essay in greek language

Greek Language

Since language constitutes one of the most important elements of Greek culture and its best transmitter, it is interesting to see, in brief, how the Greeks speak today, how the Ancient Greek language became the modern one known today.

Here is a brief history of the Greek language to help us understand its changes and its evolution. Modern Greek is a descendant of the Ancient language and is affiliated to the part of the Greek or Hellenic branch of Indo-European.

History and evolution of the language

We propose below information about the evolution and history of the language in Greece. From the first written language to the language used in the 20th century.

The First written language

The first written Greek letters were found on baked mud tablets, in the remains of the Minoan Knossos Palace of Crete island . This language is known as Linear A and it has not been fully decoded till today. The most famous example of Linear A is written in the famous Phaistos Disc. In the 12th century BC, a new language started to develop, called Linear B, where each drawing symbol is a consonant-vowel combination. Linear B dates from the Mycenaean civilization. In the late 9th and early 8th century BC, the language found was based on the Phoenician syllabary, written from left to right and back again. This form of the inscription is the closest to the modern language of today.

The Classical Period

During the Classical period (6th-4th century BC), the territory of Greece was divided into numerous states and each one had its own dialect. The two more important dialects were the Ionic and the Attic. During this period, Athens established itself as the political, economic and cultural center of the Greek world, and therefore the Attic idiom started to be used as a common language.

After the expeditions of Alexander the Great , Attic dialect was also expanded in the depths of the East and it was spoken by millions of people. This gradually led to a mixing dialect which was the beginning of the koine , or common dialect, mostly known as the Hellenistic Koine . This type of language survived through centuries and became an official language of the Roman Empire later on. The koine is the original language of the New Testament and the basis for the development of Medieval and Modern Greek. This language was developed all through Byzantine times .

Katharevousa and Dimotiki

With the creation of the modern Greek State in 1829, the question of the language, as an important part of the nation-building process, had to be resolved. After about 4 centuries of Ottoman occupation , Greece had mostly an oral culture due to all these centuries of different dominations. The question was the choice of language used in administration and education. One of the suggestions, to re-use the Attic language, was very attractive, especially because all the Western Europe was charmed by the Ancient Greek culture, and it would have been a great stimulus for the philhellenes. It proved impossible from a practical point of view.

So, the Greek scholar Adamantios Korais (1748-1833), suggested reforming the spoken language of those times on ancient principals. This suggestion was accepted and the katharevoussa (meaning purified language) was created. The theme became politicized: a distinction rose between the Katharevoussa, which became the high-style language associated with official functions such as governmental affairs, education and religion, and the dimotiki language (popular language) used by common people in their everyday life.

20th-century language

In the 20th century, the Greek language debate took a huge political significance: academics were sacked for using Dimotiki, riots were taking place in the streets and a lot of people were claiming that Katharevoussa was being used as an instrument of denying access to education to the common people. Nationalist governments like the dictator of the Junta, Ioannis Papadopoulos, favored Katharevoussa. The struggle between the proponents of Dimotiki and Katharevoussa raised various social attitudes and political positions.

The theme was eventually solved in 1976, with actions of the after dictatorship government. Dimotiki language was adopted in education and administration and it has been kept since then as the formal language of modern Greece.

The last thing worth mentioning is that most regions in Greece have their local oral dialects, never used as writing means. Every region has, of course, its local accent.

More: Learn some Greek | Useful expressions

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Weaving Truth: Essays on Language and the Female in Greek Thought

Citation:   Bergren, Ann. 2008. Weaving Truth: Essays on Language and the Female in Greek Thought . Hellenic Studies Series 19. Washington, DC: Center for Hellenic Studies. http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:hul.ebook:CHS_BergrenA.Weaving_Truth.2008 .

1. Language and the Female in Early Greek Thought [ 1 ]

I. the speech of the muses.

The poet then continues:

This text introduces the relation between language and the female in early Greek thought: a male author ascribes a kind of speech to a female and then makes it his own. Let us look more closely. {13|14}

II. The Signs of the Female: Weaving

A woman weaves, in Freud’s view, in order to hide and compensate for her lack of all that the phallus represents, the capacity to engender life and in patrilinear society to give that life a legitimate name. And indeed, in Greek culture, where women lack citizenship, where men play all the parts in drama, and from which no poetry by women remains except for the lyrics of Sappho and fragments of a few others, the woman’s web would seem to be a “metaphorical speech,” a silent substitute for (her lack of) verbal art. But this is not a complete picture, for in Greek the utterance of poetry or prophecy is described as “weaving.”

III. The Female as Sign in Marriage Exchange

Iv. helen as female/rhetorical logos, a. helen and homer, b. helen and stesichorus, c. helen and gorgias.

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An Instant Classic About Learning Ancient Greek

By Mary Norris

When Andrea Marcolongo’s book “ La Lingua Geniale ,” subtitled “9 ragioni per amare il greco” (“Nine Reasons to Love Greek”), came out in 2016, I bought it, in Italian, and took it with me to Greece. I flashed it at a meeting with some highly accomplished multilingual women. “You read Italian?” one of them asked. Slowly, at a very low level, without full comprehension, I should have said. I had brought the book with me to the island of Rhodes because I thought it would be good practice in both Italian and Greek. I was writing a book on Greek myself, and the difficulty of Greek made Italian seem transparent in comparison. I had made it to page 10 of the first essay, on aspect—a property of verbs by which the ancient Greeks distinguished between the “how” and the “when” of an action—when I got distracted by a sidebar on Greek wine and decided that I really ought to get out more: take a walk in the Old Town, with its streets named after Socrates and Plato, and check to see if that bar called Beer Paradise had opened for the season.

