recognise that there are non-oppositional ways of thinking about and relating to religion?

• Formative assessments can help teachers identify which pupils have misconceptions or gaps in their knowledge, and what those specific misconceptions or gaps are. This can inform teachers about common issues, so they can review or adapt the curriculum as necessary. Formative assessments are less useful in making judgements about how much of the whole curriculum has been learned and remembered.
• Where summative assessments are used for accountability purposes, leaders can ensure that they are sufficiently spaced apart to enable pupils to learn the expanding domain of the curriculum.
• The purpose of the test should guide the type of assessment, the format of the task and when the assessment is needed.
• RE assessment needs to relate to the curriculum, which sets out what it means to ‘get better’ at RE .
• Leaders and teachers can consider whether existing assessment models in RE do in practice treat the curriculum as the progression model.
• Leaders and teachers can design RE assessments that are fit for purpose, in that they are precisely attuned to the knowledge in the RE curriculum that they intend for pupils to learn.
• Leaders who ensure that assessments are not excessively onerous for teachers.
• Professional development opportunities for leaders and teachers to reflect on how different assessment questions and tasks in RE can frame teachers’ and pupils’ expectations about engaging with religious and non-religious traditions.

Systems, culture and policies

There are particular challenges concerning RE that school leaders and subject leaders need to consider carefully at both primary and secondary level. There are many different ways that schools attempt to fulfil their statutory duty to provide RE. However, primary and secondary school leaders need to consider whether the RE provision is of sufficient scope (is there ‘enough’ RE?) to be able to deliver an ambitious RE curriculum. Although there are clearly strong practitioners within the RE subject community, it is likely that school leaders will have staff members who lack qualifications in RE. School leaders and subject leaders need to consider carefully the appropriate type of professional development to ensure that RE teachers have improved subject knowledge and are well placed to teach a high-quality RE curriculum.

Prioritising RE in the school curriculum

All schools that are state-funded, including free schools and academies, are legally required to provide RE as part of their curriculum (see Appendix A ). All schools are required to teach RE to all pupils at all key stages (including sixth form), except for those withdrawn. [footnote 202] The way in which school leaders structure and plan ways to fulfil these obligations in school is one indication of the quality of education in RE .

How the RE curriculum is classified may be another indication of the extent to which a school prioritises RE . Fancourt, drawing on educational work by Bernstein, considers where RE is strongly classified (typically treated as a discrete subject) or weakly classified (where RE might be part of a more thematic curriculum). [footnote 203] Although it is possible for pupils to know more and to remember more of the RE curriculum in both classifications of RE , problems can emerge when RE is too weakly classified. Sometimes, this can lead to its erosion in the curriculum. Some examples of RE being too weakly classified might be:

at primary, a key stage 2 topic approach that provides pupils with a rich historical and geographical knowledge, but has relatively little RE content

at secondary, delivering RE through tutor times, assemblies or in conjunction with PSHE education, or in rotation with other subjects, where the format of delivering RE limits the curriculum that pupils can learn

In these instances, what limits the quality of RE is its lack of scope: there simply is not enough time allocated by school leaders for teachers to deliver a curriculum of ambitious scope. Subject organisations and associations have found that in several schools the subject is so weakly framed that RE is undetectable or completely absent from the curriculum. For example, subject associations reported that 28% of secondary schools gave no dedicated curriculum time to RE . [footnote 204]

Having subject-specialist RE teachers can also contribute to high-quality RE . School and subject leaders have to make decisions about how specialist staff are distributed across a timetabled curriculum. Following this decision process, pupils in RE classes are often the ones deprived of a main or specialist teacher. A report by the All-Party Parliamentary Group ( APPG ) on RE in 2013 found that, of 300 primary schools responding to a call for evidence, 44% allocated the main class teacher to teaching RE . [footnote 205] The remainder were taught by either a planning, preparation and assessment ( PPA ) cover teacher or by a teaching assistant. At secondary, a subject organisation report in 2017 found that whether RE lessons were taught by subject specialists varied considerably depending on the type of state-funded school: [footnote 206]

in schools of a religious character, 77% of RE lessons were taught by a qualified subject specialist

in schools where the locally agreed syllabus applied, this figure was lower, at 58%

in academies, this figure was the lowest, at 47%

If these proportions provide an accurate indication of the current level of specialist teaching in RE , school leaders should consider reviewing how they allocate teachers to RE lessons. If higher-level teaching assistants (for example, at primary) or teachers of other specialisms (for example, at secondary) are teaching RE , this raises questions about whether they have sufficient training or subject expertise to deliver high-quality RE . [footnote 207] Leaders can consider appointing suitably qualified RE teachers as part of strategic planning. Notably, in 2018, the vacancy rate of RE teachers in state-funded secondary schools was 0.6% (below the national average of 1%). [footnote 208]

Teacher education and professional development in RE

At primary and secondary level, pupils should be taught by teachers who have secure subject and curriculum knowledge, who foster pupils’ interest in the subject and who are equipped to address pupils’ misunderstandings. [footnote 209] Findings over the past few years suggest that RE is not fulfilling this ambition. Although schools cannot always control factors relating to the standards of RE teachers recruited to teach RE , school leaders’ actions can impact on the development and retention of RE teachers.

The 2013 APPG report found that about half of primary school teachers lacked confidence in teaching RE and more than half of secondary school RE teachers had no qualification or appropriate expertise in the subject. [footnote 210] The 2019 commons briefing paper on RE suggested that the contemporary picture had not changed significantly. [footnote 211] Its analysis of the DfE ’s 2018 statistics on RE teachers’ qualifications found that of around 14,600 state-funded secondary school RE and/or philosophy teachers, about 7,900 did not have a relevant post-A-level qualification. This means that 54% of RE teachers did not have a relevant post-A-level qualification compared with 26% of secondary school teachers across all subjects where data was published. [footnote 212]

This dearth of post-A-level subject qualifications among RE teachers could be addressed through school leaders’ actions and make a difference for current RE teaching staff. In-service subject-specific professional development is important for primary and secondary schools.

There are also other important reasons why schools should prioritise RE -specific professional development for subject teachers. As some literature notes, this specificity is important because teachers’ professional identity and teacher professionalism have mainly been discussed in generic terms. [footnote 213] Generic approaches to professional development can be unhelpful for RE teachers because of the complexities involved in the subject. Many aspects of RE can create ‘role-identity conflict’ for RE teachers. [footnote 214] These aspects might include:

state obligations

local arrangements that affect curriculum content

perceived demands from religious and non-religious communities

RE is under-resourced, which can also erode teachers’ professional identity. [footnote 215] At primary, many teachers view RE as one aspect of their professional identity, and this is significantly shaped by the variability of RE they observe in schools during their training. [footnote 216]

Subject-specific professional development in RE

There is no straightforward consensus on what constitutes high-quality subject-specific professional knowledge for teachers. [footnote 217] Literature suggests that, broadly, it would be beneficial to develop RE teachers at both primary and secondary in 4 key subject-specific areas. These are useful for both RE teachers and leaders, given that it is not unusual that RE teachers are the only specialist teaching the subject. [footnote 218] The areas are:

RE content knowledge

RE pedagogical content knowledge

research in RE

First, RE teachers require essential knowledge of policy about the subject. They need to be clear about the requirements of the locally agreed syllabus, where it applies. Given the legal requirements behind the RE curriculum, further development of this kind of knowledge would enable RE teachers to adapt their professional activity appropriately in different schools. [footnote 219] Recent literature on subjects in the primary curriculum suggests that part of professional development for primary teachers should involve some knowledge of the history of RE , its current position and recent developments in RE . [footnote 220]

Second, RE teachers require content knowledge: knowledge of the subject that they are teaching. [footnote 221] Broadly speaking, this knowledge is drawn from the academic study of religion(s). Some educators claim that teachers with degree-level religious studies qualifications are the most secure in their knowledge base for teaching RE . [footnote 222] However, given that pupils also build knowledge of ‘ways of knowing’ in RE , subject content knowledge will inevitably include knowledge derived from theology, religious studies and cognate disciplines. It is obviously key that the knowledge that teachers possess is relevant and sufficient to teach the school RE curriculum, however vast this content knowledge could be. But it is important for teachers to continue developing:

depth and breadth of knowledge about religion/non-religion

‘orientative’ knowledge about the status of the knowledge taught and the perspective from which that knowledge is taught [footnote 223]

Third, RE teachers benefit from the ongoing development of pedagogical content knowledge: knowledge of how to teach a particular subject or topic. [footnote 224] This requires them to draw on the most pertinent and up-to-date insights on how humans learn, alongside subject-specific principles and procedures of teaching, learning and assessing in RE . [footnote 225] One aspect of this professional knowledge is learning about the impartiality of RE teachers. [footnote 226]

Fourth, the ongoing lack of consensus about the aims and purposes of RE , together with the implications for subject educational practice, means that RE teachers need to be supported to engage with educational theory and research findings. [footnote 227]

Sufficient curriculum time allocated to RE in order for leaders to deliver an ambitious RE curriculum.

Subject-specialist staffing, so that pupils are taught RE by teachers with appropriate subject professional knowledge.

Access to high-quality in-service training for leaders and teachers of RE to develop their professional subject knowledge.

Subject leadership that can identify high-quality sources of training (for example, through subject associations and organisations) to further their RE knowledge in policy, subject content, subject pedagogy and RE research.

This RE research review outlines the factors that can contribute to the quality of education in RE . This document has drawn on a range of research, evidence and other literature to identify features of high-quality RE at primary and secondary level. As such, it explains the research basis for how we look at RE in schools (where RE falls within our inspection remit). This review is not a simple checklist of activities that we expect to see in school RE , since there are various ways that schools can construct and teach high-quality RE . Rather, it outlines a conception of quality of education in RE viewed through the lens of the EIF .

RE is vital in preparing pupils to engage in a diverse and complex multi-religious and multi-secular society. However, this review has also identified that there are significant challenges that limit high quality in RE , including:

insufficient time to teach an ambitious RE curriculum

school decisions that are not taken in the best interests of all pupils, such as decisions concerning the statutory teaching of RE , the opportunity to take a qualification in religious studies, or early examination entry

a lack of consideration about what it means to ‘be scholarly’ in objective, critical and pluralistic RE

a lack of clarity on what constitutes reliable knowledge about religion/non-religion, leading to teachers embedding unhelpful misconceptions

teaching approaches that do not support pupils to remember the RE curriculum in the long term

approaches to assessment that are poorly calibrated to the RE curriculum

insufficient development of RE practitioners to address gaps in professional subject knowledge

That said, this review shows that there are well-warranted and constructive ways forward that could support improvements in RE . The literature suggests that many of these are already taking place in the sector in subject communities and in some schools. The significant interest that RE attracts from a range of organisations and associations may also indicate that there is sufficient capacity to support improvements in RE in primary and secondary schools for the benefit of pupils.

We hope that this research review will be useful for all those involved in the design, support and inspection of high-quality RE in schools in England, including agreed syllabus conferences, advisers, curriculum designers, ITE providers, local authorities, local standing advisory councils on RE ( SACREs ), other inspectorates of RE , researchers in RE , school leaders, subject organisations and teacher subject associations. 

Appendix A: The legal context of RE and inspection arrangements

The legal requirements governing RE were set out in the Education Reform Act of 1988 and confirmed by the Education Acts of 1996 and 1998. Although RE is a statutory subject, it is not part of the national curriculum.

The content of RE in maintained schools is determined at local-authority level. Each local authority must review its agreed syllabus every 5 years. An agreed syllabus should ‘reflect the fact that the religious traditions in Great Britain are in the main Christian while taking account of the teachings and practices of the other principal religions represented in Great Britain’. [footnote 228]

Each local authority must set up a SACRE to advise the authority on matters connected with RE . Each council comprises 4 representative groups: Christian and other religious denominations, the Church of England, teachers’ associations and the local authority. There are currently 153 SACREs in England. [footnote 229]

RE must be provided for all registered pupils in maintained schools and academies, including those in Reception classes and sixth forms. [footnote 230]

In community, foundation and VC schools, RE must be provided in accordance with the locally agreed syllabus. Parents have the right to withdraw their children from RE and this right should be identified in the school prospectus. [footnote 231] RE in voluntary aided (VA) schools must be provided in accordance with the trust deed of the school and the wishes of the governing body.

Academies must provide RE in accordance with their funding agreements. The type of RE specified in the funding agreement depends on whether the academy has a religious designation. For converter academies, it depends on whether the predecessor school was a VC , VA or foundation school. Free schools are academies in law and have the same requirement to provide RE .

The model funding agreements for academies broadly reflect the provisions that apply to local authorities and schools in the maintained sector. Academies that do not have a religious designation must arrange for RE to be taught to all pupils in accordance with the general requirements for agreed syllabuses. In other words, they should also ‘reflect the fact that the religious traditions in Great Britain are in the main Christian while taking account of the teachings and practices of the other principal religions represented in Great Britain’.

Academies are not, however, required to follow any specific locally agreed syllabus. They are accountable for the quality of their curricular provision, including RE . Other than for academies where the predecessor school was a VC or foundation school, the model funding agreement specifies that an academy with a religious designation must provide RE in accordance with the tenets of the particular faith specified in the designation. It may also provide RE in line with a locally agreed syllabus and teach about other faiths if it chooses.

In special schools, the legal requirement to provide RE is varied by section 71(7) of the School Standards and Framework Act 1998. Special schools should provide RE ‘so far as is practicable’, with all children taking part unless withdrawn by parents.

Appendix B: Developments in RE since 2013

There have been a significant number of developments in RE since 2013. These are important to note because leaders and teachers of RE have drawn on them when constructing their RE curriculums. They also make a contribution to a conception of subject quality within the current legal framework for RE .

At around the same time as Ofsted’s 2013 subject report, the RE Council of England and Wales published ‘A review of religious education in England’. This was carried out in response to the DfE ’s review of the national curriculum for schools in England, which did not include RE . Notable was the review’s use of the language of ‘religions and worldviews’. The phrase was ‘meant to be inclusive, and its precise meaning depends on the context in which it occurs, for example in terms of belief, practice or identity’. [footnote 232] This review also included a non-statutory national curriculum framework for RE , which proposed 3 curriculum aims for RE :

that pupils know about and understand a range of religions and worldviews

that pupils express ideas and insights about the nature, significance and impact of religions and worldviews

that pupils gain and deploy the skills needed to engage seriously with religions and worldviews

As part of the reforms of subject content at GCSE and A level under the coalition government, the content of religious studies qualifications was revised. Some schools offer a qualification in religious studies as part of their RE curriculums, and so the content of these qualifications is significant. The subject content, aims and learning objectives for GCSE religious studies were published in February 2015, for teaching from September 2016. The GCSE subject content was outlined to enable progression from key stage 3 and to enable the possibility for progression to GCE A level. [footnote 233] In both GCSE and A-level reforms, the emphasis on the in-depth study of specific religious traditions was noticeable.

The GCSE specifications required:

the study of 2 religions

‘sources of wisdom and authority’ (such as sacred texts)

the influence of religion on people

common and divergent views

the application of knowledge to analyse questions and to construct well-informed and balanced arguments

The A-level specifications required the study of 3 out of 4 possible areas of study:

the systematic study of one religion

textual studies

the philosophy of religion

religion and ethics

In June 2015, a pamphlet by the former Secretary of State for Education, The Rt Hon Charles Clarke, and Professor Linda Woodhead MBE, entitled ‘A new settlement: religion and belief in schools’ was published. [footnote 234] The pamphlet arose from research by the Westminster Faith Debates and the Religion and Society Research programme. It suggested:

that the whole area of RE had ‘suffered’ from being treated very differently from other subjects on the curriculum

a list of recommendations, making a case for reform in each area (for example, collective worship, the legal status of RE , schools of a religious character and the RE curriculum)

creating a national RE curriculum in which pupils develop knowledge about a range of beliefs and values, an ability to articulate their own values and commitments and the capacities to debate and engage with others

that RE would contribute to community cohesion and to the countering of radicalisation and extremism within the school system

In November 2015, a report entitled ‘ RE for REal’ was published by Adam Dinham and Martha Shaw, based at Goldsmiths College, University of London. [footnote 235] It focused mainly on secondary RE . The report:

proposed a number of recommendations, including the idea of a change from locally determined RE to national determination, as it is for national curriculum subjects

suggested that the content of the RE curriculum should reflect the ‘real’ religious scene, as highlighted through the researchers’ findings

argued that the study of the changing religious landscape, including a range of religions, beliefs and non-religion (including what makes up the categories of ‘religion’, ‘belief’ and ‘non-religion’) would make RE more fit for purpose [footnote 236]

In December 2015, the Woolf Institute, based at the University of Cambridge, published the ‘Living with difference’ report. [footnote 237] This report was the product of the independent Commission on Religion and Belief in British Public Life, chaired by The Rt Hon Baroness Elizabeth Butler-Sloss GBE. This report:

highlighted that, over the past half century, the religious and belief aspects of the British landscape had been transformed beyond recognition

recommended a statutory entitlement for all schools within the state system, and that consideration should be given to making it a humanities subject within the English Baccalaureate

considered that the subject content would comprise both religious worldviews and non-religious worldviews, to reflect the diversity of religion and belief in the UK

2015 and 2016

In December 2015, the DfE published guidance concerning the awarding of the religious studies GCSE. [footnote 238] Following the Fox vs Secretary of State case, and concerning the decision not to include non-religious worldviews (such as humanism) as discrete options within the GCSE subject content, the DfE published further guidance in July 2016. [footnote 239]

The guidance clarified that schools and agreed syllabus conferences are free to determine their approach to teaching RE and the selection of the GCSE, where appropriate. It stated that there is no requirement for a school’s RE curriculum to mirror the make-up of a local or national population. It also stated that there is no obligation to give ‘equal air time’ to the teaching of religious and non-religious views, or to ‘balance out’ the detailed teaching of a religion by teaching, in equal depth, a non-religious worldview.

Importantly, the guidance made a distinction between the GCSE religious studies subject content and the RE curriculum across the key stages. The guidance recognised that curriculum balance, in terms of the content of religions and non-religious worldviews, can be achieved across the key stages.

The RE Council of England and Wales, together with NATRE and RE Today Services, published a ‘State of the nation’ report in 2017. [footnote 240] The report:

combined school survey data, data on entries for GCSE religious studies for 2014 to 2016 and school workforce census data for 2010 to 2015 to build up a picture of provision on RE within secondary schools in England

considered a relatively basic factor affecting quality of education in RE : whether or not secondary schools were meeting their statutory requirements to teach RE on the curriculum

found that the level of provision of RE is highly variable and largely dependent on the type of school (see ‘Secondary years’ )

In July 2018, Charles Clarke and Linda Woodhead launched a follow-up report to their 2015 pamphlet, entitled ‘A new settlement revised: religion and belief in schools’. [footnote 241] Many of the recommendations made around the RE curriculum were structural, and concerned the setting of a national RE curriculum. Specifically, in terms of the RE curriculum, they recommended that any framework for curriculum be simple and clear and that academic excellence be at the centre of teaching in RE . The pamphlet highlighted that the way that religion is taught and learned in school has changed along with wider culture. Accordingly, pupils need to be taught about the inner diversity of religious traditions, as well as the beliefs and values of those who do not identify with religious traditions.

In September 2018, following 2 years of work of reviewing the legal, education and policy frameworks for RE , Commission on Religious Education published its final report. The report was entitled ‘Religion and worldviews: the way forward – a national plan for RE ’. [footnote 242] The commissioners made 11 recommendations, including a national entitlement for all pupils in publicly funded schools. The report:

used the language of ‘religion and worldviews’, not only as a suggested way to reframe the name of the subject, but also as a way to reframe the content of the subject

proposed that content of the subject reflects the way in which patterns of belief, expression and belonging may change across different worldviews, for different groups of people and throughout history

suggested that existing RE provision often focused on superficial stereotypes of religious traditions, rather than their complex and diverse manifestations

emphasised that it was important for pupils to learn different ways in which religion and worldviews can be understood, interpreted and studied

Appendix C: Pedagogical models in RE

Most of the introductory literature in RE used in ITE outlines 7 pedagogical ‘models’, which consider together aims, content and methodology. They do not conceptualise curriculum and pedagogy in the same way as each other, or in the way that we do. However, they have been, in one form or another, the main way of talking about non-confessional RE pedagogy for the last 2 decades. [footnote 243]

The models can be broadly summarised as:

a phenomenological model, linked to the work of Ninian Smart

a human development model, linked to the work of Michael Grimmitt

a spiritual development model, linked to the work of David Hay and others

a critical realist model, linked to the work of Andrew Wright

a concept-cracking model, linked to the work of Trevor Cooling

an ethnographic interpretive model, linked to the work of Robert Jackson

a deconstruction model, linked to the work of Clive Erricker

Some models have pedagogical procedures, methods and strategies linked to them. Others are more theoretical and offer few practical teaching methods that teachers can use throughout the whole curriculum. [footnote 244]

Some pedagogical models in RE are designed with particular types of RE content in mind. This means that by only using one of these models, teachers may exclude certain content. For instance, the concept-cracking model is mainly designed to help pupils understand Christianity.

Other pedagogical models exclude certain ‘ways of knowing’. This means that pupils would develop only a partial perspective on religion. For example, the ‘critical realist’ model focuses more on truth claims and less on the lived realities of global religion.

Other pedagogical models prefer certain explanations of religion over others. This means that pupils are unaware of alternative explanations. For example, the ‘phenomenological’ model only considers naturalistic explanations of religion.

As a result, some RE educators consider that, although aspects of each of these pedagogical models could be useful, any one model alone would be insufficient. [footnote 245] Any one model would also be insufficient because it may be incompatible with some pupils’ own sincerely held and reasonable beliefs. [footnote 246]

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‘Principles behind Ofsted’s research reviews and subject reports’ , Ofsted, March 2021.  ↩

‘Education inspection framework: overview of research’ , Ofsted, January 2019; see Ofsted schools research: curriculum .  ↩

National curriculum in England: framework for key stages 1 to 4 , Department for Education, December 2014.  ↩

School Standards and Framework Act 1998 , section 69.  ↩

‘Religious education: realising the potential’ , Ofsted, October 2013.  ↩

The two main documents are the ‘Religious education in English schools: non-statutory guidance’ , Department for Education, February 2010 and ‘Religious education ( RE ) and collective worship in academies and free schools’ , Department for Education, December 2012.  ↩

C Clarke and L Woodhead, ‘A new settlement: religion and belief in schools’ , Westminster Faith Debates, June 2015.  ↩

A Dinham and M Shaw, ‘ RE for REal: the future of teaching and learning about religion and belief’ , Goldsmiths, University of London, November 2015.  ↩

‘Living with difference: community, diversity and the common good’ , The Woolf Institute, University of Cambridge, December 2015.  ↩

‘The state of the nation: a report on religious education provision within secondary schools in England’ , Religious Education Council of England and Wales, National Association of Teachers of Religious Education and RE Today, 2017.  ↩

C Clarke and L Woodhead, ‘A new settlement revised: religion and belief in schools’ , Westminster Faith Debates, July 2018.  ↩

‘Religion and worldviews: the way forward. A national plan for RE ’ , Commission on Religious Education, September 2018. See also follow-up literature reviews and discussion papers, such as C Benoit, T Hutchings and R Shillitoe, ‘Worldview: a multidisciplinary report’ , October 2020 and A Tharani, ‘The worldview project: discussion papers’ , June 2020.  ↩

P Smalley, ‘A critical policy analysis of local religious education in England’, in ‘British Journal of Religious Education’, Volume 42, Issue 3, 2020, pages 263 to 274.  ↩

In statute, RE needs to be taught from age 5. Also, the new early years foundation stage from September 2021 does refer to teaching children about religious and cultural communities in this country. ‘Early years foundation stage (EYFS) statutory framework’ , Department for Education, April 2021.  ↩

‘A curriculum framework for religious education in England’ , The Religious Education Council of England and Wales, October 2013.  ↩

‘An analysis of the provision for RE in primary schools – autumn term 2020’ , National Association of Teachers of Religious Education, 2020.  ↩

‘Over 95% of primary teachers report time spent on teaching re has increased or stayed the same’ , National Association of Teachers of Religious Education, 2020.  ↩

‘The state of the nation: a report on religious education provision within secondary schools in England’ , Religious Education Council of England and Wales, National Association of Teachers of Religious Education and RE Today, 2017. Note also that the accredited GCSE short course required 60 to 70 guided learning hours over 2 years. This reinforced the expectation that 5% of curriculum time would be provided for RE .  ↩

‘GCSE (full course): results summer 2019’ , Joint Council for Qualifications, August 2019.  ↩

‘GCSE short course, GCSE double award, entry level and project results summer 2019’ , Joint Council for Qualifications, August 2019.  ↩

‘Revised GCSE and equivalent results in England: 2015 to 2016’ , Department for Education, January 2017.  ↩

‘Religious studies GCSE entries fall despite popularity among pupils’ , National Association of Teachers of Religious Education, August 2019.  ↩

‘The curious rise and rise of the religious studies GCSE’ , FFT Education Datalab, August 2016.  ↩

Some schools offer A levels in subjects that are related to the subject content of RE . For example, A-level philosophy may include ‘the metaphysics of God’ as a topic area. A-level sociology may include sociological explanations of beliefs in society.  ↩

‘A level and other 16 to 18 results: 2018 to 2019 (provisional)’ , National Statistics, October 2019, Table 2a.  ↩

‘A level and other 16 to 18 results: 2017 to 2018 (revised)’ , National Statistics, April 2019, Table 2a.  ↩

D Lundie and M Young Ahn, ‘GCSE religious studies: at a crossroads’, 2018.  ↩

‘Early entry into GCSE exams in England’ , Department for Education, November 2020.  ↩

J Orchard, ‘Does RE still matter?’, in ‘Journal of Religious Education’, Volume 68, 2020, pages 271 to 287; K Walshe and G Teece, ‘Understanding “religious understanding” in religious education’, in ‘British Journal of Religious Education’, Volume 35, Issue 3, 2013, pages 313 to 325; G Teece, ‘Too many competing imperatives? Does RE need to rediscover its identity?’, in ‘Journal of Beliefs and Values’, Volume 32, Issue 2, 2011, pages 161 to 172.  ↩