Still, Marcolongo, a journalist who grew up in Livorno, Italy, and has a degree in classics, did something I had very much wanted to do: she wrote about classical Greek while she was young and freshly enamored of the beauty, economy, and subtlety of the language and passionate about how it can change your life. The book stayed in my luggage—it went to Texas, Auckland, Abu Dhabi, and Cambridge, England, and crossed the Atlantic on the Queen Mary 2, where I was sure I would get to it—and at last, three years later, it has been translated into English, by Will Schutt, as “ The Ingenious Language: Nine Epic Reasons to Love Greek ” (Europa Compass). The word “epic” in the subtitle may have been intended to clarify that we’re talking ancient Greek here, the language of epic poetry, and also to convey the excitement of the contemporary usage, as in, say, “an epic boxing match.” The Italian title, “La Lingua Geniale,” may have been inspired by “ L’Amica Geniale ,” the blockbuster novel by Elena Ferrante, translated into English by Ann Goldstein as “ My Brilliant Friend ” (also published by Europa).

One of the things I most admire about “The Ingenious Language” is that it doesn’t spoon-feed the reader. From the first chapter (though they are not really chapters but essays that can be read in any order), Marcolongo serves up healthy portions of Plato in raw Greek, without apology. She provides translations, of course, but insists that “it does not matter if you know ancient Greek or not.” In fact, if you don’t, “all the better”—you can still play with her at “thinking in ancient Greek.” A subject that I devoted the whole first chapter of my book to—the alphabet—Marcolongo dispenses with in less than a paragraph, in the penultimate essay. “The alphabet is a means of communicating a language, not the language,” she writes. “All it is is a writing system for getting the sounds of words down on the page.” Yet she acknowledges that “the alphabet barrier” seems “to cloud our view of resemblances between Greek and our own language.”

The nine reasons make for a spread worthy of a symposium. Besides aspect, they include gender, number (Greek famously has not just the singular and plural but also the dual, for things that come in pairs, such as twins or lovers), mood, and diacritical marks (Greek words tend to come front-loaded with flecks over their vowels). In “Cases, or an Orderly Anarchy of Words,” Marcolongo writes eloquently, “Capable of indicating the exact function of words without ambiguities, the ancient Greek case system makes for a formidable spectacle: word order doesn’t follow a logical pattern but an expressive and, therefore, personal pattern.” Marcolongo loves etymology and often uses it to approach and elucidate a subject. The chapter on case begins, “Inflected, from the Latin flectere , ‘to bend or curve.’ Meaning ‘to change direction.’ . . . The syntactic role of words is entrusted to changing, or bending , their case endings.” The chapter on the optative mood, which might be described as a refinement of the subjunctive—it is used to express wishes that may not come true—begins, “Desire. In French désir , in Spanish deseo , in Portuguese desejo . From Latin desiderium , from the phrase de + sidere , ‘from the stars.’ To gaze at some attractive person or thing as if gazing at the hieroglyphic stars at night.” Is it just me or is that kind of sexy?

Marcolongo, who looks more like a yoga teacher than a classics professor—she is in her early thirties, with straight blond hair, direct blue eyes, and tattoos, including one of the word “Sarajevsko,” for a brand of beer brewed in Sarajevo, on her left arm—is writing primarily for students of the classics. She tries to allay their fears by telling tales out of liceo classico , such as the one about the time she bungled a Latin exam by translating ratto in “Il Ratto Delle Sabine”—“The Rape of the Sabine Women”—as “rats.” (She was fifteen and did not know the story of how Romulus and Remus, the mythical founders of Rome, carried off the Sabine women in order to populate their city. The memory still smarts.) In the chapter on gender, she describes the indignities of growing up with a man’s name. In Italy, “Andrea” is masculine and even comes from the Greek for “man” ( andros ); at eighteen, Andrea received a draft notice in the mail. In an essay on translation, she assures her students that their study will pay off: “The satisfaction, pride, frustration, and disappointment that learning this language entails make it easier to manage the joy and heartache of adulthood.” She mentions in passing that translating Greek may have saved the semicolon: the Greeks used it in the form of a raised dot; translating complex sentences requires it. The last essay, “Greek and Us: A History,” might well be read first. It traces Greek from its Indo-European prehistory through Homeric Greek, classical Greek, Koine (Greek after Alexander), and modern Greek. In a reversal of history, Marcolongo suggests that the Spartans could have learned a thing or two from the bitter, unending rivalry between Livorno and Pisa. The chapter culminates in the insight that “Greek is the only European language that never evolved into anything other than itself.”

Those of us who live in the United States and speak English are a step further removed from Greek than citizens of Europe, because Latin and the Romance languages absorbed a lot of Greek vocabulary, and English acquired its Greek-derived words through them. Still, the influence of the Greeks is all around us. I have only to go outside to see a truck emblazoned with “Hermes Waste” or “Hercules Laundry” and take a train to midtown to see a show called “Hadestown.” The impeachment drama unfolding in Washington invokes the Framers of the Constitution, who thought long and hard about democracy—rule ( kratia ) of, by, and for the people ( demos )—an invention of the Greeks.

It can’t have been easy to translate an Italian book on Greek into English, and Will Schutt deserves a medal for valor. For the quotations from ancient Greek (I assume Marcolongo did her own translations into Italian), Schutt (or his editors) made the sensible decision to rely on the Loeb Classical Library’s dual-language editions. My little bit of Italian made me curious about some of the translator’s other choices. The word “weird” crops up a lot, which is . . . weird. The original has “ strano ” (strange, peculiar), “ curioso ” (odd, curious), and “ strambo ” (eccentric). The phrase “to deal the killshot” also sent me back to the original, where I found “ dar loro il colpo di grazia. ” In this case, French would have been more idiomatic than English for an American reader: “deliver the coup de grâce.”