‘Religious education in English schools: non-statutory guidance’ , Department for Education, February 2010.  ↩

‘School inspection update’ , Ofsted, January 2019.  ↩

‘Education inspection framework: overview of research’ , Ofsted, January 2019.  ↩

P Hannam and F Panjwani, ‘Religious education and the potential for mitigating xenophobia’, in ‘Journal of Religious Education’, Volume 68, 2020, pages 385 to 396. Some also propose the aim of religious literacy for RE . For a critical discussion of the idea of religious literacy, see P Hannam, G Biesta, S Whittle and D Aldridge, ‘Religious literacy: a way forward for religious education?’, in ‘Journal of Beliefs and Values’, Volume 41, Issue 2, 2020, pages 214 to 226.  ↩

J Conroy and others, ‘Does religious education work? A three-year investigation into the practices and outcomes of religious education’ , March 2011; D Cush, ‘Barbara Wintersgill’s big ideas for religious education and the national entitlement to the study of religions and worldviews in England. Some reflections on a big ideas approach to curriculum planning in an English context from a participant in both projects’, in ‘Nordidactica: Journal of Humanities and Social Science Education’, Issue 4, 2019, pages 95 to 108; L Franken, ‘Religious studies and nonconfessional RE : countering the debates’, in ‘Religion and Education’, Volume 45, Issue 2, 2018, pages 155 to 172.  ↩

D Smith, G Nixon and J Pearce, ‘Bad religion as false religion: an empirical study of UK religious education teachers’ essentialist religious discourse’ , in ‘Religions’, Volume 9, Issue 11, 2018.  ↩

J Pearce, A Stones, M Reiss and T Mujtaba, ‘“Science is purely about the truth so I don’t think you could compare it to non-truth versus the truth.” Students’ perceptions of religion and science, and the relationship(s) between them: religious education and the need for epistemic literacy’, in ‘British Journal of Religious Education’, 2019, pages 1 to 16.  ↩

R Kueh, ‘Disciplinary hearing: making the case for the disciplinary in Religion and Worldviews’, in ‘Reforming RE : power and knowledge in a worldviews curriculum’, edited by M Chater, John Catt, 2020, pages 131 to 147.  ↩

J Chan, N Fancourt and L Guilfoyle, ‘Argumentation in religious education in England: an analysis of locally agreed syllabuses’, in ‘British Journal of Religious Education’, 2020, pages 1 to 14.  ↩

T Cooling, ‘Worldview in religious education: autobiographical reflections on the commission on religious education in England final report’ , in ‘British Journal of Religious Education’, Volume 42, Issue 4, 2020, pages 403 to 414; A Tharani, ‘The worldview project: discussion papers’ , June 2020.  ↩

This report recognises the complexity of language within RE . The conventions for speaking about religious and non-religious traditions are themselves contested. Although many exam board specifications still refer to religious and non-religious traditions as discrete entities (‘Christianity’, ‘Hinduism’, ‘Sikhism’, for example), recent scholarship identifies several problems with talking about religious and non-religious traditions in this way. Subject literature points to the way that talking about ‘religions’ in singular terms falls short of expressing the diversity within traditions (for example, ‘Hinduisms’ may be preferable to ‘Hinduism’). Subject literature also points to many terms as colonial constructs and not authentic to the way that traditions reflect on themselves (for example, ‘Sikhi’ may be preferable to ‘Sikhism’). The main convention of this report is that of ‘religious and non-religious traditions’, which acknowledges the complexity of the language and therefore uses the most flexible terminology (‘religious traditions’) available from within existing legislature ( section 375(3) of the Education Act 1996 ).  ↩

‘Religion and worldviews: the way forward. A national plan for RE ’ , Commission on Religious Education, September 2018; R Flanagan, ‘Teachers’ personal worldviews and RE in England: a way forward?’, in ‘British Journal of Religious Education’, 2020, pages 1 to 17; P Smalley, ‘Reflections on the progress of developing religiously literate citizens in England’, in ‘ RE Today: The Magazine for the Religious Education Community’, Volume 36, Issue 1, 2018, pages 58 to 63; G Teece, ‘Beyond the big six religions: expanding the boundaries in the teaching of religions and worldviews’, in ‘Journal of Beliefs and Values’, Volume 41, Issue 2, 2020, pages 245 to 247. Both Smalley and Teece attribute a shift in thinking about religions as belief systems to inwardly diverse traditions to the work of Robert Jackson.  ↩

D Cush, ‘Barbara Wintersgill’s big ideas for religious education and the national entitlement to the study of religions and worldviews in England. Some reflections on a big ideas approach to curriculum planning in an English context from a participant in both projects’, in ‘Nordidactica: Journal of Humanities and Social Science Education’, Issue 4, 2019, pages 95 to 108.  ↩

C Erricker, J Lowndes and E Bellchambers, ‘Primary religious education – a new approach: conceptual enquiry in RE ’, Routledge, 2010. This useful categorisation has earlier roots in projects from Westhill College, Birmingham, in the 1980s.  ↩

F Panjwani and L Revell, ‘Religious education and hermeneutics: the case of teaching about Islam’, in ‘British Journal of Religious Education’, Volume 40, Issue 3, 2018, pages 268 to 276; E Salter, ‘Welcome to my church: faith-practitioners and the representation of religious traditions in secular RE ’ , in ‘Journal of Religious Education’, Volume 68, Issue 3, 2020, pages 289 to 303; M Shaw, ‘New representations of religion and belief in schools’, in ‘Religions’, Volume 9, Issue 11, 2018.  ↩

Pupils from communities in different parts of the country may have very different (non-)religious and cultural traditions surrounding them: these too all contribute to the ‘mental model’ of religion/non-religion that pupils are building up through their time at school. Certainly it would be appropriate for RE to value these experiences through the curriculum (see section ‘Personal knowledge’ ), but the substantive content of the curriculum can look beyond these towards a global and historical complexity (see section ‘Interplay, end goals and competencies’).  ↩

M Shaw, ‘New representations of religion and belief in schools’ , in ‘Religions’, Volume 9, Issue 11, 2018.  ↩

‘Religion and worldviews: the way forward. A national plan for RE ’ , Commission on Religious Education, September 2018.  ↩

‘Education inspection framework’ , Ofsted, May 2019.  ↩

Section 375(3) of the Education Act 1996 . This legal prescription underpins RE in schools for which RE falls within the inspection remit of Ofsted (see ‘school inspection handbook’ , Ofsted, May 2019). See also schedule 19 of the School Standards and Framework Act 1998 .  ↩

M Grimmitt, ‘Pedagogies of religious education: case studies in the research and development of good pedagogic practice in RE ’, McCrimmons, 2000.  ↩

B Bowie, ‘The implicit knowledge structure preferred by questions in English religious studies public exams’, in ‘Religion and education: the forgotten dimensions of religious education’, edited by G Biesta and P Hannam, Leiden Brill, 2019, pages 112 to 123.  ↩

T Cooling, ‘Worldview in religious education: autobiographical reflections on the commission on religious education in England final report’ , in ‘British Journal of Religious Education’, Volume 42, Issue 4, 2020, pages 403 to 414.  ↩

B Wintersgill, ‘Big ideas for religious education’ , University of Exeter, November 2017.  ↩

Recent studies propose that the language of ‘worldviews’ is one helpful way to make sense of this complicated patterning of religious and non-religious traditions. See, for example: C Benoit, T Hutchings and R Shillitoe, ‘Worldview: a multidisciplinary report’ , October 2020; ‘Religion and worldviews: the way forward. A national plan for RE ’ , Commission on Religious Education, September 2018; A Tharani, ‘The worldview project: discussion papers’ , June 2020.  ↩

See, for example, B Wintersgill, ‘Big ideas for religious education’ , University of Exeter, November 2017.  ↩

R Freathy and H John, ‘Religious education, big ideas and the study of religion(s) and worldview(s)’, in ‘British Journal of Religious Education’, Volume 41, Issue 1, 2019, pages 27 to 40.  ↩

A Dinham and M Shaw, ‘Religious literacy through religious education: the future of teaching and learning about religion and belief’ , in ‘Religions’, Volume 8, Issue 7, 2017.  ↩

Holt also states that, in non-confessional RE , the self-identification of groups and individuals is important. See JD Holt, ‘Beyond the big six religions: expanding the boundaries in the teaching of religion and worldviews’, University of Chester, 2019.  ↩

R Kueh, ‘Religious education and the “knowledge problem”’, in ‘We need to talk about religious education: manifestos for the future of RE ’, edited by M Castelli and M Chater, Jessica Kingsley, 2018, pages 53 to 69.  ↩

S Fujiwara, ‘Buddhism in RE textbooks in England: before shap and after the call for community cohesion’, in ‘Religion and Education’, Volume 46, Issue 2, 2019, pages 234 to 251.  ↩

F Panjwani and L Revell, ‘Religious education and hermeneutics: the case of teaching about Islam’, in ‘British Journal of Religious Education’, Volume 40, Issue 3, 2018, pages 268 to 276.  ↩

E Salter, ‘Welcome to my church: faith-practitioners and the representation of religious traditions in secular RE ’ , in ‘Journal of Religious Education’, Volume 68, Issue 3, 2020, pages 289 to 303.  ↩

WAJ Meijer, ‘Plural selves and living traditions: a hermeneutical view on identity and diversity, tradition and historicity’, in ‘International handbook of the religious, moral and spiritual dimensions in education’, edited by M de Souza, G Durka, K Engebretson, R Jackson and A McGrady, Springer, 2009, pages 321 to 332.  ↩

D Willingham, ‘What is developmentally appropriate practice?’, American Educator, 2008.  ↩

E Salter, ‘Welcome to my church: faith-practitioners and the representation of religious traditions in secular RE ’ , in ‘Journal of Religious Education’, Volume 68, Issue 3, 2020, pages 289 to 303; B Wintersgill, ‘Big ideas for religious education’ , University of Exeter, November 2017; B Wintersgill, D Cush and D Francis, ‘Putting big ideas into practice in religious education’ , RE :Online, 2019.  ↩

M Shaw, ‘Towards a religiously literate curriculum–religion and worldview literacy as an educational model’, in ‘Journal of Beliefs and Values’, Volume 41, Issue 2, 2020, pages 150 to 161; E Salter, ‘Welcome to my church: faith-practitioners and the representation of religious traditions in secular RE ’ , in ‘Journal of Religious Education’, Volume 68, Issue 3, 2020, pages 289 to 303.  ↩

J Bransford, AL Brown and RR Cocking, ‘How people learn’, National Academy Press, 2004.  ↩

R Shillitoe, ‘Evaluation study of Understanding Christianity’, Understanding Christianity, 2020; T Van Der Zee, C Hermans and C Aarnoutse, ‘Influence of students’ characteristics and feelings on cognitive achievement in religious education’, in ‘Educational Research and Evaluation’, Volume 14, Issue 2, 2008, pages 119 to 138.  ↩

A Tharani, ‘The worldview project: discussion papers’ , June 2020.  ↩

L Gearon, ‘Exploring the landscape of spiritual geography: religious education, the environment and the child’s sense of identity and place’, in ‘Journal of Beliefs and Values’, Volume 18, Issue 1, 1997, pages 69 to 82; L Gearon, ‘European religious education and European civil religion’, in ‘British Journal of Educational Studies’, Volume 60, Issue 2, 2012, pages 151 to 169.  ↩

RA Bowie and R Coles, ‘We reap what we sew: perpetuating biblical illiteracy in new english religious studies exams and the proof text binary question’ , in ‘British Journal of Religious Education’, Volume 40, Issue 3, 2018, pages 277 to 287.  ↩

M Shaw, ‘Towards a religiously literate curriculum–religion and worldview literacy as an educational model’, in ‘Journal of Beliefs and Values’, Volume 41, Issue 2, 2020, pages 150 to 161.  ↩

‘Intentionally’ refers to an intellectual commitment to a paradigm of study of discrete world religions; ‘otherwise’ refers to, for example, unintentional assumptions, which result in an RE curriculum where a topic on ‘Christianity’ is separated from a topic on ‘Hinduism’ by school term.  ↩

For example, B Wintersgill, ‘Big ideas for religious education’ , University of Exeter, November 2017.  ↩

‘Education inspection framework: overview of research’ , Ofsted, January 2019; ‘Education inspection framework’ , Ofsted, May 2019.  ↩

RM Rymarz, ‘Direct instruction as a pedagogical tool in religious education’, in ‘British Journal of Religious Education’, Volume 35, Issue 3, 2013, pages 326 to 341; T Van Der Zee, C Hermans and C Aarnoutse, ‘Influence of students’ characteristics and feelings on cognitive achievement in religious education’, in ‘Educational Research and Evaluation’, Volume 14, Issue 2, 2008, pages 119 to 138. Rymarz notes that presenting unstructured RE material greatly increases cognitive load because links with long-term memory are not obvious.  ↩

Recognition of the role of prior knowledge for current learning can be found in documents, such as ‘Key stage 3 national strategy: literacy and learning in religious education’, Department for Education and Skills, 2004.  ↩

B Wintersgill, D Cush and D Francis, ‘Putting big ideas into practice in religious education’ , RE :Online, 2019.  ↩

C Erricker, J Lowndes and E Bellchambers, ‘Primary religious education – a new approach: conceptual enquiry in RE ’, Routledge, 2010; J Lowndes, ‘The complete multifaith resource for primary religious education: ages 4–7’, Routledge, 2011.  ↩

For example, materials evaluated by R Shillitoe, ‘Evaluation study of Understanding Christianity’, Understanding Christianity, 2020 and J Bruner, ‘The process of education’, Harvard University Press, 1977.  ↩

J Muller and M Young, ‘Knowledge, power and powerful knowledge re-visited’, in ‘Curriculum Journal’, Volume 30, Issue 2, 2019, pages 196 to 214.  ↩

‘Religion and worldviews: the way forward. A national plan for RE ’ , Commission on Religious Education, September 2018; C Easton, A Goodman, A Wright and A Wright, ‘Critical religious education in practice’, Routledge, 2019; K Flensner, ‘Teaching controversial issues in diverse religious education classrooms’, in ‘Religions’, Volume 11, 2017.  ↩

T Anker and M von der Lippe, ‘Controversial issues in religious education. How teachers deal with terrorism in their teaching’, in ‘Researching religious education: classroom processes and outcomes’, edited by F Schweitzer and R Boschki, Waxmann Verlag, 2017; B Wintersgill, D Cush and D Francis, ‘Putting big ideas into practice in religious education’ , RE :Online, 2019; K Flensner, ‘Teaching controversial issues in diverse religious education classrooms’ , in ‘Religions’, Volume 11, Issue 465, 2020.  ↩

B Bowie, ‘Interpreting texts more wisely: a review of research and the case for change in English religious education’, in ‘Christian faith, formation and education’, edited by E John Shortt and R Stuart-Buttle, Palgrave Macmillan, 2017.  ↩

T Cooling, ‘Worldview in religious education: autobiographical reflections on the commission on religious education in England final report’ , in ‘British Journal of Religious Education’, Volume 42, Issue 4, 2020, pages 403 to 414; D Cush, ‘Barbara Wintersgill’s big ideas for religious education and the national entitlement to the study of religions and worldviews in England. Some reflections on a big ideas approach to curriculum planning in an English context from a participant in both projects’, in ‘Nordidactica: Journal of Humanities and Social Science Education’, Issue 4, 2019, pages 95 to 108; T Cooling, ‘Worldview in religious education: autobiographical reflections on the commission on religious education in england final report’ , in ‘British Journal of Religious Education’, Volume 42, Issue 4, 2020, pages 403 to 414; A Tharani, ‘The worldview project: discussion papers’ , June 2020.  ↩

R Kueh, ‘A matter of discipline? On knowledge, curriculum and the disciplinary in RE ’, in ‘Professional Reflection: Theory and Practice’, Volume 37, Issue 1, 2019, pages 55 to 59.  ↩

‘Teachers’ standards: guidance for school leaders, school staff and governing bodies’ , Department for Education, 2011.  ↩

‘Religion and worldviews: the way forward a national plan for RE ’, Commission on Religious Education, September 2018; A Tharani, ‘The worldview project: discussion papers’ , June 2020.  ↩

L Franken, ‘Religious studies and nonconfessional RE : countering the debates’, in ‘Religion and Education’, Volume 45, Issue 2, 2018, pages 155 to 172.  ↩

L Franken and P Loobuyck, ‘Neutrality and impartiality in RE : an impossible aim?’ , in ‘British Journal of Religious Education’, Volume 39, Issue 1, 2017, pages 1 to 6; JD Holt, ‘Beyond the big six religions: expanding the boundaries in the teaching of religion and worldviews’, University of Chester, 2019. Holt states that recognising self-identification of groups and individuals is an important aspect of neutrality.  ↩

G Freathy, R Freathy, J Doney, K Walshe and G Teece, ‘The RE -searchers: a new approach to religious education in primary schools’ , University of Exeter, 2015; M Shaw, ‘New representations of religion and belief in schools’ , in ‘Religions’, Volume 9, Issue 11, 2018.  ↩

E McCreery, ‘Preparing primary school teachers to teach religious education’, in ‘British Journal of Religious Education’, Volume 27, Volume 3, 2005, pages 265 to 277.  ↩

E Hella and A Wright, ‘Learning “about” and “from” religion: phenomenography, the variation theory of learning and religious education in Finland and the UK’, in ‘British Journal of Religious Education’, Volume 31, Issue 1, 2009, pages 53 to 64.  ↩

D Moulin, ‘A too liberal religious education? A thought experiment for teachers and theorists teachers and theorists’, in ‘British Journal of Religious Education’, Volume 31, Issue 2, 2009, pages 153 to 165.  ↩

The interpretation of texts is one aspect of discussions about interpretation in RE . For a discussion of the wider sense of interpretation in RE , see D Aldridge, ‘Religious education’s double hermeneutic’ , in ‘British Journal of Religious Education’, Volume 40, Issue 3, 2018, pages 245 to 256.  ↩

Freathy and John also note that the form and accessibility of sources of evidence may be a decisive factor in curriculum content selection: R Freathy and H John, ‘Religious education, big ideas and the study of religion(s) and worldview(s)’, in ‘British Journal of Religious Education’, Volume 41, Issue 1, 2019, pages 27 to 40.  ↩

B Bowie, F Panjwani and K Clemmey, ‘Opening the doors to hermeneutical RE : the finding report’ , RE :Online, November 2020.  ↩

G Freathy, R Freathy, J Doney, K Walshe and G Teece, ‘The RE -searchers: a new approach to religious education in primary schools’ , University of Exeter, 2015; R Kueh, ‘Disciplinary hearing: making the case for the disciplinary in Religion and Worldviews’, in ‘Reforming RE : power and knowledge in a worldviews curriculum’, edited by M Chater, John Catt, 2020, pages 131 to 147; J Muller and M Young, ‘Knowledge, power and powerful knowledge re-visited’, in ‘Curriculum Journal’, Volume 30, Issue 2, 2019, pages 196 to 214.  ↩

A Wright, ‘The contours of critical religious education: knowledge, wisdom, truth’, in ‘British Journal of Religious Education’, Volume 25, Issue 4, 2003, pages 279 to 291. Aldridge makes an interesting point that different ‘ways of knowing’ in RE will be concerned with different aspects of substantive content as the main focus (‘the curriculum object’) in RE . See D Aldridge, ‘Religious education’s double hermeneutic’ , in ‘British Journal of Religious Education’, Volume 40, Issue 3, 2018, pages 245 to 256. What is important is that pupils learn the appropriate tools and methods that are suitably matched to the substantive content.  ↩

J Pearce, A Stones, M Reiss and T Mujtaba, ‘“Science is purely about the truth so I don’t think you could compare it to non-truth versus the truth.” Students’ perceptions of religion and science, and the relationship(s) between them: religious education and the need for epistemic literacy’, in ‘British Journal of Religious Education’, Volume 43, Issue 2, 2021, pages 174 to 189.  ↩

G Georgiou and K Wright, ‘Disciplinarity, religion and worldviews: making the case for theology, philosophy and human/social sciences’, in ‘Reforming RE : power and knowledge in a worldviews curriculum’, edited by M Chater, John Catt, 2020, pages 149 to 164.  ↩

R Kueh, ‘Disciplinary hearing: making the case for the disciplinary in Religion and Worldviews’, in ‘Reforming RE : power and knowledge in a worldviews curriculum’, edited by M Chater, John Catt, 2020, pages 131 to 147. Jackson comments on the relationship between what academic researchers do and classroom activity. This means that both have similar concerns about theory and methods. See R Jackson, ‘The interpretive approach as a research tool: inside the REDCo project’, in ‘British Journal of Religious Education’, Volume 33, Issue 2, 2011, pages 189 to 208.  ↩

Gearon notes that many disciplines emerged as a reaction to some religious claims about knowledge. L Gearon, ‘On holy ground: the theory and practice of religious education’, Routledge, 2014. Although non-confessional RE should not advocate for a particular tradition, it should similarly not teach pupils that ideas around ‘ultimate reality’ or the ‘sacred’ are impossible.  ↩

G Freathy, R Freathy, J Doney, K Walshe and G Teece, ‘The RE -searchers: a new approach to religious education in primary schools’ , University of Exeter, 2015.  ↩

N Fancourt, ‘Re-defining “learning about religion” and “learning from religion”: a study of policy change’, in ‘British Journal of Religious Education’, Volume 37, Issue 2, 2015, pages 122 to 137.  ↩

‘Religion and worldviews: the way forward a national plan for RE ’, Commission on Religious Education, September 2018; R Flanagan, ‘Teachers’ personal worldviews and RE in England: a way forward?’, in ‘British Journal of Religious Education’, 2020, pages 1 to 17.  ↩

I Dura and BF Chirilută, ‘The philokalic experience of deification (theosis) and the advaitic experience of non-duality (brahmanubhava) a definition of spirituality in the horizon of the interreligious dialogue’, in ‘European Journal of Science and Theology’, Volume 11, Issue 4, 2015, pages 169 to 178; R Flanagan, ‘Teachers’ personal worldviews and RE in England: a way forward?’, in ‘British Journal of Religious Education’, 2020, pages 1 to 17; R Jackson, ‘The interpretive approach as a research tool: inside the REDCo project’, in ‘British Journal of Religious Education’, Volume 33, Issue 2, 2011, pages 189 to 208; K O’Grady, ‘Researching religious education pedagogy through an action research community of practice’, in ‘British Journal of Religious Education’, Volume 32, Issue 2, 2010, pages 119 to 131.  ↩

M Grimmitt, ‘Religious education and human development: the relationship between studying religions and personal, social and moral education’, McCrimmons, 1987.  ↩

J Orchard, ‘Does RE still matter?’, in ‘Journal of Religious Education’, Volume 68, Issue 3, 2020, pages 271 to 287.  ↩

K O’Grady, ‘Researching religious education pedagogy through an action research community of practice’, in ‘British Journal of Religious Education’, Volume 32, Issue 2, 2010, pages 119 to 131.  ↩

C Easton, A Goodman, A Wright and A Wright, ‘Critical religious education in practice’, Routledge, 2019.  ↩

J Conroy and others, ‘Does religious education work? A three-year investigation into the practices and outcomes of religious education’ , March 2011.  ↩

G Teece, ‘Is it learning about and from religions, religion or religious education? And is it any wonder some teachers don’t get it?’, in ‘British Journal of Religious Education’, Volume 32, Issue 2, 2010, pages 93 to 103.  ↩

G Teece, ‘Learning about religion and learning from religion’ , 2017.  ↩

R Shillitoe, ‘Evaluation study of Understanding Christianity’, Understanding Christianity, 2020. For other examples, see also J Lowndes, ‘The complete multifaith resource for primary religious education: ages 4–7’, Routledge, 2011.  ↩

‘Religious education: the non-statutory national framework’, Qualifications and Curriculum Authority, 2004; ‘A curriculum framework for religious education in England’, Religious Education Council, 2013. For example, the Qualifications and Curriculum Authority’s framework uses headings of ‘learning about’ and ‘learning from’ and the Religious Education Council’s framework uses 3-fold headings of ‘A. Know about and understand a range of religions and worldviews’, ‘B. Express ideas and insights about the nature, significance and impact of religions and worldviews’ and ‘C. Gain and deploy the skills needed to engage seriously with religions and worldviews’.  ↩

T Stolberg and G Teece, ‘Teaching religion and science: effective pedagogy and practical approaches for RE teachers’, Routledge, 2010.  ↩

J Conroy and others, ‘Does religious education work? A three-year investigation into the practices and outcomes of religious education’ , March 2011; D Lundie, ‘Is RE still not working? Reflections on the “Does RE work?” project 5 years on’, in ‘British Journal of Religious Education’, Volume 40, Issue 3, 2018, pages 348 to 356.  ↩

T Van Der Zee, C Hermans and C Aarnoutse, ‘Influence of students’ characteristics and feelings on cognitive achievement in religious education’, in ‘Educational Research and Evaluation’, Volume 14, Issue 2, 2008, pages 119 to 138.  ↩

For example, J Lowndes, ‘The complete multifaith resource for primary religious education: ages 4–7’, Routledge, 2011; J Doney and R Wegerif, ‘Measuring open-mindedness: an evaluation of the impact of our school dialogue programme on students’ open-mindedness and attitudes to others’, Tony Blair Institute for Global Change, 2017.  ↩

H Leganger-Krogstad, ‘From dialogue to trialogue: a sociocultural learning perspective on classroom interaction’, in ‘Journal for the Study of Religion’, Volume 27, Issue 1, 2014, pages 104 to 128.  ↩

For example, B Wintersgill, ‘Big ideas for religious education’ , University of Exeter, November 2017; see also D Cush, ‘Barbara Wintersgill’s big ideas for religious education and the national entitlement to the study of religions and worldviews in England. Some reflections on a big ideas approach to curriculum planning in an English context from a participant in both projects’, in ‘Nordidactica: Journal of Humanities and Social Science Education’, Issue 4, 2019, pages 95 to 108; R Freathy and H John, ‘Religious education, big ideas and the study of religion(s) and worldview(s)’, in ‘British Journal of Religious Education’, Volume 41, Issue 1, 2019, pages 27 to 40.  ↩

R Jackson, ‘Rethinking religious education and plurality: issues in diversity and pedagogy’, Routledge, 2004; ‘Religion and worldviews: the way forward a national plan for RE ’, Commission on Religious Education, September 2018. N Kienstra, M van Dijk-Groeneboer and O Boelens, ‘Training for interreligious classroom teaching: an empirical study’ , in ‘Religious Education’, Volume 114, Issue 5, 2019, pages 594 to 608; J Lowndes, ‘The complete multifaith resource for primary religious education: ages 4–7’, Routledge, 2011; A Tharani, ‘The worldview project: discussion papers’ , June 2020.  ↩

J Bransford, AL Brown and RR Cocking, ‘How people learn’, National Academy Press, 2004. ‘Competency’ is used here in a broad and inclusive way, which may also include ‘creativity’. Creativity is a term sometimes used in RE to mean many different things. When considered in subject-specific terms as the production or expression of something that is genuinely original, inventive and/or innovative, pupils require this deep foundation of knowledge, structured and organised within a conceptual framework. Sometimes what is meant by creativity is the curriculum objects that pupils learn in RE . Certainly, the substantive content of RE can include rich expressions of the creative arts, such as sacred music, literature, and art within some religious traditions (see ‘Substantive content and concepts in RE ’ ). Other times, what is meant by creativity is teachers’ perceptions of their activity choices and classroom environments. In these cases, teachers might consider this as part of their decisions to support pupils to know and to remember the RE curriculum (see ‘Suitable procedures, methods and strategies in RE ’ ).  ↩

For examples of broader aspects of pupils’ personal development to which RE can contribute, see: C Erricker, ‘Religious education: a conceptual and interdisciplinary approach for secondary level’, Routledge, 2010; R Jackson, ‘Rethinking religious education and plurality: issues in diversity and pedagogy’, Routledge, 2004; N Kienstra, M van Dijk-Groeneboer and O Boelens, ‘Training for interreligious classroom teaching: an empirical study’ , in ‘Religious Education’, Volume 114, Issue 5, 2019, pages 594 to 608.  ↩

J Orchard, ‘Does RE still matter?’, in ‘Journal of Religious Education’, Volume 68, 2020, pages 271 to 287; G Teece, ‘Too many competing imperatives? Does RE need to rediscover its identity?’, in ‘Journal of Beliefs and Values’, Volume 32, Issue 2, 2011, pages 161 to 172.  ↩

D Lundie, ‘Is RE still not working? Reflections on the “Does RE work?” project 5 years on’, in ‘British Journal of Religious Education’, Volume 40, Issue 3, 2018, pages 348 to 356.  ↩

‘Education inspection framework’ , Ofsted, May 2019; ‘Education inspection framework: overview of research’ , Ofsted, January 2019.  ↩

A distinction needs to be made between cognitive science research, which informs RE teaching, and cognitive science research into religion. This section is concerned with the former. For a discussion of the latter, see T Brelsford, ‘Lessons for religious education from cognitive science of religion’, in ‘Religious Education’, Volume 100, Issue 2, 2005, pages 174 to 191.  ↩

B Baars and N Gage, ‘Cognition, brain and consciousness’, Elsevier Academic Press, 2010; G Buzsaki, ‘The brain from inside out’, Oxford University Press, 2019; J McClelland, BL McNaughton and RC O’Reilly, ‘Why there are complementary learning systems in the hippocampus and neocortex: insights from the successes and failures of connectionist models of learning and memory’, in ‘Psychological Review’, Volume 102, Issue 3, pages 419 to 457; J Manns, RO Hopkins, JM Reed, EG Kitchener and LR Squire, ‘Recognition, memory and the human hippocampus’, in ‘Neurons’, Volume 37, Issue 1, 2003, pages 171 to 180; E Gibson and A Pick, ‘An ecological approach to perceptual learning and development’, Oxford University Press, 2000.  ↩

For example, the RE :Searchers project considers different ‘ways of knowing’ typologies as both the pedagogical approaches (carrying out aspects of disciplinary methods) and also the curricular object (learning how different disciplinary methods construct knowledge about religion by pupils learning about their constituent parts). G Freathy, R Freathy, J Doney, K Walshe and G Teece, ‘The RE -searchers: a new approach to religious education in primary schools’ , University of Exeter, 2015.  ↩

R Jackson, ‘Rethinking religious education and plurality: issues in diversity and pedagogy’, Routledge, 2004; B Wintersgill, D Cush and D Francis, ‘Putting big ideas into practice in religious education’ , RE :Online, 2019.  ↩

AD Ucan and A Wright, ‘Improving the pedagogy of Islamic religious education through an application of critical religious education, variation theory and the learning study model’, in ‘British Journal of Religious Education’, Volume 41, Issue 2, 2019, pages 202 to 217.  ↩

KA Ericsson and W Kintsch, ‘Long-term working memory’, in ‘Psychological Review’, Volume 102, Issue 2, 1995, pages 211 to 245; S Dehaene, ‘How we learn’, Penguin, 2020.  ↩

RM Rymarz, ‘Direct instruction as a pedagogical tool in religious education’, in ‘British Journal of Religious Education’, Volume 35, Issue 3, 2013, pages 326 to 341.  ↩

Rymarz describes this as supporting future learning by providing provisional definitions: ‘the intention here is not to establish rigid definitions but to introduce key concepts in a way that facilitates further learning’. See RM Rymarz, ‘Direct instruction as a pedagogical tool in religious education’, in ‘British Journal of Religious Education’, Volume 35, Issue 3, 2013, pages 326 to 341.  ↩

M Carrier and H Pashler, ‘The influence of retrieval on retention’, in ‘Memory and Cognition’, Volume 20, 1992, pages 633 to 642; N Cepeda, N Coburn, D Rohrer, JT Wixted, MC Mozer and Harold Pashler, ‘Optimizing distributed practice: theoretical analysis and practical implications’, in ‘Experimental Psychology’, Volume 56, Issue 4, 2009, pages 236 to 246; R Lindsey, JD Shroyer, H Pashler and MC Mozer, ‘Improving students’ long-term knowledge retention through personalized review’, in ‘Psychological Science’, Volume 25, Issue 3, 2014, pages 639 to 647.  ↩

S Dehaene, ‘How we learn: the new science of education and the brain’, Penguin, 2020.  ↩

A Baddeley, ‘Oxford psychology series, No. 11. Working memory’. Clarendon Press/Oxford University Press, 1986; N Cowan, ‘The magical number 4 in short-term memory: a reconsideration of mental storage capacity’, in ‘Behavioral and Brain Sciences’, Volume 24, Issue 1, 2001, pages 87 to 114; KA Ericsson and W Kintsch, ‘Long-term working memory’, in ‘Psychological Review’, Volume 102, Issue 2, 1995, pages 211 to 245.  ↩

M Chater, ‘The fire next time? A critical discussion of the national curriculum framework for RE and the policy recommendations in the review of religious education in England’, in ‘British Journal of Religious Education’, Volume 36, Issue 3, 2014, pages 256 to 264.  ↩

J Rudge, ‘Assessment in religious education’, in ‘Learning to teach religious education in the secondary school’, edited by P Barnes, Routledge, 2008.  ↩

P Black and D Wiliam, ‘Classroom assessment and pedagogy’, in ‘Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy & Practice’, Volume 25, Issue 6, 2018, pages 551 to 575.  ↩

‘Assessment for learning’ , Assessment Reform Group, 2002; D Wiliam, ‘What is assessment for learning’, in ‘Studies in Educational Evaluation’, Volume 37, Issue 1, 2011, pages 3 to 14.  ↩

C Osbeck, ‘Knowledge development of tweens in RE – the importance of school class and communication’, in ‘British Journal of Religious Education’, Volume 41, Issue 3, 2019, pages 247 to 260.  ↩

L Blaylock, ‘Issues in achievement and assessment in religious education in England: which way should we turn?’, in ‘British Journal of Religious Education’, Volume 23, Issue 1, 2000, pages 45 to 58.  ↩

S Hermisson, P Gochyyev and M Wilson, ‘Assessing pupils’ attitudes towards religious and worldview diversity–development and validation of a nuanced measurement instrument’ , in ‘British Journal of Religious Education’, Volume 41, Issue 4, 2019, pages 371 to 387.  ↩

School inspection handbook , paragraph 217, Ofsted, May 2019.  ↩

J Holt, ‘Religious education in the secondary school’, Routledge, 2014.  ↩

RA Bowie and R Coles, ‘We reap what we sew: perpetuating biblical illiteracy in new English religious studies exams and the proof text binary question’ , in ‘British Journal of Religious Education’, Volume 40, Issue 3, 2018, pages 277 to 287.  ↩

National curriculum in England: framework for key stages 1 to 4 , Department for Education, December 2014, page 7.  ↩

N Fancourt, ‘The classification and framing of religious dialogues in two English schools’, in ‘British Journal of Religious Education’, Volume 38, Issue 3, 2016, pages 325 to 340.  ↩

‘ RE : the truth unmasked. The supply of and support for religious education teachers’ , All-Party Parliamentary Group on Religious Education, 2013.  ↩

‘The state of the nation: a report on religious education provision within secondary schools in England’ , Religious Education Council, National Association of Teachers of Religious Education and RE Today, 2017, page 21.  ↩

P Loft, R Long, S Danechi and S Hubble, ‘Religious Education in schools (England)’ , House of Commons Library, October 2019.  ↩

‘Teachers’ standards’ , Department for Education, July 2011.  ↩

See Table 12 in ‘Main tables: school workforce census 2018’ , Department for Education, June 2019.  ↩

R Freathy, SG Parker, F Schweitzer and H Simojoki, ‘Conceptualising and researching the professionalisation of religious education teachers: historical and international perspectives’, in ‘British Journal of Religious Education’, Volume 38, Issue 2, 2016, pages 114 to 129.  ↩

J Conroy, ‘Religious education and religious literacy – a professional aspiration?’, in ‘British Journal of Religious Education’, Volume 38, Issue 2, 2016, pages 163 to 176.  ↩

L Whitworth, ‘Do I know enough to teach RE ? Responding to the commission on religious education’s recommendation for primary initial teacher education’, in ‘Journal of Religious Education’, Volume 68, 2020, pages 345 to 357.  ↩

D Hampshire, ‘The new religious education teacher and professional development’, in ‘Learning to teach religious education in the secondary school’, edited by P Barnes, Routledge, 2018.  ↩

R Love and A Richardson, ‘Religious education: what is it trying to do?’, in ‘Debates in primary education’, edited by V Bower, Routledge, 2020.  ↩

‘Education inspection framework: overview of research’ , Ofsted, January 2019, page 9.  ↩

Everington notes that RE teachers are often motivated to teach the subject because of their personal background. Flanagan suggests that getting teachers to recognise their own personal position is a useful area for teacher development. Jackson and Everington prefer the word ‘impartiality’ instead of ‘neutrality’. For them, neutrality involves concealing teachers’ personal commitments. Impartiality is a more useful word as it suggests that teachers can discuss their personal views, so long as they do this with academic integrity and without persuading pupils to adopt those views. See J Everington, ‘Hindu, Muslim and Sikh religious education teachers use of personal life knowledge: the relationship between biographies, professional beliefs and practice’, in ‘British Journal of Religious Education’, Volume 36, Issue 2, 2014, pages 155 to 173; R Flanagan, ‘Teachers’ personal worldviews and RE in England: a way forward?’, in ‘British Journal of Religious Education’, 2020, pages 1 to 17; R Jackson and J Everington, ‘Teaching inclusive religious education impartially: an English perspective’, in ‘British Journal of Religious Education’, Volume 39, Issue 1, 2017, pages 7 to 24.  ↩

Education Reform Act 1988, section 8(3) .  ↩

National Association of Standing Advisory Councils on Religious Education (NASACRE) database .  ↩

Education Act 2002, sections 78 to 79 ; Education Act 2002, section 1A .  ↩

One aspect of policy not explored in this quality of education review is the right of withdrawal. It remains a source of discussion. For an exploration of arguments both for and against the right of withdrawal, see D Lundie and C O’Siochru, ‘The right of withdrawal from religious education in England: school leaders’ beliefs, experiences and understandings of policy and practice’, in ‘British Journal of Religious Education’, Volume 43, Issue 2, 2019, pages 161 to 173.  ↩

‘A review of religious education in England’ , Religious Education Council of England and Wales, October 2013.  ↩

‘GCSE subject content for religious studies’ , Department for Education, February 2015.  ↩

See also follow-up publications, for instance A Dinham and M Shaw, ‘Religious literacy through religious education: the future of teaching and learning about religion and belief’ , in ‘Religions’, Volume 8, Issue 7, 2017 and M Shaw, ‘New representations of religion and belief in schools’ , in ‘Religions’, Volume 9, Issue 11, 2018.  ↩

‘Guidance note for schools and awarding organisations’ , Department for Education, February 2015.  ↩

M Grimmitt, ‘Pedagogies of religious education: case studies in the research and development of good pedagogic practice in RE ’, McCrimmons, 2000; L Gearon, ‘The paradigms of contemporary religious education’, in ‘Journal for the Study of Religion’, Volume 27, Issue 1, 2014, pages 52 to 81; J Holt, ‘Religious education in the secondary school’, Routledge, 2014; J Stern, ‘Teaching religious education’, Continuum, 2006; B Watson and P Thompson, ‘The effective teaching of religious education’, Pearson Longman, 2007.  ↩

K Wright, ‘A pedagogy of embrace: a theology of hospitality as a pedagogical framework for religious education in Church of England schools’, University of East Anglia, 2017.  ↩

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The use of story to teach religious education in the early years of primary school: a systematic review of the literature

Kerrin huth.

1 Griffith University, Gold Coast, QLD Australia

Raymond Brown

2 School of Education and Professional Studies, Griffith University, Gold Coast, QLD Australia

Wayne Usher

This systematic quantitative literature review explores the use of story in early childhood religious education to inform the research question “What are the pedagogical benefits of using story in religious education in the early years of primary school?” Searches were conducted across multiple databases and individual journals for publications dated from 1970 to 2019. Literature on the key areas of (1) early childhood, (2) story and (3) religious education were analysed to understand their unique perspectives and ways they overlap and connect, with an emphasis on seeking literature which connected all three areas. The study revealed the areas of religious education, the use of story and the field of early childhood as three distinct areas of research with connection points, and gaps in the literature connecting the pedagogical use of story for religious education in early primary education. The literature identifies the use of story as effectively engaging and connecting children to religious education in a pedagogically appropriate way for the early childhood age group. Further to this, benefits were found not only in faith development and biblical literacy, but also in learning, literacy development, empathy, and engagement with differing worldviews. The Australian context was a focus of the literature review providing insight for religious education in Christian schools which may be applied to other contexts in public schools, or internationally.

Introduction

This Systematic Quantitative Literature Review [SQLR] explores the literature on the use of story in religious education and focused on the educational method or pedagogy drawn on to connect the differing fields of early childhood, story and religious education. The literature within each field is considerable, revealing that these three distinct areas are specialties in their own right, and therefore requiring separate investigation to gain an understanding of each. Following this, the identification of the significant areas of overlap inform the research question, “What are the pedagogical benefits of using story in religious education in the early years of primary school?” Clarification of the terminology was necessary to establish an understanding of early childhood, story and religious education. Subsequent filtering of search results was also necessary to define their relevance to the research question.

This paper identifies elements of influence (curriculum and pedagogy) as the driving factors in establishing good practice in early childhood settings and highlights the benefits of the use of story as a pedagogical support in early childhood, in both literacy development, and engagement with inquiry learning. Further benefits are found in religious education with differing uses of story contributing to faith practices (or expressions of the Christian faith), biblical literacy, and engaging with different worldviews (Mitchell, 2004 ). In order to define the parameters of the research, the literature review includes a focus on one school system’s Religious Education curriculum within the Australian context.

Systematic quantitative literature review methodology

Systematic Quantitative Literature Review [SQLR] is a method that filters research through a systematic process which involves quantitatively selecting and assessing literature to produce a database which identifies trends and gaps in the literature (Pickering & Byrne, 2014 ). It uses explicit methods to systematically provide a reliable view of the topic while reducing bias (Social Science Research Unit, 2019 ). For this review, published research articles, books and literature reviews were identified through searches of electronic databases including Pro Quest, ERIC, EBSCO, and Education. Further papers were identified through searching specific reference lists and citation records or by searching national and international religious education journals.

Three general areas (refer Fig.  1 : Areas of research) provided a starting point for the search, each with a specific set of key words to ensure a broad range of relevant papers were captured.

Areas of research

Specific key words for each area included:

• Religious Education: religious education, Catholic education, faith based, religion, religious
• Early Childhood: early childhood, early years, teacher(s), primary school, teaching
• Story: story, storytelling, story telling

The following flow chart provides the sequence of literature analysis and selection of papers for the literature review (refer Fig.  2 : Research flow chart).

Research flow chart

The searches revealed a broad spectrum of works with topics ranging from religion, teaching religion, personal story, literature, pedagogy and storytelling. Each search produced a varying number of papers, with the vast number not dealing specifically with all three elements. For example, many titles using ‘story’ would infer relation to either early childhood or religion but seldom both. A strict adherence to all three fields yielded few results and in some searches none at all. Searching only the abstracts again proved ineffective. As these refinements did not lead to targeting the specific topic of the use of story in religious education in early childhood classrooms, each topic needed refinement to narrow the results. This proved to be a more effective method of locating relevant documents. With each field being so diverse, papers were sought to refine the definitions and connections between the areas. Finally, further refinement was necessary to establish the list of papers which would fit the aims of the literature review, and so more specific topics were used as criteria for inclusion:

• Early childhood pedagogy and characteristics: effective pedagogy, policy documents, primary school vs early childhood settings,
• Religious education in early childhood: varied settings, focus on school, change in delivery methods, Australian perspective
• Story in education: across curriculum areas, definitions, literature, benefits, literacy, use in religious education including specific use of methods, Godly Play, spirituality, spiritual development

Identifying where and how the categories overlapped, provided a guide for the selection of the most relevant papers to be included in the literature review (refer Fig.  3 : Refinement of search topics).

Refinement of search topics

Although this topic has relevance internationally within the context of primary school religious education, Australian research provides a unique insight into local practices, and therefore was considered important for inclusion due to its relevance to the research, for which the review was conducted. Of the papers found in the broad areas of searching, 248 papers were filtered for full assessment of relevance to the research topic under the following categories (refer Table ​ Table1: 1 : Relevance of topic).

Relevance of topic

Of these 248 texts assessed, 160 were filtered as either not relevant or not sufficiently related to the research question. Finally, 85 papers were selected for this literature review. Further analysis of these documents revealed their relevance to the specific topic and highlighted key authors or publications and identified which papers would be most relevant as indicated in the centre of the Venn diagram (refer Fig.  3 : Refinement of search topics). Documents were initially evaluated on their relevance to each general field according to the main emphasis of the article. They were then evaluated for their focus on specific topics. A score out of six (one point for each category) was given to each document to evaluate its significance and relevance to each of the following categories:

Main emphasis of article:

• Early childhood pedagogy

Religious education

Specific relevance:

• Story in early childhood

Story in religious education

• Religious education in early childhood

Documents were allocated one point for each category if it was deemed a significant contribution (refer Table ​ Table3: 3 : Score of relevance). Additional records for further assessment were identified through general searches and following citation and referencing lists of significantly relevant authors.

Score of relevance

The literature search yielded varying results with a wealth of resources supporting each main focus area. The depth of research provided a great understanding of the nature of early childhood, story and religious education and therefore it was necessary to narrow the search to find the connections between them. Frequently the searches revealed a connection between two of the areas, rather than a connection between all three. Author studies proved valuable as their reference and citations lists were followed to reveal more sources. The selected papers indicate research in these fields as significant in Australia, USA and UK as featured in Table ​ Table2: 2 : Distribution of papers.

Distribution of papers

Of the 85 papers included in this literature review, only seven had significant relevance to the research topic, highlighting a gap in the current research connecting story as pedagogically beneficial for teaching religious education in early childhood classrooms (refer Table ​ Table3: 3 : Score of relevance).

Of the seven most significant papers, five came from the same author, who also featured in the second group of relevant papers. Of the seventeen papers of greatest significance, twelve were written by Australian authors (two were Australian curriculum or departmental documents), four were from the USA and one from the UK. Key Australian authors working in the field of religious education in the early childhood sector include Jan Grajczonek and Brendan Hyde, both with significant research contributions over several years and this was reflected in the filtering process. Their papers, citations and references provided a useful source for connecting the key elements of the literature review.

The literature search revealed publications in a range of disciplines with journals ranging from religious education, early childhood, social sciences, psychology, theology and teaching journals. Several authors published works in editorial books on a specific theme such as religious education, literacy or pedagogical practice. The majority of the selected papers were theoretical with some empirical studies on various topics related to the overall research, and policy or departmental documents included for reference (refer Table ​ Table4: 4 : Types of papers). In this review, empirical refers to research based on observation or direct experience (Punch, 2000 ).

Types of papers

This literature search highlights the strength of theoretical research in all three areas with different aspects explored in depth. Similarly the empirical research, although not as prevalent, has a focus on a variety of areas within early childhood and religious education. It also highlights the gaps in research which connect early childhood pedagogy, story and religious education. The following section outlines key insights from the literature review relevant to the use of story as a pedagogically beneficial tool for teaching religious education in the early years of primary school.

The selected literature revealed insights on the unique nature of early childhood and suggested implications for pedagogy and curriculum when developing age-appropriate learning. It also revealed a wide range of terminology associated with story and therefore a definition of terms was necessary to define the parameters for the research. The investigation into religious education covered the broad range of purposes and approaches used in a variety of settings. Narrowing the focus specifically to the use of story within religious education revealed its contribution to faith practices or expression of faith, development of literacy and varied use of stories and story-telling methods. The following sections outline the insights from the review of the selected literature on (1) learning in early childhood, (2) story and (3) religious education.

Learning in early childhood

The literature on early childhood provides a broad insight into the unique nature of this age group and the way they learn. Three crucial elements regarding learning in early childhood have emerged from the research over time: learner centred pedagogy, scaffolding of learning, and learners actively engaged in their learning, with all three needing to be incorporated into the pedagogical framework of the early childhood setting (Department of Education & Training, 2015 ). For the purposes of this research, pedagogy refers to both the thinking behind the learning experiences, and the teaching strategies (Moyles et al., 2002 ).

Learner-centred pedagogy

Learning in the early years is considered complex today, with the child taking an active role in their learning and construction of knowledge, rather than being seen as a blank slate (Council of Australian Governments, 2010 ; Grajczonek & Hanifin, 2007 ). Recent attention on today’s learners indicates they are greater risk takers, will learn early on from failures, and take meaning from different areas to build their understanding (Casson, 2011 ; McCrindle, 2018a , 2018b ). Studies show a well-defined curriculum and successful implementation incorporates a wide range of experiences which provide learners with greater opportunities to explore multiple perspectives and develop social problem-solving abilities (Child Australia, 2017 ; Council of Australian Governments, 2017 ; Department of Education & Training, 2015 ; Kim, 2016 ; Lillard, 1998 ). Further to this, a learner centred curriculum responds to the unique developmental needs and interests of individual children (Catholic Education Council, 2001 ). Grajczonek ( 2017 ) emphasises that the image of the contemporary child both underpins and determines religious education curriculum development and that the philosophy which underpins that curriculum must be defined. Curriculum, informed by sociocultural theory, transforms children from within, where learning is socially constructed with meaningful content that enables children to transform their own world (Grajczonek, 2017 ). The socio-cultural dimension of children’s learning has implications for pedagogy in the religious education classroom (Grajczonek, 2013 ). Children’s diverse backgrounds need to be taken into account with a balance of pedagogical interaction (responding to children’s learning) and pedagogical framing (planning and resourcing) to provide an effective setting for children’s learning (Grajczonek, 2013 ; Siraj-Blatchford & Sylva, 2004 ). Although these ideas of religious education curriculum lie within the Australian Catholic context, the underlying ideals are important for consideration in other religious education contexts. Overall, a well-designed curriculum for early childhood is underpinned by theory and practice to meet the diverse needs of learners (Grajczonek, 2017 ).

Scaffolding learning

Pedagogy influences learning outcomes, and educators are thoughtful and intentional when making decisions about curriculum and strategies which support children’s learning (Boyd & Cutcher, 2015 ; Kilderry, 2015 ). Systemic documents, such as policy and curriculum frameworks, provide rich guidelines on decision making, planning, implementing and evaluating learning. Such documents provide a reflection point for pedagogical practices and being intentional about what is included and excluded (Council of Australian Governments, 2010 , 2017 ). When teachers reflect on daily practice to ensure consistency with early childhood practice, and make improvements in teaching and learning, it has a positive impact on students (Carroll-Lind et al., 2016 ; Jones et al., 2017 ).

Pedagogical decisions impact the learning environment including both physical and social spaces. The use of agile (moveable, flexible and adaptable) learning spaces supports the changing nature of curriculum delivery, as reflected in the move from an industrial model of teaching to one which will meet the needs of current learners. The learning environment needs to further reflect this style of learning. It should allow learners to make connections within the classroom and beyond through problem solving, peer to peer learning, collaboration, online connection and visual, and hands on learning using multiple digital platforms to scaffold and support the learning (Department of Education & Training, 2015 ).

Engagement of learners

As children engage in opportunities for play, exploration and experimentation they begin to make sense of themselves and the world around them, develop confidence and engagement with learning, and through the social environment engage with multiple perspectives (Cohrssen et al., 2016 ; Department of Education & Training, 2015 ; Kilderry, 2015 ; Lillard, 1998 ; Meehan, 2007 ). Studies on play (including role play and story retell), indicate that play provides opportunities to develop creative thinking, and that teachers can support children to enhance thinking and develop their skills (Grajczonek, 2007 ; Leggett & Newman, 2017 ). Children create knowledge as they play, interacting with their environment, other children, objects and their teachers; playing a pivotal role in their own learning (Leggett & Newman, 2017 ; Pollock et al., 2017 ). These studies effectively gathered information from a combination of document analysis, interviews with educators and children, and collections of artefacts, providing a rich diversity of data from which to draw their conclusions. While these studies focused more generally on play, further research into the use of story through play would provide additional insight. Similarly, research shows that effective literature-based activities allow all children to engage with the curriculum including students with special needs (Zeece et al., 2004 ).