While checking the translation against the original, I made the happy discovery that my Italian seems to have improved during the three years that I carried around “La Lingua Geniale.” I can read the sidebars—digressions, as in a travel book, on topics such as animal sounds, taboo words, the color blue—and even get a flavor of Marcolongo’s prose: she is charming in Italian. (In a sidebar on “Liceo Classico,” added expressly for the English edition, she mentions that one of the heroines of Ferrante’s “My Brilliant Friend” studies the classics and knows that “the one way to gain independence—as an individual and from your social class—is an education.”) Marcolongo’s “La Lingua Geniale” was a best-seller in Europe, and the author, who now lives in Paris, has since written two more books, the latest on etymology (“ Alla Fonte delle Parole ”—“At the Source of Words”). Of course, it’s possible that my ease of reading in Italian is a side effect of having studied the translation: once you know what it means, it’s easier to see what it says. So Schutt’s translation does exactly what a trot, or literal translation, does for students of classical Greek: it helps them read—and fall in love with—the original.

Synchrony and diachrony of ancient Greek: language, linguistics and philology

Mathilde bru , university college london. [email protected].

Preview [Authors and titles are listed at the end of the review.]

This volume contains thirty-six studies by prominent Hellenists, collected for the occasion of Professor Emilio Crespo’s retirement. As one of the editors, Georgios K. Giannakis, points out in his synopsis of the accomplishments of the honorand, Crespo’s scholarly work, which amounts to nearly two hundred entries, spans an impressive range of topics, from epic poetry to sociolinguistics, dialectology to syntax. This wide range of linguistic and philological topics is reflected in this volume, where we find contributions ranging from questions of Greek syntax to the linguistic applications of comparative mythology, from poetic meter in Proto-Indo-European to discourse markers in the Lord’s Prayer. What these have in common is that they all expertly bring to light, evaluate and analyse various problems concerning the Ancient Greek language.

The contributions are divided into five sections. Part I groups together the papers which concern epigraphy and dialectology. Of note is the excellent paper by Christos Tzitzilis, which examines the possibility of tracing a dialect continuum between the ancient and modern Megarian Greek dialects. In this paper, the author successfully detects, through morphological and phonological analysis, the presence of an ancient dialect substratum in the modern Megarian dialect, and suggests that more use should be made of evidence from the Modern Greek dialects in the study of Ancient Greek dialectology. As the title of the volume suggests, both diachrony and synchrony are needed for linguistic analysis, and the paper by María Luisa del Barrio Vega, also focussed on dialectology, favours a more synchronic analysis, as the author looks at the dialectal features of the inscriptions found in the Phocaean colony of Lampsacus. One of the pervasive themes of this volume is how different fields complement each other, and this is particularly evident in this first section, which combines the separate but often interdependent fields of epigraphy and dialectology. This is demonstrated distinctly in Sara Kaczko’s paper, as the author uses both palaeographic and linguistic methods to reconsider the reading of the famous sixth-century Nicomachos epigram. Similarly, Sophie Minon makes use of epigraphy, onomastics and dialectology in her examination of the name of an Arcadian man found on a fifth-century inscription. Onomastics is a popular topic in this section, with both Panagiotis Filos and René Hodot focussing their studies on female names, in the Epirote and Lesbian dialects respectively.

The scope of the topics examined in this volume ranges from the broader issues at the crux of the field of Greek linguistics to the very specific minutiae of the language, and this is exemplified in Part II (‘Lexicon, Onomastics, Morphology and Morphophonology’). While Georgios Papanastassiou expertly treats the broad topic of Proto-Indo-European ablaut, and the main phonetic changes that caused vowel gradation to be obscured in Greek, Václav Blažek’s interesting contribution is concerned with one specific Greek word, δάρδα (‘bee’), and its potential origins. Similarly concerned with the minutiae of the Greek language are Alberto Bernabé’s study of the noun for ‘horse’ in Mycenaean, Julián Méndez Dosuna’s interesting and well-argued reading of a diminutive hapax in Sappho, and Michael Meier-Brügger’s succinct yet illuminating note on the Greek verb μνημονεύω. In this section, we see further evidence of different fields complementing each other, notably the fields of literature and linguistics, in Daniel Kölligan’s clear and interesting contribution on the Proto-Indo-European origin of the verb δύναμαι, which uses close textual analysis of the Homeric epics to shed light on an etymological question that has troubled Indo-Europeanists. Just as Kölligan uses literature to aid linguistic reconstruction, so Leonid Kulikov uses another field of classics, comparative mythology, to get to the etymological root of the word κένταυρος. In doing so, Kulikov opens up possibilities for the use of comparative mythology in linguistic reconstruction, as he successfully compares the Indo-Iranian and Ancient Greek myths, and their related words, to posit a PIE etymology for this hitherto uncertain word. Finally, John N. Kazazis’ paper on the potential uses of the Medieval Greek lexicon as a Modern Greek historical lexicon is an informative contribution that draws the reader’s attention to a specific tool of linguistic research.

The mix of synchrony and diachrony promised in the title of the volume is particularly evident in Part III, on ‘Syntax and Clause Structure’: we find on the one hand synchronic analyses of Greek syntax, such as Emilia Ruiz Yamuza’s paper on the past tenses of modal verbs in Attic verse, María Dolores Jiménez López’s paper on the use of the verb γίγνομαι in passive constructions, and Jesús de la Villa’s contribution on relative time and narrative in Herodotus and Thucydides. On the other hand, we also find Nikos Liosis’ very engaging and innovative paper on negation throughout the history of the Greek language, in which he shows through diachronic analysis that Greek is a good example of Jespersen’s cycle, despite previous scholarship arguing the contrary. A mixture of diachronic and synchronic analysis is found in the equally excellent paper by Antonio Lillo, in which the author looks at the uses of the oblique optative in Homer and Herodotus, comparing examples of the syntactic phenomenon in each author and, through this, showing its development in a relatively brief period of the Greek language.