Together, these studies on learning in early childhood raise awareness about the decisions teachers make regarding pedagogy, and how the choices they make about how to teach the curriculum, has a significant influence on children’s learning.

The literature revealed a variety of definitions and uses of the term story, along with a range of associated terminology. Story incorporates a variety of genres including picture books, traditional literature, modern fantasy, contemporary realistic fiction, digital stories or games and information books. These terms provide a useful context for this research which refers to the use of story as encompassing these genres and strategies, including children’s literature, personal story, biblical text and methods of storytelling including role play and other strategies and techniques such as Godly Play (which will be outlined in a later section).

Children make sense of their world and feed their imagination through stories (Laminack, 2016 ; Simpson, 2016 ). There is also a distinction between reading a story, being read to and telling your own story. Retelling can help children try out their ideas in a safe space (Crain, 2007 ; Ewing & Saunders, 2016 ; Grajczonek, 2013 ). Stories are important in the early childhood setting. “Stories matter because our wisdom and intuitive understanding is woven into the stories we know, tell and live through (Pawson, 2014 , p. 52)”. Shaw ( 1999 ) echoes this sentiment, emphasising that stories are powerful and a primary human activity.

Storytelling methods

The telling of a story itself must be captivating, engaging listeners emotionally and building empathy. Familiarity with the story can enable this, rather than a simple reading of the story (Leary, 1986 ). For story to be effective it must entertain, enrich, inspire curiosity and imagination, and be told frequently (Leary, 1986 ; Pawson, 2014 ; Richards, 2007 ). It is important to consider the selection of a story, preparing the learners to listen and participate, as well as considering the timing of the story (Shaw, 1999 ). Further to this, effective story-telling, requires hard work, discipline and practice (Berryman, 1991 ; Grajczonek & Ryan, 2009 ; Shaw, 1999 ). The relationship between the storyteller and the listener is also important. A gifted storyteller or one who develops a personal relationship with the listener, adds power to the story (Hoopes, 2013 ).

Dramatic play is a significant element of early years learning and provides a natural point of access to story in religious education (Catholic Education Council, 2001 ; Council of Australian Governments, 2010 , 2017 ). Dramatic storytelling allows learners to connect deeply with the characters, empathising with them and understanding their behaviours more fully. Grajczonek ( 2007 ) found that teachers can use dramatic storytelling as a tool for assessing student understanding. Puppetry can support dramatic storytelling, providing visual and kinaesthetic experiences, engaging learners in maintaining their attention as well as providing them with the opportunity for retelling stories (Richards, 2007 ). Enacting a story through movement, art, singing and music allow the senses to be engaged and enhance the learning experience (Shaw, 1999 ).

Benefits of story

The literature included a range of storytelling modes from dramatic storytelling, to books and electronic media, with each generating a different experience for learners. “A story can insert an image into the heart of the listener, where it can take shape and grow”; engaging learners in critical thinking, curiosity and exploration (Jacobs-Sife, 2011 , p. 29). Learners build literacy and social skills through engagement in a variety of texts in a literacy-rich environment. As Hynes-Berry ( 2012 ) indicates, making personal connections to the story is important for learners’ understanding and these connections could be text to text, text to self, text to graphics and text to world. The benefits increase when story is paired with student-centred inquiry where children are naturally curious and their questions allow for more ownership and collaboration (Ewing & Saunders, 2016 ; Hynes-Berry, 2012 ). Open ended questions elicit more elaborate responses and recall is further enhanced when used during dramatic play (Siegel-Hawley, 2012 ). Similarly, research conducted by Ness ( 2016 ) in the early years of primary school revealed inquiry based reading allowed the development of student generated questions. This in turn provided cognitive and motivational benefits for students.

Reading to children is most effective when combined with high-quality discussion, focusing on the interests and needs of the learners. Being immersed in a literacy rich environment helps to develop the skills and understandings needed for independent reading and comprehension with shared book reading also prominent in language and literacy development (Anderson, 2015 ; Anderson et al., 2012 ). The reading of literature becomes collaborative in the classroom setting as children respond to the text together (Trousdale, 2009 ). Initially, a broad definition of children’s literature is helpful for understanding the scope of what might be referred to as story.

Children's literature is the complete large body of literature that children have embraced. It becomes their own personal literature because it belongs to children rather than parents, teachers, preachers, or even the authors. (Saracho, 2012 )

According to Saracho ( 2012 ), children’s literature allows opportunities for play through interpretation, storytelling, improvisation and collaboration and those which engage in education, fantasy and moralistic combinations provide the children with profound and long remembered experiences. Play is an important context for developing literacy skills and these increased where the play was enriched by literacy resources (Department of Education & Training, 2015 ). Similarly, research on dramatic storytelling focussed on the benefits for literacy development as expanding vocabulary, listening and speaking skills. The development of literacy in the early years was considered vital for future school achievement success (O'Neill et al., 2016 ). Further research on picture books revealed children rely on words and pictures for a full understanding of the meaning. While wordless picture books may be effective, teachers are more likely to use picture books with words. The interplay of these elements makes them a rich resource (Hateley, 2014 ). Innovations in technology and ease of access in classrooms, enable electronic books to feature more prominently (Cruz & Snider, 2009 ; Hateley, 2014 ; McCrindle, 2014 ). Technology brings a change to the use of traditional literary texts with interaction encouraged through touch and voice recording (Hateley, 2014 ). The verbal text however, is still highly valued with children listening to others’ stories and creating their own (Cruz & Snider, 2009 ; Hateley, 2014 ).

As the previous research reveals, the benefits of story flow from children making a personal connection through experiencing story, enabling them to further develop literacy skills, collaborate and engage in critical thinking and inquiry.

The third area of exploration in the systematic literature review is that of the use of story in religious education. In this context, religious education refers to the formal curricular program used in primary schools to engage learners in the teachings, culture and history of the Christian church and to explore how the Christian faith relates to all aspects of people’s lives. Although a faith response is not an expectation of the formal curriculum, the religious education program is set within the context of the whole Christian education experience of the school where the Christian faith may be actively nurtured and expressed (Lutheran Education Australia, 2015 ). Religious education is an area in which faith-based schools invest time into research to understand the needs of the learner in the light of faith development (Goldburg, 2008 ; Grajczonek, 2013 , 2017 ; Grajczonek & Hanifin, 2007 ; Hyde, 2005 , 2010 ; Meehan, 2007 ; Ryan, 2007 ; Rymarz & Engebretson, 2005 ). The literature in this area revealed the contribution story makes to faith practice (or expressions of the Christian faith) and the variety of methods and stories used in religious education classes. Core policy and curriculum documents from schooling systems in Australia, and research on religious education reveal the aims of developing literacy (including biblical literacy), engaging with biblical story in various ways, valuing and respecting diversity and contributing to faith development (Blevins, 2007 ; Christian, 2008 ; Gooderham, 1994 ; Grajczonek, 2013 , 2017 ; Hyde, 2005 ; Hynes-Berry, 2012 ; Lutheran Education Australia, 2013 , 2015 ). Research also shows that religious education will differ in the early years, reflecting age-appropriate pedagogy through the inclusion of real-life activities and hands-on experiences, allowing for discovery and exploration through the senses (Meehan, 2007 ; Ryan & Stower, 1998 ). It is therefore important that methods and strategies take into account the learner’s existing knowledge, experiences, questions, community and real life experiences and that scaffolding is provided (Grajczonek & Hanifin, 2007 ; Meehan, 2007 ). Further research revealed the connections between various systemic policy documents and pedagogy, with the role of the teacher as key in promoting children’s learning (Grajczonek, 2013 ).

Christian Studies is the formal religious education program of Lutheran Education Australia. Systemic Lutheran Education documents reflect beliefs about the purpose and pedagogy of Christian Studies, where the pedagogy provides a connection between the learner’s world and the curriculum framework. This enables learners to engage in their own journey of discovery to make sense of the world around them (Lutheran Education Australia, 2013 , 2015 ). The curriculum framework encourages teachers to consider the diverse range of learners and the importance of providing learning opportunities which cater to this diversity. Experiences must be intellectually rigorous, engaging, learner-centred, invite challenge and growth, and promote the sharing of stories and ideas while being grounded in theological understanding (Lutheran Education Australia, 2015 ). Pedagogical approaches encourage access to a range of ways to make meaning, while encouraging deep thinking, through the processes of inquiry, reflection and action. The learning environment is supportive, inclusive and encourages collaboration, allowing learners to explore their own spirituality and broaden their worldview (Lutheran Education Australia, 2015 ).

Much of the research on story in the field of religious education focuses on the connection of story to children’s spirituality rather than on the benefits of story when used as a pedagogical support for teaching religious education (Grajczonek, 2007 ; Grajczonek & Ryan, 2009 ; Grajczonek & Truasheim, 2017 ; Hyde, 2005 , 2010 ; Meehan, 2007 ; Ryan, 2007 ). The literature also highlights the unique nature of both early childhood and religious education, with age-appropriate pedagogy considered important (Department of Education & Training, 2015 ; Grajczonek, 2013 ; Grajczonek & Hanifin, 2007 ; Lutheran Education Australia, 2015 ; Meehan, 2007 ; Ryan, 2007 ). The use of story can effectively speak into both spaces, addressing their unique needs and characteristics (Grajczonek & Ryan, 2009 ).

Ryan’s ( 2007 ) research into the theorists who inform early years religious education, reveals an intense interest in stories and how these shape moral imagination. As children encounter their own stories and stories of others, they listen and reflect, developing their sense of wonder about biblical stories (Jacobs-Sife, 2011 ). Students do not need to know stories by heart, but rather engage with them and ask questions to develop religious literacy (Goldburg, 2004 ; Hansell, 2015 ). The work of Arthur ( 1988 ) suggests that stories in religious education have great value with previous recognition of their worth in various journals and in practice, yet he also suggests they are still seen as trivial diversions. To further elaborate, Arthur recognises three significant benefits of story as: empathy, cognitive potential, and an effective way of dealing with abstract or difficult to describe concepts. Stories provide the opportunity to engage in empathy and see things from a unique perspective with which the reader may not be familiar. The cognitive potential of story to unlock a new dimension to knowledge may not engage the reader in new facts, however it opens a depth of understanding to the situation. Finally, Arthur states there is value in the use of story to provide a subtle and effective approach to things which can be difficult to describe. It can be thought provoking and is used extensively in almost every religious tradition in this way. When balancing empathy and reasoned investigation; utilising story’s cognitive potential with other ways of knowing; and engaging in thought provoking exploration of religious issues, then “there is no reason why story should not be seen and used as one of the most important vehicles of communication open to the religious educator.” (Arthur, 1988 , p. 126) This work is further supported by the research which found story was used to help explore life’s big and often most difficult questions (Freitas, 2005 ; Jacobs-Sife, 2011 ). Stories open provocative questions and emotion with which children can investigate possible inquiries, struggle with issues and engage in religious imagination. As the evidence reveals, story can be used effectively in religious education to connect students personally, while building empathy, contributing to faith practice (or expressions of the Christian faith) and developing religious literacy.

Developing literacy

Story in early childhood assists with the development of language and literacy and this is also the case when used in religious education. Biblical literacy involves interpreting and discussing the meaning and significance of the biblical text, similar to how other forms of literary text are approached and explored (Stack-Nelson, 2014 ; Welbourne, 2003 ). Understanding key terms, symbols and metaphors, as well as connecting with the text, are vital when studying biblical text to understand the original and contemporary meaning, and how it applies in the current context (Christenson, 2004 ; Lutheran Education Australia, 2015 ; Stack-Nelson, 2014 ; Welbourne, 2003 ). Grajczonek and Hanifin’s ( 2007 ) research identified that stories in religious education develop language skills, which in turn builds literacy skills, as well as developing religious vocabulary and literacy. Biblical stories can provide a stimulus for dramatic play and the rich language which develops can provide the basis for the child’s own retell. Similarly, research into Godly Play reveals the value of this method of storytelling for developing biblical and religious literacy (Hyde, 2010 ). The social nature of the educational setting in which language features heavily provides the ideal space in which literacy development can flourish (Grajczonek, 2013 ; Liddy, 2009 ; Ryan, 2007 ; Vygotsky, 1978 ).

Biblical story

The aim of Christian Studies is to give students a clear understanding and appreciation of the Christian story through an exploration of the biblical text and Christian literature (Lutheran Education Australia, 2015 ). The Bible is the primary source of text for Christian Studies. Biblical stories are used extensively as teachers aim to develop biblical literacy, taking learners from basic recall of facts to an in-depth study of biblical text (Lutheran Education Australia, 2015 ). The interpretation of scripture and how we are to understand it in the current context, moves beyond an academic interpretation to allow learners to engage personally with the text (Lutheran Education Australia, 2015 ; Shaw, 1999 ). Through this exploration learners use language, symbols and imagery to read and interpret the texts and critical reflection on the text helps learners to understand their experiences through insights into Christian history (Lutheran Education Australia, 2015 ). A key element of biblical literacy is the selection of the text. Teachers must be discerning when choosing an appropriate text to suit the age of the learners and allow them to engage, explore and connect with the text. Teachers in the early years may select a children’s version of the biblical story to provide ease of access for the learners. Teachers need to assess which version provides sufficient information and accuracy, being careful to avoid versions which may lead to misconceptions or omission of key elements or reducing them to mere moral lessons (Dalton, 2007 ; Pawson, 2014 ; Schachter, 1985 ). Teachers should always read the full version of text for themselves to provide them with the relevant background information (Lutheran Education Australia, 2015 ). Learners need to be engaged in exploration of biblical story which allows for wondering, critical thinking, making meaning and reveals the human story (Christenson, 2004 ).

Liddy’s research ( 2009 ) found that teaching with biblical story must be innovative and creative; allowing for learners to personally interact and yet be sensitive to the age-specific needs of the learners. The text can be unpacked exploring the world behind the text (context, background, culture and geography), the world of the text (genre, content, language, imagery) and the world in front of the text (reader experiences and reflections). These elements are vital for engaging learners in religious literacy and achieving the aims of the religious education program (Lutheran Education Australia, 2015 ).

Children’s literature and contemporary story

Gooderham’s research ( 1994 ) contends the importance of using contemporary children’s literature in the religious education classroom, inviting a Christian reading, and providing insight into the context of the Christian faith. Similarly, he speaks of fantasy texts, myths and legends of both Christian and traditional origin providing stimulation for learners to make their own meanings. He also notes that contemporary texts are increasingly structured to encourage questioning and invite discussion. Similarly, Robson ( 1982 ) promotes the use of contemporary literature in the religious education classroom to open discussion on matters of the Christian faith. Trousdale ( 2009 ) further advocates the use of children’s literature as valuable for providing an opportunity for children to enter a different world and engage with characters to stimulate their emotions, imagination, cognitive development and moral reasoning. These stories can also allow children to connect with spiritual experiences beyond their own (Grajczonek & Ryan, 2009 ; Shaw, 1999 ; Trousdale, 2009 ). Children’s literature and contemporary story lend themselves to both the religious education and early childhood setting, and therefore it is important to identify connections teachers have made between children’s literature and a religious education curriculum.

Cultural and traditional story

The diverse cultural and religious perspectives in our communities are also reflected in religious education classes. Children may bring their personal story to their reading experiences through their histories, languages and generational perspectives of the world and of the text (Grajczonek, 2017 ; Green & Oldendorf, 2005 ; Shaw, 1999 ). It is this diversity which brings a rich range of perspectives to the classroom and therefore, a range of opinions and ideas to consider when using story (Davila, 2015 ; Jacobs-Sife, 2011 ; Lutheran Education Australia, 2015 ; Mallan, 2014 ). Research also shows that sharing high quality picture books enables the expansion of knowledge and understanding of different faiths, through the communication of accurate information, in an interesting and engaging way, which allows the development of respect for diversity (Green & Oldendorf, 2005 ; Renck-Peyton & Renck-Jalongo, 2008 ). Investigating biblical text from their own perspective allows learners to explore why a story took place and how the world worked within the story, leading to discussions on how this may be similar or different to their own experiences, and the experiences of their peers (Madden et al., 2019 ; Shaw, 1999 ). Further research reveals that children’s religious sense is nourished by a variety of stories and images from their Christian and cultural heritage and that this is important for their development of bicultural/ multicultural identity (Greer Anne Wenh-In Ng, 2004 ; Trousdale, 2009 ). According to Watson and Thompson ( 2007 ) religious myth and story allow the listener to use their imagination to recreate religious truths. They further emphasise the importance of developing imagination in religious education as essential for understanding religious language and developing religious concepts (Watson & Thompson, 2007 ). Similarly, faith expressed through stories, can help children comprehend deep truths and explore abstract ideas (Cleary & Moffat, 2017 ; Fisher, 2010 ). The Christian story, as it is lived out in the faith community is shaped by, and continues to shape, the identity of that community through its stories (Shaw, 1999 ). Together these studies reveal the importance of story for connection to culture and tradition, echoing the significance of sociocultural theory which underpins religious education, connecting a diverse range of perspectives with the Christian worldview, and the contribution it makes to building respect and appreciation of other’s views.

Contribution to faith practice

Stories in religious education can allow learners to engage with theology, investigating key Christian beliefs and worldviews (Lutheran Education Australia, 2015 ; Shaw, 1999 ). Focusing on both the cognitive and affective domains, Lutheran Education Australia’s Christian Studies curriculum engages students in an opportunity to explore their own faith. The stories used in Christian Studies, whether biblical or non-biblical text, can provide a means by which children can be introduced to the world of religion and spirituality. Opportunities need to be provided to enable learners to engage deeply with the language, symbols and imagery, beyond superficial familiarity with biblical stories (Blevins, 2007 ). Teachers must be mindful of more than just telling a story well; these stories must contribute to the lives of those who hear and participate. Similarly, as Hansell ( 2015 ) observed, story is closely related to faith and an understanding of story is central to religious education, to take learners beyond lower order thinking, to a deep understanding.

Major religions have their own collections of stories which pass on their heritage and reveal deeper aspects of their beliefs (Leary, 1986 ). Further to this, Goldburg ( 2008 ) expounds the value of connecting the Christian story with the children’s own stories, bringing meaning to their experiences and reflections. Stories are used to shape morals, make personal connections, build empathy and help learners to understand their own experiences to make sense of their world (Crain, 2007 ; Mudiyanselage, 2014 ; Rue, 2000 ; Ryan, 2007 ). Larson’s research ( 2018 ) with preschool children which explored how they made meaning of their life and faith experiences through story, play and discovery, is echoed in the Early Years Learning Framework (Council of Australian Governments, 2017 ). Stories provided a narrative framework in which children could explore biblical story, providing a rich sense of self and experiences. This is also supported by Seymour ( 2007 ) who believes stories help us make (and remake) meaning in our lives and when used in religious education can help us to teach and build community. This is especially important in early childhood where people’s images of God are formed early in life (Bartkowski et al., 2008 ). As children themselves become storytellers, they learn about themselves and their own lived religious experiences, developing strategies for living out their faith (Shaw, 1999 ). According to Shaw ( 1999 ), this is what makes story so important in religious education, and feedback and time for critical reflection are essential for learning to happen.

Brendan Hyde’s ( 2010 ) exploration into Godly Play in the Catholic school context also revealed the insights this story telling technique provided on children’s spirituality. Godly Play was developed by Jerome Berryman based on the Montessori method of teaching. The process involves engagement with biblical storytelling through play, wonder and response in a specific, organised way, modelling the Christian community. It goes beyond mere storytelling and recall, and invites learners to engage with story in a creative and experiential way. Berryman developed and refined his work based on his observations and studies, noting the powerful influence it had on children’s spirituality (Berryman, 1991 ). The process invites children to engage with the story and consider questions about the story and how they relate to it (Trousdale, 2009 ). Through case study interviews, Hyde explored children’s perceptions of spirituality revealing four characteristics which are encouraged through Godly Play: the felt sense, integrating awareness, weaving the threads of meaning and spiritual questing. The felt sense involves the way in which a child uses their body as a way of knowing, aware through tactile and sensory activities. Integrating awareness refers to connecting knowing or emerging understanding with a previous level of awareness. Hyde’s third concept of weaving the threads of meaning, refers to the child’s use of their sense of wonder, to make sense of the world around them. Finally, his concept of spiritual questing refers to children actively seeking a sense of the meaning and purpose of life.

Similarly, using the same context as Hyde’s research, Grajczonek and Truasheim’s ( 2017 ) study on Godly Play revealed it provided worthwhile strategies and resources for story telling however, they advised caution in using Godly Play due to the differences in theological underpinning and the protestant emphasis. The focus of these studies was on the faith and spiritual development and the role of story in these areas. As Grajczonek and Truasheim reveal, the use of Godly Play is not a curriculum structure for teaching religious education, and so must be used in an appropriate context as it was intended. As these studies show, story contributes to faith practice through engagement and connection to life and faith experiences, bringing meaning to learners’ experiences and reflections.

This systematic literature review scopes the research which connected three key areas: early childhood and story and religious education. While a vast amount of research is available in each specific key area, the research with a strong connection to all three was very limited, with few examples linked to a primary school curriculum. Benefits of the use of story are seen across curriculum areas in the early childhood sector with particular focus on spiritual development and biblical literacy in religious education. Stories can be told in a variety of ways and therefore the literature upon which educators draw must include a range of storytelling methods including reading a story aloud, digital/ audio-visual stories or games, dramatic storytelling including role play and puppetry, and Godly Play, and explore how teachers use different story telling methods in religious education. Similarly, as the Bible is a primary source for religious education and biblical story used extensively, the literature must also explore how teachers use biblical story within their lessons and investigate choices they make regarding pedagogy. This systematic review highlighted gaps in the research and further links can be made on the use of story in religious education through the exploration of teacher perceptions concerning integration of story, to highlight pedagogical choices and practices. Similarly further exploration and research could be conducted on how story embedded in a curriculum contributes to faith practice (or expression of the Christian faith) and how story influences the learner’s understanding of the theology which underpins the curriculum.

Limitations of the literature review

There are limitations to this systematic quantitative literature search as a review of the available literature on the broad topics of early childhood, story and religious education, given the specific research question to which the search relates, and therefore the initial parameters of the search. A further literature search will follow this review with a particular focus on research from the last two years to capture the use of more recent technological advances and reflect the movement of schools worldwide to online learning as a response to social distancing and isolation regulations to mitigate the impact of pandemics such as COVID-19. The move to online learning consequently affected classroom delivery of lessons and the impact of this change is yet to be fully realised. A consideration must be made therefore on the use of digital storytelling as a feature of classroom practice. As Cruz and Snider ( 2009 ) note, it is important to connect with technology in multiple contexts including the use of story and this is worthy of further investigation. This is an area which will prove to be an interesting point of reflection to identify teachers’ perceptions, and if, or how the move to online remote learning has impacted their practice. A search of the same databases will be conducted to reveal if further papers should be considered as possibly relevant to the research reflecting the global modification to schooling as a response to a pandemic such as COVID-19.

This paper provided a Systematic Quantitative Literature Review [SQLR] of the use of story in early childhood religious education to address the research question “What are the pedagogical benefits of using story in religious education in the early years of primary school?” Literature on the key areas of religious education, story and early childhood were reviewed for relevance and connection to the topic. The selected literature revealed story as an effective and pedagogically appropriate way of engaging children in religious education in early childhood. The use of story supports learner-centred pedagogy; encouraging active, engaged learners who make connections through story to build literacy, enhance social skills and collaboration, and engage in critical thinking and inquiry.

Story can be used in religious education in a pedagogically appropriate way, developing religious literacy and encouraging children to connect to the curriculum to meet learning outcomes. The research on story in religious education focuses on the benefits of story such as fostering faith and spiritual development, providing connection to culture and tradition, and building empathy through experiencing story. Further research could focus on the use of story as a pedagogical support to connect known benefits of story with the curriculum to develop literacy (including biblical literacy), effectively engage with diverse perspectives and contribute deeper understanding. This will provide a point for further teacher reflection on their current practice, drawing on theory of early childhood and religious education and their potential impact in Religious Education.

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215 Religion Research Paper Topics for College Students

Studying religion at a college or a university may be a challenging course for any student. This isn’t because religion is always a sensitive issue in society, it is because the study of religion is broad, and crafting religious topics for research papers around them may be further complex for students. This is why sociology of religion research topics and many others are here, all for your use.

As students of a university or a college, it is essential to prepare religious topics for research papers in advance. There are many research paper topics on religion, and this is why the scope of religion remains consistently broad. They extend to the sociology of religion, research paper topics on society, argumentative essay topics, and lots more. All these will be examined in this article. Rather than comb through your books in search of inspiration for your next essay or research paper, you can easily choose a topic for your religious essay or paper from the following recommendations:

World Religion Research Paper Topics

If you want to broaden your scope as a university student to topics across religions of the world, there are religion discussion topics to consider. These topics are not just for discussion in classes, you can craft research around them. Consider:

• The role of myths in shaping the world: Greek myths and their influence on the evolution of European religions
• Modern History: The attitude of modern Europe on the history of their religion
• The connection between religion and science in the medieval and modern world
• The mystery in the books of Dan Brown is nothing but fiction: discuss how mystery shapes religious beliefs
• Theocracy: an examination of theocratic states in contemporary society
• The role of Christianity in the modern world
• The myth surrounding the writing of the Bible
• The concept of religion and patriarchy: examine two religions and how it oppresses women
• People and religion in everyday life: how lifestyle and culture is influenced by religion
• The modern society and the changes in the religious view from the medieval period
• The interdependence of laws and religion is a contemporary thing: what is the role of law in religion and what is the role of religion in law?
• What marked the shift from religion to humanism?
• What do totemism and animalism denote?
• Pre Colonial religion in Africa is savagery and barbaric: discuss
• Cite three religions and express their views on the human soul
• Hinduism influenced Indian culture in ways no religion has: discuss
• Africans are more religious than Europeans who introduced Christian religion to them: discuss
• Account for the evolution of Confucianism and how it shaped Chinese culture to date
• Account for the concept of the history of evolution according to Science and according to a religion and how it influences the ideas of the religious soul
• What is religious education and how can it promote diversity or unity?7
• Workplace and religion: how religion is extended to all facets of life
• The concept of fear in maintaining religious authorities: how authorities in religious places inspire fear for absolute devotion
• Afro-American religion: a study of African religion in America
• The Bible and its role in religions
• Religion is more of emotions than logic
• Choose five religions of the world and study the similarities in their ideas
• The role of religious leaders in combating global terrorism
• Terrorism: the place of religion in promoting violence in the Middle East
• The influence of religion in modern-day politics
• What will the world be like without religion or religious extremists?
• Religion in the growth of communist Russia: how cultural revolution is synonymous with religion
• Religion in the growth of communist China: how cultural revolution is synonymous with religion
• The study of religions and ethnic rivalries in India
• Terrorism in Islam is a comeback to the crusades
• The role of the Thirty Years of War in shaping world diplomacy
• The role of the Thirty Years of War in shaping plurality in Christianity
• The religion and the promotion of economics
• The place of world religions on homosexuality
• Why does a country, the Vatican City, belong to the Catholic Church?
• God and the concept of the supernatural: examine the idea that God is a supernatural being
• The influence of religion in contemporary Japan
• Religion and populism in the modern world
• The difference between mythical creatures and gods
• Polytheism and the possibility of world peace
• Religion and violence in secular societies?
• Warfare and subjugation in the spread of religion
• The policies against migrant in Poland is targeted against Islam
• The role of international organizations in maintaining religious peace
• International terrorist organizations and the decline of order

Research Paper Topics Religion and Society

As a student in a university or MBA student, you may be requested to write an informed paper on sociology and religion. There are many sociology religion research paper topics for these segments although they may be hard to develop. You can choose out of the following topics or rephrase them to suit your research interest:

• The influence of religion on the understanding of morality
• The role of religion in marginalizing the LGBTQ community
• The role of women in religion
• Faith crisis in Christianity and Islamic religions
• The role of colonialism in the spreading of religion: the spread of Christianity and Islam is a mortal sin
• How does religion shape our sexual lifestyle?
• The concept of childhood innocence in religion
• Religion as the object of hope for the poor: how religion is used as a tool for servitude by the elite
• The impact of traditional beliefs in today’s secular societies
• How religion promotes society and how it can destroy it
• The knowledge of religion from the eyes of a sociologist
• Religious pluralism in America: how diverse religions struggle to strive
• Social stratification and its role in shaping religious groups in America
• The concept of organized religion: why the belief in God is not enough to join a religious group
• The family has the biggest influence on religious choices: examine how childhood influences the adult’s religious interests
• Islamophobia in European societies and anti-Semitism in America
• The views of Christianity on interfaith marriage
• The views of Islam on interfaith marriage
• The difference between spirituality and religion
• The role of discipline in maintaining strict religious edicts
• How do people tell others about their religion?
• The features of religion in sociology
• What are the views of Karl Marx on religion?
• What are the views of Frederic Engels on religion?
• Modern Islam: the conflict of pluralism and secularism
• Choose two religions and explore their concepts of divorce
• Governance and religion: how religion is also a tool of control
• The changes in religious ideas with technological evolution
• Theology is the study of God for God, not humans
• The most feared religion: how Islamic extremists became identified as terrorist organizations
• The role of cults in the society: why religious people still have cults affiliations
• The concept of religious inequality in the US
• What does religion say about sexual violence?

Religion Essay Topics

As a college student, you may be required to write an essay on religion or morality. You may need to access a lot of religious essay topics to find inspiration for a topic of your choice. Rather than go through the stress of compiling, you can get more information for better performance from religion topics for research paper like:

• The origin of Jihad in Islam and how it has evolved
• Compare the similarities and differences between Christian and Judaism religions
• The Thirty Years War and the Catholic church
• The Holocaust: historic aggression or a religious war
• Religion is a tool of oppression from the political and economic perspectives
• The concept of patriarchy in religion
• Baptism and synonym to ritual sacrifice
• The life of Jesus Christ and the themes of theology
• The life of Prophet Muhammad (S.A.W.) and the themes of theology
• How can religion be used to promote world peace?
• Analyze how Jesus died and the reason for his death
• Analyze the event of the birth of Christ
• The betrayal of Jesus is merely to fulfill a prophecy
• Does “prophecy” exist anywhere in religion?
• The role of war in promoting religion: how crusades and terrorist attacks shape the modern world
• The concept of Karma: is Karma real?
• Who are the major theorists in religion and what do they say?
• The connection of sociology with religion
• Why must everyone be born again according to Christians?
• What does religious tolerance mean?
• What is the benefit of religion in society?
• What do you understand about free speech and religious tolerance?
• Why did the Church separate from the state?
• The concept of guardian angels in religion
• What do Islam and Christianity say about the end of the world?
• Religion and the purpose of God for man
• The concept of conscience in morality is overrated
• Are there different sects in Christianity?
• What does Islam or Christianity say about suicide?
• What are the reasons for the Protestant Reformation?
• The role of missionaries in propagating Christianity in Africa
• The role of the Catholic church in shaping Christianity
• Do we need an international religious organization to maintain international religious peace?
• Why do people believe in miracles?

Argumentative Essay Topics on Religion

Creating argumentative essay topics on religion may be a daunting exercise regardless of your level. It is more difficult when you don’t know how to start. Your professor could be interested in your critical opinions about international issues bordering on religion, which is why you need to develop sensible topics. You can consider the following research paper topics religion and society for inspiration:

• Religion will dominate humanity: discuss
• All religions of the world dehumanize the woman
• All men are slaves to religion
• Karl Marx was right when he said religion is the return of the repressed, “the sigh of the oppressed creature”: discuss
• Christianity declined in Europe with the Thirty Years War and it separated brothers and sisters of the Christian faith?
• Islamic terrorism is a targeted attack on western culture
• The danger of teen marriage in Islam is more than its benefits
• The church should consider teen marriages for every interested teenager
• Is faith fiction or reality?
• The agape love is restricted to God and God’s love alone
• God: does he exist or is he a fiction dominating the world?
• Prayer works better without medicine: why some churches preach against the use of medicine
• People change religion because they are confused about God: discuss
• The church and the state should be together
• Polygamous marriage is evil and it should be condemned by every religion
• Cloning is abuse against God’s will
• Religious leaders should also be political leaders
• Abortion: a sin against God or control over your body
• Liberty of religious association affects you negatively: discuss
• Religious leaders only care about themselves, not the people
• Everyone should consider agnosticism
• Natural laws are the enemy of religion
• It is good to have more than two faiths in a family
• It is hard for the state to exist without religion
• Religion as a cause of the World War One
• Religion as a tool for capitalists
• Religion doesn’t promote morality, only extremisms
• Marriage: should the people or their religious leaders set the rules?
• Why the modern church should acknowledge the LGBTQ: the fight for true liberalism
• Mere coexistence is not religious tolerance
• The use of candles, incense, etc. in Catholic worship is idolatrous and the same as pagan worship: discuss
• The Christian religion is the same as Islam

Christianity Research Paper Topics on Religion

It doesn’t matter if you’re a Christian or not as you need to develop a range of topics for your essay or project. To create narrow yet all-inclusive research about Christianity in the world today, you can consider research topics online. Rather than rack your head or go through different pages on the internet, consider these:

• Compare and contrast Christian and Islam religions
• Trace the origin of Christianity and the similarity of the beliefs in the contemporary world
• Account for the violent spread of Christianity during the crusades
• Account for the state of Christianity in secular societies
• The analysis of the knowledge of rapture in Christianity
• Choose three contemporary issues and write the response of Christianity on them
• The Catholic church and its role towards the continuance of sexual violence
• The Catholic church and the issues of sexual abuse and scandals
• The history of Christianity in America
• The history of Christianity in Europe
• The impact of Christianity on American slaves
• The belief of Christianity on death, dying, and rapture
• The study of Christianity in the medieval period
• How Christianity influenced the western world
• Christianity: the symbols and their meaning
• Why catholic priests practice celibacy
• Christianity in the Reformation Era
• Discuss the Gnostic Gospels and their distinct historic influence on Christianity
• The catholic church in the Third Reich of Germany
• The difference between the Old Testament and the New Testament
• What the ten commandments say from a theological perspective
• The unpredictable story of Moses
• The revival of Saul to Paul: miracle or what?
• Are there Christian cults in the contemporary world?
• Gender differences in the Christian church: why some churches don’t allow women pastors
• The politics of the Catholic church before the separation of the church and the state
• The controversies around Christian religion and atheism: why many people are leaving the church
• What is the Holy Trinity and what is its role in the church?
• The miracles of the New Testament and its difference from the Old Testament’s
• Why do people question the existence of God?
• God is a spirit: discuss

Islam Research Paper Topics

As a student of the Islamic religion or a Muslim, you may be interested in research on the religion. Numerous Islam research paper topics could be critical in shaping your research paper or essay. These are easy yet profound research paper topics on religion Islam for your essays or papers:

• Islam in the Middle East
• Trace the origin of Islam
• Who are the most important prophets in Islam?
• Discuss the Sunni and other groups of Muslims
• The Five Pillars of Islam are said to be important in Islam, why?
• Discuss the significance of the Holy Month
• Discuss the significance of the Holy Pilgrimage
• The distinctions of the Five Pillars of Islam and the Ten Commandments?
• The controversies around the hijab and the veil
• Western states are denying Muslims: why?
• The role of religious leaders in their advocacy of sexual abuse and violence
• What the Quran says about rape and what does Hadiths say, too?
• Rape: men, not the women roaming the street should be blamed
• What is radicalism in Islam?
• The focus of Islam is to oppress women: discuss
• The political, social, and economic influence of modernity on Islam
• The notable wives of prophet Muhammad and their role in Islam: discuss
• Trace the evolution of Islam in China and the efforts of the government against them
• Religious conflict in Palestine and Israel: how a territorial conflict slowly became a religious war
• The study of social class and the Islamic religion
• Suicide bombers and their belief of honor in death: the beliefs of Islamic jihadists
• Account for the issues of marginalization of women in Muslim marriages
• The role of literature in promoting the fundamentals of Islam: how poetry was used to appeal to a wider audience
• The concept of feminism in Islam and why patriarchy seems to be on a steady rise
• The importance of Hadiths in the comprehension of the Islamic religion
• Does Islam approve of democracy?
• Islamic terrorism and the role of religious leaders
• The relationship of faith in Islam and Christianity: are there differences in the perspectives of faith?
• How the Quran can be used as a tool for religious tolerance and religious intolerance
• The study of Muslims in France: why is there religious isolation and abuse in such a society?
• Islam and western education: what are the issues that have become relevant in recent years?
• Is there a relationship between Islam and Science?
• Western culture: why there are stereotypes against Muslims abroad
• Mythology in Islam: what role does it play in shaping the religion?
• Islam and the belief in the afterlife: are there differences between its beliefs with other religions’?
• Why women are not allowed to take sermons in Islam

Can’t Figure Out Your Religion Paper?

With these religious research paper topics, you’re open to change the words or choose a topic of your choice for your research paper or essay. Writing an essay after finding a topic is relatively easy. Since you have helpful world religion research paper topics, research paper topics on religion and society, religion essay topics, argumentative essay topics on religion, Christianity research paper topics, and Islam research paper topics, you can go online to research different books that discuss the topic of your choice.

However, if you require the assistance of professional academic experts who offer custom academic help, you’ll find them online. There are a few writing help online groups that assist in writing your essays or research paper as fast as possible. You can opt for their service if you’re too busy or unmotivated to write your research paper or essay.

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35 Inspiring Theology and Religion Research Topics for Undergraduates

Table of contents

Picture this – you're sitting at your desk, a blank document open on your screen, the cursor blinking back at you. The task? A research paper for your theology and religious studies class. The problem? You have no idea what your topic should be. We've all been there. Whether you're a novice researcher or a seasoned academic, choosing a research paper topic can be daunting.

But fear not, brave scholar! Whether you're interested in the spiritual beliefs that have shaped societies over millennia or the philosophical debates that underpin religious thought, theology and religious studies offer a vast, rich field to explore. So, let's turn that daunting task into an exciting opportunity. In this blog post, we'll explore 30 inspiring research topic ideas for undergraduate theology and religious studies students. But first, let's better understand this intriguing field of study.

The Power of Interfaith Dialogue

Interfaith dialogue plays an instrumental role in promoting understanding, respect, and peace between people of different religious and cultural backgrounds. It encourages constructive conversations that facilitate empathy and respect for diversity. Here are several aspects to focus on:

1. Necessity of Interfaith Dialogue in a Multicultural Society

• Explore how interfaith dialogue can help create cohesive multicultural societies.
• Potential sources: Studies on multicultural societies, case studies on successful interfaith dialogue initiatives.

2. The Role of Interfaith Dialogue in Peacebuilding

• Analyze how interfaith dialogue has been used as a tool for peacebuilding in areas of religious conflict.
• Potential sources: Reports from international peacekeeping organizations, historical accounts of conflict resolution.

3. Interfaith Dialogue and Mutual Understanding

• Discuss the significance of interfaith dialogue in promoting mutual understanding and respect among diverse religious communities.
• Potential sources: Interfaith dialogue guides, accounts of interfaith initiatives.

4. Education and Interfaith Dialogue

• Examine the role of education in fostering interfaith dialogue and how it can be integrated into educational curricula.
• Potential sources: Educational policies, studies on religious education.

5. The Role of Religious Leaders in Interfaith Dialogue

• Investigate the influence of religious leaders in encouraging or discouraging interfaith dialogue.
• Potential sources: Statements and speeches of religious leaders, accounts of interfaith meetings.

6. Interfaith Dialogue and the Media

• Discuss the role of media in promoting or impeding interfaith dialogue, and how it can be used constructively.
• Potential sources: Media studies on religious coverage, case studies on media's role in interfaith initiatives.

7. Obstacles to Effective Interfaith Dialogue

• Identify common obstacles to interfaith dialogue and propose strategies to overcome them.
• Potential sources: Studies on interfaith dialogue, reports on religious conflicts.

8. Interfaith Dialogue and Social Justice

• Explore how interfaith dialogue can contribute to social justice movements and the advocacy for human rights.
• Potential sources: Reports from human rights organizations, accounts of social justice movements involving interfaith dialogue.

9. The Future of Interfaith Dialogue

• Consider the future of interfaith dialogue in an increasingly globalized and interconnected world.
• Potential sources: Futuristic studies on religion, expert opinions on the future of interfaith dialogue.

10. Case Studies of Successful Interfaith Dialogue

• Analyze case studies of successful interfaith dialogue initiatives and draw lessons from them.
• Potential sources: Records of successful interfaith dialogues, interviews with participants.

In this journey of understanding the power of interfaith dialogue, it's crucial to approach each topic with respect and sensitivity, acknowledging the diversity of beliefs and practices within and across religious traditions.

Exploring World Religions: Comparative Studies

Exploring world religions through a comparative lens allows for a deeper understanding of the diversity, complexity, and richness of different religious traditions. This section of the dissertation could delve into the following areas:

1. Methodologies in Comparative Religion

• Discuss various approaches to comparative religion studies, their benefits, and potential limitations.
• Potential sources: Academic texts on comparative religious studies, methodology guides.

2. Comparative Analysis of Major World Religions

• Examine key religious concepts, beliefs, practices, and rituals across major world religions such as Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism, Judaism, and others.
• Potential sources: Religious texts, scholarly articles, ethnographic studies.

3. Similarities and Differences in Religious Practices

• Identify and discuss similarities and differences in the ways that different religions approach worship, ritual, and community life.
• Potential sources: Ethnographic studies, scholarly articles on religious practices, religious texts.

4. Comparative Analysis of Religious Philosophies

• Analyze the philosophical underpinnings of different religions, comparing their approaches to questions of morality, existence, knowledge, and the nature of the divine.
• Potential sources: Religious philosophy texts, scholarly articles on religious philosophies, expert opinions.

5. Comparative Study of Religious Myths and Stories

• Compare and contrast the myths, stories, parables, and legends that form part of the narrative traditions of different religions.
• Potential sources: Religious texts, scholarly articles on religious narratives, studies on mythology.

6. Interactions and Influences among Religions

• Discuss historical interactions between different religions and how they have influenced each other's development and practices.
• Potential sources: Historical accounts, scholarly articles on religious interactions, studies on syncretism.

7. The Role of Religion in Society: A Comparative Analysis

• Analyze the societal roles of religion in different cultures and societies, examining how different religions interact with and influence social structures, norms, and values.
• Potential sources: Sociological studies on religion, case studies, historical accounts.

8. Comparative Study of Religious Reform Movements

• Compare and contrast various religious reform movements across different religions, examining their causes, impacts, and outcomes.
• Potential sources: Historical texts, scholarly articles on religious reform movements, case studies.

9. The Evolution of Religions Over Time

• Explore how various religions have evolved over time, comparing the ways in which they have adapted to changes in society, science, and technology.
• Potential sources: Historical studies, scholarly articles on the evolution of religions, religious texts.

10. Case Studies in Comparative Religion

• Conduct in-depth case studies of particular aspects of different religions, drawing out points of comparison and contrast.
• Potential sources: Case study reports, academic articles, religious texts.

Comparative studies of world religions can serve to broaden our perspectives, deepen our understanding, and foster greater respect for the variety of religious experiences and expressions around the world.

Religious Influences on Society and Culture

Religion profoundly influences society and culture. It is a force that shapes our understanding of morality, law, and human relationships, influences our arts and literature, and plays a key role in social cohesion and conflict. This section of the dissertation would explore these influences in the following ways:

1. The Role of Religion in Shaping Morality

• Investigate how religion forms moral codes and principles in different societies, examining the ways in which these codes shape behavior and social norms.
• Potential sources: Sociological and philosophical texts, religious doctrines, scholarly articles on morality and religion.

2. Religion and the Formation of Law

• Explore how religious principles have influenced legal systems around the world, from religious laws themselves to secular laws influenced by religious thought.
• Potential sources: Legal texts, religious scriptures, scholarly articles on law and religion.

3. Religious Influences on Arts and Literature

• Examine how religion has influenced various art forms and literature, from religious iconography in visual arts to religious themes in literature.
• Potential sources: Art history texts, literary analysis, scholarly articles on religion in arts and literature.

4. The Impact of Religion on Social Cohesion and Conflict

• Discuss the dual role of religion in promoting social unity and causing conflict, drawing from historical and contemporary examples.
• Potential sources: Sociological and historical texts, case studies, news articles, scholarly articles on religion and conflict.

5. Religion and Cultural Identity

• Explore how religion contributes to the formation of cultural identities and how these identities can influence religious practices and beliefs.
• Potential sources: Cultural studies, ethnographic research, scholarly articles on religion and identity.

6. Religious Influences on Gender Roles

• Examine the role of religion in shaping gender norms and expectations in different societies.
• Potential sources: Gender studies, sociological texts, scholarly articles on religion and gender.

7. The Role of Religion in Education

• Investigate the role of religion in shaping education systems, curricula, and philosophies of education.
• Potential sources: Education policy documents, scholarly articles on religion and education.

8. Religion and Social Change

• Analyze the role of religion in social movements and societal changes, such as civil rights movements, environmental movements, or movements for gender equality.
• Potential sources: Historical texts, sociological studies, scholarly articles on religion and social change.

9. The Influence of Religion on Healthcare and Well-being

• Discuss how religious beliefs and practices can influence attitudes towards health, disease, medical ethics, and well-being.
• Potential sources: Medical ethics texts, scholarly articles on religion and health, case studies.

10. Case Studies in Religious Influence

• Conduct in-depth case studies of specific instances of religious influence on society and culture.
• Potential sources: Case studies, historical texts, academic articles, cultural analyses.

Religion's pervasive influence on society and culture is a fascinating area of study. Understanding these influences can provide insight into how societies function, how cultures develop, and how individuals form their identities and worldviews.

Religion and LGBTQ+ Rights: A Comparative Study

The intersection of religion and LGBTQ+ rights is a hotly debated topic in both academic and public spheres. Understanding how different religions view and influence LGBTQ+ rights can provide valuable insights into broader societal attitudes and legal frameworks. Here are some aspects you could delve into:

1. Religious Doctrines and LGBTQ+ Rights: A Comparative Analysis

• Compare the doctrines of different religions regarding LGBTQ+ issues.
• Explore how these doctrines have evolved over time.
• Potential sources: Religious texts, theological studies, writings from religious leaders.

2. The Role of Religion in Shaping Societal Attitudes Towards the LGBTQ+ Community

• Analyze the influence of religious beliefs on societal attitudes towards the LGBTQ+ community.
• Explore differences and similarities across various cultures and religions.
• Potential sources: Sociological studies, surveys on religion and societal attitudes, academic papers on religion and LGBTQ+ rights.

3. The Impact of Religious Lobbying on LGBTQ+ Legislation

• Examine the influence of religious lobbying on laws related to LGBTQ+ rights.
• Consider both progressive and conservative religious movements.
• Potential sources: Legislation history, records of religious lobbying activities, studies on religion and public policy.

4. LGBTQ+ Rights Advocacy Within Religious Communities

• Explore the role of LGBTQ+ advocacy groups within religious communities.
• Discuss how these groups navigate the intersection of religious beliefs and LGBTQ+ rights.
• Potential sources: Statements and publications from advocacy groups, news articles, interviews with advocacy group members.

5. Religion, Conversion Therapy, and Mental Health

• Investigate the practice of conversion therapy within religious communities.
• Discuss its impacts on mental health and legal responses to this practice.
• Potential sources: Psychological studies, survivor testimonies, legislation documents.

In this part, your objective is to shed light on the complex relationship between religion and LGBTQ+ rights. Ensure that your analysis respects the diversity of views within each religion and emphasize the importance of promoting understanding and human rights.

Choosing Your Topic: A Handy Guide

Having established a broad context of the study of religion, it's now time to choose your specific research topic. The selection of a topic is critical as it sets the direction for your research and, ultimately, the success of your dissertation. Here are some guidelines that may help you:

Personal Interest : Select a topic that genuinely interests you. Your passion for the subject will help to sustain your motivation during the often arduous process of researching and writing your dissertation.

Familiarity : While it can be exciting to venture into new territory, choosing a topic you are already familiar with can often prove beneficial, especially if you're already well-versed in some of the literature or theoretical approaches related to your topic.

Originality : Although your topic should be based on established scholarship, it should also make an original contribution to the field. Avoid merely summarizing existing research; instead, seek to provide a new perspective or uncover previously unexplored aspects.

Feasibility : Keep in mind practical considerations such as the availability of resources, time constraints, and the scope of your project. You want your project to be challenging, but also achievable within your given timeframe and resources.

Relevance : Consider the relevance of your topic to the current academic discourse. Selecting a topic that relates to ongoing debates or recent developments in the field can help to ensure that your research will be of interest to others.

To guide you through the process of choosing your topic, here are a few steps you might follow:

Brainstorming : Start by brainstorming a list of potential topics. Don't worry about being too precise at this stage.

Preliminary Research : Conduct some preliminary research on each of your potential topics. Read recent journal articles, check out related books, and familiarize yourself with the current discourse surrounding each topic.

Narrowing Down : After conducting your preliminary research, narrow down your list of potential topics. Discard topics that don't seem feasible or that don't hold as much interest for you as others.

Refinement : Once you have a shortlist of potential topics, refine each one. Develop a research question for each topic and consider what kind of research would be necessary to answer it.

Final Selection : After refining each topic, make your final selection. Choose the topic that you are most interested in, that is most feasible, and that will make the most significant contribution to the field.

Seek Feedback : Once you've selected your topic, seek feedback from your dissertation advisor and other mentors. They can provide valuable insight and help to further refine your topic.

Remember, your dissertation is a significant piece of work that represents a culmination of your academic journey. Choose a topic that not only fulfills the requirements of your degree but also allows you to showcase your intellectual curiosity and scholarly skills.

Understanding Theology and Religious Studies

Theology and religious studies is a diverse and fascinating field, delving into the depths of human history, culture, philosophy, ethics, and more. It's not just about studying religious texts and rituals; it's also about understanding how these beliefs and practices shape societies, influence individual behavior, and impact global events.

Whether you're studying a mainstream religion like Christianity, Islam, or Buddhism, or exploring the philosophies of lesser-known or ancient religions, you'll find that this field is ripe with intriguing research questions. This field allows for a broad array of research approaches, encompassing historical, philosophical, anthropological, sociological perspectives, and even engaging with modern debates around politics, human rights, and scientific progress.

So, whether you're drawn to the metaphysical questions or the practical implications, theology and religious studies provide a rich field of research that can help illuminate the world in surprising and insightful ways.

Now that we have a good grasp of the field let's delve into some potential research topics that might pique your interest. The following topics are designed to be diverse, covering a wide range of areas within theology and religious studies. Each topic will come with some bullet-pointed guidelines on how you might approach your research. Ready? Let's jump in!

The study of religion is a broad and multi-faceted field that offers numerous potential topics for dissertation research. The intersection of religion with society, culture, politics, and personal identity provides a fertile ground for intriguing questions and deep scholarly exploration.

Whether examining the theological complexities of a single faith, comparing the similarities and differences between multiple religious traditions, investigating the societal impact of religious practices and beliefs, or diving into the transformative potential of interfaith dialogues, the opportunities are vast and varied. The key is to choose a topic that resonates personally, offers a chance for original research, and contributes meaningfully to the ongoing academic discourse.

In this ever-evolving world, understanding religion’s role and impact becomes increasingly significant. By choosing a topic that contributes to this understanding, you engage in a conversation that spans across cultures, continents, and centuries, gaining insights that extend well beyond the academic sphere and into the diverse realities of human existence.