Part IV of the volume deals with issues of pragmatics and discourse. It is framed by the contributions of Rutger J. Allan and Paolo Poccetti, which both discuss the evolution of Greek particles. The former presents an interesting diachronic study of the particle μέντοι and its polysemy, tracing its semantic development to show that it can be analysed as a process of scope increase. The latter focusses on the development of the intriguing particle πλήν, using a combination of synchronic and diachronic analysis to trace its path of evolution, from separation to exclusion to restriction to adversative function. The comparison of the semantic evolution of this particle to that of ἀλλά in this paper is particularly interesting. Both Rafael Martínez and Elena Redondo-Moyano look at discourse markers in Greek, and it is informative to read the two papers side-by-side, as they focus on very different texts and time periods. The former presents a particularly noteworthy contribution on the combination of conjunction ὡς and adverbial particle καί as a discourse marker, which is used in two occurrences in the Lord’s Prayer, but not taken into account in modern translations. The author demonstrates the importance of this discourse marker in guiding the interpretation of the text and prompting the correct inferences by showing the subsequent loss of meaning when it is omitted in translation. The latter focusses on a much earlier time period and genre, as Redondo-Moyano examines a varied corpus of verse from the Archaic and Classical periods in which the discourse markers ἔμπᾱς and ἔμπης appear, and finds that, from a syntactic point of view, ἔμπᾱς presents two innovations not found in Homeric ἔμπης. Pragmatics and discourse are under-researched fields in Greek linguistics, and Pierluigi Cuzzolin’s paper highlights the need for deeper investigation to understand adpositions in Ancient Greek, and to ascertain the difference between their use and function when employed in anastrophe and when not. Similarly, Raquel Fornieles shows that indefinite pronouns, which are commonly associated with politeness, can also be used as a mechanism of impoliteness. While she focusses on the prosecution speeches of Aeschines and Demosthenes to demonstrate this, this opens up the topic, and prompts the question of whether this is found in other Greek texts.

The final part of the volume deals with topics at the intersection of linguistics and philology. These vary from toponymy to poetic meter. Chris Golston’s paper adds to the rather limited scholarship on poetic meter in Proto-Indo-European, as the author proposes the reconstruction of a tetrameter, based on data from a variety of Greek verse, Classical Sanskrit, and the ninth century Anglo-Saxon poem Beowulf . The contribution of editor Georgios K. Giannakis also focusses on Proto-Indo-European reconstruction, as it looks at the concept of ‘emphasis’ in Ancient Greek and Indo-European, and successfully demonstrates, through cross-linguistic analysis, how emphasis is achieved using a range of different techniques. This paper provides a very successful definition and categorisation of a frequently employed, yet very often vague term in language analysis. The intersection of linguistics and philology is brilliantly exemplified in the paper by Marina Benedetti, which examines a Euripidean fragment, and draws on both the form of the passage and indirect evidence in the literature and scholia to reach a clearer interpretation of the fragment, in the absence of a wider context. Similarly, Margalit Finkelberg uses both linguistic and philological methods to explain the presence of both early and late linguistic features of the toponym Ἦλις as it is found in Homer, and Mark Janse makes use of philology and textual criticism as he revisits a scene from Aristophanes’ Lysistrata , picking out a hitherto-ignored double entendre.

There are in addition a number of papers that provide us with a new argument or analysis. Some broach topics that have been treated before, and offer a new way of thinking about these. Homeric Greek phraseology and narrative structure, for example, has been looked at many times in the scholarship, yet the paper by Paola Dardano, on naming constructions using ὄνομα and ἐπίκλησιν in Homer, is a highlight of the volume, as it takes the original stance that these two constructions, which have previously been classified together, were in fact functionally different. Others shed light on new, unexamined problems. Araceli Striano’s paper on the Kalami documents, a set of graffiti found on the island of Thasos, is another highlight, as it addresses an unusual topic, that of evidence for a private lovers’ language in these graffiti. Also original is Lucio Melazzo’s contribution on the life of Pythagoras, as the author compares the Greek sources concerning the life of the philosopher to passages from the Avesta, providing us with another interesting take on an unusual topic. Luz Conti’s contribution, on complaints in Sophocles, provides us with a very good starting place for further study in this field, as it looks at applying modern linguistic methods to ancient texts, something that is becoming more and more prevalent in the scholarship on Greek linguistics. Finally, syntax remains a relatively underexplored field of Greek linguistics, but one to which the honorand of the volume has richly and systematically contributed. The large section devoted to syntax is therefore a welcome part of the volume, with the contributions by Vit Bubenik on the reconstruction of Proto-Indo-European absolute constructions and by Silvia Luraghi on Ancient Greek argument structure constructions, and the influence of constructional polysemy and constructional homonym on these, being particularly illuminating.

A contents page, list of figures and diagrams, and list of tables at the beginning of the volume, as well as a handy general index at the end make this book easy to navigate. This is a useful feature as, due to the breadth of topics covered, the volume forms a useful reference work to dip into for specific topics concerning the Greek language. However, the selection of articles and the logical partition into five sections make it possible to read the volume cover-to-cover for an aperçu of the wide range of topics covered under the field of Ancient Greek language, linguistics and philology. The fact that both already prominent and new and original topics are treated makes this a multifaceted read. Read as a whole, this book exemplifies what Greek linguistics is all about- concerns about both the overarching ideas and the minutiae- and neatly ties these together, in a homage to a scholar who dedicated his work to both the larger picture and the smaller details of the Greek language.

Authors and titles Georgios K. Giannakis- Emilio Crespo Güemes: The Man and the Scholar. Georgios K. Giannakis- Publications of Prof. Emilio Crespo.

Part I: Epigraphy and Dialectology. María Luisa del Barrio Vega- The Ionic of Lampsacus and the Month of Badromion. Panagiotis Filos- Reflexes of Koineization in Ancient Epirote Feminine Names. René Hodot- Women’s Names in the Lesbian Dialect. Sara Kaczko- “Nicomachos Made Me!” Palaeography and Self-promotion in Late Archaic Greek Italy. Sophie Minon- Αn Arcadian Man Called Βôθις, or Rather Βόθις? Araceli Striano- Verba Volant. Notes on Some Graffiti from Thasos. Christos Tzitzilis- Modern Greek Evidence for Ancient Greek Dialects: The Case of Megarian.

Part II: Lexicon, Onomastics, Morphology and Morphophonology. Alberto Bernabé: The Noun for ‘Horse’ in Mycenaean and Some Related Terms. Václav Blažek- Greek δάρδα, ‘Bee’. Paola Dardano- On Some Naming Constructions in Homeric Greek. John N. Kazazis- On the “Kriaras” Lexicon of Medieval Vulgar Greek: Issues of Substance (MGL). Daniel Kölligan- Getting There? Greek δύναμαι, ‘Be Able’. Leonid Kulikov- The Κένταυρος Controversy Revisited: An Old Etymological Puzzle in a Comparative-Mythological Perspective. Michael Meier-Brügger- μνημονεύω. Julián Méndez Dosuna- Sappho’s Little Cuddly Fawns: A Reply to an Alternative Proposal (Including a Few Remarks on the Semantics of the Adjectives in -ιος and -ειος). Georgios Papanastassiou- Main Phonetic Changes in Ancient Greek Obscuring the PIE Ablaut.

Part III: Syntax and Clause Structure. Vit Bubenik- Reconstructing (Late) Proto-Indo-European Syntax: Absolute Constructions. María Dolores Jiménez López- Γίγνομαι as the Lexical Passive of the Support Verb ποιέω in Ancient Greek. Antonio Lillo- On the Use of the Oblique Optative Dependent on Verba Dicendi in Herodotus. Nikos Liosis- On Negation, Jespersen’s Cycle, and Negative Concord in Post-Classical Greek. Silvia Luraghi- A Construction Grammar Approach to Ancient Greek Argument Structure Constructions. Emilia Ruiz Yamuza- Past Tenses of Modal Verbs: ἔδει and (ἐ)χρῆν in Attic Tragedy and Comedy. Jesús de la Villa- Relative Time and Narrative in Herodotus and Thucydides.

Part IV: Pragmatics and Discourse. Rutger J. Allan- The Grammaticalization of μέντοι. Genesis and Scope Increase. Luz Conti- Off- and On-record Complaints in Sophocles: An Initial Approach. Pierluigi Cuzzolin- A Note on the Anastrophe of περί with the Genitive in Classical Greek. Raquel Fornieles- Impersonalization as a Mechanism of Impoliteness in Aeschines and Demosthenes: A Study of οὐδείς and μηδείς. Rafael Martínez- Discourse Markers, Interpretation, and Translation in the Lord’s Prayer. Paolo Poccetti- Evolution of πλήν. Elena Redondo-Moyano- Discourse Markers ἔμπᾱς/ἔμπᾱν/ἔμπᾰ Compared with ἔμπης in the Archaic and Classical Periods.

Part V: In the Linguistics-Philology Interstices. Marina Benedetti- “Love Teaches”: Echoes of a Fragment from Euripides. Margalit Finkelberg- Elis in Homer: Language, Archaeology, Epic Tradition. Georgios K. Giannakis- The Concept of ‘Emphasis’ in Ancient Greek and Indo-European. Chris Golston- A Quantitative Tetrameter for Proto-Indo-European. Mark Janse- Penis ex Machina as ‘Anticlimax’: ἐξέβαλ’, οἰῶ, τὸ ξίφος (Ar. Lys. 155–156). Lucio Melazzo- Pythagoras and the Magi.

An Easy-Breezy Greek Grammar Overview

Grammar books usually consist of endless pages of rules and exceptions…so we’ve decided to make everything simpler for you! In this overview of modern Greek grammar, we’ll introduce you to the very basics of Greek grammar, from vocabulary to cases. Therefore, if you’re contemplating learning Greek, then you’ve come to the right place! In the following sections, you’ll find all of the basic grammar principles of the Greek language so you can start your language learning off on the right foot.  

• General Rules
• Nouns & Articles

1. General Rules

We’ve got some good news for you!

Greek grammar shares some similarities with English grammar: 

• Both languages use the same types of words
• Both languages have a similar sentence structure

That being said, let’s explore these similarities in the following sections! 

1 – Vocabulary

Just like the English language, Greek features the following word types:

• Nouns η γάτα – i gáta – “the cat ”
• Articles η γάτα – i gáta – “ the cat”
• Adjectives η μικρή γάτα – i mikrí gáta – “the small cat”
• Verbs Εγώ τρέχω . – Egó trého . – “I run .”
• Pronouns Εγώ τρέχω. – Egó trého .- “ I run.”
• Adverbs Εγώ τρέχω γρήγορα . –  Egó trého grígora . – “I run fast .”
• Conjunctions / Linking Words Εγώ έχω έναν σκύλο και μία γάτα. – Egó ého énan skílo ke mía gáta. – “I have a dog and a cat.”
• Prepositions Εγώ είμαι από την Ελλάδα. – Egó íme apó tin Elláda. – “I am from Greece.”