Your dissertation is more than a paper; it is an intellectual endeavor that can have an impact in academia and beyond. It is a testament to your commitment, intellect, and passion in your chosen field. Choose wisely, dedicate earnestly, and let your work add a valuable brick to the edifice of knowledge that the study of religion is.

Writing a dissertation can be a daunting task, but you don't have to go through it alone. At Writers Per Hour, we offer professional research paper help and dissertation writing services . Our team of experienced writers is ready to help streamline the process, from topic selection to final editing, ensuring that your paper is not only well-researched and well-written but also uniquely tailored to your interests and academic goals.

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The Best 50 Religion Research Topics to Use for Students

In our multi-religious and multicultural society, crafting a great research paper on religion is a challenging task. Indeed, this challenge starts from the first stage of preparing your paper: identifying a good religious research paper topic. Further, it is almost impossible to write a paper without offending one or more religious feelings, especially when working on the history of religion. To make writing your paper easy, you must start by picking good religious paper topics.

In this paper, we list 50 religion research paper topics and a guide for selecting the best. If you want to get good grades, start with the right step- the best topic.

Why You Need the Best Religion Research Paper Topics

When working on any research paper, the most important step is identifying the topic. Indeed, the topic determines the direction you will take with the paper. Here are other benefits of selecting the best topics for a religious research paper.

• It allows you to work on the preferred area of interest.
• With a good topic, you do not get bored midway.
• A great topic offers you the opportunity to fill knowledge gaps in the field of religious studies.
• It is your opportunity to make your contribution felt.
• Picking the best topics is the first step to better grades.

How to Pick the Best Topics for a Religious Research Paper

Now that you know the benefits of selecting the best topics for your religious papers, you might be wondering, “How do I pick it?” Here are some useful tips to help you identify the best:

• Brainstorm your religious study subject. This will help you to get the best ideas to work on.
• Comprehensively research your area of interest. For example, you might be interested in the history of religion, church and social action, creationism, or modernism and religion.
• Look at the latest happenings. Things such as religious involvement in economics and education might inspire your paper ideas.
• Follow your teacher’s recommendation. Often, professors give guidelines to students on the areas they should work on. For example, if you were covering a certain area in your religious education studies class; your teacher might ask you to pick topics from that section only. But in most cases, teachers leave the topics open for students to select on their own.
• Read other research on religious studies. Most researchers point at gaps that exist in the niche so that later students can work on them. This is a great place to commence your research paper.

The Best Religious Topics for a Research Paper

Whether you prefer working on religious controversial topics or philosophy of religion essay topics, we have listed the best 50 ideas to get you started. Check them and pick them as they are or tweak them to fit your preferred format.

• Christian and economics.
• Religion and homosexuality.
• Black churches.
• Christianity history.
• Comparing and contrasting Christian and Islam history.
• A closer look at world religions without gods.
• The concept of religion and soul.
• The impact of religious laws on morality.
• The phenomenon of trickster gods.
• The impact of Greek religion on European culture.
• Impact of religion on American culture.
• Impact of religion on Chinese culture.
• Comparing the similarities of images of gods in different religions.
• How does gender affect religion?
• Islam in modern India.
• What is the future of religion?
• Afterlife: What are the differences in diverse religions?
• What are the main causes of the faith crisis?
• Analyzing the influence of female clergy on religion.
• Relooking at the reincarnation concept.
• What role do men have in religion?
• The impacts of yoga on religion.
• Can faith remove the harshness of adolescence?
• Why is Ramadhan referred to as the holy month?
• Comparing religious counselors to classical psychologists.
• A closer look at the main differences between the bible and Koran.
• What is the importance of Christmas for Christians?
• Creationism.
• Religion and science.
• How do people implement different religious practices today?
• Should atheism be considered another form of religion?
• Judaism: A closer look at its history.
• Analyzing attitudes towards sex in the Christian religion.
• Children: Are they considered innocent in all religions?
• A closer look at the history of Hinduism.
• A closer look at the existence of God as a supernatural being.
• Comparing and contrasting monotheistic cultures.
• Female goddesses.
• Chaplain-ship: How does it trigger peace and harmony?
• Impact of women in the history of Christianity.
• What are the implications of forced religion on people?
• Religion and terrorism.
• Religion in the workplace.
• Religion and evolution.
• Nordic mythology.
• A world without religion: Is it possible?
• Applying religion to address global problems.
• The primal religions.
• Do you think religion should play a role in modern politics?
• Do you think religion influences societal virtues?

Got the Best Religion Topics to Write About – What Next?

Now that you have a list of the best world religion research paper topics, it is important to appreciate that the journey of writing your assignment has just started. The next step is to write down your paper in line with your teacher’s guidelines. This is where your writing skills come into play. Well, it is never easy for many students. Often, some lack good writing skills, have other engagements, or acquire the right resources is a challenge. For others, the deadline is too tight and almost impossible to beat. The best idea is to seek affordable college assignment writing help.

After selecting the best topics, be they sociology or religion research topics or religious debate topics, writing help is provided by experts with years of experience in academic writing. They have handled such papers before and are willing to help you craft the best paper for top grades. Well, do not let that religious research paper stress you anymore, let a professional help you!

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Religion in the public schools.

More than 55 years after the Supreme Court issued its landmark ruling striking down school-sponsored prayer, Americans continue to fight over the place of religion in public schools. Questions about religion in the classroom no longer make quite as many headlines as they once did, but the issue remains an important battleground in the broader conflict over religion’s role in public life.

Some Americans are troubled by what they see as an effort on the part of federal courts and civil liberties advocates to exclude God and religious sentiment from public schools. Such an effort, these Americans believe, infringes on the First Amendment right to free exercise of religion.

Many civil libertarians and others, meanwhile, voice concern that conservative Christians and others are trying to impose their values on students. Federal courts, they point out, consistently have interpreted the First Amendment’s prohibition on the establishment of religion to forbid state sponsorship of prayer and most other religious activities in public schools.

This debate centers on public schools; very few people are arguing that religious doctrine cannot be taught at private schools or that teachers at such schools cannot lead students in prayer. And even in public institutions, there is little debate about the right of individual students, teachers and other school employees to practice their religion – by, say, praying before lunch or wearing religious clothing or symbols.

Moreover, as a 2019 survey of American teens shows some forms of religious expression are relatively common in public schools. For instance, about four-in-ten public school students say they routinely see other students praying before sporting events, according to the survey. And about half of U.S. teens in public schools (53%) say they often or sometimes see other students wearing jewelry or clothing with religious symbols.

About this report

This analysis, updated on Oct. 3, 2019, was originally published in 2007 as part of a larger series that explored different aspects of the complex and fluid relationship between government and religion. This report includes sections on school prayer, the pledge of allegiance, religion in school curricula, and the religious liberty rights of students and teachers.

The report does not  address questions of government funding for religious schools (that is, school vouchers and tax credits) because the schools in question are largely private, not public. For a discussion of vouchers and similar issues, see “ Shifting Boundaries: The Establishment Clause and Government Funding of Religious Schools and Other Faith-Based Organizations .” Because that analysis was published in 2009 and has not been updated, it does not include a discussion of more recent Supreme Court voucher rulings or upcoming cases .

Conflicts over religion in school are hardly new. In the 19th century, Protestants and Catholics frequently fought over Bible reading and prayer in public schools. The disputes then were over which Bible and which prayers were appropriate to use in the classroom. Some Catholics were troubled that the schools’ reading materials included the King James version of the Bible, which was favored by Protestants. In 1844, fighting broke out between Protestants and Catholics in Philadelphia; a number of people died in the violence and several Catholic churches were burned. Similar conflicts erupted during the 1850s in Boston and other parts of New England. In the early 20th century, liberal Protestants and their secular allies battled religious conservatives over whether students in biology classes should be taught Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution.

The Pillars of Church-State Law

The Legal Status of Religious Organizations in Civil Lawsuits March 2011 Are legal disputes involving churches and other religious institutions constitutionally different from those involving their secular counterparts, and if so, how?

Government Funding of Faith-Based Organizations May 2009 The debate over the meaning of the Establishment Clause.

Free Exercise and the Legislative and Executive Branches October 2008 A look at state and federal statutes that protect religious freedom.

Free Exercise and the Courts October 2007 The courts have grappled with the meaning of the Free Exercise Clause.

Religious Displays and the Courts June 2007 Government displays of religious symbols have sparked fierce battles.

The Supreme Court stepped into those controversies when it ruled, in  Cantwell v. Connecticut  (1940) and  Everson v. Board of Education of Ewing Township  (1947), that the First Amendment’s Establishment Clause and Free Exercise Clause applied to the states. The two clauses say, “Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof.” Before those two court decisions, courts had applied the religion clauses only to actions of the federal government.

Soon after the Everson decision, the Supreme Court began specifically applying the religion clauses to activities in public schools. In its first such case ,  McCollum v. Board of Education  (1948), the high court invalidated the practice of having religious instructors from different denominations enter public schools to offer religious lessons during the school day to students whose parents requested them. A key factor in the court’s decision was that the lessons took place in the schools. Four years later, in  Zorach v. Clauson , the court upheld an arrangement by which public schools excused students during the school day so they could attend religious classes away from school property. (The new Pew Research Center survey finds that one-in-ten religiously affiliated teens in public school leave the school for religious activities.)

Beginning in the 1960s, the court handed religious conservatives a series of major defeats. It began with the landmark 1962 ruling, Engel v. Vitale , that school-sponsored prayer – even nonsectarian prayer – violated the Establishment Clause. Since then, the Supreme Court has pushed forward, from banning organized Bible reading for religious and moral instruction in 1963 to prohibiting school-sponsored prayers at high school football games in 2000. (The new survey finds that 8% of teens in public school have ever seen a teacher lead the class in prayer, and the same share have ever had a teacher read to the class from the Bible as an example of literature.)

In these and other decisions, the court has repeatedly stressed that the Constitution prohibits public schools from indoctrinating children in religion. But it is not always easy to determine exactly what constitutes indoctrination or school sponsorship of religious activities. For example, can a class on the Bible as literature be taught without a bias for or against the idea that the Bible is religious truth? Can students be compelled to participate in a Christmas-themed music program? Sometimes students themselves, rather than teachers, administrators or coaches, bring faith into school activities. For instance, when a student invokes gratitude to God in a valedictory address, or a high school football player offers a prayer in a huddle, is the school legally responsible for their religious expression?

The issues are complicated by other constitutional guarantees. For instance, the First Amendment also protects freedom of speech and freedom of association. Religious groups have cited those guarantees in support of student religious speech and in efforts to obtain school sponsorship and resources for student religious clubs.

The right of a student or student club to engage in religious speech or activities on school property may, however, conflict with other protections, such as the right of students to avoid harassment. In one case, for example, a federal appeals court approved a high school’s decision to prohibit a student from wearing a T-shirt containing a biblical passage condemning homosexuality. Because the student had graduated by the time the Supreme Court granted his appeal, the Supreme Court ordered the lower court to vacate its ruling and dismiss the case.

In another instance of conflict, some student religious groups want the right to exclude students who do not share the groups’ beliefs, specifically on questions of sexuality. For example, the Christian Legal Society (CLS), which has chapters in many law schools, requires those who serve in leadership positions to agree to a statement that renounces “unbiblical behaviors,” such as engaging in sexual relationships outside of heterosexual marriage. CLS sued a number of law schools after they denied the group official recognition because this leadership policy violated the schools’ nondiscrimination policies. In one of these cases, the Supreme Court ruled against CLS, stating that these nondiscrimination policies were constitutional so long as they were viewpoint neutral and fairly applied to all groups seeking recognition on campus.

As these more recent controversies show, public schools remain a battlefield where the religious interests of parents, students, administrators and teachers often clash.  The conflicts affect many aspects of public education, including classroom curricula, high school football games, student clubs, graduation ceremonies.

Prayer and the Pledge

School prayer.

The most enduring and controversial issue related to school-sponsored religious activities is classroom prayer. In  Engel v. Vitale  (1962), the Supreme Court held that the Establishment Clause prohibited the recitation of a school-sponsored prayer in public schools. Engel involved a simple and seemingly nonsectarian prayer composed especially for use in New York’s public schools. In banning the prayer exercise entirely, the court did not rest its opinion on the grounds that unwilling students were coerced to pray; that would come much later. Rather, the court emphasized what it saw as the wrongs of having the government create and sponsor a religious activity.

The following year, the high court extended the principle outlined in  Engel  to a program of daily Bible reading. In  Abington School District v. Schempp , the court ruled broadly that school sponsorship of religious exercises violates the Constitution. Schempp became the source of the enduring constitutional doctrine that all government action must have a predominantly secular purpose – a requirement that, according to the court, the Bible-reading exercise clearly could not satisfy. By insisting that religious expression be excluded from the formal curriculum, the Supreme Court was assuring parents that public schools would be officially secular and would not compete with parents in their children’s religious upbringing.

With Engel and Schempp, the court outlined the constitutional standard for prohibiting school-sponsored religious expression, a doctrine the court has firmly maintained. In  Stone v. Graham  (1980), for instance, it found unconstitutional a Kentucky law requiring all public schools to post a copy of the Ten Commandments. And in  Wallace v. Jaffree  (1985), it overturned an Alabama law requiring public schools to set aside a moment each day for silent prayer or meditation. However, in a concurrent opinion in Wallace, Justice Sandra Day O’Connor  suggested that a moment of silence requirement might pass constitutional muster if it had a “secular purpose.” And in a subsequent 2009 case, Croft v. Perry , the U.S. Court of Appeals for the 5th Circuit upheld a Texas law mandating a moment of silence because it determined that, in passing the law, the state legislature had sufficiently articulated a secular purpose.

But while courts have given states some latitude in crafting moment of silence statutes, they have shown much less deference to laws or policies that involve actual prayer. In 2000, for instance, the Supreme Court ruled in  Santa Fe Independent School District v. Doe  that schools may not sponsor student-recited prayer at high school football games.

More sweeping in its consequences is  Lee v. Weisman  (1992), which invalidated a school-sponsored prayer led by an invited clergyman at a public school commencement in Providence, Rhode Island. The court’s 5-4 decision rested explicitly on the argument that graduating students were being forced to participate in a religious ceremony. The case effectively outlawed a practice that was customary in many communities across the country, thus fueling the conservative critique that the Supreme Court was inhospitable to public expressions of faith.

So far, lower appellate courts have not extended the principles of the school prayer decisions to university commencements (Chaudhuri v. Tennessee, 6th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals, 1997; Tanford v. Brand, 7th Circuit, 1997). The 4th Circuit, however, found unconstitutional the practice of daily prayer at supper at the Virginia Military Institute. In that case, Mellen v. Bunting (2003), the appellate court reasoned that VMI’s military-like environment tended to coerce participation by cadets. The decision was similar to an earlier ruling by the U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia, which found unconstitutional a policy of the U.S. service academies that all cadets and midshipmen attend Protestant, Catholic or Jewish chapel services on Sunday (Anderson v. Laird, 1972). For the court, the key element was the service academies’ coercion of students to attend the religious activity.

Most recently, in 2019, the Supreme Court declined to review a 9th Circuit Court of Appeals decision upholding the firing of a football coach at a public high school for praying on the field with his players after games. However, in a statement accompanying the denial of review, Justice Samuel A. Alito Jr. (joined by fellow conservative justices Clarence Thomas, Neil Gorsuch and Brett Kavanaugh) indicated the high court would be open to reviewing other cases involving similar issues. Alito wrote that the court denied review in this case due to “important unresolved factual questions,” and that “the 9th Circuit’s understanding of free speech rights of public school teachers is troubling and may justify review in the future.”

The Pledge of Allegiance

In 1954, Congress revised the Pledge of Allegiance to refer to the nation as “under God,” a phrase that has since been recited by generations of schoolchildren. In 2000, Michael Newdow filed suit challenging the phrase on behalf of his daughter, a public school student in California. Newdow argued that the words “under God” violated the Establishment Clause because they transformed the pledge into a religious exercise.

The case,  Elk Grove Unified School District v. Newdow , reached the Supreme Court in 2004, but the justices did not ultimately decide whether the phrase was acceptable. Instead, the court ruled that Newdow lacked standing to bring the suit because he did not have legal custody of his daughter. In concurring opinions, however, four justices expressed the view that the Constitution permitted recitation of the pledge – with the phrase “under God” – in public schools.

While the issue never reached the Supreme Court again, it continued to be litigated in the lower courts. In Myers v. Loudoun County Public Schools (2005), the 4th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals upheld recitation of the pledge in Virginia, but a U.S. district court in California ruled the other way in another suit involving Michael Newdow and other parents. However, the 9th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals in 2010 reversed the district court decision, ruling that the recitation of the pledge did not constitute an establishment of religion.

School officials and student speech

The courts have drawn a sharp distinction between officially sponsored religious speech, such as a benediction by an invited clergyman at a commencement ceremony, and private religious speech by students. The Supreme Court made clear in Lee v. Weisman (1992) that a clergyman’s benediction at a public school event would violate the separation of church and state. Judges usually reach that same conclusion when school officials cooperate with students to produce student-delivered religious messages. But federal courts are more divided in cases involving students acting on their own to include a religious sentiment or prayer at a school commencement or a similar activity.

Some courts, particularly in the South, have upheld the constitutionality of student-initiated religious speech, emphasizing the private origins of this kind of religious expression. As long as school officials did not encourage or explicitly approve the contents, those courts have upheld religious content in student commencement speeches.

In Adler v. Duval County School Board (1996), for example, the 11th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals approved a system at a Florida high school in which the senior class, acting independently of school officials, selected a class member to deliver a commencement address. School officials neither influenced the choice of speaker nor screened the speech. Under those circumstances, the appeals court ruled that the school was not responsible for the religious content of the address.

Other courts, however, have invalidated school policies that permit student speakers to include religious sentiments in graduation addresses. One leading case is ACLU v. Black Horse Pike Regional Board of Education (1996), in which the senior class of a New Jersey public high school selected the student speaker by a vote without knowing in advance the contents of the student’s remarks. The 3rd U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals nevertheless ruled that the high school could not permit religious content in the commencement speech. The court reasoned that students attending the graduation ceremony were as coerced to acquiesce in a student-led prayer as they would be if the prayer were offered by a member of the clergy, the practice forbidden by Weisman in 1992. (Supreme Court Justice Samuel A. Alito Jr., who was then a member of the appeals court, joined a dissenting opinion in the case, arguing that the graduating students’ rights to religious and expressive freedom should prevail over the Establishment Clause concerns.)

Similarly, in Bannon v. School District of Palm Beach County (2004), the 11th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals ruled that Florida school officials were right to order the removal of student-created religious messages and symbols from a school beautification project. The court reasoned that the project was not intended as a forum for the expression of students’ private views but rather as a school activity for which school officials would be held responsible.

Religion in the curriculum

The Supreme Court’s decisions about officially sponsored religious expression in schools consistently draw a distinction between religious activities such as worship or Bible reading, which are designed to inculcate religious sentiments and values, and “teaching about religion,” which is both constitutionally permissible and educationally appropriate. On several occasions, members of the court have suggested that public schools may teach “the Bible as literature,” include lessons about the role of religion and religious institutions in history or offer courses on comparative religion.

Creationism and evolution

Courts have long grappled with attempts by school boards and other official bodies to change the curriculum in ways that directly promote or denigrate a particular religious tradition. Best known among these curriculum disputes are those involving the conflict between proponents and opponents of Darwin’s theory of evolution , which explains the origin of species through evolution by means of natural selection. Opponents favor teaching some form of creationism, the idea that life came about as described in the biblical book of Genesis or evolved under the guidance of a supreme being. A recent alternative to Darwinism, intelligent design, asserts that life is too complex to have arisen without divine intervention.

The Supreme Court entered the evolution debate in 1968, when it ruled, in  Epperson v. Arkansas , that Arkansas could not eliminate from the high school biology curriculum the teaching of “the theory that mankind descended from a lower order of animals.” Arkansas’ exclusion of that aspect of evolutionary theory, the court reasoned, was based on a preference for the account of creation in the book of Genesis and thus violated the state’s constitutional obligation of religious neutrality.

Almost 20 years later, in  Edwards v. Aguillard  (1987), the Supreme Court struck down a Louisiana law that required “balanced treatment” of evolution science and “creation science,” so that any biology teacher who taught one also had to teach the other. The court said the law’s purpose was to single out a particular religious belief – in this case, biblical creationism – and promote it as an alternative to accepted scientific theory. The court also pointed to evidence that the legislation’s sponsor hoped that the balanced treatment requirement would lead science teachers to abandon the teaching of evolution.

Lower courts consistently have followed the lead of Epperson and Edwards. As a result, school boards have lost virtually every fight over curriculum changes designed to challenge evolution, including disclaimers in biology textbooks. One of the most recent and notable of these cases, Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District (2005), involved a challenge to a Pennsylvania school district’s policy of informing high school science students about intelligent design as an alternative to evolution. After lengthy testimony from both proponents and opponents of intelligent design, a federal district court in Pennsylvania concluded that the policy violates the Establishment Clause because intelligent design is a religious, rather than scientific, theory.

Kitzmiller may have been the last major evolution case to make national headlines, but the debate over how to teach about the origins and development of life in public schools has continued in state legislatures, boards of education and other public bodies. In 2019, for instance, policies that could affect the way evolution is taught in public school (often by limiting discussion of “controversial issues”) were introduced and in some cases debated in several states, including Arizona, Florida, Maine, Oklahoma, South Dakota and Virginia.

Study of the Bible

Courts have also expended substantial time and energy considering public school programs that involve Bible study. Although the Supreme Court has occasionally referred to the permissibility of teaching the Bible as literature, some school districts have instituted Bible study programs that courts have found unconstitutional. Frequently, judges have concluded that these courses are thinly disguised efforts to teach a particular understanding of the New Testament.

In a number of these cases, school districts have brought in outside groups to run the Bible study program. The groups, in turn, hired their own teachers, in some cases Bible college students or members of the clergy who did not meet state accreditation standards.

Such Bible study programs have generally been held unconstitutional because, the courts conclude, they teach the Bible as religious truth or are designed to inculcate particular religious sentiments. For a public school class to study the Bible without violating constitutional limits, the class would have to include critical rather than devotional readings and allow open inquiry into the history and content of biblical passages.

Holiday programs

Christmas-themed music programs also have raised constitutional concerns. For a holiday music program to be constitutionally sound, the courts maintain, school officials must ensure the predominance of secular considerations, such as the program’s educational value or the musical qualities of the pieces. The schools also must be sensitive to the possibility that some students will feel coerced to participate in the program (Bauchman v. West High School, 10th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals, 1997; Doe v. Duncanville Independent School District, 5th Circuit, 1995). Moreover, the courts have said, no student should be forced to sing or play music that offends their religious sensibilities. Therefore, schools must allow students the option not to participate.

Multiculturalism

Not all the cases involving religion in the curriculum concern the promotion of the beliefs of the majority. Indeed, challenges have come from Christian groups arguing that school policies discriminate against Christianity by promoting cultural pluralism.

In one example, the 2nd U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals considered a New York City Department of Education policy regulating the types of symbols displayed during the holiday seasons of various religions. The department allows the display of a menorah as a symbol for Hanukkah and a star and crescent to evoke Ramadan but permits the display of only secular symbols of Christmas, such as a Christmas tree; it explicitly forbids the display of a Christmas nativity scene in public schools.

Upholding the city’s policy, the Court of Appeals reasoned in Skoros v. Klein (2006) that city officials intended to promote cultural pluralism in the highly diverse setting of the New York City public schools. The court concluded that a “reasonable observer” would understand that the star and crescent combination and the menorah had secular as well as religious meanings. The judicial panel ruled that the policy, therefore, did not promote Judaism or Islam and did not denigrate Christianity.

In another high-profile case, Citizens for a Responsible Curriculum v. Montgomery County Public Schools (2005), a Maryland citizens’ group successfully challenged a health education curriculum that included discussion of sexual orientation. Ordinarily, opponents of homosexuality could not confidently cite the Establishment Clause as the basis for a complaint, because the curriculum typically would not advance a particular religious perspective. However, the Montgomery County curriculum included materials in teacher guides that disparaged some religious teachings on homosexuality as theologically flawed and contrasted those teachings with what the guide portrayed as the more acceptable and tolerant views of some other faiths. The district court concluded that the curriculum had both the purpose and effect of advancing certain faiths while denigrating the beliefs of others. The county rewrote these materials to exclude any reference to the views of particular faiths, making them more difficult to challenge successfully in court because the lessons did not condemn or praise any faith tradition.

Rights in and out of the classroom

At the time of its school prayer decisions in the early 1960s, the Supreme Court had never ruled on whether students have the right of free speech inside public schools. By the end of that decade, however, the court began to consider the question. And the results have made the rules for religious expression far more complex.

Rights of students

The leading Supreme Court decision on freedom of student speech is  Tinker v. Des Moines School District  (1969), , which upheld the right of students to wear armbands protesting the Vietnam War. The court ruled that school authorities may not suppress expression by students unless the expression significantly disrupts school discipline or invades the rights of others.

This endorsement of students’ freedom of speech did not entirely clarify things for school officials trying to determine students’ rights. Tinker supported student expression, but it did not attempt to reconcile that right of expression with the Supreme Court’s earlier decisions forbidding student participation in school-sponsored prayer and Bible reading. Some school officials responded to the mix of student liberties and restraints by forbidding certain forms of student-initiated religious expression such as the saying of grace before lunch in the school cafeteria, student-sponsored gatherings for prayer at designated spots on school property, or student proselytizing aimed at other students.

After years of uncertainty about these matters, several interest groups devoted to religious freedom and civil liberties drafted a set of guidelines, “Religious Expression in Public Schools,” which the U.S. Department of Education sent to every public school superintendent in 1995. The department revised the guidelines in 2003, placing somewhat greater emphasis on the rights of students to speak or associate for religious purposes. The guidelines highlight these four general principles:

• Students, acting on their own, have the same right to engage in religious activity and discussion as they do to engage in comparable secular activities.
• Students may offer a prayer or blessing before meals in school or assemble on school grounds for religious purposes to the same extent as other students who wish to express their personal views or assemble with others. (The new survey finds that 26% of religiously affiliated teens in public school say they often or sometimes pray before eating lunch.)
• Students may not engage in religious harassment of others or compel other students to participate in religious expression, and schools may control aggressive and unwanted proselytizing.
• Schools may neither favor nor disfavor students or groups on the basis of their religious identities.

A case decided by the 9th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals underscores the difficulties that school officials still can face when students exercise their right to religious expression on school property. In this case, gay and lesbian students in a California high school organized a Day of Silence, in which students promoting tolerance of differences in sexual orientation refrained from speaking in school. The following day, Tyler Harper, a student at the school, wore a T-shirt that on the front read, “Be Ashamed, Our School Has Embraced What God Has Condemned,” and on the back, “Homosexuality Is Shameful, Romans 1:27.” School officials asked him to remove the shirt and took him out of class while they attempted to persuade him to do so.

The Court of Appeals, in Harper v. Poway Unified School District (2006), rejected Harper’s claim that the school officials violated his First Amendment rights. Judge Stephen Reinhardt, writing for a 2- 1 majority and citing Tinker, argued that students’ constitutional rights may be limited to prevent harming the rights of other students. He concluded that the T-shirt could be seen as violating school policies against harassment based on sexual orientation.

Writing in dissent, Judge Alex Kozinski asserted that the school’s sexual harassment policy was far too vague and sweeping to support a restriction on all anti-gay speech. He also argued that the school district had unlawfully discriminated against Harper’s freedom of speech. By permitting the Gay and Lesbian Alliance to conduct the Day of Silence, Kozinski said, the district was choosing sides on a controversial social issue and stifling religiously motivated speech on one side of the issue.

Harper petitioned the Supreme Court to review the appeals court decision. But Harper graduated from high school, and the case took a different turn. The Supreme Court, in early 2007, ordered the lower court to vacate its ruling and dismiss the case on the grounds that it had become moot.

Harper highlighted a tension – one that may yet recur – between the rights of students to engage in religious expression and the rights of other students to be educated in a non-hostile environment. The Supreme Court eventually may clarify school officials’ power to suppress speech as a means of protecting the rights of other students. For now, cases like Harper illustrate the difficulties for school officials in regulating student expression.

Rights of parents

Parents sometimes complain that secular practices at school inhibit their right to direct the religious upbringing of their children. These complaints typically rest on both the Free Exercise Clause of the First Amendment and the 14th Amendment’s Due Process Clause, which forbids the state to deprive any person of “life, liberty or property without due process of law.” The Supreme Court has interpreted them as protecting the right of parents to shape and control the education of their children. When they object to certain school practices, the parents often seek permission for their children to skip the offending lesson or class – to opt out – rather than try to end the practice schoolwide.

The first decision by the Supreme Court on parents’ rights to control their children’s education came in  Pierce v. Society of Sisters  (1925), which guarantees to parents the right to enroll their children in private rather than public schools, whether the private schools are religious or secular. In  West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette  (1943), the court upheld the right of public school students who were Jehovah’s Witnesses to refuse to salute the American flag. The students said the flag represented a graven image and that their religion forbade them from recognizing it. The court’s decision rested on the right of all students, not just those who are religiously motivated, to resist compulsory recitation of official orthodoxy, political or otherwise.

Of all the Supreme Court rulings supporting religious opt-outs, perhaps the most significant came in  Wisconsin v. Yoder  (1972), which upheld the right of members of the Old Order Amish to withdraw their children from formal education at the age of 14. The court determined that a state law requiring children to attend school until the age of 16 burdened the free exercise of their families’ religion. The Amish community had a well-established record as hardworking and law-abiding, the court noted, and Amish teens would receive home-based training. The worldly influences present in the school experience of teenagers, the court said, would undercut the continuity of agrarian life in the Amish community.

In later decisions, lower courts recognized religious opt-outs in other relatively narrow circumstances. Parents successfully cited religious grounds to win the right to remove their children from otherwise compulsory military training (Spence v. Bailey, 1972) and from a coeducational physical education class in which students had to dress in “immodest apparel” (Moody v. Cronin, 1979). In Menora v. Illinois High School Association (1982), the 7th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals ruled that the Illinois High School Association was constitutionally obliged to accommodate Orthodox Jewish basketball players who wanted to wear a head covering, despite an association rule forbidding headgear. The Menora case involves a narrow exception from the dress code, rather than a broader right to opt out of a curriculum requirement.

A great many school districts, meanwhile, have recognized the force of parents’ religious or moral concerns on issues of sexuality and reproduction and have voluntarily provided opt-outs from classes devoted to those topics. Under these opt-out programs, parents do not have to explain their objection, religious or otherwise, to participation by their children. On other occasions, however, parental claims that the Constitution entitles them to remove their children from part or all of a public school curriculum have fared rather poorly.

The issue of home schooling is a good example. Before state legislatures passed laws allowing home schooling, parents seeking to educate their children at home were often unsuccessful in the courts. Many judges distinguished these home schooling cases from Yoder on the grounds that Yoder involved teenagers rather than young children. The judges also noted that Yoder was concerned with the survival of an entire religious community – the Old Order Amish – rather than the impact of education on a single family. Indeed, in virtually all the cases decided over the past 25 years, courts have found that the challenged curriculum requirement did not unconstitutionally burden parents’ religious choices.

The most famous of the cases is Mozert v. Hawkins County Board of Education (1987), in which a group of Tennessee parents complained that references to mental telepathy, evolution, secular humanism, feminism, pacifism and magic in a series of books in the reading curriculum offended the families’ Christian beliefs. The school board originally allowed children to choose alternative reading materials but then eliminated that option.

The 6th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals ruled in the county’s favor on the grounds that students were not being asked to do anything in conflict with their religious obligations. Furthermore, the court said, the school board had a strong interest in exposing children to a variety of ideas and images and in using a uniform series of books for all children. Because the books did not explicitly adopt or denigrate particular religious beliefs, the court concluded, the parents could insist neither on the removal of the books from the schools nor on their children opting out.

The 1st U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals reached a similar conclusion in a case involving a public high school in Massachusetts that held a mandatory assembly devoted to AIDS and sex education. In that case, Brown v. Hot, Sexy, and Safer Productions (1995), the court rejected a complaint brought by parents who alleged that exposure to sexually explicit material infringed on their rights to religious freedom and control of the upbringing of their children. The court concluded that this one-time exposure to the material would not substantially burden the parents’ freedom to rear their children and that the school authorities had strong reasons to inform high school students about “safe sex.”

More recently, parents and students have, on religious liberty and other grounds, sued school districts that accommodate transgender students by allowing them to use bathroom and locker facilities that match their current gender identity rather than their sex at birth. Some parents and students argue that the new arrangements violate their religious liberty rights because the school policy forces them to accommodate a set of moral and religious beliefs they disagree with.

So far, however, federal courts have sided with school districts that have accommodated transgender students. For instance, in Parents for Privacy v. Dallas School District No. 2, a federal district court dismissed a suit against Oregon’s Dallas school district, stating that accommodating transgender students does not impinge on the religious rights of other students or their parents. And in 2019, the Supreme Court declined to review Doe v. Boyertown Area School District, letting stand a 3rd U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals ruling upholding a Pennsylvania school district’s policy to accommodate transgender students.

Rights of teachers and administrators

Without question, public school employees retain their rights to free exercise of religion. When off duty, school employees are free to engage in worship, proselytizing or any other lawful faith-based activity. When they are acting as representatives of a public school system, however, courts have said their rights are constrained by the Establishment Clause.

This limitation on religious expression raises difficult questions. The first is what limits school systems may impose on the ordinary and incidental expression of religious identity by teachers in the classroom. Most school systems permit teachers to wear religious clothing or jewelry. Similarly, teachers may disclose their religious identity; for instance, they need not refuse to answer when a student asks, “Do you celebrate Christmas or Hanukkah?” or “Did I see you at the Islamic center yesterday morning?”

At times, however, teachers act in an uninvited and overtly religious manner toward students and are asked by school administrators to refrain. When those requests have led to litigation, administrators invariably have prevailed on the grounds that they are obliged (for constitutional and pedagogical reasons) to be sensitive to a teacher’s coercive potential.

In Bishop v. Aronov (1991), for example, the 11th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals upheld a set of restrictions imposed by the University of Alabama on a professor of exercise physiology. Professor Phillip Bishop had been speaking regularly to his class about the role of his Christian beliefs in his work and had scheduled an optional class in which he offered a “Christian perspective” on human physiology. The court recognized the university’s general authority to control the way in which instruction took place, noting that Bishop’s academic freedom was not jeopardized since he retained the right to express his religious views in his published writing and elsewhere.

In Roberts v. Madigan (1990), a federal district court similarly upheld the authority of a public school principal in Colorado to order a fifth-grade teacher to take down a religious poster from the classroom wall and to remove books titled “The Bible in Pictures” and “The Life of Jesus” from the classroom library. The court also backed the principal’s order that the teacher remove the Bible from his desktop and refrain from silently reading the Bible during instructional time. The court emphasized that school principals need such authority to prevent potential violations of the Establishment Clause and to protect students against a religiously coercive atmosphere.

That much is clear. What is less clear is how public school systems should draw the line between teachers’ official duties and their own time. That was the key question in Wigg v. Sioux Falls School District (8th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals, 2004), in which a teacher sued the South Dakota school district for refusing to allow her to serve as an instructor in the Good News Club (an evangelical Christian group) that met after school hours at various public elementary schools in the district.

A federal district court ruled that the teacher, Barbara Wigg, should be free to participate in the club but said the school district could insist that the teacher not participate at the school where she was employed. The appellate court affirmed the decision but went further in protecting the teacher’s rights, concluding that the school district could not exclude her from the program at her own school. The court reasoned that once the school day ended, Wigg became a private citizen, leaving her free to be a Good News Club instructor at any school, including the one where she worked. The court ruled that no reasonable observer would perceive Wigg’s after-school role as being carried out on behalf of the school district, even though the club met on school property.

In general, then, the courts have ruled that public schools have substantial discretion to regulate the religious expression of teachers during instructional hours, especially when students are required to be present. The courts have also ruled, however, that attempts by schools to extend that control into non-instructional hours constitute an overly broad intrusion on the teachers’ religious freedom.

Religious activities and the principle of equal access

Over the past 20 years, evangelical Christians and others have advanced the rights of religious organizations to have equal access to meeting space and other forms of recognition provided by public schools to students. These organizations have consistently succeeded in securing the same privileges provided by public schools to secular groups.

Their victories have not been based on a claim that religious groups have a right to official recognition simply because they want to practice or preach their religion; instead, these cases have been won on free-speech grounds.

Whenever public schools recognize student extracurricular activities (for example, a student Republican club or an animal rights group), the schools are deemed to have created a forum for student expression. The constitutional rules governing the forum concept are complicated, but one consistent theme is that the state may not discriminate against a person or group seeking access to the forum based on that person’s or group’s viewpoint. In a now-lengthy line of decisions, the Supreme Court has ruled consistently that religious groups represent a particular viewpoint on the subjects they address and that officials may not exclude that viewpoint from a government-created forum for expression or association.

The first major decision in this area was  Widmar v. Vincent   (1981), , in which the Supreme Court ruled that the University of Missouri could not exclude from campus facilities a student group that wanted to use the school’s buildings for worship and Bible study. The university had refused the group access, asserting that the Establishment Clause forbade the use of a public university’s facilities for worship. The court rejected this defense, ruling that the university had allowed other student groups to use university property and that the complaining group could not be excluded on the basis of its religious viewpoint.

The Supreme Court later extended Widmar’s notion of equal access to nonstudent groups. They, too, should have access to public space, the court said. Despite the decision in Widmar, however, some public high schools continued to refuse access to student religious groups. Those schools took the view that prayer and Bible reading in public schools were constitutionally impermissible, even if wholly student initiated. At least one court of appeals has upheld that argument.

Congress responded by passing the Equal Access Act of 1984. As a condition for receiving federal financial aid, the law required that public secondary schools not discriminate on the basis of religion or political viewpoint in recognizing and supporting extracurricular activities. This law has benefited a variety of student organizations, from gay and lesbian groups to evangelical Christian clubs.

In 1985, a year after Congress passed the equal access law, school officials in Omaha, Nebraska, refused a student request for permission to form a Christian club at a public high school. The club’s activities included reading and discussing the Bible and engaging in prayer. The students filed suit under the Equal Access Act, and the school officials responded that allowing such a club in a public school would violate the Establishment Clause.

In the court case, Board of Education v. Mergens (1990), the Supreme Court upheld the Equal Access Act. The 8-1 majority reasoned that high schools were indistinguishable from universities for purposes of equal access to public facilities. Because there were many student groups devoted to different and frequently opposing causes, the court determined that no reasonable observer would see the school’s recognition of a religious group as an official endorsement of the group’s religious views.

The limits of  Widmar  and  Mergens  were later put to the test in  Rosenberger v. University of Virginia  (1995) and  Good News Club v. Milford Central School District  (2001). In Rosenberger, the Supreme Court held 5-4 that the Free Speech Clause of the First Amendment required a state university to grant the same printing subsidy to an evangelical journal that it made available to all other student journals. The dissenters argued, unsuccessfully, that state financial support for a proselytizing journal violated the Establishment Clause. In Good News Club, a 6-3 majority held that the Free Speech Clause prohibited an elementary school from excluding an evangelical Christian program for children from the list of accepted after-school activities.

These equal access decisions have led to new controversies in the lower courts. In Child Evangelism Fellowship of Maryland v. Montgomery County Public Schools (2006), for instance, a federal appellate court extended the equal access principle to fliers that schools distributed to students to take home for the purpose of informing parents about after-school activities. For years the county had distributed fliers for children’s sports leagues and activities like the Boy Scouts. But it refused to distribute fliers for the after-school programs of the Child Evangelism Fellowship of Maryland, which are not held on school property. The 4th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals held that the county’s flier distribution policy was unconstitutionally discriminatory.

The presence of student religious groups in public schools has raised one additional issue. At times these groups insist that their officers make specific religious commitments, such as accepting Jesus Christ as savior and maintaining sexual abstinence outside of heterosexual marriage. As a result, some students are excluded from joining the group or from its leadership ranks. In Hsu v. Roslyn Union Free School District No. 3 (1996), the 2nd U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals held that the federal Equal Access Act gave students in an evangelical Christian group the right to maintain religious criteria for office. The court said the school’s policy against religious discrimination by student groups was unenforceable in this instance.

The issue arrived at the Supreme Court in 2010 in a case involving a public law school’s decision to deny official recognition to the Christian Legal Society (CLS), a nationwide, nondenominational organization of Christian lawyers, judges and law students. Although the case, Christian Legal Society v. Martinez, involved just one law school (the University of California, Hastings College of Law), other law schools around the country also had been sued by the organization for similar reasons. By the time the Supreme Court agreed to hear Martinez, lower federal courts in different cases had ruled both for and against the organization.

The case centered on Hastings’ policies toward student organizations. Student groups that are officially recognized by Hastings enjoy certain privileges, including access to school facilities and funding. But CLS membership requirements effectively bar non-Christians from becoming voting members and non-celibate gays and lesbians from assuming leadership positions, which conflicts with the law school’s stated policy of requiring registered student groups to accept any students as members. After Hastings refused to exempt CLS from the policy – known as the “all-comers” policy – the group sued, claiming the policy violated its First and 14th Amendment rights to free speech, expressive association and freedom of religious expression. A federal district court and the Court of Appeals for the 9th Circuit sided with Hastings, and CLS appealed to the Supreme Court.

The case was widely viewed as a contest between the right of free association and nondiscrimination policies. In its ruling, however, the court did not resolve any broad questions raised by this conflict. Instead, the 5-4 majority handed down a narrowly tailored decision that upheld the specific policy of Hastings Law School – the “all-comers” policy – as long as it is applied in an evenhanded manner.

Writing for the high court’s majority, Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg said that Hastings’ policy requiring officially registered student groups to allow anyone to join does not unconstitutionally discriminate against groups with particular viewpoints or missions. Quite the contrary, she wrote, the policy is completely neutral since it requires all organizations to open their membership and leadership to all students. Ginsburg argued that it is CLS that wants an exemption from the policy and thus threatens its neutrality. Moreover, she wrote, an “all-comers” policy is reasonable for an educational institution because it encourages all groups to accept and interact with students who hold diverse views. Finally, Ginsburg noted that even though the Christian Legal Society has been denied official recognition by the law school, the group can, and still does, freely operate on campus and is even allowed to use school facilities to hold meetings.

Writing for the dissent, Justice Samuel A. Alito Jr. argued that by affirming Hastings’ policy, the majority sacrificed core First Amendment principles in favor of political correctness and armed “public educational institutions with a handy weapon for suppressing the speech of unpopular groups.” In addition, Alito asserted, the majority overlooked certain evidence demonstrating that Hastings had singled out CLS because of its beliefs. Prior to the lawsuit, he said, many officially recognized groups on the Hastings campus – not just CLS – had membership requirements written into their bylaws that were discriminatory. Justice Alito also disputed the majority’s contention that CLS, even without official recognition, can still effectively operate on campus, noting that the administration has ignored requests by the group to secure rooms for meetings and tables at campus events.

This report was written by Ira C. Lupu, F. Elwood and Eleanor Davis  Professor Emeritus of Law at George Washington University Law School; David Masci, Senior Writer/Editor at Pew Research Center; and Robert W. Tuttle, David R. and Sherry Kirschner Berz Research Professor of Law & Religion at George Washington University Law School.

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In u.s., far more support than oppose separation of church and state, teens in the south more likely than other u.s. teens to experience religion in public school, for a lot of american teens, religion is a regular part of the public school day, european countries that have mandatory church taxes are about as religious as their neighbors that don’t, most popular.

About Pew Research Center Pew Research Center is a nonpartisan fact tank that informs the public about the issues, attitudes and trends shaping the world. It conducts public opinion polling, demographic research, media content analysis and other empirical social science research. Pew Research Center does not take policy positions. It is a subsidiary of The Pew Charitable Trusts .

Research Topics & Ideas: Education

170+ Research Ideas To Fast-Track Your Project

If you’re just starting out exploring education-related topics for your dissertation, thesis or research project, you’ve come to the right place. In this post, we’ll help kickstart your research topic ideation process by providing a hearty list of research topics and ideas , including examples from actual dissertations and theses..

PS – This is just the start…

We know it’s exciting to run through a list of research topics, but please keep in mind that this list is just a starting point . To develop a suitable education-related research topic, you’ll need to identify a clear and convincing research gap , and a viable plan of action to fill that gap.

If this sounds foreign to you, check out our free research topic webinar that explores how to find and refine a high-quality research topic, from scratch. Alternatively, if you’d like hands-on help, consider our 1-on-1 coaching service .

Overview: Education Research Topics

• How to find a research topic (video)
• List of 50+ education-related research topics/ideas
• List of 120+ level-specific research topics 
• Examples of actual dissertation topics in education
• Tips to fast-track your topic ideation (video)
• Free Webinar : Topic Ideation 101
• Where to get extra help

Education-Related Research Topics & Ideas

Below you’ll find a list of education-related research topics and idea kickstarters. These are fairly broad and flexible to various contexts, so keep in mind that you will need to refine them a little. Nevertheless, they should inspire some ideas for your project.

• The impact of school funding on student achievement
• The effects of social and emotional learning on student well-being
• The effects of parental involvement on student behaviour
• The impact of teacher training on student learning
• The impact of classroom design on student learning
• The impact of poverty on education
• The use of student data to inform instruction
• The role of parental involvement in education
• The effects of mindfulness practices in the classroom
• The use of technology in the classroom
• The role of critical thinking in education
• The use of formative and summative assessments in the classroom
• The use of differentiated instruction in the classroom
• The use of gamification in education
• The effects of teacher burnout on student learning
• The impact of school leadership on student achievement
• The effects of teacher diversity on student outcomes
• The role of teacher collaboration in improving student outcomes
• The implementation of blended and online learning
• The effects of teacher accountability on student achievement
• The effects of standardized testing on student learning
• The effects of classroom management on student behaviour
• The effects of school culture on student achievement
• The use of student-centred learning in the classroom
• The impact of teacher-student relationships on student outcomes
• The achievement gap in minority and low-income students
• The use of culturally responsive teaching in the classroom
• The impact of teacher professional development on student learning
• The use of project-based learning in the classroom
• The effects of teacher expectations on student achievement
• The use of adaptive learning technology in the classroom
• The impact of teacher turnover on student learning
• The effects of teacher recruitment and retention on student learning
• The impact of early childhood education on later academic success
• The impact of parental involvement on student engagement
• The use of positive reinforcement in education
• The impact of school climate on student engagement
• The role of STEM education in preparing students for the workforce
• The effects of school choice on student achievement
• The use of technology in the form of online tutoring

Level-Specific Research Topics

Looking for research topics for a specific level of education? We’ve got you covered. Below you can find research topic ideas for primary, secondary and tertiary-level education contexts. Click the relevant level to view the respective list.

Research Topics: Pick An Education Level

Primary education.

• Investigating the effects of peer tutoring on academic achievement in primary school
• Exploring the benefits of mindfulness practices in primary school classrooms
• Examining the effects of different teaching strategies on primary school students’ problem-solving skills
• The use of storytelling as a teaching strategy in primary school literacy instruction
• The role of cultural diversity in promoting tolerance and understanding in primary schools
• The impact of character education programs on moral development in primary school students
• Investigating the use of technology in enhancing primary school mathematics education
• The impact of inclusive curriculum on promoting equity and diversity in primary schools
• The impact of outdoor education programs on environmental awareness in primary school students
• The influence of school climate on student motivation and engagement in primary schools
• Investigating the effects of early literacy interventions on reading comprehension in primary school students
• The impact of parental involvement in school decision-making processes on student achievement in primary schools
• Exploring the benefits of inclusive education for students with special needs in primary schools
• Investigating the effects of teacher-student feedback on academic motivation in primary schools
• The role of technology in developing digital literacy skills in primary school students
• Effective strategies for fostering a growth mindset in primary school students
• Investigating the role of parental support in reducing academic stress in primary school children
• The role of arts education in fostering creativity and self-expression in primary school students
• Examining the effects of early childhood education programs on primary school readiness
• Examining the effects of homework on primary school students’ academic performance
• The role of formative assessment in improving learning outcomes in primary school classrooms
• The impact of teacher-student relationships on academic outcomes in primary school
• Investigating the effects of classroom environment on student behavior and learning outcomes in primary schools
• Investigating the role of creativity and imagination in primary school curriculum
• The impact of nutrition and healthy eating programs on academic performance in primary schools
• The impact of social-emotional learning programs on primary school students’ well-being and academic performance
• The role of parental involvement in academic achievement of primary school children
• Examining the effects of classroom management strategies on student behavior in primary school
• The role of school leadership in creating a positive school climate Exploring the benefits of bilingual education in primary schools
• The effectiveness of project-based learning in developing critical thinking skills in primary school students
• The role of inquiry-based learning in fostering curiosity and critical thinking in primary school students
• The effects of class size on student engagement and achievement in primary schools
• Investigating the effects of recess and physical activity breaks on attention and learning in primary school
• Exploring the benefits of outdoor play in developing gross motor skills in primary school children
• The effects of educational field trips on knowledge retention in primary school students
• Examining the effects of inclusive classroom practices on students’ attitudes towards diversity in primary schools
• The impact of parental involvement in homework on primary school students’ academic achievement
• Investigating the effectiveness of different assessment methods in primary school classrooms
• The influence of physical activity and exercise on cognitive development in primary school children
• Exploring the benefits of cooperative learning in promoting social skills in primary school students

Secondary Education

• Investigating the effects of school discipline policies on student behavior and academic success in secondary education
• The role of social media in enhancing communication and collaboration among secondary school students
• The impact of school leadership on teacher effectiveness and student outcomes in secondary schools
• Investigating the effects of technology integration on teaching and learning in secondary education
• Exploring the benefits of interdisciplinary instruction in promoting critical thinking skills in secondary schools
• The impact of arts education on creativity and self-expression in secondary school students
• The effectiveness of flipped classrooms in promoting student learning in secondary education
• The role of career guidance programs in preparing secondary school students for future employment
• Investigating the effects of student-centered learning approaches on student autonomy and academic success in secondary schools
• The impact of socio-economic factors on educational attainment in secondary education
• Investigating the impact of project-based learning on student engagement and academic achievement in secondary schools
• Investigating the effects of multicultural education on cultural understanding and tolerance in secondary schools
• The influence of standardized testing on teaching practices and student learning in secondary education
• Investigating the effects of classroom management strategies on student behavior and academic engagement in secondary education
• The influence of teacher professional development on instructional practices and student outcomes in secondary schools
• The role of extracurricular activities in promoting holistic development and well-roundedness in secondary school students
• Investigating the effects of blended learning models on student engagement and achievement in secondary education
• The role of physical education in promoting physical health and well-being among secondary school students
• Investigating the effects of gender on academic achievement and career aspirations in secondary education
• Exploring the benefits of multicultural literature in promoting cultural awareness and empathy among secondary school students
• The impact of school counseling services on student mental health and well-being in secondary schools
• Exploring the benefits of vocational education and training in preparing secondary school students for the workforce
• The role of digital literacy in preparing secondary school students for the digital age
• The influence of parental involvement on academic success and well-being of secondary school students
• The impact of social-emotional learning programs on secondary school students’ well-being and academic success
• The role of character education in fostering ethical and responsible behavior in secondary school students
• Examining the effects of digital citizenship education on responsible and ethical technology use among secondary school students
• The impact of parental involvement in school decision-making processes on student outcomes in secondary schools
• The role of educational technology in promoting personalized learning experiences in secondary schools
• The impact of inclusive education on the social and academic outcomes of students with disabilities in secondary schools
• The influence of parental support on academic motivation and achievement in secondary education
• The role of school climate in promoting positive behavior and well-being among secondary school students
• Examining the effects of peer mentoring programs on academic achievement and social-emotional development in secondary schools
• Examining the effects of teacher-student relationships on student motivation and achievement in secondary schools
• Exploring the benefits of service-learning programs in promoting civic engagement among secondary school students
• The impact of educational policies on educational equity and access in secondary education
• Examining the effects of homework on academic achievement and student well-being in secondary education
• Investigating the effects of different assessment methods on student performance in secondary schools
• Examining the effects of single-sex education on academic performance and gender stereotypes in secondary schools
• The role of mentoring programs in supporting the transition from secondary to post-secondary education

Tertiary Education

• The role of student support services in promoting academic success and well-being in higher education
• The impact of internationalization initiatives on students’ intercultural competence and global perspectives in tertiary education
• Investigating the effects of active learning classrooms and learning spaces on student engagement and learning outcomes in tertiary education
• Exploring the benefits of service-learning experiences in fostering civic engagement and social responsibility in higher education
• The influence of learning communities and collaborative learning environments on student academic and social integration in higher education
• Exploring the benefits of undergraduate research experiences in fostering critical thinking and scientific inquiry skills
• Investigating the effects of academic advising and mentoring on student retention and degree completion in higher education
• The role of student engagement and involvement in co-curricular activities on holistic student development in higher education
• The impact of multicultural education on fostering cultural competence and diversity appreciation in higher education
• The role of internships and work-integrated learning experiences in enhancing students’ employability and career outcomes
• Examining the effects of assessment and feedback practices on student learning and academic achievement in tertiary education
• The influence of faculty professional development on instructional practices and student outcomes in tertiary education
• The influence of faculty-student relationships on student success and well-being in tertiary education
• The impact of college transition programs on students’ academic and social adjustment to higher education
• The impact of online learning platforms on student learning outcomes in higher education
• The impact of financial aid and scholarships on access and persistence in higher education
• The influence of student leadership and involvement in extracurricular activities on personal development and campus engagement
• Exploring the benefits of competency-based education in developing job-specific skills in tertiary students
• Examining the effects of flipped classroom models on student learning and retention in higher education
• Exploring the benefits of online collaboration and virtual team projects in developing teamwork skills in tertiary students
• Investigating the effects of diversity and inclusion initiatives on campus climate and student experiences in tertiary education
• The influence of study abroad programs on intercultural competence and global perspectives of college students
• Investigating the effects of peer mentoring and tutoring programs on student retention and academic performance in tertiary education
• Investigating the effectiveness of active learning strategies in promoting student engagement and achievement in tertiary education
• Investigating the effects of blended learning models and hybrid courses on student learning and satisfaction in higher education
• The role of digital literacy and information literacy skills in supporting student success in the digital age
• Investigating the effects of experiential learning opportunities on career readiness and employability of college students
• The impact of e-portfolios on student reflection, self-assessment, and showcasing of learning in higher education
• The role of technology in enhancing collaborative learning experiences in tertiary classrooms
• The impact of research opportunities on undergraduate student engagement and pursuit of advanced degrees
• Examining the effects of competency-based assessment on measuring student learning and achievement in tertiary education
• Examining the effects of interdisciplinary programs and courses on critical thinking and problem-solving skills in college students
• The role of inclusive education and accessibility in promoting equitable learning experiences for diverse student populations
• The role of career counseling and guidance in supporting students’ career decision-making in tertiary education
• The influence of faculty diversity and representation on student success and inclusive learning environments in higher education

Education-Related Dissertations & Theses

While the ideas we’ve presented above are a decent starting point for finding a research topic in education, they are fairly generic and non-specific. So, it helps to look at actual dissertations and theses in the education space to see how this all comes together in practice.