If you feel like expanding your vocabulary, check out our dedicated articles:

• Top 100 Greek Nouns
• Top 100 Greek Adjectives
• Top 100 Greek Verbs
• Top 100 Greek Adverbs

Customize your learning process by creating your own Word Bank , where you can categorize new words and even print them out!

2 – Sentence Structure

Both languages generally follow the SVO pattern (Subject-Verb-Object) when forming sentences. This is something that spurs many people forward with their plans to learn Greek and encourages those who have recently started. If you create your free lifetime account on GreekPod101.com , you’ll be able to create your first simple sentences from Lesson 1.

If you want to learn more, check out our Word Order article, where you’ll find extended analyses of the SVO pattern, along with some other less-common sentence patterns. 

A chapter that every Greek language learner struggles to master is verb conjugations . You see, according to the Greek verb system, verbs in Greek conjugate based on the subject of the sentence, the tense, and the mood.

1 – Tenses

The tenses of Greek verbs are:

• Present: A continuing action, something happening continuously or repeatedly, a general truth,  or something that is in the process of happening. – It corresponds to the present simple and present continuous. Example: Greek: Εγώ μαγειρεύω κάθε μέρα. Romanization: Egó mayirévo káthe méra . Translation: “I cook every day.”
• Aorist : An action that happened in the past. Provides no information on how long it took, or whether the results are still in effect. – It corresponds to the past simple. Example: Greek: Εγώ μαγείρεψα χθες. Romanization: Egó mayírepsa hthes . Translation: “I cooked yesterday.”
• Imperfect: An action that happened in the past for a long period of time or in a repetitive way. – It corresponds to the past continuous. Example: Greek: Την προηγούμενη εβδομάδα, εγώ μαγείρευα κάθε μέρα. Romanization: Tin proigúmeni evdomáda, egó mayíreva káthe méra. Translation: “Last week, I was cooking every day.”

• Future simple: An action that will take place once or momentarily in the future. Example: Greek: Εγώ θα μαγειρέψω αύριο. Romanization: Egó tha mayιrépso ávrio. Translation: “I will cook tomorrow.”
• Future continuous: An action that will take place in the future continuously, repeatedly, or for a long time period.  Example: Greek: Εγώ θα μαγειρεύω κάθε μέρα. Romanization: Egó tha mayιrévo káthe méra. Translation: “I will be cooking every day.”
• Present perfect: An action that has already taken place. Example: Greek: Εγώ έχω μαγειρέψει . Romanization: Egó ého mayιrépsi. Translation: “I have cooked.”
• Past perfect: An action that happened in the past before another action or at a certain time in the past. Example: Greek: Μέχρι τις 2 μ.μ, εγώ είχα μαγειρέψει . Romanization: Μ éhri tis dío (metá mesimvrían) egó íha mayιrépsi. Translation: “By 2 p.m. I had cooked.”
• Future perfect: An action that will have taken place in the future by a certain time point. Example: Greek: Μέχρι τις 2 μ.μ, θα έχω μαγειρέψει . Romanization: Μéhri tis dío (metá mesimvrías) egó tha ého mayιrépsi. Translation: “By 2 p.m. I will have cooked.”

2 – Moods

Are you in the mood for some more in-depth knowledge?

As we have already mentioned, Greek verbs conjugate according to the mood , as well. 

Here are the five moods of Greek verbs, along with examples of what they look like:

• Indicative mood: Presents the action or the event as something certain or real (e.g. an objective fact). Example: Greek: Εγώ μαγειρεύω κάθε μέρα. Romanization: Egó mayirévo káthe méra . Translation: “I cook every day.”
• Subjunctive mood: Presents the action or the event as something wanted, expected, or wished for. Example: Greek: Εγώ θέλω να μαγειρεύω κάθε μέρα. Romanization: Egó thélo na mayirévo káthe méra . Translation: “I want to cook every day.”
• Imperative mood: May express a command (order), request, or desire. Example: Greek: Mαγείρεψε τώρα! Romanization: Mayírepse tóra! Translation: “Cook now!”
• The participle: – The uninflected form has an adverbial function and may indicate time, manner, cause, condition, etc. Example: Greek: Ο χρόνος περνάει γρήγορα μαγειρεύοντας . Romanization: O hrónos pernái grígora mayirévodas . Translation: “Time passes by quickly while cooking.” – The inflected form has the function of an adjective, so it needs to agree in gender, number, and case with the noun it defines. It corresponds to the past participle when used on its own in speech. Example: Greek: Το κρέας είναι μαγειρεμένο . Romanization: To kréas íne mayireméno . Translation: “The meat is cooked.”
• The infinitive: Uninflected form. Not to be confused with the English infinitive. The Greek infinitive is used for the formation of certain tenses: present perfect, past perfect, and future perfect. It corresponds to the past participle when used as part of the verb in the aforementioned tenses. Example: Greek: Εγώ έχω μαγειρέψει . Romanization: Egó ého mayιrépsi. Translation: “I have cooked.” Greek: Μέχρι τις 2 μ.μ, εγώ είχα μαγειρέψει . Romanization: Μéhri tis dío (metá mesimvrían) egó íha mayιrépsi. Translation: “By 2 p.m. I had cooked.” Greek: Μέχρι τις 2 μ.μ, θα έχω μαγειρέψει . Romanization: Μéhri tis dío (metá mesimvrían) egó tha ého mayιrépsi. Translation: “By 2 p.m. I will have cooked.”

3. Nouns & Articles

Nouns and articles are another important aspect of Greek grammar. They are gendered and get declined according to each case.

1 – Gender

In Greek grammar, gender is a way of classifying nouns, and this system certainly perplexes many new Greek learners. All Greek nouns are assigned to one of three genders:

• Masculine – e.g. ο σκύλος – o skílos – “the dog”
• Feminine – e.g. η γάτα – i gáta – “the cat”
• Neuter – e.g. το ποντίκι – to pondíki – “the mouse”

As you might have already noticed, there are also different articles for each gender category. Generally, the articles should match the gender of the noun. 

Check out our Greek Word of the Day and expand your vocabulary! Learning a new word each day along with its article will quickly familiarize you with this concept.

2 – Cases

Moreover, nouns change their suffixes according to their placement within a sentence. Therefore, there are four cases:

• Nominative: In this case, the noun is the subject or predicate of the sentence. Example: Greek: Ο σκύλος τρέχει. Romanization: O skílos tréhi. Translation: “The dog is running.” Greek: Αυτό είναι ένας σκύλος. Romanization: Aftó íne énas skílos. Translation: “This is a dog.”
• Genitive: This case is typically used to express possession or indirect objects, among other things. Example: Greek: Η μπάλα του σκύλου είναι κόκκινη. Romanization: I bála tu skílu íne kókkini. Translation: “The dog’s ball is red.”
• Accusative: Here, the noun is typically the object of the sentence or part of a prepositional phrase. Example: Greek: Εγώ χαϊδεύω τον σκύλο . Romanization: Egó haidévo ton skílo. Translation: “I pet the dog.” Greek: Η μπάλα είναι για τον σκύλο . Romanization: I bála íne ya ton skílo. Translation: “The ball is for the dog.”
• Vocative: This is used when addressing someone or something.  Example: Greek: Σκύλε , κάτσε! Romanization: Skíle, kátse! Translation: “Dog, sit!”

4. Adjectives

Like in English, adjectives are usually placed before the noun. 

Example: Greek: ο μικρός σκύλος. Romanization: o mikrós skílos Translation: “the small dog”

However, adjectives get declined according to the gender of the noun they refer to, as well as the number and the case. 

Example: Greek: η μικρή γάτα Romanization: i mikrí gáta Translation: “the small cat”

Greek: η ουρά της μικρής γάτας   Romanization: i urá tis mikrís gátas Translation: “the tail of the small cat”

Greek: οι μικρές γάτες   Romanization: i mikrés gátes Translation: “the small cats”

We saved this category for last, because…guess what?! Adverbs in Greek don’t get inflected! These words remain the same, regardless of the way they’re used in speech.

Generally, adverbs are placed either right after the verb or at the end of the sentence.

Example: Greek: Ο σκύλος τρέχει γρήγορα . Romanization: O skílos tréhi grígora. Translation: “The dog is running fast.”

6. Conclusion

That’s (almost) all, folks! Sure, there’s so much more to analyze about Greek grammar ! Whole books are written for that purpose!

However, this wasn’t our intention here. We simply wanted to introduce you to the basic Greek grammar principles so you can start making sense of it right from the beginning.

Greek is a wonderful language and, although the grammar may seem a bit complicated, we’re sure you are going to master it in no time! 

Start learning Greek today for free and discover our many articles , vocabulary lists , and YouTube videos ! 

Before you go, let us know in the comments which aspect of Greek grammar is most challenging for you so far. We’d love to hear from you and help you out with anything you’re struggling with.

Happy Greek learning!

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The impact of greek language and culture on world history.

The legacy of ancient Greece is deeply woven into the fabric of human history and civilization. From the birth of democracy to groundbreaking philosophical ideas and timeless works of art, Greek language, philosophy, and culture have left an indelible mark on the world. In this article, we will explore the profound influence of the Greek language and culture on global history, highlighting key moments and figures that have shaped modern life.

Greek Language: the Lingua Franca of Ancient Knowledge

The development of the Greek alphabet was nothing short of revolutionary. Prior to its invention, many ancient civilizations relied on cumbersome pictorial or logographic writing systems, making written communication limited and often reserved for the privileged few. The Greek alphabet, with its 24 letters, introduced a phonetic writing system that assigned distinct symbols to individual sounds in the Greek language. This innovation had far-reaching consequences:

Standardized Record-Keeping: The Greek alphabet allowed for the standardization of written records. Instead of relying on intricate and context-dependent hieroglyphs or cuneiform, people could now express their thoughts and ideas more precisely and efficiently.

Preservation of Knowledge: The alphabet facilitated the preservation of knowledge. It enabled the transcription of various texts, including literature, scientific treatises, and philosophical works. Through the written word, ideas could endure beyond the lifespan of individual thinkers.

The Birth of Literacy: The simplicity and accessibility of the Greek alphabet played a pivotal role in increasing literacy. As more people learned to read and write, a broader segment of society could engage with common knowledge and participate in intellectual discourse.

The Latin Alphabet: Perhaps the most enduring legacy of the Greek alphabet is its influence on the Latin alphabet. The Romans, recognizing the effectiveness of the Greek writing system, adopted and adapted it. The Latin alphabet, still in use today across much of the world, owes its structure and many of its characters to Greek.

The Library of Alexandria: A Beacon of Enlightenment

The Library of Alexandria, founded in the 3rd century BCE in the Egyptian city of Alexandria during the Hellenistic period, was an unparalleled center of learning in the ancient world. It was a testament to the power of Greek language and culture to transcend borders and time:

Cultural Crossroads: Alexandria was a melting pot of cultures, and the library reflected this diversity. Scholars and intellectuals from Greece, Egypt, Persia, and other regions gathered there to exchange ideas and knowledge. The Greek language served as the lingua franca , enabling this intellectual cross-pollination.