Below, we’ve included a selection of education-related research projects to help refine your thinking. These are actual dissertations and theses, written as part of Master’s and PhD-level programs, so they can provide some useful insight as to what a research topic looks like in practice.

• From Rural to Urban: Education Conditions of Migrant Children in China (Wang, 2019)
• Energy Renovation While Learning English: A Guidebook for Elementary ESL Teachers (Yang, 2019)
• A Reanalyses of Intercorrelational Matrices of Visual and Verbal Learners’ Abilities, Cognitive Styles, and Learning Preferences (Fox, 2020)
• A study of the elementary math program utilized by a mid-Missouri school district (Barabas, 2020)
• Instructor formative assessment practices in virtual learning environments : a posthumanist sociomaterial perspective (Burcks, 2019)
• Higher education students services: a qualitative study of two mid-size universities’ direct exchange programs (Kinde, 2020)
• Exploring editorial leadership : a qualitative study of scholastic journalism advisers teaching leadership in Missouri secondary schools (Lewis, 2020)
• Selling the virtual university: a multimodal discourse analysis of marketing for online learning (Ludwig, 2020)
• Advocacy and accountability in school counselling: assessing the use of data as related to professional self-efficacy (Matthews, 2020)
• The use of an application screening assessment as a predictor of teaching retention at a midwestern, K-12, public school district (Scarbrough, 2020)
• Core values driving sustained elite performance cultures (Beiner, 2020)
• Educative features of upper elementary Eureka math curriculum (Dwiggins, 2020)
• How female principals nurture adult learning opportunities in successful high schools with challenging student demographics (Woodward, 2020)
• The disproportionality of Black Males in Special Education: A Case Study Analysis of Educator Perceptions in a Southeastern Urban High School (McCrae, 2021)

As you can see, these research topics are a lot more focused than the generic topic ideas we presented earlier. So, in order for you to develop a high-quality research topic, you’ll need to get specific and laser-focused on a specific context with specific variables of interest.  In the video below, we explore some other important things you’ll need to consider when crafting your research topic.

Get 1-On-1 Help

If you’re still unsure about how to find a quality research topic within education, check out our Research Topic Kickstarter service, which is the perfect starting point for developing a unique, well-justified research topic.

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54 Comments

This is an helpful tool 🙏

Special education

Really appreciated by this . It is the best platform for research related items

Research title related to school of students

Research title related to students

Good idea I’m going to teach my colleagues

You can find our list of nursing-related research topic ideas here: https://gradcoach.com/research-topics-nursing/

Write on action research topic, using guidance and counseling to address unwanted teenage pregnancy in school

Thanks a lot

I learned a lot from this site, thank you so much!

Thank you for the information.. I would like to request a topic based on school major in social studies

parental involvement and students academic performance

Science education topics?

How about School management and supervision pls.?

Hi i am an Deputy Principal in a primary school. My wish is to srudy foe Master’s degree in Education.Please advice me on which topic can be relevant for me. Thanks.

Every topic proposed above on primary education is a starting point for me. I appreciate immensely the team that has sat down to make a detail of these selected topics just for beginners like us. Be blessed.

Kindly help me with the research questions on the topic” Effects of workplace conflict on the employees’ job performance”. The effects can be applicable in every institution,enterprise or organisation.

Greetings, I am a student majoring in Sociology and minoring in Public Administration. I’m considering any recommended research topic in the field of Sociology.

I’m a student pursuing Mphil in Basic education and I’m considering any recommended research proposal topic in my field of study

Kindly help me with a research topic in educational psychology. Ph.D level. Thank you.

Project-based learning is a teaching/learning type,if well applied in a classroom setting will yield serious positive impact. What can a teacher do to implement this in a disadvantaged zone like “North West Region of Cameroon ( hinterland) where war has brought about prolonged and untold sufferings on the indegins?

I wish to get help on topics of research on educational administration

I wish to get help on topics of research on educational administration PhD level

I am also looking for such type of title

I am a student of undergraduate, doing research on how to use guidance and counseling to address unwanted teenage pregnancy in school

the topics are very good regarding research & education .

Can i request your suggestion topic for my Thesis about Teachers as an OFW. thanx you

Would like to request for suggestions on a topic in Economics of education,PhD level

Would like to request for suggestions on a topic in Economics of education

Hi 👋 I request that you help me with a written research proposal about education the format

l would like to request suggestions on a topic in managing teaching and learning, PhD level (educational leadership and management)

request suggestions on a topic in managing teaching and learning, PhD level (educational leadership and management)

I would to inquire on research topics on Educational psychology, Masters degree

I am PhD student, I am searching my Research topic, It should be innovative,my area of interest is online education,use of technology in education

request suggestion on topic in masters in medical education .

Look at British Library as they keep a copy of all PhDs in the UK Core.ac.uk to access Open University and 6 other university e-archives, pdf downloads mostly available, all free.

May I also ask for a topic based on mathematics education for college teaching, please?

Please I am a masters student of the department of Teacher Education, Faculty of Education Please I am in need of proposed project topics to help with my final year thesis

Am a PhD student in Educational Foundations would like a sociological topic. Thank

please i need a proposed thesis project regardging computer science

Greetings and Regards I am a doctoral student in the field of philosophy of education. I am looking for a new topic for my thesis. Because of my work in the elementary school, I am looking for a topic that is from the field of elementary education and is related to the philosophy of education.

Masters student in the field of curriculum, any ideas of a research topic on low achiever students

In the field of curriculum any ideas of a research topic on deconalization in contextualization of digital teaching and learning through in higher education

Amazing guidelines

I am a graduate with two masters. 1) Master of arts in religious studies and 2) Master in education in foundations of education. I intend to do a Ph.D. on my second master’s, however, I need to bring both masters together through my Ph.D. research. can I do something like, ” The contribution of Philosophy of education for a quality religion education in Kenya”? kindly, assist and be free to suggest a similar topic that will bring together the two masters. thanks in advance

Hi, I am an Early childhood trainer as well as a researcher, I need more support on this topic: The impact of early childhood education on later academic success.

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• Bibliography
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• Referencing guides

Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Religious education'

Create a spot-on reference in apa, mla, chicago, harvard, and other styles.

Consult the top 50 dissertations / theses for your research on the topic 'Religious education.'

Next to every source in the list of references, there is an 'Add to bibliography' button. Press on it, and we will generate automatically the bibliographic reference to the chosen work in the citation style you need: APA, MLA, Harvard, Chicago, Vancouver, etc.

You can also download the full text of the academic publication as pdf and read online its abstract whenever available in the metadata.

Browse dissertations / theses on a wide variety of disciplines and organise your bibliography correctly.

Teece, Geoffrey. "A religious approach to religious education : the implications of John Hick’s religious interpretation of religion for religious education." Thesis, University of Birmingham, 2010. http://etheses.bham.ac.uk//id/eprint/1103/.

Kim, Young-Ho. "People's tradition of religious education /." Access Digital Full Text version, 1991. http://pocketknowledge.tc.columbia.edu/home.php/bybib/11169321.

Hick, Brian John. "Worship and religious education." Thesis, University of Sussex, 1988. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.357004.

Plopper, Eli. "The Religious Education Association religious feeling and scientific loyalty /." Theological Research Exchange Network (TREN), 2006. http://www.tren.com/search.cfm?p006-1502.

Akinde, Adebisi. "Religious conflict in Nigeria : a role for religious education." Thesis, University of Hull, 1989. http://hydra.hull.ac.uk/resources/hull:3575.

Guy, Robert L. Holsinger M. Paul. "Religious expression in public education." Normal, Ill. Illinois State University, 2001. http://wwwlib.umi.com/cr/ilstu/fullcit?p3006619.

Patel, E. S. "Ismaili religious education and modernity." Thesis, University of Oxford, 2002. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.395302.

O'Grady, Kevin. "Motivation in secondary religious education." Thesis, University of Warwick, 2006. http://wrap.warwick.ac.uk/2848/.

Fancourt, Nigel Peter Michell. "Self assessment in religious education." Thesis, University of Warwick, 2008. http://wrap.warwick.ac.uk/1108/.

Clarke, Terence. "Curriculum development in religious education." Thesis, Queen's University Belfast, 1989. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.294021.

Pollard, Gaynor. "Religious education and feminist theology." Thesis, University of Exeter, 2006. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.439141.

Walter, Woodrow James. "Books in Religious Adult Education Valued by Professional Religious Adult Educators." Thesis, University of North Texas, 1996. https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc935810/.

Lapis, Giovanni <1983&gt. "Religious education and East Asian religions : a study-of-religion\s based framework for intercultural and didactic approaches." Doctoral thesis, Università Ca' Foscari Venezia, 2021. http://hdl.handle.net/10579/18462.

Bowering, Jacqueline Gail. "Spirituality in education : in search of a unifying theme." Thesis, McGill University, 1995. http://digitool.Library.McGill.CA:80/R/?func=dbin-jump-full&object_id=23207.

Smith, D. L. "What does religious education achieve? : an investigation into the effect of secondary school pupils' experience of religious education on their attitude to religion." Thesis, University of Wales Trinity Saint David, 1999. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.683379.

Richards, David J. "Predictors of financial health in religious higher education institutions /." free to MU campus, to others for purchase, 2003. http://wwwlib.umi.com/cr/mo/fullcit?p3099625.

Kadiwal, Laila. "Religious pluralism in Ismaili Muslim religious education : from difference to diversity." Thesis, University of Sussex, 2015. http://sro.sussex.ac.uk/id/eprint/55033/.

Mwesigwa, Fred Sheldon. "Religious pluralism and conflict as issues in religious education in Uganda." Thesis, University of Leeds, 2003. http://etheses.whiterose.ac.uk/559/.

Lopes, Évely Adriana de Lima. "História das religiões: uma alternativa curricular para o ensino religioso em Goiás." Universidade Federal de Goiás, 2015. http://repositorio.bc.ufg.br/tede/handle/tede/5540.

Cyril, Lesley Anne. "Nurturing servant leaders in religious education." Click here to access this resource online, 2006. http://hdl.handle.net/10292/367.

Gower, Ralph Ronald. "Postmodernism, children's thinking and religious education." Thesis, University of Liverpool, 2004. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.428206.

Jackson, Robert. "Religious education in a plural context." Thesis, University of Wales Trinity Saint David, 2006. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.683002.

Baek, Sungwoo. "Ontology, otherness and critical religious education." Thesis, King's College London (University of London), 2014. https://kclpure.kcl.ac.uk/portal/en/theses/ontology-otherness-and-critical-religious-education(429b520d-4580-47b3-b486-e2c0b50d36c7).html.

Bambic, Daryl. "Guiding the religious response of adolescents : an alternative model of religious education." Thesis, McGill University, 1994. http://digitool.Library.McGill.CA:80/R/?func=dbin-jump-full&object_id=22558.

Devenish, Anne P. "The lived experience of God and its evolution in children and adolescents." Thesis, Edith Cowan University, Research Online, Perth, Western Australia, 2006. https://ro.ecu.edu.au/theses/60.

McLaughlin, Terence Henry. "Parental rights in religious upbringing and religious education within a liberal perspective." Thesis, University College London (University of London), 1991. http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/10018556/.

Santos, Romilda Soares dos. "Discurso improvisado e a prática dos eixos curriculares do ensino religioso em escolas públicas do Recife - PE." Universidade Católica de Pernambuco, 2014. http://www.unicap.br/tede//tde_busca/arquivo.php?codArquivo=985.

Dinama, Baamphathlha. "How religious education teachers understand and implement a multi-faith curriculum case studies from Botswana /." Pretoria : [s.n.], 2010. http://upetd.up.ac.za/thesis/available/etd-04242010-201349.

Hand, Michael John. "Is religious education possible? : an examination of the logical possibility of teaching for religious understanding without religious belief." Thesis, University of Oxford, 2001. http://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:e7395208-3666-4227-be0f-b99e8c7639d5.

Whitworth, Linda. "Engaging Phronesis : religious education with primary initial teacher education students." Thesis, Middlesex University, 2018. http://eprints.mdx.ac.uk/23887/.

Marlowe, Eric-Jon Keawe. "Treatment of Religious Expresssion and Belief in Utah Public Schools: Perspectives of the Religious Minority." BYU ScholarsArchive, 2005. https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/etd/275.

Lutzo, Raymond J. "A Model of religious education in corrections." Theological Research Exchange Network (TREN), 1986. http://www.tren.com.

Satov, Tauba. "Holocaust studies for moral and religious education." Thesis, McGill University, 1991. http://digitool.Library.McGill.CA:80/R/?func=dbin-jump-full&object_id=60083.

Felderhof, M. C. "Philosophy and religious education : a critical study." Thesis, Swansea University, 1999. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.636966.

Burke, Michael Terence. "Religious education as a multi-process curriculum." Master's thesis, University of Cape Town, 1996. http://hdl.handle.net/11427/19685.

Robinson, Edwin H. "The relationship of moral and religious development in adolescent religious education a case study /." Theological Research Exchange Network (TREN), 1988. http://www.tren.com.

Wayt, William K. "A Project to Discover to What Extent the Catholic Church Includes People WithDevelopmental Disabilities in The Life of the Church." Ashland Theological Seminary / OhioLINK, 2020. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=atssem1604502149401935.

Hannam, Patricia M. "What should religious education aim to achieve? : an investigation into the purpose of religious education in the public sphere." Thesis, University of Stirling, 2016. http://hdl.handle.net/1893/24013.

Bursey, Wallace Dean. "Educating teachers for Ontario's multi-religious classroom : accommodating religious learners and respecting student autonomy." Thesis, University of Glasgow, 2018. http://theses.gla.ac.uk/39047/.

Kenyon, David Gerard. "What constitutes success in classroom religious education? A study of secondary religious teachers' understandings of the nature and purposes of religious education in Catholic schools 2vols." Thesis, Australian Catholic University, 2010. https://acuresearchbank.acu.edu.au/download/50e4ad4fb562d4df832b6564ec4df8595eae85fd2c14d3bbda02227819d11f94/2979171/64950_downloaded_stream_175.pdf.

Hasan, Rafia. "Islamic Schools vs. Public Schools| A Case Study of the School Choices of Muslim Parents and the Social and Academic Experiences of Students and Young Adults." Thesis, The William Paterson University of New Jersey, 2018. http://pqdtopen.proquest.com/#viewpdf?dispub=10689851.

The purpose of this study is to look at the school choices of Muslim parents in New Jersey and the social and academic experiences of Muslim students and young adults. The participants included 90 Muslim parents, 126 Muslim young adults, and 52 Muslim students currently attending a public, private, or Islamic school. Participants completed surveys, and a few were administered interviews that included questions pertaining to the purpose of this study. Findings showed that Muslim parents who choose Islamic schools do so to teach their child (children) about Islam and to surround them with other Muslims; whereas, Muslim parents who chose public schools do so for the quality of education. Overall, this study demonstrated that most Muslim students in either Islamic or public schools didn’t encounter social challenges any different than other students; in addition, an overload of schoolwork was reported as an academic challenge.

Freathy, Robin James Kenneth. "Religious education and education for citizenship in English schools, 1934-1944." Thesis, University of Exeter, 2005. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.414031.

Deenihan, Thomas J. "Religious education and religious instruction in the Irish post-primary school curriculum in the aftermath of the introduction of an examinable, non-denominational syllabus for religious education." Thesis, University of Hull, 2001. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.272014.

Stagmer, Robert. "The effect of introducing a ministry of miracles, signs, and wonders in seven 21st century churches." Thesis, United Theological Seminary, 2015. http://pqdtopen.proquest.com/#viewpdf?dispub=3663764.

The purpose of this study was to test a ministry model designed to foster growth in the understanding and practice of bringing miracles, signs, and wonders to bear in life situations. The spiritual effect on individuals and congregations was measured. A qualitative/quantitative strategy utilized a comparison of a pretest and post-test, participant testimony, and peer review to generate the data. The results suggest participants experienced spiritual growth, individually and collectively. This study is part of the Randy Clark scholars' theme "Randy Clark Scholars: Presenting the Gospel as Jesus Intended, in Love, Authority, Signs, and Wonders."

Smith, Joel A. "Measuring the effects of personal coaching on the implementation of a journey plan for personal spiritual growth at Daybreak Church." Thesis, Nyack College, Alliance Theological Seminary, 2017. http://pqdtopen.proquest.com/#viewpdf?dispub=10189383.

Chapter 1 is the introduction, which gives an overview of the entire study. Chapter 2 is the literature review, defining the problem of stunted spiritual growth and considering coaching as a possible catalyst to move people out of stagnation. Chapter 3 covers the methods of the present study, describing how the treatment and effects study was set up in order to determine if the participants who were coached would experience more spiritual growth than the non-coached participants and how the focus group interviews were conducted to ascertain any noticeable difference in the spiritual growth between the two groups by looking for areas of growth that the coached group experienced that were not reflected in the DSGS and then seeing if the non-coached group grew in those same areas or different areas. Chapter 4 details the results of the study. The hypothesis that coached participants would score at higher levels of spiritual growth than non-coached participants was not supported by the results. The data showed that both groups scored at the same level of growth with no significant difference when t-tested. Chapter 5 addresses conclusions of the study and suggestions for related studies that could help address the problem of spiritual stagnation in the United States church.

Brown, Douglas George. "An examination of alienating trends in religious education." Thesis, National Library of Canada = Bibliothèque nationale du Canada, 1997. http://www.collectionscanada.ca/obj/s4/f2/dsk2/ftp02/NQ28320.pdf.

Strain, Alexander. "The importance of personal experience in religious education." Thesis, National Library of Canada = Bibliothèque nationale du Canada, 2000. http://www.collectionscanada.ca/obj/s4/f2/dsk1/tape3/PQDD_0034/MQ64197.pdf.

Lawler, Steven W. C. "The use of story in Christian religious education." Theological Research Exchange Network (TREN), 1988. http://www.tren.com.

Strain, Alexander. "The importance of personal experience in religious education /." Thesis, McGill University, 1999. http://digitool.Library.McGill.CA:80/R/?func=dbin-jump-full&object_id=30221.

Tang, Sui-sim Cecilia, and 鄧瑞嬋. "Students' perception of religious education: a case study." Thesis, The University of Hong Kong (Pokfulam, Hong Kong), 1999. http://hub.hku.hk/bib/B31961253.

ORIGINAL RESEARCH article

This article is part of the research topic.

Recent Developments in Mathematical Biology and Medicine

Corruption Dynamics: A Mathematical Model and Analysis Provisionally Accepted

• 1 Mattu University, Ethiopia

The final, formatted version of the article will be published soon.

This work proposes and analyzes a deterministic mathematical model to describe the dynamics of corruption transmission. We began by proving that the solution to the model is bounded and positive. The next-generation matrix approach is used to compute the basic reproduction number (R 0 ) in relation to corruption-free equilibrium.The Jacobian and Lyapunov functions are used to show that corruption-free equilibrium is asymptotically stable in both locally and globally when R 0 < 1 and otherwise, an endemic corruption equilibrium develops. Furthermore, the sensitivity of the model's parameters was investigated. The findings demonstrate that religious precepts govern public education. The two sectors most susceptible to corruption control are education and corrections. The study recommends investing more in the provision of public education to citizens by creating awareness among all and including it in the education curriculum and religious leaders to teach their followers seriously about the impact of corruption as well as the use of jail as punishment. The numerical simulation results agreed with the analytical results.

Keywords: mathematical modeling, Corruption, religious, jail, and numerical simulation

Received: 17 Oct 2023; Accepted: 03 Apr 2024.

Copyright: © 2024 Aga. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) or licensor are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

* Correspondence: Mx. Beza Z. Aga, Mattu University, Mettu, Ethiopia

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After the introduction of the income tax in the United States, there has been a migration of higher income earners toward states with lower or no income tax, a new study reveals.

This first-ever systematic analysis of 110 years of state income tax implementation throughout the United States also highlights the consequences of taxpayers fleeing to low or no-tax states. Published in the American Economic Journal: Economic Policy , the study is titled "The Introduction of the Income Tax, Fiscal Capacity, and Migration: Evidence from U.S. States" and was coauthored by Ugo Antonio Troiano, economist and associate professor at the University of California, Riverside. The analysis looks at pre-World War II and post-World War II personal income tax impacts.

The state-level tax policies from 1900 to 2010 examined in the paper reveal that income tax adopting states increased revenue per capita by 12% to 17%, but that increase does not correspond to an increase in total revenues for the government in monetary terms. This is because the introduction of income tax in the post-World War II era led to out-migration by wealthy Americans.

"Personal income tax means a tax upon labor income, first introduced for the purpose of redistribution of wealth," said Troiano, whose expertise includes politics and economics. "The idea was to provide services to poorer parts of the population and reduce inequality between low-income and high-income residents."

According to study results, implementing higher taxes was not well accepted by many wealthy Americans -- their higher income allows them to be more mobile, and therefore able to seek new residency in states with lower personal income tax or no tax.

Historically, mobility in the U.S. has been higher compared to European countries, mainly because people here speak the same language, making it easier to settle in a new city, Troiano said. The analysis also showed that out-migration began to slow down in the 1980s.

Income taxes are important for states because they allow governments to increase revenue per capita, but pre-World War II, these tax policies came with waves of legal court challenges. Pennsylvania, for example, attempted to amend the state constitution eight times. Other states such as Indiana and Washington also tried, but all failed. To date, six states: Texas, Florida, Nevada, Washington State, Wyoming, and South Dakota, have never introduced permanent individual income tax.

California introduced the personal income tax in 1935, it was one of 18 states that implemented the tax between 1930 and 1940.

"In New Mexico, the legislature repealed its first income tax law in 1920. In Iowa, the state assembly passed an income tax bill in 1932 that was subsequently defeated in the state senate. In Colorado, the governor vetoed an income tax bill passed by the legislature in 1935. With the exception of Washington, however, all of these states would eventually introduce an income tax," the authors state in the paper.

Through analyzing U.S. Census datasets, Troiano and his colleagues, Traviss Cassidy, assistant professor of economics at the University of Alabama, and Mark Dincecco, associate professor at the University of Michigan, found that wealthier Americans tended to move out of state when income taxes were too high, but remained when income tax increases were minimal.

Troiano said that when states consider how to reduce income inequality, they should also be mindful of mobility responses.

"Raising taxes too much might backfire, as the state might lose too many relatively wealthy contributors," Troiano said.

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Story Source:

Materials provided by University of California - Riverside . Original written by Sandra Baltazar Martínez. Note: Content may be edited for style and length.

Journal Reference :

• Traviss Cassidy, Mark Dincecco, Ugo Antonio Troiano. The Introduction of the Income Tax, Fiscal Capacity, and Migration: Evidence from US States . American Economic Journal: Economic Policy , 2024; 16 (1): 359 DOI: 10.1257/pol.20210388

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