Translation Efforts: The library’s scribes and scholars were devoted to the translation of texts from diverse languages into Greek. This monumental undertaking made knowledge from across the known world accessible to a wider audience, transcending linguistic and cultural barriers.

Preserving the Wisdom of the Ages: The library housed countless scrolls and manuscripts, ranging from scientific treatises to poetic works. Many of these texts were translations of earlier works, ensuring that the wisdom of ancient civilizations, such as Mesopotamia and Egypt, was preserved and passed down through the medium of the Greek language.

A Center of Scholarship: The Library of Alexandria nurtured some of history’s greatest thinkers, including Euclid, Archimedes, and Eratosthenes. These scholars conducted groundbreaking research and wrote in Greek, contributing to the advancement of mathematics, engineering, and geography.

Science and Philosophy: Pioneers of Thought

Greek philosophers and scientists, including Aristotle, Euclid, and Pythagoras, played pivotal roles in shaping the foundations of modern thought and inquiry. Their contributions in various fields were monumental:

Aristotle’s Comprehensive Philosophy: Aristotle’s extensive writings covered ethics, politics, biology, physics, and more. His systematic approach to knowledge with an emphasis on empirical observation laid the groundwork for the scientific method, promoting critical thinking and the rigorous investigation of the natural world.

Euclid’s Geometry: Euclid’s “Elements” was a groundbreaking work in geometry. Written in Greek, it remains one of the most influential mathematical texts in history. Euclid’s logical approach to geometry set a standard for deductive reasoning, a cornerstone of modern mathematics.

Pythagoras and Mathematics: Pythagoras and his followers explored the mathematical relationships of numbers, culminating in the Pythagorean theorem. The theorem, formulated in Greek, has applications in geometry and trigonometry and continues to be a fundamental concept in mathematics.

Philosophical Dialogue: Greek philosophers engaged in philosophical dialogue, using the Greek language to explore fundamental questions about existence, ethics, and the nature of reality. The dialectical method they employed encouraged critical thinking and the pursuit of truth through reasoned discourse.

Socrates: The Father of Critical Thinking

Socrates, often referred to as the father of Western philosophy, left an enduring legacy through his unique method of inquiry and dialectical approach:

The Socratic Method: Socrates is renowned for the Socratic method, a form of cooperative argumentative dialogue. Through a series of carefully crafted questions, he encouraged individuals to think critically and question their  beliefs. This method, based on the pursuit of self-knowledge and the examination of one’s assumptions, laid the groundwork for critical thinking and logical reasoning.

Champion of Ethics: Socrates’ philosophy extended to ethics and moral virtue. He believed that virtue is knowledge and that ignorance is the root of all evil. By engaging in self-examination and rational inquiry, individuals could attain moral wisdom and live virtuous lives.

Trial and Legacy: Socrates’ unconventional ideas and persistent questioning of traditional beliefs led to his trial and execution in 399 BCE. However, his legacy endured through his students, notably Plato, who preserved and expanded upon his teachings.

Plato: the Philosopher of Ideas

Plato, a student of Socrates, went on to become one of the most influential philosophers in history:

Dialogues and Writings: Plato’s philosophical ideas are primarily conveyed through his dialogues, in which Socrates often plays a central role. Works like “The Republic” explored complex themes such as justice, governance, and the nature of the ideal state. “The Symposium” delved into the nature of love and desire.

Theory of Forms: One of Plato’s most enduring contributions is the theory of Forms (or Ideas). He posited that beyond the physical world exists a realm of eternal, unchanging Forms that are the true reality behind appearances. This metaphysical concept profoundly influenced later philosophical thought, called Idealism

The Academy: Plato founded the Academy in Athens, one of the earliest institutions of higher learning in the Western world. This academy became a center for philosophical inquiry and education, fostering the development of intellectual traditions for generations to come.

Aristotle: the Polymath of Ancient Philosophy

Aristotle, a student of Plato, made immense contributions to a wide range of fields:

Ethics and Virtue: Aristotle’s ethical philosophy centered on the concept of eudaimonia, often translated as “happiness” or “flourishing.” He believed that true happiness is achieved through the cultivation of moral virtues and the pursuit of excellence.

Systematic Inquiry: Aristotle’s works covered diverse subjects, including ethics, politics, metaphysics, biology, and natural sciences. His commitment to systematic inquiry and empirical observation laid the foundation for the scientific method. His writings on logic also provided the basis for formal reasoning.

Classifying Knowledge: Aristotle’s penchant for classification led to the development of his encyclopedic work, “Organon,” which organized knowledge into categories of logic and scientific inquiry. This systematization of knowledge profoundly influenced the organization of academic disciplines.

Culture: the Power of Greek Art and Drama

Greek culture produced enduring works of art and literature, demonstrating the depth of human creativity and expression. Notable cultural contributions include:

Classical Art and Architecture: Greek art and architecture, with their emphasis on proportion and balance, set the standard for aesthetics in the Western world. The Parthenon in Athens and the sculptures of Phidias exemplify the mastery of the Golden Mean of proportion.

Drama and Tragedy: Greek theater, with playwrights like Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides, explored themes of fate, morality, and the human condition. Their plays, such as “Oedipus Rex” and “Antigone,” remain timeless reflections of human drama.

The Living Legacy of Greece

The impact of the Greek language, philosophy, and culture on global history and civilization cannot be overstated. It is a testament to the enduring power of ideas and the capacity of a single civilization to shape the course of human progress. The principles of democracy, rational inquiry, and artistic expression that originated in ancient Greece continue to resonate and inspire, reminding us of the profound and lasting influence of this remarkable civilization on our world. As we explore the depths of history, we find ourselves in debt to Greece for the intellectual and cultural treasures it has bestowed upon us, enriching our understanding of the past while guiding us into the future.

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